Orbital dynamics and evolution of a burning

star with neutron star in close binary system

By

Tolawak Wakgare
Advisor: Tolu Biressa(PhD)

Co-advisor: Jifar Raya

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN PHYSICS

(ASTROPHYSICS)

AT

JIMMA UNIVERSITY

JIMMA, ETHIOPIA

JULY 2014

©Copyright by Tolawak Wakgare, 2014

Table of Contents

Table of Contents i

List of Figures iii

List of Tables iv

Acknowledgements v

Abstract vi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background and literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.1 Research questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3.1 General objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3.2 Specic objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.4 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Stellar Evolution 5
2.1 Basic Denition and Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.2 Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.3 End product of stellar evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 Introduction to neutron Stars 11

i
 3.1 The birth, life and death of a neutron star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3.2 Neutron star properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.2.1 Binding energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.2.2 Gravitational surface red shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.2.3 Mass-radius relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.3 Observational perspective of neutron star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4 Orbital dynamics and evolution of companion star binary to neutron

star 17
4.1 Binary star system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4.2 Keplerian motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4.3 Binary Evolution and roche lobe over ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

4.4 Mass Transfer and the Evolution of Orbital Parameters . . . . . . . . . . 22

4.5 Common envelope stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 Result and discussion 28

5.1 Mass transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5.2 Dynamical mass transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5.3 Response of the mass-losing (companion) star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

5.3.1 Donor stars with a convective envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.4 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.5 Common envelope evolution and magnetic eld generation . . . . . . . . 39

5.6 Evolution of neutron star in binary setting and nal out come of binary star 41

6 Summary and conclusion 45

References 46

ii
List of Figures

2.1 HR-diagram of star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4.1 Mass transfer of binary star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4.2 common envelope stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

5.1 Period evolution with respect to relative mass and relate orbit. . . . . . . 30

5.2 Evolution of the relative orbital radius due accretion (mass transfer) after

supernova explosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

5.3 Relative orbital period and spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

iii
List of Tables

2.1 Properties of typical K-type main-sequence stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

6.1 Astronomical constants, mostly from the Astronomical Almanac (2008). . 50

iv
 Acknowledgment
First of all, I would like to thank almighty God for letting me to accomplish this study.

Secondly, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor and instructor,

Dr.Tolu Biressa for developing this masters thesis and for inspirational guidance, un-

reserved support and critical comments on the thesis work by sharing his every rich

experience in the end of Astrophysics. Next I would like to thank my internal examiner

Dr. Solomon negash for his support comments on proposal to nal thesis presentation as

I correct his comments.

Finally, I would like to appreciate and be thankful to my parents for nancial and moral

support and also friends.

v
Abstract
Common-envelope evolution interaction in binary star system is one of active research

area in astrophysics. Energy-momentum ow and mass transfers between the binaries are

important in the description of the interactions. It helps to understand about compact

objects and stellar evolution. In this thesis, we focused on the orbital dynamics and

evolution of a burning star with neutron star in close binary system. The evolution

were discussed mainly focusing on dynamical mass transfer between the binary where

the classical Keplerian orbit equations were employed. For the mass transfer and energy-

momentum ow the Roche-lobe overow (RLOF) model was used. Calculation were

performed and results were presented graphically using the software Mathematica 13.

We nd that dynamical mass transfer will result if q1 is greater than qcrit . The dynamical

mass transfer has direct impact on radius of Roche lobe in which the donor star will

shrink. When there is mass transfer the orbital period of the donor increases while the

rotation of the secondary spins up. The mean orbital radius and orbital period of the

system are in direct proportionality.

Key words: binary-star, neutron star, Roche-lope overow, orbit, period.

vi
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background and literature review

Neutron stars(NSs) are some of the densest manifestations of massive objects in the

universe. They are ideal astrophysical laboratories for testing theories of dense matter

physics and provide connections among nuclear physics, particle physics and astrophysics.

They exhibit conditions and phenomena that are not observed commonly on earth such

as hyperon-dominated matter, deconned quark matter, super uidity and superconduc-

tivity with critical temperatures near 1010 kelvin, opaqueness to neutrinos, and magnetic

elds in excess of 1013 Gauss. Observations that include binary pulsars, thermal emission

from isolated NSs, glitches from pulsars and quasi-periodic oscillations from accreting

NSs provide information about their masses, radii, temperatures, ages and internal com-

positions [11].

It is now a well known fact that most of the stars in the solar neighborhood are in fact,

multiple stars, most of which are binary stars (Kallrath & Milone, 1999). That the 'stars'

we observe in the night sky are not always single stars like our Sun has been known for

a long time-Father Giovanni Baptista Riccioli being the rst to realize on observing ζ
Ursae Maioris (Mizar) that in fact it was a 'double star' in 1669[7].

One of the most important environments in which accretion discs are found occur in

interacting binaries. Philipp Podsiadlowski review the main properties of binary systems

1
and the most important types of binary interactions, stable and unstable mass transfer,

the role of mass loss, mass accretion and, in the most dramatic case, the merging of the

two binary components[5].

The concept of common envelope(CE) evolution, in our present understanding of it, was

rst proposed by Paczynski (1976) in relation to cataclysmic variables and by Ostriker

(1975) in relation to massive binaries containing neutron stars[9].

In close binaries, the combined eects of stellar and orbital evolution can cause a star

to ll its Roche lobe and transfer mass to its companion. If the orbit is eccentric this

mass transfer is expected to commence at or near the periastron of the binary orbit where

the eective Roche lobes of the component stars are smallest. Until recently, studies of

mass transfer in eccentric binaries mainly focused on smoothed particle hydrodynamics

calculations of the mass transfer stream and much less on the eects of the mass transfer

on secular binary evolution. To the best of our knowledge, Sepinsky et al. (2007b, 2009)

were the rst to study in detail the secular evolution of the orbital semi-major axis and

eccentricity of eccentric mass-transferring binaries. The authors adopted a perturbation

method initially outlined by Hadjidemetriou (1969) and found that, depending on the

binary properties at the onset of mass transfer, the orbital semi-major axis and eccentric-

ity can either increase or decrease at a rate linearly proportional the mass transfer rate

at periastron. Contrary to common assumptions, tides therefore do not always rapidly

circularize binary orbits as a star evolves towards lling its Roche lobe. Sepinsky et al.

(2007b, 2009) calculated the orbital evolution due to mass transfer in eccentric binaries

assuming mass transfer leads to the formation of an accretion disk. Tidal interactions

between the disk and the donor star then allow at least some fraction of the angular

momentum carried by the transferred matter to be returned to the orbit. However, if the

size of the accretor is a considerable fraction of the size of the orbit, matter lost by the

donor star through the inner Lagrangian point may impact the accretor's surface directly

rather than form an accretion disk[19].

2
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Common-envelope (CE) evolution is considered as the least understood binary interac-

tion. It typically involves the spiral-in of a companion star inside the envelope of a

super-giant donor star and, in many cases, the ejection of the envelope, transforming an

initially wide binary into a very close binary [15]. The conditions for the occurrence of

dynamical mass transfer considered as not very well determined.

The dynamical evolution of the binary and neutron star are still active research area. The

condition for mass transfer from the companion to the neutron star, the energy momen-

tum ow etc are still hot research area. Both stars aect each other in their evolution.

Here in our case we focus on the companion star evolution in the presence of neutron

star.

1.2.1 Research questions

ˆ How does the orbit of the binary evolve?

ˆ In what way does the orbital period of the binary evolve?

ˆ What is the eect of NS on the evolution of its companion?

ˆ What is the eect of the binary interaction on the spin of the NS?

ˆ Does the binary interaction aect the magnetic eld of the NS?

ˆ How do energy-momentum and particles ow between the binary?

1.3 Objectives

1.3.1 General objective

To study the orbital dynamics and evolution of a burning star with neutron star in close

binary system.

3
1.3.2 Specic objectives
ˆ To describe orbital evolution of the binary.

ˆ To determine the period evolution of the binary system.

ˆ To derive energy-momentum and particle ow between the binary.

ˆ To explain the interaction eect of the binary on the spin of the NS.

ˆ To address the eect of NS on evolution of the companion.

ˆ To describe the eect of the binary interaction on the evolution of magnetic eld of

the NS.

1.4 Methodology
A two-body problem of the classical Kepler's planetary motion is considered to describe

orbital dynamics of the binary system. A close binary is being considered and so that the

eccentricity of the orbit will be approximated to be zero. In the case of energy-momentum

and particle ow, the Roche-lobe overow (RLOF) model is used. To see the interaction

eects of the binary, some simplifying boundary conditions are used to generate analytical

numerical data dynamical evolution of the orbit and the period. The results be presented

in plots. For the numerical data generation and process Mathematica 13 is used. Finally,

the analytical results will be discussed in relation to observational data.

The organization of the work is: in chapter 2 we introduce stellar evolution, in chapter 3

NS introduction is provided, in chapter 4 orbital dynamics and evolution of the binary will

be provided, in chapter 5 results and discussions will follow while in chapter 6 summary

and conclusion will be given.

4
Chapter 2

Stellar Evolution

2.1 Basic Denition and Concepts

Stellar evolution means the way stars change or evolve with time. It is now under-

stood to a good extend that stars produce energy by nuclear fusion reactions that occur

in the star core which is responsible for star formation processes. Stars form when a dense

cloud of gas (called molecular clouds) collapses until nuclear reactions begin deep in the

interior of the cloud and provide enough energy to halt the collapse, a situation called

hydro-static equilibrium. A star remains in its main sequence of the HR diagram for the

largest fraction of its life time because it maintains hydro-static equilibrium during this

phase. It is also known that high mass stars have more fuel, therefore they emits more

energy and evolve more rapidly than low mass stars, which emits less energy. Various

phases of stars are broadly described as.

(a) The main sequence phase: Just after taking birth through the collapse of inter-

stellar dusts or giant molecular clouds, the stars reach in the main sequence, which is

characterized by hydrogen fusion in their core. It means, during the main sequence phase,

a star mainly burns (fuses) Hydrogen to form Helium.

(b) The Sub-Giant phase: Due to formation of He in the core. The core becomes

5
He rich. At this stage the temperature is not high enough to sustain further fusion. But

H-burning continues in a shell around the core and as the temperature increase the pres-

sure outside the core increases and the H-shell expands marking star entering in to the

sub giant phase.

(c) The Red-Giant phase: After the sub-giant phase, the core has enough temper-

ature for fusing He to form carbon. The outer layers begin to expand, cool and shine less

brightly. The expanding star is now called a Red-Giant.

(d) White Dwarf phase: The He core runs out and very soon the core consists only of

Carbon and Oxygen. The CO core grows while a He-burning shell source develops. The

outer layers begins to drift away from the core as a gaseous envelope. In fact there exists

a super-wind which removes the envelope mass before the core has grown to its maximal

possible size. This gas that surround the core is called a planetary Nebula. Now the

remaining core, which is around 80% of the original star, approaches its nal stage where

the core becomes highly dense, compact, cool and dim called a white dwarf

However, in case of high mass stars (& 8M ), the contracting core get sucient tem-

perature for carbon burning, and start to burn to neon. This process of core burning

followed by core contraction and shell burning keep on going in a series of nuclear re-

actions producing successively heavier elements until iron is formed in the core. Iron

cannot be burned to heavier elements because it is the most stable element. Finally, all

the fuel of star run out and it begin collapses under its own gravity. The mass of the

core of the star allow what happens next. If the core has a mass less than about 3M ,
the collapse of stars may be stopped by the pressure of neutrons (this is an even more

extreme state than the electron pressure that balance the white dwarfs). In this case, the

core converted in a neutron star. If the core of star has a mass greater than about 3M ,
even neutron pressure is not sucient to balance gravity, and it will collapse further into

a black hole[16].

6
 Figure 2.1: HR-diagram of star

Table 2.1: Properties of typical K-type main-sequence stars

Spectral type Mass (M ) Eective temperature (K)

K0V 0.88 5,270
K1V 0.86 5,170
K2V 0.82 5,100
K3V 0.78 4,830
K4V 0.73 4,600
K5V 0.70 4,440
K6V 0.69 4,300
K7V 0.64 4,100
K8V 0.62 3,990
K9V 0.59 3,930

2.2 Time Scales

Changes in a star may take place on quite dierent time scales at dierent evolution-

ary phases. There are three important basic time scales: the nuclear time scale tn, the

thermal time scale tt and the dynamical or free fall time scale td .

7
The Nuclear Time Scale. The time in which a star radiates away all the energy

that can be released by nuclear reactions is called the nuclear time scale. An estimate

of this time can be obtained if one calculates the time in which all available hydrogen is

turned into helium. On the basis of theoretical considerations and evolutionary compu-

tations it is known that only just over 10% of the total mass of hydrogen in the star can

be consumed before other, more rapid evolutionary mechanisms set in. Since 0.7% of the
rest mass is turned into energy in hydrogen burning, the nuclear time scale will be

0.007 × 0.1M c2
tn ≈ (2.1)
L

For the Sun one obtains the nuclear time scale 1010 years, and thus

M/M
tn ≈ (2.2)
L/L

This gives the nuclear time scale as a function of the mass M and luminosity L of a

given star. For example, if the mass is 30M , one obtains tn about 2 million years. The

reason for the shorter time scale is that the stellar luminosity strongly increases for higher

masses[10].

The Thermal Time Scale. The time in which a star would radiate away all its thermal

energy if the nuclear energy production were suddenly turned o is called the thermal

time scale. This is also the time it takes for radiation from the centre to reach the surface.

The thermal time scale may be estimated as

0.5GM 2 /R (M/M )
tt ≈ ≈ × 2 × 107 a, (2.3)
L (R/R )(L/L )

where G is the constant of gravity and R the stellar radius. For the Sun the thermal time

scale is about 20 million years or 1/500 of the nuclear time scale [10].

The Dynamical Time Scale. The third and shortest time scale is the time it would

take a star to collapse if the pressure supporting it against gravity were suddenly removed.

8
It can be estimated from the time it would take for a particle to fall freely from the stellar

surface to the centre. This is half of the period given by Kepler's third law, where the

semimajor axis of the orbit corresponds to half the stellar radius R:

r r
2π (R/2)3 R3
td = ≈ (2.4)
2 GM GM

The dynamical time scale of the Sun is about half an hour.

The ordering of the time scales is normally like that in the Sun, i.e.td << tt << tn [10].

2.3 End product of stellar evolution

By low mass stars we dene those which shortly after leaving the main sequence

toward the red giant branch (RGB), develop an electron degenerate core composed of

0.45
helium. When the mass (MHe ) of the He core has grown to a critical value the
0.50M
,

precise value depends on the composition, star mass, and input physics), a He-burning

runaway is initiated in the core (He-ash), which continues until electron degeneracy is

removed. The maximum initial mass of the star (otherwise called MHeF ) for this to occur
1.8
is about , depending on the initial chemical composition. Within the same mass
2.2M
1.2
range we distinguish the stars lighter than Mcon ' 1.3M
that burn hydrogen in a radia-

tive core from the more massive ones doing it in a convective core. Furthermore, it is

worth recalling that stars lighter than about 0.5M cannot proceed to central He-ignition

because they fail to reach the threshold value for the He-core burning.

Stars more massive than MHeF are classied either as intermediate-mass or massive stars.

In turn we distinguish the intermediate-mass stars from the massive ones by looking at

the stage of carbon ignition in the core. By intermediate mass we mean those stars which,

following core He-exhaustion, develop a highly degenerate carbon-oxygen (C-O) core, and

as asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars experience helium shell ashes or thermal pulses.

The AGB phase is terminated either by envelope ejection and formation of a white dwarf

(MHeF ≤ Mi ≤ MW ) or carbon ignition and deagration in a highly degenerate core once

9
it has grown to the Chandrasekhar limit of 1.4M . The limit mass Mw is regulated by

the eciency of mass loss by stellar wind during the RGB and AGB phases (see Iben &

Renzini 1983).The minimum mass of the C-O core, below which carbon ignition in non

degenerate condition fails and the above scheme holds, is 1.06M corresponding to an

initial mass from 7 to 9M , depending on the chemical composition. This particular

value of the initial mass is known as Mup .

Finally, massive stars are those that ignite carbon nonviolently and through a series

of nuclear burnings proceed either to the construction of an iron core and subsequent

photodissociation instability with core collapse and supernova explosion (Mi ≤ Mmas ),
or following a more complicated scheme undergo core collapse and supernova explosion

(Mup ≤ Mi ≤ Mmas ). Mmas is about 12M [3].

10
Chapter 3

Introduction to neutron Stars

Neutron stars are created in the aftermath of the gravitational collapse of the core

of a massive star (≥ 8 M ) at the end of its life, which triggers a Type II supernova

explosion. Newly-born neutron stars or proto-neutron stars are rich in leptons, mostly e−
and νe . The detailed explosion mechanism of Type II supernovae is not understood, but

it is probable that neutrinos play a crucial role. One of the most remarkable aspects is

that neutrinos become temporarily trapped within the star during collapse. The typical

neutrino matter cross section is σ ≈ 10−40 cm2 resulting in a mean free path λ ≈(σn)−1
≈ 10cm, where the baryon number density is n ' 2 to 3 n0 . This length is much less than

the proto-neutron star radius which exceeds 20 km. The gravitational binding energy re-

leased in the collapse of the progenitor star's white dwarf-like core to a neutron star is

3GM
about
5R2
≈ 3×1053 erg (G is the gravitational constant), which is about 10% of its total
mass energy M c2 . The kinetic energy of the expanding remnant is on the order of 1×1051
to 2 × 1051 erg, and the total energy radiated in photons is further reduced by a factor

of 10%. Nearly all the energy is carried o by neutrinos and antineutrinos of all avors

in roughly equal proportions. Core collapse halts when the star's interior density reaches

n0 , which triggers the formation of a shock wave at the core's outer edge. The shock wave

propagates only about 100 to 200 km before it stalls, having lost energy to neutrinos and

from nuclear dissociation of the material it has plowed through . Apparently, neutrinos

from the core, assisted perhaps by rotation, convection and magnetic elds, eventually

11
resuscitate the shock, which within seconds accelerates outwards, expelling the massive

stellar mantle. The proto-neutron star left behind rapidly shrinks because of pressure

losses from neutrino emission in its periphery (stage II). The escape of neutrinos from

2
the interior occurs on a diusion time τ simeq3R
λc
≈ 10s. The neutrinos observed from

Supernova (SN) 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud conrmed this time scale and the

overall energy release of ≈ 3 × 1053 ergs[11].

3.1 The birth, life and death of a neutron star

A neutron star is a possible end product of a main- sequence star (normal star).

Neutron stars are believed to be formed in type-II supernovae explosions. An explosion

occurs after a precursor to a supernova has burned out its nuclear fuel: rst hydrogen,

then helium produced from hydrogen, and nally heavier chemical elements, including

oxygen and magnesium. The end product of subsequent nuclear transformations is iso-

topes of iron-group elements accumulated in the center of the star. The pressure of the

electron Fermi gas is the sole factor that prevents collapse of such an iron-nickel core to

its center under the force of gravity. But as soon as a few days after oxygen burning, the

mass of the iron core increases above the Chandrasekhar limit equal to 1.44M ,which is

the maximum mass whose gravitational compression is still counteracted by the pressure

of degenerate electrons. Then gravitational collapse, i.e., a catastrophic breakdown of

the stellar core, occurs. It is accompanied by the liberation of an enormous gravitational

energy (& 1053 erg) and a shock wave that strips o the outer envelopes of the giant

star at a speed amounting to 10 % of the speed of light, while the inner part of the star

continues to contract at approximately the same rate.

A newborn neutron star has the temperature above 1010 − 1011 K; thereafter, it cools

down (rather fast initially, but slower and slower afterwards), releasing the energy in the

form of neutrino emission from its depth and electromagnetic radiation from the surface.

12
But the evolution of a neutron star is not reduced to cooling alone. Many neutron stars

have strong magnetic elds that also evolve through changes in strength and congura-

tion. A rotating neutron star having a strong magnetic eld is surrounded by an extended

plasma magnetosphere formed due to the knockout of charged particles from the surface

by the rotation-induced electric eld, thermal emission, and the birth of electron-positron

pairs upon collisions of charged particles of the magnetosphere with one another and with

photons. Given a suciently fast rotation of a star, its magnetosphere undergoes collec-

tive acceleration of the constituent particles in the parts where plasma density is too low

to screen the strong electric eld induced by rotation. Such processes generate coherent

directed radio-frequency emission due to which the neutron star can be seen as a radio

pulsar if it rotates such that its directive pattern intersects observers line of sight. The

rotational energy is gradually depleted and the particles born in the magnetosphere have

a charge whose sign is such that the induced electric eld makes them propagate toward

the star; they accelerate along the magnetic force lines, hit the star surface near its mag-

netic poles, and heat these regions.

A single neutron star eventually exhausts its supply of thermal and magnetic energy

and fades away.

During the rst ∼ 105 − 106 yr, a neutron star cools mainly via neutrino emission from

its innermost regions (which have densities ρ & 1010 gcm−3 ). For ages t & 10 − 50yr, the

internal layers are isothermal. They have an enormous density gradient which results in

dierent neutrino emissivities at dierent radii. As a rule, the most ecient neutrino emis-

sion is produced in a stellar core, which extends from ρ ≈ ρo /2. Here,ρo ≈ 2.8×1014 gcm−3
is the density of nuclear matter in atomic nuclei. The composition and equation of state

of supranuclear matter (ρ & 2ρo ) in neutron-star cores are largely unknown but are of

considerable interest to basic physics[20].

13
3.2 Neutron star properties

3.2.1 Binding energy

Since 99% of the energy of the supernova was carried away by neutrinos of all avours,
Ev can be considered a measurement of the binding energy of the newly born NS. To

compare this measurement with theoretical predictions, we dene binding energy as the

mass defect with respect to a cloud of iron dust.

Ebind = (Ab mF e − M )c2 (3.1)

where Ab is the number of nucleons in the NS; mF e is the mass of iron per nucleon;mF e =
55.845 u with u = 1.6605 × 10−24 g .

3.2.2 Gravitational surface red shift

Of particular astrophysical interest is the gravitational red shift of photons emitted

from the NS surface. This quantity, denoted by zsurf , is related to the compactness ratio

rg /R where rg = 2 GM
c2
is the Schwarzschild radius, G being the gravitational constant

and R the star radius. For non-rotating NS, zsurf is given by

 rg −1/2
zsurf = 1 − − 1, (3.2)
R

for a given NS mass the gravitational redshift decreases with the stiness of EoS. For the

canonical NS mass ∼ 1.4M , zsurf thus decreases from ∼ 0.27 to ∼ 0.23 from the softest

EoS (BSk19) to the stiest EoS (BSk21) (Fantina et al. 2012)[6].

3.2.3 Mass-radius relation

Observations of the thermal emission from NSs can provide valuable constraints on

their masses and radii. The most reliable constraints are expected to be inferred from

14
observations of transient low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXBs) in globular clusters because

their distances can be accurately determined and their atmospheres, most presumably

weakly-magnetised and primarily composed of hydrogen, can be reliably modelled. The

mass and radius of a NS can also be constrained from observations of type I X-ray bursts.

These bursts are the manifestations of explosive thermonuclear fusion reactions triggered

by the accretion of matter onto the NS surface. More precisely, the unstable burning of

helium ash produced by the fusion of accreted hydrogen is thought to be at the origin

of type I X-ray bursts. In some cases, the bursts are luminous enough to substantially

expand the photosphere until the Eddington limit is reached. Measurements of the Ed-

dington ux, the angular area of the photosphere, and the distance, combined with NS

atmosphere models, allow a determination of the NS mass and radius. Recently deter-

mined a probability distribution of masses and radii analysing astrophysical observations

of six NSs: three type I X-ray bursters with photospheric radius expansion, and three

transient LMXBs in globular clusters[6].

3.3 Observational perspective of neutron star

The two highest neutron star masses that have been precisely measured were de-

termined in dierent ways. The mass of the pulsar PSR J1614-2230, which has a half

solar-mass white dwarf companion, was determined by measuring the mass function of

the system and the Shapiro delay using radio observations of the pulsar. The Shapiro

delay is a relativistic eect that causes the light-travel time through the gravitational

well of a star to be greater than in the Newtonian limit and to vary periodically with the

orbital phase of the system relative to our line of sight to the system. The magnitude of

the delay depends on the mass of the pulsar's companion, while its variation de- pends on

the inclination of the system relative to our line of sight (e.g., if the system is face-on to

us, the delay has no orbital-phase dependence). Importantly, the Shapiro delay does not

depend on the nature of the companion. It is therefore irrelevant whether the pulsar's

15
companion is a neutron star, a white dwarf, or a main sequence star. Mea- suring the

Shapiro delay determines the two additional system parameters needed to obtain a unique

solution for the masses of both stars in the system. The estimated mass of PSR J1614-

2230 is 1.97 ± 0.04 M . PSR J0348+0432 has a white dwarf companion with observable

atmospheric spectral lines. The periodic variation of the energies of these lines yields a

second mass function, while the measured gravitational red shift of the lines can be used

to determine the white dwarf mass, closing the system of equations. The estimated mass

of PSR J0348+0432 is 2.01 ± 0.04M [4].

16
Chapter 4

Orbital dynamics and evolution of

companion star binary to neutron star

4.1 Binary star system

A fundamental property of stars is their multiplicity. Among stars that complete their

nuclear evolution in the Hubble time, the estimated binary fraction varies from ' (40 

60)% for M ' M stars.

Based on the summary of data on binary fraction β (M) provided in, van Haaften et

al.suggested an approximate formula

 
1 1 M
β(M ) ≈ + log(M ) 0.08 ≤ ≤ 100 (4.1)
2 4 M

considering all multiple systems as binaries.

The evolution of binary stars does not dier from that of single stars unless they get

in each other's way. If the binary orbit is wide enough, the individual stars are not af-

17
fected by the presence of a companion, so that standard stellar evolution theory is all

that is required to describe their evolution. However, if the stars become close, they can

interact, with consequences for the evolution and appearance of the stars, as well as the

nature of the orbit.

The eective gravitational potential in a frame rotating with a circular binary system

forms equi potential surfaces called Roche surfaces. A sphere of the volume enclosed

by the critical Roche surface denes the Roche lobe radius of each star. If either star

lls its Roche lobe, then gas ows from the outer layers of that star through the inner

Lagrangian point that connects the two Roche lobes. Some or all of this gas may be

captured by the companion star so that mass transfer occurs and, as a result, the subse-

quent evolution of both stars takes a dierent course from that of isolated stars. When

the Roche lobe-lling star is a giant, with a convective envelope, or is signicantly more

massive than its companion, then, as described by Paczy«ski , the transferred mass may

not be captured by the companion, but instead accumulates in a common envelope (CE)

surrounding both stars. The outcome of CE evolution is still not fully understood, but

possible scenarios include loss of the envelope as the two cores spiral in to form a closer

binary or coalescence of the two stars[18].

4.2 Keplerian motion

Let us consider two point masses M1 and M2 orbiting each other under the force

of gravity. It is well known that this problem is equivalent to the problem of a single

body with mass moving in an external gravitational potential. The value of the external

potential is determined by the total mass of the system.

M = M1 + M2 (4.2)

The reduced mass µ is

18
 M1 M2
µ= (4.3)
M

The body µ moves in an elliptic orbit with eccentricity e and major semi-axis a. The or-

2π 2


bital period and orbital frequency Ω2 = P
are related to M and a by Kepler's third law

 2
2 2π GM
Ω = = (4.4)
P a3

This relationship is valid for any eccentricity e.

Individual bodies M1 and M2 move around the barycenter of the system in elliptic orbits

with the same eccentricity e. The major semi-axis ai of the two ellipses are inversely

proportional to the masses

a1 M2
= (4.5)
a2 M2

and satisfy the relationship a = a1 + a2 . The position vectors of the bodies from the

system's barycenter are

M2 r
r1 = (4.6)
(M1 + M2 )

and

−M1 r
r2 = (4.7)
(M1 + M2 )

where

r = r1 − r2 (4.8)

is the relative position vector and line velocity related by

v = v1 + v2 (4.9)

The total conserved energy of the binary system is

19
 M1 v21 M2 v22 GM1 M2 µ v2 GM1 M2 −GM1 M2
E= + − = − = , (4.10)
2 2 r 2 r 2a

where r is the distance between the bodies. The orbital angular momentum vector is

perpendicular to the orbital plane and can be written as

Jorb = M1 v1 × r1 + M2 v2 × r2 = µ v × r. (4.11)

The absolute value of the orbital angular momentum is

|Jorb | = µ GM a(1 − e2 ).
p
(4.12)

For circular binaries with e = 0 the distance between orbiting bodies does not depend on
time,

r(t, e = 0) = a, (4.13)

and is usually referred to as orbital separation. In this case, the velocities of the bodies,

as well as their relative velocity, are also time-independent,[20]

r
GM
v = |v| = Ωa = , (4.14)
a

|Jorb | = µV a = µΩa2 (4.15)

4.3 Binary Evolution and roche lobe over ow

Two stars, bound through their mutual gravity, move in elliptical orbits about their

common centre-of-mass. In plane polar coordinates, r, the separation of the stars, and θ,

20
the phase angle, the equations of motion for an elliptical orbit are

a(1 − e2 )
r= (4.16)
1 + e cos θ

and

h = r2 θ̇ (4.17)

where a is the semi-major axis of the ellipse and e the eccentricity. The specic angular

momentum of the system,

h = |h| is given by

h=r×v (4.18)

where both r and v = ṙ lie in the orbital plane. Note that the semi-latus rectum

h2
l = a(1 − e2 ) = (4.19)
GM

where

M = M1 + M2 (4.20)

is the total mass of the system, is constant if orbital angular momentum is conserved.

These equations consider the stars as point masses interacting by gravity alone. Perturb-

ing eects, such as tidal forces, are not taken into account. Mass transfer occurs in close

binary systems following the onset of Roche lobe overow (RLOF). This can be triggered

either by a star expanding to ll its Roche lobe as a result of stellar evolution, or by

angular momentum losses causing contraction of the orbit. The Roche lobe radius of a

star is
2/3
RL1 0.49q1
= 1/2 2/3
(4.21)
a 0.6q1 + ln(1 + q1 )
M1
in terms of the semimajor axis of the orbit and the mass ratio q1 = M2
of the primary

star, accurate to within 2% for 0 < q1 < ∞. Note the above equation also be used to

obtain the Roche lobe radius of the secondary by using the appropriate mass ratio ,i.e,

q2 . The theory of RLOF is based on two stars in a circular orbit in which complete coro-

21
 Figure 4.1: Mass transfer of binary star

tation has been achieved. In most cases this is adequate, because tidal friction generally

acts to remove any eccentricity on a time-scale shorter than the evolution time-scale of

the binary. However, it may be possible for RLOF to occur in an eccentric orbit if the

binary is formed by tidal capture so that the primary, the more evolved star, has not

spent all its life as part of the present system. It is also possible that stars may form

in a close eccentric binary, but it is generally expected that some initial circularization

occurs as part of the formation process. Eccentric RLOF could also be envisaged if a

star in an eccentric orbit is rapidly expanding, such as on the AGB, so that the nuclear

and circularization time-scales are similar. If any of these rare cases arise, then, for want

of a more detailed treatment, we subject them to instant synchronization at the onset of

RLOF[8].

4.4 Mass Transfer and the Evolution of Orbital Param-

eters
In this section, expressions for the variation of orbital parameters with loss of mass

from one of the stars are derived. In what follows, the two stars will be referred to as m1
and m2 , with the latter the mass losing star. The angular momentum (AM) of binary

component i in a circular orbit is expressed as:

Ji = ||Ji || = mi ||vi × ai || = mi vi ai (4.22)

22
where vi = ωai is the velocity of accretion and donor star; "i" stands for the accretion

"a" and donor "d" stars respectively, ai is the position of the accretion and donor star,

and ω is the orbital angular spin frequency.

Ji = mi a2i ω (4.23)

Roche geometry changes are governed by the total orbital angular momentum J of the

system which is given by

J = Ja + Jd = (ma a2a + md a2d )ω (4.24)

p
µa2 ω = µ GMT a (4.25)

Where aa = (md /M )a, ad = (ma /MT )a are the distance of the two stars from the center

ma md
of mass (semi major-axis), V = ma +md
is the reduced mass, M = m2 + m1 is the total

md
mass, and the mass ratio is q= ma
. Throughout this paper, we consider an eccentricity e

will be zero. The period "P", the semi major axis "a" and the total mass transfer related

through Kepler's law as:

2π 2 GM
( ) = ω2 = 3 (4.26)
P a

which implies that the orbital angular momentum J can be written as:

P G2
 
J(P ) = ma md (4.27)
2πM

The angular momentum for binary component "i" is given by

µJ
Ji = (4.28)
mi

and the specic angular momentum for binary component "i" can be written as:

Ji µJ
li = = (4.29)
mi M

23
Where mi is mass of the accretion and donor and li is specic angular momentum of the

accretion and donor star, respectively. From Kepler's third law we relate orbital evolution

as:

ȧ Ṗ Ṁ
a3 ∝ P 2 M ≈ 3 = 2 + (4.30)
a P M

the orbital angular momentum J of a binary star is given by

 12
Ga(1 − e2 )

J = ma md (4.31)
M

By dierentiating this expression we obtain a general equation for the evolution of orbital

parameters:

J˙ ṁa ṁd 1 ȧ 1 Ṁ 1 2eė

= + + − − (4.32)
J ma md 2 a 2 M 2 1 − e2

and

J˙
 
ȧ Ṁ ṁd ṁa eė
= +2 −2 + − (4.33)
a M J md ma (1 − e2 )

the rate of change of orbital period, semi major axis, and total mass transfer can be

written as:

Ṗ 3 ȧ 1 Ṁ
= − (4.34)
P 2a 2M

or

dp 3 da 1 dM
= − (4.35)
pdt 2 adt 2 M dt

which depends on time "t".

by integrating the above equation we obtain

s 3  
a M0
P = P0 (4.36)
a0 M

Where P0 , a0 , and M0 are initial orbital period, semi major axis, and total mass transfer

of the binary stars, respectively.

In the case of Roche lobe overow in an already circularized binary, the last term is zero.

The J˙ term represents angular momentum loss from the binary, which can be due to

spontaneous processes (such as gravitational wave radiation) or it can be associated with

24
mass loss from the binary as a whole or from the component stars[14].

4.5 Common envelope stage

In a binary system, two stars of masses M1 and M2 revolve about the center of mass

of the system. In the Roche approximation, it is assumed that the orbit is circular and

that the gravitational eld generated by the two stars is like that of two point masses.

Close to each star, the potential is dominated by the gravity of that star and the surfaces

are almost spherical. Moving progressively further from the stellar center, the tidal eect

of the companion and the centrifugal force cause an elongation along the line of centers.

From the point of view of binary evolution, the most important equipotential surface is

the one with the gure-of eight cross section. The cusped volumes which are enclosed by

the critical surface are called the Roche lobes of the respective stars. Once a star lls its

Roche lobe, it starts transferring mass to its companion through the inner Lagrangian

point L1 which is the one point where the two Roche lobes touch If the transfer rate is

rapid enough, the companion cannot accrete the proferred material, which piles up into

a hot blanket above the companion. Eventually, the hot blanket begins to overow the

Roche lobe of the companion. At this point, it no longer makes sense to describe the

situation in terms of the Roche-lobe structure, as the assumptions made in deriving this

structure no longer hold. Instead, we think in terms of a common envelope (CE) in

which the two components revolving about their center of mass are immersed. Usually,

the term CE is used to describe a situation in which the envelope is not co rotating with

the binary and is not necessarily in hydrostatic equilibrium (unlike, say, in W Ursa Ma-

joris systems). The concept of CE evolution, in our present understanding of it, was rst

proposed by Paczynski in relation to cataclysmic variables and by Ostriker in relation to

massive binaries containing neutron stars. The most direct evidence for the reality of CE

evolution is provided by the existence of planetary nebulae (PNe) with close binary nu-

clei, which appear to have relatively recently emerged from a CE phase, with the ejected

25
CE itself being the nebula. Classical novae in outburst provide us with an opportunity

of observing a short CE phase while it is occurring[9].

The outcome of the CE stage depends on the product of two parameters:λ which is the

Figure 4.2: common envelope stage

measure of the binding energy of the envelope to the core prior to the mass transfer in

a binary system, and αC E , which is the common envelope eciency itself. Evaluation

of both parameters suers from large physical uncertainties. For example, forλ the most

debatable issues are the accounting of the internal energy in the binding energy of the

envelope and the denition of the core/envelope boundary itself. Some authors argue

that enthalpy rather than internal energy should be included in the calculation of λ)
which seems physically justiable for convective envelopes[18].

A simple estimation of the reduction of the orbital separation can be found by sim-

ply equating the binding energy of the envelope of the (sub)giant donor to the required

dierence in orbital energy (before and after the CE-phase). Let 0 < ηCE < 1 describe

the eciency of ejecting the envelope, i.e. of converting orbital energy into the kinetic

energy that provides the outward motion of the envelope: or

 
GMdonor Menv GMcore M1 GMdonor M1
≡ ηCE − (4.37)
λai rL 2af 2ai

26
yielding the ratio of nal (post-CE) to initial (pre-CE) orbital separation:

af Mcore M1 1
= (4.38)
ai Mdonor M1 + 2Menv /(ηCE λrL )

where Mcore = Mdonor − Menv ; rL = RL /ai is the dimensionless Roche-lobe radius of

the donor star so that ai rL = RL ≈ Rdonor and λ is a parameter which depends on the

stellar mass-density distribution, and consequently also on the evolutionary stage of the

star. The orbital separation of the surviving binaries is quite often reduced by a factor of

∼ 100 as a result of the spiral-in. If there is not enough orbital energy available to eject

the envelope the stellar components will merge in this process[2].

27
Chapter 5

Result and discussion

We have consider that the interaction between this two stars is close binary so we

approximate eccentricity to zero. For the sake of simplication the kick velocity after

the supernova explosion will be neglected.Since its close binary,we did not consider wind

mass transfer. Mass transfer and interaction between this two masses has some amount

of eect on the evolution of internal part of star around the core of star, the energy

momentum ow between the stars aect the fusion process of stars but in general we nd

the same outcome when we come to evolution of stars and evolution of orbital parameters.

5.1 Mass transfer

There are still many unanswered theoretical questions about the nature of the mass

transfer phase, the basic properties of the evolution of a binary due to mass transfer can

easily be described. The rate at which a star can adjust to changes in its mass is governed

by three time scales. The dynamical time scale results from the adiabatic response of the

star to restore hydro static equilibrium, and can be approximated by the free fall time

across the radius of the star, Conservative mass transfer occurs when there is no mass

loss from the system, and therefore all mass lost from one star is accreted by the other

star. During conservative mass transfer, the orbital elements of the binary can change.

Consider a system with total mass M = M1 + M2 and semi-major axis a The total orbital

angular momentum

28
 h a i1/2
J = GM12 M22 (5.1)
M

is a constant, and we can write a ∝ (M1 M2 )−2 . Using Kepler's third law and denoting

the initial values by a subscript i we nd:

 3
P M1i M2i
= (5.2)
Pi M1 M2

by dierentiating the above equation we nd

Ṗ 3Ṁ1 (M1 − M2 )
= (5.3)
P M1 M2

Note that if the more massive star loses mass, then the orbital period decreases and the

orbit shrinks. If the less massive star is the donor, then the orbit expands. Usually, the

initial phase of RLOF takes place as the more massive star evolves. As a consequence,

the orbit of the binary will shrink, driving the binary to a more compact orbit.

The numerical result plot of the period evolution of the binary given as in equation 4.36

is shown in gure .

As we see from the plot the period increases if the relative orbit increase more in relation

to that of the relative mass and vice-versa.

Once a CE system has formed, friction between the immersed binary and the envelop e

will make the two components spiral towards each other until enough orbital energy has

been released to eject the envelope. This ends the spiral-in phase and leaves a much closer

binary with an orbital period typically between ∼ 0.1 and ∼ 10d. CE evolution tends

to produce very short-period systems. Indeed,this is believed to be the main mechanism

by which an initially wide binary, with an orbital period of possibly many years, can be

transformed into a very close binary with an orbital period of hours to days.

M
For relative mass of star
M0
greater the rate change of period is less. Where M0 ,is mass of

29
 Figure 5.1: Period evolution with respect to relative mass and relate orbit.

star before mass transfer and M is mass of star after mass transfer. As the star accreate

mass the orbit tend to expand which results rotation period to increase.

In non-conservative mass transfer, both mass and angular momentum can be removed

from the system. There are two basic non-conservative processes that are important

for the formation of relativistic binaries  the common-envelope process and the super-

nova explosion of one component of the binary. The result of the st process is often a

short-period, circularized binary containing a white dwarf. Although the most common

outcome of the second process is the disruption of the binary, occasionally this process

will result in an eccentric binary containing a neutron star or a black hole.

Let v be the velocity of one component of the binary relative to the other component.

30
The initial energy of the binary is given by

 
1 M1 M2 GM1 M2 GM1 M2
E= v2 − =− (5.4)
2 M1 + M2 a 2a

Following the supernova explosion of M1 , the expanding mass shell will quickly cross the

orbit of M2 , decreasing the gravitational force acting on the secondary. The new energy

of the binary is then

 
0 1 MN S M2 GMN S M2
E = v− (5.5)
2 MN S + M2 a

where MN S is the mass of the remnant neutron star.

Since we have assumed that the instantaneous velocities of both components have not

G(M1 +M2 )
been aected, we can replace them by v2 = a
and s,

 
GMN S M2
0 M1 + M2
E = −2 (5.6)
2a MN S + M2

Note that the nal energy will be positive and the binary will be disrupted if MN S <
(1/2)(M1 + M2 ). This condition occurs when the mass ejected from the system is greater

than half of the initial total mass,

1
4 M > (M1 + M2 ), (5.7)
2

Where 4M = M1 − MN S . If the binary is not disrupted, the new orbit becomes eccentric

and expands to a new semi-major axis given by[1].

a0
 
M1 + M2 − 4M
= , (5.8)
a M1 + M2 − 2 4 M

The relative change of the orbit with respect to the rate of accretion with respect to the

total mass of the binary is shown as in plot 5.2

Direct mass loss through a supernova explosion can also alter the properties of a binary,

but this process generally drives the system toward larger orbital separation and can

31
Figure 5.2: Evolution of the relative orbital radius due accretion (mass transfer) after
supernova explosion.

disrupt the binary entirely. For example, in the plot of gure 5.2 as the relative mass

transfer reaches over 0.5 the mean orbital radius begun to decrease.

5.2 Dynamical mass transfer

When a binary comes into contact and mass transfer begins, orbital angular momen-

tum is stored in the accretion disk until the disk couples tidally to the binary system.

Taam and McDermott have suggested that this leads to unstable dynamical mass trans-

fer in many cataclysmic variables in which mass transfer would otherwise be stable, and

that it explains the gap between 2 and 3 hr in the orbital period distribution of these

systems[12].

If ζad < ζL the radius of the primary increases faster than the Roche lobe on conser-

vative mass transfer. The mass-loss rate from the primary is limited only by the sonic

expansion rate of its envelope, as mass is transferred through the inner Lagrangian point

connecting the Roche lobes of the two stars. Stars with deep surface convection zones,

32
and degenerate stars, are unstable to such dynamical time-scale mass-loss, unless the pri-

mary is rather less massive than the secondary so that ζL is more negative than ζad .Thus
dynamical mass transfer occurs for giants (k1 ∈ 3, 5, 6, 8, 9) where k1 is stellar type of

primary star,low-mass MS stars (k1 = 0) and WDs (k1 ∈ 10, 11, 12)when q1 > qcrit . This

critical mass ratio is dened by ζad = ζL ,where ζL ≈ 2.13q1 − 1.67.The behaviour of

the radius deviates from this relation when the mass of the giant envelope is small. To

detailed stellar models we t and use

  5 
Mc1
1.67 − x + 2 M1
qcrit = (5.9)
2.13

We note that a modied criterion is required in cases of non-conservative mass transfer,

and that the assumption of ζad ≈ ζeq is not always true. Naked helium giants have

ζad ≈ 0,so that qcrit = 0.784 For low-mass MS stars qcrit = 0.695, and for white dwarfs

qcrit = 0.628. Based on models of condensed polytropes, an alternative condition for

dynamical mass transfer from a giant primary,

qcrit = 0.362 + [3(1 − Mc1 /M1 )]−1 (5.10)

M c1 Mc1
valid for
M1
& 0.2. This relation is similar to equation (5.9) for
M1
= 0,but quickly

Mc1 Mc1
diverges as
M1
increases: it is a factor of 2 larger at
M1
= 0.6. For values of q1 intermedi-
ate between the two conditions allow mass transfer to proceed on a thermal time-scale so

that CE evolution is avoided. In the presence of mass loss, and particularly any enhanced

mass loss, this would lead to a signicant increase in the number of stable mass-transfer

systems[8].

Low-mass MS stars are deeply convective, so that mass transfer to a companion pro-

ceeds dynamically if q1 > 0.695. If this is the case, we assume that the entire star

overows its Roche lobe on a time-scale τṀ = τDY N 1 , and only a single star remains.

33
If the secondary is still on the MS its envelope can easily absorb all of the primary

mass on a dynamical time-scale. If the secondary is a naked He star or a WD (k2 ∈

7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12), then all the material is accreted dynamically and swells up to form a

giant envelope around the degenerate star, which becomes the core of a new giant star.

If a WD (k1 ∈ 10, 11, 12) evolves to ll its Roche lobe, then the secondary must be a less

massive WD or possibly an NS or BH k1 ∈ 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 Mass transfer proceeds at a

steady rate,unless q1 > 0.628 when the mass transfer becomes dynamical. In this case

the entire mass is transferred on a time-scale τDY N 1 which is[8]

r
R3
τDY N 1 = 5.05 × 10−5 yr. (5.11)
M

In the following we will argue that Roche lobe overow in a binary system approximated

by two polytropic components can result in mass transfer on a dynamical timescale for

a certain range of polytropic indices. A spherical polytrope with uniform entropy in

mechanical equilibrium obeys the following mass radius relation :

1−n
R ∝ M 3−n (5.12)

which implies
 
Ṙ 1−n Ṁ Ṁ
= ≡ ξs (5.13)
R 3−n M M

Hence, the body will expand upon mass loss for polytropic indices satisfying 1<n <
3.Approximation for the eective Roche lobe radius of a donor star, taken to be the R1RL
primary, with mass in a point mass binary of total M1 mass M and separation a,

1/3
R1RL

M1
= 0.462 (5.14)
a M

From this, one obtains the following relation for the logarithmic change in the donor is

Roche lobe radius :

Ṙ1RL ȧ 1 Ṁ1 1 Ṁ
RL
= + − (5.15)
R1 a 3 M1 3 M

34
It is more convenient to eliminate the orbital separation, a, from eqn.(5.21) in favor of

J˙orb Ṁ1
the orbital angular momentum. By combining
Jorb
= M1
+ 21 ȧa − 21 Ṁ
M
and (5.16) we arrive

at

Ṙ1RL J˙ 5 Ṁ1 Ṁ1 Ṁ

RL
=2 − − + (5.16)
R1 J 3 M1 M1 M

Eliminating the accretion rate as Ṁ1 = Ṁ − Ṁ2

Ṙ1RL J˙ 5 Ṁ1 2 Ṁ Ṁ2

RL
= 2 − + −2 (5.17)
R1 J 3 M1 3 M M2

which simplies to

Ṙ1RL J˙orb
   
M1 5 Ṁ1 2 M Ṁ
=2 + 2 − + −2 (5.18)
R1RL Jorb M2 3 M1 3 M2 M

If we assume the mass transfer to be conservative, eq. (5.24) simplies further to yield

the desired expression

Ṙ1RL
 
M1 5 Ṁ1 Ṁ1
= 2 − ≡ξ (5.19)
R1RL M2 3 M1 M1

Comparing equation 5.19 with equation ??, the condition for stable mass transfer, Ṙ2 ≤
Ṙ2RL can be expressed as

ξs − ξR > 0, (5.20)

In the conservative case eq. (5.25) indicates that if M1 > 65 M2 the donor's Roche lobe

will contract upon mass loss as Ṁ1 is negative[8].

We next consider the response of the donor's radius to a change in its mass. We are

concerned only with the dynamical response of the star as it tries to regain hydrostatic

equilibrium given its new mass. For stars like the Sun it is well known that the mass

and radius are approximately proportional to one another. In the avor of the previous

expressions, the mass radius relation for solar type stars implies

Ṙd Ṁd
= (5.21)
Rd Md

35
 Md 4
qstable = ≤ (5.22)
Mr 3

If the mass ratio q exceeds this value, the Roche lobe will shrink faster than the star can

contract and the mass transfer will proceed on a dynamical timescale until the stability

4
criterion (5.28) is met. If, on the other hand, q≤ 3
the star will, on a timescale set by

the mass transfer rate, detach from is Roche lobe. Mass transfer may continue even for

stable mass ratios however. From eq. (5.25) any mechanism that removes orbital angular

momentum from the binary will cause the Roche lobe of the donor to contract. Examples

of such mechanisms are the emission of gravitational radiation and magnetic braking [13].

which, for a given polytropic index, implies a stable mass ratio

M2 9 − 4n
q≡ = qstable ≡ (5.23)
M1 3(3 − n)

For a polytropic binary with n = 3/2 and mass ratio q > qstable = 2/3 mass transfer must
occur on a dynamical time- scale as the donor will readjust its structure within a few

sound crossing times to its new mass. Note that if the donor is initially the less massive

star (i.e., q < 1), the binary separation is expected to steadily increase during the mass

transfer event. But, if the donor is initially the more massive component (i.e., q > 1),
conservation of orbital angular momentum implies that the separation must decrease and

that the donor is Roche lobe radius will contract thus increasing the degree of overow.

The resulting mass trans- fer rate is expected in this case to be quite substantial. The

dependence of the mass transfer rate on the degree of over-contact can be estimated from

the product of the volume swept out by the ow near the inner Lagrange point, in unit

time and the local value of the density[13].

5.3 Response of the mass-losing (companion) star

The radius of the mass-losing donor star will respond to mass loss. Therefore, in

order to obtain a full stability analysis of the mass-transfer process it is important to

36
know whether or not the donor star expands (or contracts) in response to mass loss.

This is determined by the stellar structure (i.e. temperature gradient and entropy) of the

envelope at the onset of the RLOF[2].

5.3.1 Donor stars with a convective envelope

The thermal response of a donor star with a deep convective envelope is much more

radical. It expands rapidly in response to mass loss due to the super-adiabatic tempera-

ture gradient in its giant envelope. This is clearly an unstable situation if the Roche-lobe

does not grow accordingly. For systems with q & 1.5 (heavy donors) the orbital shrinking
is so ecient that, in combination with an expanding convective donor, it always leads

to the formation of a common envelope and (dynamically unstable) spiral-in evolution.

Hence, this is most likely the destiny for all HMXBs[2].

5.4 Rotation
Eects of rotation can be even more important for binary evolution, since angular

momentum is transfered together with material during the mass transfer process. Ac-

cretion, via a viscous disk or via ballistic impact, transports angular momentum, and

evolutionary models show that this can lead to a signicant spin-up and even critical

rotation of the mass gaining star.

The material being transferred from one star to another carries a certain angular mo-

mentum that will be transfered to the mass gaining star. If there is an accretion disk,

the angular momentum of the transfered matter is assumed to be Keplerian. If there is

direct impact accretion, the angular momentum is calculated by following a test particle

moving through the rst Lagrangian point. This angular momentum spins-up the top

layers of the mass gaining star and is further transferred through the star due to a ro-

tationally induced mixing processes. Each time the secondary spins-up close to critical

37
rotation, it starts losing more mass due to the inuence of the centrifugal force. High

mass loss decreases the accretion eciency and removes angular momentum from the

secondary star. The secondary star is also slowed down by the tidal interactions that try

to synchronize it with the orbital motion. Assumed that the specic angular momentum

of the accreted matter corresponds to the Kepler rotation at the stellar equator, the mass

gaining star will reach critical rotation when its initial mass is increased by about 5-10%.

The mass accretion can continue in this situation, as viscous processes may transport

angular momentum through the star. However, if the star is rotating very rapidly, its

wind mass loss may dramatically increase , which may result in a very inecient mass

transfer. Rotationally enhanced mass loss is given as [17].

Ṁ 1
= (5.24)
Ṁ (Vrot = 0) (1 − Ω)ξ

with

vrot
Ω= , (5.25)
vcrit

2 GM (1 − Γ)
vcrit = (5.26)
R

Where ξ =0.43

 
Ṗ 3Ṁ1 1 − α/2
= (5.27)
P M1 α−1
M
where α= M1
α
case 1: from the above gure
2
>2 relative orbital period will be negative which imply

that the orbital period after mass transfer is decreasing.

α
case 2: from the above gure
2
<2 relative orbital period will get positive.The orbital

period after mass transfer is greater.

Another important parameter in massive binary evolution is the magnetic eld. As

shown by a dynamo can operate in the radiative zone of a dierentially rotating star.

38
 Figure 5.3: Relative orbital period and spin

The resulting magnetic eld causes an ecient torque able to reduce the dierential ro-

tation and force the star to rotate uniformly. researched the eects of this process on

massive star evolution and found that it decreases the eects of rotation on massive star

evolution. Modeled the evolution of a 10M star with and without rotationally induced

magnetic elds, and also their results indicated that the overall inuence of rotation on

stellar evolution becomes smaller when magnetic elds are included [21].

5.5 Common envelope evolution and magnetic eld gen-

eration
When a giant star lls its Roche lobe, unstable mass transfer can lead to a state in

which the giant envelope surrounds the two dense cores, its own degenerate core and its

companion. This companion is most likely an unevolved lower mass main-sequence star

but might itself be already a WD. These two cores are then supposed to spiral together

inside the CE while energy and angular momentum are transferred from their orbit to

39
the envelope which is gradually ejected. As the cores get closer together, their orbital

period falls and this sets up dierential rotation within the CE. By its giant nature the

CE is expected to be largely convective. Dierential rotation and convection are the

key ingredients of a stellar magnetic dynamo. This dynamo actually drives the transfer

of energy and angular momentum from the orbit to the envelope as well as the strong

wind that expels the envelope. Irrespective of this, we expect that, at the end of the

CE evolution, either when the spiralling cores coalesce or when all the envelope is driven

away, there is a very strong magnetic eld in the vicinity of the hot degenerate core. This

eld can penetrate the non-degenerate surface of the core and become frozen in as it later

cools and contracts. The closer the cores at the end of CE evolution, the greater the

dierential rotation in the CE and so the stronger the expected frozen in magnetic eld.

We then expect the strongest WD magnetic elds to form in the cores of systems that

merge during CE evolution. A main-sequence companion is likely to dissolve into the

giant envelope when it has spiralled in deep enough that its density is comparable with

its surroundings. The spin angular momentum remaining in the envelope depends on the

details of the CE process as well as the initial conditions of the system. If we assume

that the remaining envelope has the specic angular momentum of the original orbit, its

spin period would have reduced from years to days. The degenerate core therefore nds

itself at the centre of a rapidly spinning giant to which its spin is likely to be coupled.

Because of the small size of the core, its moment of inertia is negligible compared with

that of the remaining envelope. Such a giant would itself generate a strong dynamo and

spin down quite quickly, typically within 104 − 105 yr. Thus, except in the rare case that

the envelope is almost completely ejected when the cores merge, we would not expect

the HFMWDs to be rapidly spinning by the time they emerge from the giant envelope.

This is consistent with the tendancy for HFMWDs to be extremely slow rotators, some

with spin periods up to 100 yr. From the CE systems that almost merge, we then expect

a range of relatively high magnetic eld WDs in MCVs which emerge from the CE very

close to interacting, the polars and intermediate polars, with a corresponding dearth of

such elds amongst the single stars. Systems which emerge with wider separations should

40
tend to have much lower elds. We note at this point that, while we do not understand

the precise mechanism of CE evolution, we must expect a range of magnetic elds as-

sociated with any given nal separation. This is then consistent with the fact that the

longest period polars tend to have high elds. Indeed, they must if the eld is to be

strong enough to lock the WD spin to the orbit at all[21].

5.6 Evolution of neutron star in binary setting and nal

out come of binary star
1. Initially, the pair of high-mass main-sequence stars is detached and stars are inside

their Roche lobes. Tidal interaction is very eective and the possible initial eccen-

tricity vanishes before the primary star M1 lls its Roche lobe. The duration of

this stage is determined by the hydrogen burning time of the primary, more massive

component, and typically is < 10M yr (for massive main-sequence stars, the time of

core hydrogen burning is tnucl ∝ M −2 ). The star burns out hydrogen in its central

parts, so that a dense central helium core with mass MHe ' 0.1(M/M )1.4 forms

by the time when the star leaves the main sequence. The expected number of such

binaries in the Galaxy is about 104 .

2 After the core hydrogen exhaustion, the primary leaves the main-sequence and starts

to expand rapidly. When its radius approaches the Roche lobe, mass transfer onto

the secondary, less massive star which still resides on the main-sequence, begins.

Depending on the masses of components and evolutionary state of the donor, the

mass-transfer may proceed via non- conservative but stable Roche-lobe overow

(RLOF) or via a common envelope. Even if the common envelope is avoided and

the rst mass exchange event proceeds on the thermal time scale of the donor

τKH ≈ GM12 /R1 L1 , its duration for typical stars is rather short, of the order of 104
yr, so only several dozens of such binaries are expected to be present in the Galaxy.

41
3 Mass transfer ends when most of the primary's hydrogen envelope is lost, so a naked

helium core is left. This core can be observed as a WolfRayet (WR) star with an

intense stellar wind if its mass exceeds (7 − 8)(±1)M . The duration of the WR

stage is about several 105 yr, so the Galactic number of such binaries should be

several hundreds. During the mass-exchange episode the secondary star acquires

large angular momentum carried by the infalling matter, so that its outer envelope

can be spun up to an angular velocity close to the limiting (Keplerian) value. Such

massive rapidly rotating stars are observed as Be-stars.

4 Stars more massive than ' 8M end their evolution by formation of a NS. ZAMS mass

range 8−12(±)M , is a transitional one in which NS are formed via ECSN at the

lower masses and via core collapses at the higher masses Supernovae associated with

massive naked He stars (almost devoid of H-envelopes) are usually associated with

−2 −1
SN Ib/c. The inferred Galactic type SN Ib/c rate is(0.76±0.16)×10 yr . At least

half of them should be in binaries. ECSN may be progenitors of the faintest type II-

P supernovae, because they produce only little amount of radioactive Ni.Peculiarly,

the historical Crab SN in our Galaxy is suggested to be a ECSN.Disruption of the

binary due to the second SN in the system is very likely (e.g., if the mass lost during

the symmetric SN explosion exceeds 50% of the total mass of the pre-SN binary, or

it is even smaller in the presence of the kick. Population synthesis estimates show

that (4˘10)% of initial binaries survive the rst core-collapse SN explosion in the

system, depending on the assumed kick distribution. Some runaway Galactic OB-

stars must have been formed in this way. Currently, only one candidate O-star with

non-interacting NS companion is known, thanks to multi-wavelength observations

 HD 164816, a late O-type spectroscopic binary. Null-results of earlier searches

for similar objects, though being dependent on assumptions on the beaming factor

of pulsars and their magnetic eld evolution, are consistent with very low fraction

of surviving systems, but may be also due to obscuration of radio emission by the

winds of massive stars.

5 If the system survives the rst SN explosion, a rapidly rotating Be star in orbit with

42
 a young NS appears. The orbital eccentricity after the SN explosion is high, so

enhanced accretion onto the NS occurs at the periastron passages. Most of about

100 Galactic Be may be formed in this way. Post-ECSN binaries have a larger chance

for survival thanks to low kicks. It is possible that a signicant fraction of Be belong

to this group of objects. The duration of Be stage depends on the binary parameters,

but in all cases it is limited by the time left for the (now more massive) secondary to

burn hydrogen in its core. An important parameter of NS evolution is the surface

magnetic eld strength. In binary systems, magnetic eld, in combination with NS

spin period and accretion rate onto the NS surface, determines the observational

manifestation of the neutron star. Accretion of matter onto the NS can reduce the

surface magnetic eld and spin-up the NS rotation (pulsar recycling).

6 Evolving secondary expands to engulf the NS in its own turn. Formation of a common

envelope is, apparently, inevitable due to the large mass ratio of components. The

common envelope stage after 103 yr ends up with the formation of a WR star with

a compact companion surrounded by an expanding envelope (Cyg X-3 may serve

as an example), or the NS merges with the helium core during the common enve-

lope to form a still hypothetical Thorne-Zytkow (TZ) object. Cygnus X-3- a WR

star with black hole or neutron star companion is unique in the Galaxy, because of

high probability of merger of components in CE, short lifetime of surviving massive

WR-stars and high velocity (∼ 1000kms−1 ) of their stellar winds which prevents

formation of accretion disks. On the other hand, it is suggested that in the Galaxy

may exist a population of ∼ 100 He-stars of mass between 1 and 7M with relativis-
tic companions which do not reveal themselves, because these He-stars do not have

strong enough winds. The possibility of existence of TZ-stars remains unclear. It

was suggested that the merger products rst become supergiants, but rapidly lose

their envelopes due to heavy winds and become WR stars. Peculiar WolfRayet

stars of WN8 subtype were suggested as observed counterparts of them. These stars

tend to have large spatial velocities, overwhelming majority of them are single and

they are the most variable among all single WR stars. Estimated observed number

43
 of them in the Galaxy is ∼ 10. Single (possibly, massive) NS or BH should descend

from them. A note should be made concerning the phase when a common enve-

lope engulfs the rst- formed NS and the core of the secondary. Hyper-Eddington

accretion onto a neutron star is possible if the gravitational energy released in ac-

cretion is lost by neutrinos. Chevalier suggested that this may be the case for the

accretion in common envelopes. Since the accretion rates in this case may be as

high as ∼ 0.1M yr−1 , the NS may collapse into a BH inside the common envelope.

An essential caveat is that the accretion in the hyper-Eddington regime may be

prevented by the angular momentum of the captured matter. Magnetic eld of the

NS may also be a complication. The possibility of hyper-critical accretion still has

to be studied. Nevertheless, implications of this hypothesis for dierent types of

relativistic binaries were explored in great detail by Bethe and Brown and their

coauthors. Also, the possibility of hyper-Eddington accretion was included in sev-

eral population synthesis studies with evident result of diminishing the population

of NS + NS binaries in favour of neutron stars in pairs with low-mass black holes

pointed to the possible connection of CE with neutron star with some luminous and

peculiar type IIn supernova. The neutron star engulfed by the massive companion

may serve as a trigger of the SN explosion in dense environments due to a violent

mass-loss in the preceding CE phase. However, presently our understanding of the

evolution of neutron stars inside CE is insucient to test this hypothesis.

7 The secondary He-star ultimately explodes as a supernova leaving behind a double

NS binary, or the system disrupts to form two single high-velocity NSs or BHs.

Even for a symmetric SN explosion the disruption of binaries after the second SN

explosion could result in the observed high average velocities of radio pulsars. In the

surviving close binary NS system, the older NS is expected to have faster rotation

velocity (and possibly higher mass) than the younger one because of the recycling

at the preceding accretion stage. The subsequent orbital evolution of such double

NS systems is entirely due to GW emission and ultimately leads to the coalescence

of the components[18].] description

44
Chapter 6

Summary and conclusion

Neutron stars(NSs) are some of the densest manifestations of massive objects in the

universe. They are ideal astrophysical laboratories for testing theories of dense matter

physics and provide connections among nuclear physics, particle physics and astrophysics.

They exhibit conditions and phenomena that are not observed commonly on earth.

Most stars in galaxies exist in binaries. In close binaries, the combined eects of stellar

and orbital evolution can cause a star to ll what is called Roche lobe and transfer mass

to its companion.

A Common-envelope (CE) evolution is considered in binary interaction to model. It

typically involves the spiral-in of a companion star inside the envelope of a super-giant

donor star and the ejections of masses, transforming an initially wide binary into a very

close binary. The conditions for the occurrence of dynamical mass transfer modeling is

in progress but not yet completed.

In this thesis we focused on orbital dynamics and evolution of a binary possessing NS

and its companion, a burning star. We worked out, orbital evolution, period evolution,

mass transfer and its eects, the spin eect, stellar evolutionary eect and magnetic

eld evolution of the system where the details of the method we we have implemented

is addressed as in 1. The results of our work were presented in 5. In the theoretical

numerical analysis of the results Mathematica 13 was used. For physical implications,

for the analysis we used an oversimplied boundary conditions. However, results of our

45
work is in agreement to the previous works.

46
References

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[2] Wen-Cong Chen and Philipp Podsiadlowski, Evolution of intermediate-mass x-ray

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[3] Cesare Chiosi, Fundamentals of stellar evolution theory: Understanding the hrd,

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[4] M Coleman Miller and Frederick K Lamb, Observational constraints on neutron star

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[7] CL Fryer, SE Woosley, and A Heger, Pair-instability supernovae, gravity waves, and

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 [9] J Icko Iben and M Livio, Common envelopes in binary star evolution. pasp 105:

1373, 1993.

[10] Hannu Karttunen, Pekka Kröger, Heikki Oja, Markku Poutanen, and Karl Johan

Donner, Fundamental astronomy, Springer, 2007.

[11] James M Lattimer and Maddappa Prakash, The physics of neutron stars, science

304 (2004), no. 5670, 536542.

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Astrophysical Journal 321 (1987), L139L143.

[13] Patrick M Motl, Joel E Tohline, and Juhan Frank, Numerical methods for the simu-

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(2015), no. 03, 222.

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[17] Jelena Petrovic and Norbert Langer, Progenitor models of wolf-rayet+ o binary sys-

tems, Massive Stars in Interactive Binaries, vol. 367, 2007, p. 371.

[18] Konstantin A Postnov and Lev R Yungelson, The evolution of compact binary star

systems, Living Reviews in Relativity 17 (2014), no. 1, 1166.

[19] JF Sepinsky, B Willems, V Kalogera, and FA Rasio, Interacting binaries with eccen-

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49
Appendix

Table 6.1: Astronomical constants, mostly from the Astronomical Almanac (2008).

Name symbol Value

Solar mass M 1.9884 × 1033 g

Solar radius R 6.957 × 1010 cm
Solar luminosity L 3.842 × 1033 ergs−1
Year yr 3.15576 × 107 s
astronomical unit AU 1.49597871 × 1013 cm

50
 JIMMA UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES
PERFORMANCE CERTIFICATE FOR MASTER'S DEGREE

Name of Student: Tolawak wakgare

Graduate Program: MSc Regular

ID No. RM 0665/13-0

1. Course Work Performance Excellent, Very Good, Good, Satisfactory, Fail.

Course Code Course Title Cr. hr Number grade Rank ** Remark

Phys 799 Graduation Thesis 6   

Thesis Title

Orbital dynamics and evolution of a burning star with neutron star in close
binary system
2. Board of Examiners decision Mark Ö in one of the circle. Pass ◦ Failed ◦
If failed, give reasons and indicate plans for re-examination.





.

3. Approved by: Name and Signature of members of the examining Board, and Deans,SGS

Solomon Negash(Dr): .................... ....................

Chairman Signature Date

Seblu Humne(Dr): .................... ....................

External Examiner Signature Date

Solomon Negash(Dr): .................... ....................

51
 Internal Examiner Signature Date

Tolu Biressa(Dr): .................... ....................

Advisor Signature Date

Nebiyu Gemechu(Dr): .................... ....................

Department Head Signature Date

School of Graduate Studies

Jimma University
College of Natural Sciences
MSc. Thesis Approval Sheet

We the undersigned, number of the Board of Examiners of the nal open defense by

Tolawak wakgare have read and evaluated his thesis entitled Orbital dynamics and
evolution of a burning star with neutron star in close binary system and exam-
ined the candidate. This is therefore to certify that the thesis has been accepted in partial

fulllment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science in Physics (Astrophysics).

Committee member

Solomon Negash(Dr): .................... ....................

Chairman Signature Date

Seblu Humne(Dr): .................... ....................

External Examiner Signature Date

52
Solomon Negash(Dr): .................... ....................

Internal Examiner Signature Date

Tolu Biressa(Dr): .................... ....................

Advisor Signature Date

Nebiyu Gemechu(Dr): .................... ....................

Department Head Signature Date

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

53
 Graduate Thesis Ownership Agreement

This thesis is a property of Jimma university, an institution that awarded MSc Degree

to the graduate student and funded its research cost fully or partly. The research work

was accomplished under the close support and supervision of the assigned university's

academic sta. It is therefore strictly forbidden to publish, modify, or communicate to

or put at the disposal of third party the entire document or any part thereof with out

the common consent of the research supervisor(s) and the graduate. Disregarding this

agreement would lead to accountability according to the Jimma university's Research and

publication Misconduct policy Article 1.7 of the university's Document for Guidelines

and procedures for Research, July 2022.

Tolawak Wakgare Kajela .................... ....................

Graduate student Signature Date

Email address [email protected]

Phone +251 965 781 771

Tolu Biressa(Dr): .................... ....................

Advisor Signature Date

Orbital dynamics and evolution of a burning star with neutron star in close
binary system
Degree Awarded: MSc

College of Natural science, Jimma University

54