Chapter 2 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

NDBCE 215: Road Construction and Plant 1
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

Introduction
Geometric design is an aspect of the highway design dealing with the visible dimensions of a
roadway. It is dictated, within economic limitations, by the requirements of traffic and includes
the design elements of horizontal and vertical alignment, sight distance, cross section
components, lateral and vertical clearances, intersection treatment, control of access etc.
[Kadiyali, 2006].
The purpose of geometric design is to reduce the number and severity of road accidents while
ensuring high traffic flow with minimum delay to vehicles [Thagesen, 1996]. The safe, efficient
and economic operation of a highway is governed to a large extent by the care with which the
geometric design has been worked out. Safety or the lack of it is an immediate corollary of the
various design features of the highway. Efficient and comfortable operation of traffic is possible
only if the design elements have been meticulously considered. A well designed highway has to
be consistent with economy. Too liberal standards may not fit in with the available resources,
whereas if the standards are too low, the cost of operation may mount up [Kadiyali, 2006].
The basic inputs are the Design speed and the Design hourly volume. The design speed governs
the design of vertical and horizontal curvatures while design hour volume governs capacity
required.
Highway Design Standards in Uganda

Some geometric standards in Uganda have been formulated by the Ministry of Works,
Housing and Communications e.g. The Uganda Road Design Manual Vol.1-Geometric
Design Manual 2005. The AASHTO Standards represent the American practice, whereas the
Department of Environment (UK) standards give the current British practice.
It is important for engineers to exercise judgement in the use of a given design standard to ensure
that they come up with an economical solution for a geometric design. Sometimes, more than
one design standard is used for the purposes of comparing one pavement design with another so
that the comparison guides the engineer in selecting the most economical option.
The design engineer has to consider the following points when selecting the design standards for
a highway.
a) Adequate geometric design in planning a highway facility ensures that the facility will not
become obsolete in the foreseeable future. Hence the volume and composition of traffic in
the design year should be the basis of design.
1 Lecture Notes: prepared by OLENG MORRIS [[email protected]] _ +256 703 688 747
b) Faulty geometrics are costly, and in some cases impossible to rectify at a later date and so,
due to consideration should be given to geometric design at the initial stage itself.
c) The design should be consistent with and the standards proposed for different elements
should be compatible with one another. Abrupt changes in design should be avoided.
d) The design should embrace all aspects of geometrics of the road, including signs, markings,
proper lighting, intersections, etc.
e) The highway should be considered as an element of the total environment and its location
and design should enhance rather than degrade the environment. The highway should be
aesthetically satisfying. The design elements should strive to control pollution.
f) The design should be so selected that not only the initial cost of construction of the facility,
but also the total transportation cost, including maintenance cost and road user cost should be
minimised.
g) Safety should be inbuilt into the design elements.
h) The design should enable all the road users (motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians and animal
drawn vehicles) to use the facility. The performance of the vehicles using the facility should
be given due consideration
Design Controls and Criteria
General
There are certain basic design controls and criteria which govern the geometric features of a
highway. These are: topography, traffic (its volume, directional distribution, and composition,
including the future estimates), speed, capacity design vehicle and control of access.
a) Topography
Topography and physical features play an important role in the location and design of a highway.
The various design elements should be related to topographical features if an economical and
sound judgement is to emerge. The classification of terrain is normally done by means of the
cross (transverse) slope of the country, i.e. the slope approximately perpendicular to the centre-
line of the highway location.
Table 2.1: Terrain Classification
Type of terrain Description
Flat Level or gently rolling country which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road having continuously
unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope around 5%)
Rolling Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately gently and where
occasional steep slopes may be encountered. It will offer some restrictions in horizontal and vertical
alignment. (20% ≥ transverse terrain slope > 5%)
Mountainous Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of terrain imposes definite
restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long steep grades and limited sight
distances (70% ≥ transverse terrain slope > 20%)
In addition to the terrain class given above, a fourth class is added to cater for those situations whereby the
Escarpment standards associated with each of the above terrain types cannot be met. Escarpment situations are where
it is required to switchback road alignments or side hill traverse sections where earthwork quantities are
huge (transverse terrain slope >70%)
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, (2005)
b) Traffic
i) Importance of traffic data in Geometric Design
Of crucial importance in highway design is the traffic data – both current and
future estimates. Traffic volume indicates the level of service for which the highway
is being planned and directly affects the geometric features such as width, alignment,
grades etc. Without traffic data, it is futile to design any highway.
ii) Design Hour Volume (DHV)

The general unit for measuring traffic on a highway is the annual average daily traffic
volume, abbreviated as AADT. It is equal to the total annual volume of traffic
divided by the number of days in the year. Knowledge of traffic in terms of AADT
is not of much use in geometric design, since it does not represent the variations
in traffic during various months of the year, days of the week and hours of the day.
th
A commonly used unit for geometric design is the 30 highest hourly volume
abbreviated as 30 HV. It is defined as the 30th highest hourly volume during the year.
Hence the design hourly volume (DHV) should be the 30 HV of the design (future)
year chosen for design. Exceptions may be made on roads with high seasonal
fluctuation, where a different volume may need to be used [MoWH&C, 2005].
DHV is then expressed as DHV = AADT x K or ADT x K where K is estimated from

the ratio of the 30th HV to the AADT from a similar site. The 30th HV is the 30th
highest hourly volume during the year. The 30th HV is expressed as a fraction of ADT can
vary as indicated in the following table.
Traffic Conditions 30th HV as a fraction of ADT

Rural Arterial (Average Value)
Rural Arterial (Maximum Value)
Heavily Trafficked road under congested urban conditions 0.08 - 0.12
Normal Urban Conditions 0.10 - 0.15
Road Catering for recreational or other traffic of seasonal nature 0.20 - 0.30
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, (2005)
iii) Directional Distribution of Traffic

For 2-lane highways, the design hour volume is the total traffic in both directions of
travel. For highways with more than 2-lanes, it is desirable to know the directional
distribution of traffic. Though this distribution has to be found from traffic surveys, a
rough approximation can be to assume 67% of total traffic to travel in one direction under
the design conditions. The design has to take into account both the morning and evening
situations.
iv) Traffic Composition

Traffic composition has a vital effect on capacity and other design considerations.
In Uganda, the traffic is heterogeneous in character, consisting of fast driven cars, trucks,
and buses. It is customary in this country to express the traffic volume in terms of passenger
car units (PCUs).
v) Future Traffic Estimates
The design of the geometric elements has to be prepared for the traffic likely to use the
road in the design year. The design period used for a flexible pavement generally varies
from 15 to 25 years. A period of 20 years is widely used as a basis for design. The future
traffic estimates should be computed to include normal, diverted and generated traffic.
c) Design Vehicle Dimensions

i) Design Vehicles
A design vehicle is a selected motor vehicle, the weight, dimensions and operating
characteristics of which are used to establish highway design controls to
accommodate vehicles of a designated type. The dimensions and operating
characteristics of a vehicle profoundly influence geometric design aspects such as radii,
width of pavements, parking geometrics, etc. The weight of the axles and the weight of the
vehicles affect the structural design of the pavement and structures, as also the operating
characteristics of vehicles on grades. Because of its crucial importance the standardisation
of the dimensions and the weights of design vehicles is the first step in formulating
geometric design standards. This has been done in many countries. In Uganda, the Ministry
of Works, Housing and Communications‟ Uganda Road Design Manual Vol.1 - Geometric
Design Manual 2005, is being followed [MoWH&C, 2005].
ii) Dimensions of Design Vehicles

The present vehicle fleet in Uganda includes a high number of four-wheel drive
passenger/utility vehicles, buses and overloaded trucks. Accordingly the five design
vehicles indicated in Table 5.1 will be used in the control of geometric design until a major
change in the vehicle fleet is observed and detailed information on the different vehicle
types using the roads in Uganda becomes available.
iii) Selection of the Design Vehicle

The selection of the design vehicle for the design of a highway is governed by the type and
volume of traffic that is expected to use the highway. For instance the design of a superior
facility such as a motorway or an expressway should be based on the largest design
vehicle. The design of streets and junctions primarily in residential areas can be done by
using the passenger car design vehicle.
d) Design Speed
i) Speed as a Design Factor
The value of a highway is largely indicated by the speed, safety and convenience
afforded by the facility for travel. Speed is important for economic operation and has a
great bearing on safety of the highway. It plays a vital role in determining the geometric
design of any given highway.
ii) Design Speed

Design speed is the speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a
highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of a highway when conditions are so favourable that the
design features of the highway govern. The design speed obviously has to be correlated
with terrain conditions and the classification of the highway. There is considerable
variation in the speed adopted by different drivers and by different types of vehicles. This
raises the question of what value of speed should be adopted for design. The value selected
should accommodate nearly all demands with reasonable adequacy, yet the design should
not fail completely under severe or extreme load. The speed adopted should satisfy nearly
all drivers with exception of those few who drive at extremely high speed [Kadiyali, 2006].
e) Control of Access
Uncontrolled access to road side development along whose major function is to provide
mobility will result in an increased accident hazard, reduced capacity and early
obsolescence of the roads. In order to preserve major roads as high standard traffic facilities
it is necessary to exercise access control, whereby the right of owners or occupants of land
to access is controlled by the Road Authority.
The following three levels of access control are applicable:

i) Full access control: - means that the authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic by providing access connections with selected public
roads only and by prohibiting direct access connections.
ii) Partial access control:- means that the authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic to a degree in that, in addition to access connections
with selected public roads, there may be (some) private access connections.
iii) Unrestricted access: - means that preference is given to local traffic, with the
road serving the adjoining areas through direct access connection. However, the
detailed location and layout of the accesses should be subject to approval by
the Road Authority in order to ensure adequate standards of visibility, surfacing,
drainage, etc.
Road function determines the level of access control needed. Roads of higher classes
have their major function to provide mobility, while the function of lower classes is to
provide access. Control of access is accomplished either by the careful location of
accesses, by grouping accesses to reduce the number of separate connections to the
through traffic lanes or by constructing service roads which intercept the individual
accesses and join the through lanes at a limited number of properly located and designed
junctions.
CROSS-SECTIONAL ELEMENTS
General
The cross-sectional elements of a highway design pertain to those features which deal with
its width. They embrace aspects such as road reserve width, carriageway width, central
reservation (median), shoulders, camber, side slopes, horizontal and vertical clearances etc.
Figure 2.1: Single Carriageway Cross-section Elements

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2004
Figure 2.2: Dual Carriageway Cross-section Elements

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2004
Road Reserve
The road reserve or right-of-way width is the width of land secured and preserved in public
interest for road development purposes. The road reserve should be adequate to
accommodate all the elements that make up the cross-section of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development.

In order to prevent ribbon development along highways, it is sometimes necessary to
establish „control lines‟ and „building lines‟. A „control line‟ is a line which represents the
nearest limits of future uncontrolled activity in relation to a road. This signifies that though
building activity is not totally banned between the building line and the control line, the
nature of buildings permitted here is controlled. A „building line‟ on the other hand is a line
on either side of the road between which no building activity is permitted at all.
Carriageway Width
The term “carriageway” is used here to cover the traffic lanes, any auxiliary lanes, and the
shoulders [MoWH&C, 2004]. The width of traffic lanes governs the safety and convenience of
traffic and has a profound influence on the capacity of a road.
The factors that influence capacity of a carriageway are:
a) The design volume, i.e. the greater the traffic volume the wider the carriageway and,
normally, the greater the number of lanes;
b) Vehicle dimensions, i.e. heavy commercial vehicles require wider carriageways to
ensure adequate clearances when passing each other;
c) The design speeds, i.e. vehicles travelling at high speed, especially commercial
vehicles, require wider carriageways to ensure safe clearances between passing vehicles;
d) The road classification, i.e. the higher the road classification the greater the level of
service (and width of carriageway) expected.
Internationally, it is generally accepted that lane widths should normally be at least 3.5m,
although narrower lanes are often used for economic or environmental reasons on both rural
and urban roads. However, increasing the lane width up to 3.65m on two lane two way rural
roads decreases accident rates [O‟Flaherty, 2002].
Central Reservation (Median) Strip

A central reservation strip is the longitudinal space separating dual carriageways.
The functions of the median strip are:
a) To separate the opposing streams of traffic;
b) To minimise head-light glare;
c) To include space for safe operation of crossing and turning vehicles at intersections at
grade;
d) To provide a stopping area in case of emergencies.
The central reservations on high-speed heavily trafficked rural roads in the United States are
typically 15m to 30m. In Europe they tend to be much narrower (say 4 – 10m) and to be
used with safety barriers. Those in Britain are normally 4.5m wide, and include a crash
barrier. In urban areas they can be as narrow as 1m, but 3m is preferred so that a crossing
pedestrian pushing a pram or wheelchair has space to wait in safety [O‟Flaherty, 2002]. On
severely restricted arterial streets, where a narrow separator of 0.6 – 1.2m is feasible, it may
be desirable to have few, if any, openings in median except at intersections.
Shoulders
A shoulder is a portion of the roadway adjacent to the carriageway and is intended for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency use and lateral support of base and surface
courses. The width of the shoulder should be adequate for giving working space around a
stopped vehicle. American practice recommends a 3m width for high type facility and a
width of 1.2m -2.4m for low type facilities. UK practice for rural roads recommends widths
ranging from 1.2m to 3.65m depending upon the road type and nature of kerb treatment.
Laybys and bus bays

When economic considerations do not favour the construction of shoulders on rural roads,
laybys should be provided instead, at spacings that are appropriate to the traffic volume.
Thus, for well trafficked and lightly trafficked single carriageways, it is British practice to
provide 2.5m and 3m wide by 30m long laybys at 1.5km and 5.8km intervals, respectively,
on either side of the carriageway, while 3m wide by 100m long laybys are provided at
approximately 1km intervals on each side of dual carriageways. Laybys should be located at
sites with good visibility and provided with tapered hard-strips at either end to assist in the
safe deceleration and acceleration of vehicles using them.
Full bus bays (3.25m by at least 12m, plus 20m end tapers) may be provided at bus stops in
urban areas; however, the appropriateness of this provision is dependent on the traffic
volumes on the road in question.
Kerbs
A kerb (as termed as curb) is a vertical or sloping member along the edge of a pavement or
shoulder, forming part of gutter, strengthening or protecting the edge, and clearly defining
the edge to vehicle operators. Its functions are:
a) To facilitate and control drainage;
b) To strengthen and protect the pavement edge;
c) To delineate the pavement edge;
d) To present a more finished appearance;
e) To assist in the orderly development of the roadside.
Kerbs are classified as „barrier‟ or „mountable‟. Barrier kerbs are designed to discourage
vehicles from leaving the pavement. The face may be vertical or sloping and the height may
range from 15cm to 25cm. Mountable kerbs are those which can be easily crossed by
vehicles if required. They are used at medians and channelizing islands.
Camber
Camber, also known as cross fall, facilitates drainage of the pavement laterally. The
pavement can have a crown or a high point in the middle which slopes downwards towards
both edges. This is favoured on two-lane roads and wider undivided roads. On divided
roads, the individual carriageways may be centrally crowned separately or a unidirectional
slope may be provided across the entire carriageway width. The amount of camber to be
provided depends upon the smoothness of the surface and the intensity of rainfall. In the
UK, a value of 2.5% is generally adopted for design. A cross fall for the shoulders should be
generally steeper than for the pavement by about 0.3 – 0.5% to facilitate quick drainage. The
UK practice is to provide 5% slope on the shoulder [Kadiyali, 2006].
Side slope
According to O‟Flaherty (2002), soil mechanics analysis enables the accurate determination of
maximum slopes at which embankments or cuts can safely stand. However, these
maximum values are not always used, especially on low embankments not protected by
safety fences. The slopes of embankments and cut sections depend upon the type of soil and
the height of embankment or depth of cuttings. A flatter slope is conducive for erosion
control, but is costly. Flatter slopes of embankments promote safety of traffic. Ordinarily,
1.5:1 to 2:1 in mild slope conditions and 2:1 to 3:1 in overwhelming slope conditions will be
adequate.
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
General
Horizontal alignment deals with the design of the directional transition of the highway in a
horizontal plane. A horizontal alignment consists, in its most basic form, of a horizontal arc
and two transition curves forming a curve which joins two straights. In some cases the
transition curve may have zero length. The design procedure itself must commence with
fixing the position of the two straight lines which the curve will join together. The basic
parameter relating these two straight lines is the intersecting angles.
Minimum permitted horizontal radii depend on the design speed and the super-elevation of
the carriageway, which has a maximum allowable value of 7% in the UK, with designs in
most cases using a value of 5%. The relationship between super-elevation, design speed and
horizontal curvature is detailed in the following sub section.
Basic Formula for Movement of Vehicles on Curves

When a vehicle is moving on a curved path, it is subjected to an outward force, commonly
known as the centrifugal force. In order to resist this force, it is the usual practice to
superior-elevate the roadway cross-section. Figure 4.4 shows the forces acting on the vehicle at
a super-elevated section.
Figure 2.3: Forces acting on a vehicle on a horizontal curve

Source: Kadiyali, 2006
If the entire centrifugal force is counteracted by super-elevation, then frictional force will not
come into play. In this case, µ = 0 in equation 4.10. The super-elevation then provided is said to
be „equilibrium super-elevation’. In such a case, the pressures on the inner and outer wheels
would be equal.
Value of the Coefficient of Lateral Friction, µ

The value of the coefficient of lateral friction depends upon a number of factors, chief
among them being the vehicle speed, type and condition of roadway surface, and type of and
condition of the tyres. AASHTO recommends the values given in Table
Table 4.6: Coefficient of Lateral Friction as Recommended by AASHTO

Des ign S peed (k ph) 50 65 80 10 12 13
Maximum Lateral 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13
0 0.12
0 0.11
0
Source:
Friction Kadiyali, 2006
Note: A constant value of 0.15 is generally recommended.
Maximum super-elevation Value, emax

If equation 4.10 is to be used for design, it is desirable to know the maximum super-
elevation that can be permitted. Practice in this regard varies from country to country. The
AASHTO practice limits it to 0.12 (12%), whereas the UK practice limits it to 0.07 (7%). In
Uganda the value is limited to 0.08 (8%) [MoWH&C,2005].
Super-elevation Rates
Super-elevation on curves is intended to counteract a part of the centrifugal force, the
remaining part being resisted by the lateral friction. Also, super-elevation results in
economies in maintenance. This is because skidding and unequal pressures on the wheels of
vehicles, which result from high value of sideway force between the tyres and the roadway
surface, necessitate frequent attention to the surface.
Super-elevation can be provided either to fully counteract the centrifugal force or to

counteract a fixed proportion of the centrifugal force. In the former case, the super-elevation
needed would be more than 1 in 15 (6.67%) on sharp curves causing inconvenience to slow
moving vehicles. Since super-elevation has to be limited to 7% or 8% as per Ugandan
practice, maximum friction would have to be relied upon when the sharpest possible curve is
traversed.
When a vehicle negotiates a flat curve, friction would not be developed to the maximum and
this would not be a balanced design. It is desirable that the super-elevation should be such that
a moderate amount of friction is developed while negotiating flat curves and friction not
exceeding the maximum allowable value should be developed at sharp curves.
The above is achieved as per UK practice by providing full super-elevation for a speed of
67.082% of the design speed such that 45% of the centrifugal force is balanced by super-
elevation while 55% of the centrifugal force is balanced by friction. Therefore equation 4.10
becomes:
The super-elevation computed from equation 4.13 is restricted to a value of 7%

(0.07) or 8% (0.08) as per Ugandan practice.
Radii of curves for which no super-elevation is required

The normal cambered section of a highway can itself be continued on a curve
where the super-elevation calculated is less than the camber. From equation 4.13
Substituting the values of camber for e in equation 4.14 above, the minimum
radius beyond which no super-elevation is required is obtained. In such cases
where the radius is greater than those given by the above formula it is
desirable to remove the adverse crown in the outer half of the carriageway and
super-elevate at the normal crown slope.
Method of Attainment of Super-elevation

The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed into a super-
elevation surface in two stages. In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is
gradually raised until it is level as shown in the figure 4.5 below
It is desirable to accomplish the raising of the outer-half till it is level before the starting point
of the transition curve. The raising of the outer edge should be done in a slope not exceeding 1 in
150 for plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for hilly terrain.
In the second stage, any of the three methods given below may be adopted to attain the
full super-elevation:
a) The surface of the road is rotated about the centre-line of the carriageway, gradually
lowering the inner edge and raising the outer edge while keeping the level of the
centre-line constant (Figure 4.5 d);
b) The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the centre and the outer
edge (Figure 4.5 e);
c) The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the centre and the inner
edge (Figure 4.5 f);
In most circumstances method (a) is generally used as it results in the least distortion of the
pavement.
Example
Calculate the super-elevation to be provided for a horizontal curve with a radius of 400m for a
design speed of 100kph in plain terrain. Comment on the results. What is the coefficient of lateral
friction mobilised if super-elevation is to be restricted to 7%.
Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Curve Radius, R = 400m
b) Design Speed, V = 100kph
c) Maximum super-elevation, e = 7%
2.0 Maximum Elevation, emax

According to the UK practice, the super-elevation is calculated on the assumption that
it should 45% of the centrifugal force developed at 67.082% of the design speed.
Therefore from equation 4.13
3.0 Comments on the Result

Since, as per UK practice, the maximum super-elevation allowable is 7%, then the
computed super-elevation is too high and should be restricted to 7%. The balance of
the centrifugal force will be taken care of by the friction which is mobilised. If µ is the
coefficient of friction, then from equation 4.10:
TRANSITION CURVES
A transition curve is a curve in which the radius changes continuously along its length and is used
for the purpose of connecting a straight with a circular curve, or two circular curves of different
radii.
a) Need for Transition

When a vehicle travelling on a straight course (i.e. R=∞) enters a curve of infinite radius, it
suddenly subjected to the centrifugal force which causes shock and sway. In order to avoid this,
it is customary to provide a transition curve at the beginning of the circular curve, having a
radius equal to infinity at the end of the straight and gradually reducing the radius of the circular
curve where the curve begins. Incidentally, the transition portion is also used for gradual
application of the super-elevation, curve widening and improvement of the general
appearance.
The transition curve is also used to achieve the following:
i) They reduce the tendency of vehicular skidding;
ii) They minimise passenger discomfort;
iii) They provide convenient sections over which super-elevation or pavement widening
may be applied;
iv) They improve the appearance of the road by avoiding sharp discontinuities in
alignment at the end and beginning of circular curves.
b) The Spiral
Various forms of curves are suitable for highway transitions, but the most popular and
recommended for use in this country is the spiral. It is easy to set out in the field and the rate of
acceleration is uniform through the length of transition. Figure below shows the main elements of
a circular curve provided with spirals for transition at its two ends.
Main Elements of a Circular Curve Provided with Transitions
The following nomenclature applies

φmax = Spiral angle
θ = Deflection angle
T = Tangent length
R = Radius of circular curve
S = Shift
L = Length of Spiral (or transition curve)
I = Point of intersection
T = Beginning of spiral
T1 = Beginning of circular curve
T2 = End of circular curve
U = End of spiral
Some of the important properties of a spiral are given below:
c) Length of Transition
The length of the transition should be determined from the following two considerations:
i) The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration then:
Where;
aT1 = radial acceleration at T1 (= v2/R)
aT = radial acceleration at T (= 0)
t = time taken (= L/v)
Substituting the above in equation 4.15 gives
From which the length of transition curve, L is given by
Where v is speed in m/s and V is speed in Km/hr.

The value of C is usually taken as 0.3m/s3.
ii) The rate of change of change of super-elevation should also be such as not to cause higher
gradients and unsightly appearances. This could be kept in 1 in 150 for roads in plain and
rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for roads in hilly terrain. Since the super- elevation can be given
by rotating about the centreline, inner or outer edge, the length of the transition will be
governed accordingly. In calculating the length of transition, the pavement width should
include any widening that may have been provided at the curve.
The higher of the values given by the above two methods should be adopted.
Curve Widening
Widening of pavements is needed on curves for the following reasons:
a) On curves, the vehicles occupy a greater width because the rear wheels track
inside the front wheels (See Figure below)
b) On curves, drivers have difficulty in

steering their vehicles to keep to centre line of
the lane.
c) Drivers have psychological shyness to

drive close to the edges of the pavement
on curves.
From Figure below, considering the triangle

OCB, right angled at B,
Neglecting m2, since it is small gives;
Assuming a wheel base of 6m for a vehicle corresponding to AASHTO single unit, widening in
metres, m is given by:
Where; R = radius in metres
The widening due to psychological reasons is a function of speed and can be assumed
to be given by the empirical formula, Wp;
Where; V = speed in kph; R = radius in metres
The total widening for pavements, We is given by the following formula:
Where; n = number of lanes
Worked Example
A two-lane (7.0m wide) pavement on a National highway in hilly terrain has a curve radius of
250m. The design speed is 80kph, maximum super-elevation is 7%, camber is 2.5%, the relative
longitudinal gradient is 0.5% (1 in 200), the angle of deviation is 60o and the rate of change of
radial acceleration is 0.3m/s3. Determine the following assuming that; a) the curve will need to be
widened if the curve radius is less than 300m, b) the super-elevation is obtained by rotation
about the centre line, and c) the design vehicle is a DV-2 single unit truck with a wheel base of
6.1m.
i) The length of transition curve;
ii) The tangent length
iii) The total length of the curve.
Solution
1.0 Data Summary

a) Pavement width, W = 7.0m
b) Curve Radius, R = 250m
c) Design Speed, V = 80kph
d) Maximum super-elevation, = 7%
e) Camber,
emax eo = 2.5%
f) Relative longitudinal gradient, = 0.5%
g) Angle
S of deviation, θ = 60o
h) Rate of change of radial accn., = 0.3m/s
C 3
2.0 Sketch drawing
3.0 Transition Length, L

3.1 Based on the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, La
From equation 4.21, the transition length, L, required for safety and comfort is
given by;
3.2 Based on the rate of change of super-elevation, Ls

Since super-elevation is obtained by rotation about the centre line then the
transition length, L, will be given by;
Where; W=pavement width, e = super-elevation, S=longitudinal gradient, and

eo = camber
Since radius, R < 300m, extra widening, We, of the carriageway is required.
Therefore the pavement width will be
W = 7.000 + 0.655 = 7.655m .... (ii)
Maximum super-elevation, e, is given by
This value is high and should be restricted to 7% (i.e., e =7%)
From which equation (i) becomes
Therefore;
Adopt L = 146.319m since La > Ls. (i.e. take the greater of the two values)
4.0 Tangent length, T

The tangent length, T is given by;
5.0 Total length of the horizontal Curve, LT 56

The total length LT is given by;
General Controls for Horizontal Alignment

The following general controls for horizontal alignment should be kept in view in a sound
design practice:
a) The alignment should be as directional as possible;

b) The alignment should be consistent with topography and should generally conform to the
natural contours. A line cutting across the contours involves high fills and deep cuts,
mars the landscape and is difficult for maintenance;
c) The number of curves should, in general, be kept to a minimum;
d) The alignment should avoid abrupt turns. Winding alignment consisting of short curves
should be avoided, since it is the cause of erratic vehicle operation;
e) A sharp curve at the end of a long tangent is extremely hazardous and should be avoided.
If sharp curvature is unavoidable over a portion of the route selected, it is preferable that
this portion of the road be preceded by successive sharper curves. Proper signage, well in
advance of a sharp horizontal curve is essential;
f) Short curves giving the appearance of kinks should be avoided, especially for small
deflection angles. The curves should be sufficiently long to provide a pleasing
appearance and smooth driving on important highways. They should be at least 150m
long for a deflection angle of 5 degrees, and the minimum length should be increased by
30m for each 1 degree decrease in the deflection angle;
g) For a particular design speed, as large a radius as possible should be adopted. The
minimum radii should be reserved only for the critical locations;
h) The use of sharp curves should be avoided on high fills. In the absence of cut slopes,
shrubs, trees, etc., above the roadway, the drivers may have difficulty in estimating the
extent of curvature and fail to adjust to the conditions;
i) While abrupt reversals in curvature are to be avoided, the use of reverse curves becomes
unavoidable in hilly terrain. When they are provided, adequately long transitional curves
should be inserted for super-elevation run-off;
j) Curves in the same direction separated by short tangents, say 300m -500m long, are
called broken-back curves. They should be avoided as they are not pleasing in appearance
and are hazardous;
k) Compound curves may be used in difficult topography in preference to a broken- back
arrangement, but they should be used only if it is impossible to fit in a single circular
curve. To ensure safe and smooth transition from curve to curve, the radius of the flatter
curve should not be disproportional to the radius of the sharper curve. A ration of 2:1 or
preferably 1.5:1 should be adopted;
l) The horizontal alignment should blend with the vertical harmoniously. General controls
for the combination of horizontal and vertical alignments should be followed
[Kadiyali, 2006].
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
General
Vertical alignment design refers to the arrangement of tangents and curves which compose
the profile of the road. It is composed of a series of straight-line gradients connected by
curves, normally parabolic in form. The main aim of vertical alignment is to ensure that a
continuously unfolding stretch of the road is presented to motorists so that their anticipation of
directional change and future action is instantaneous and correct [Rogers, 2003;
O‟Flaherty, 2002].
Major Requirements of Vertical Curves

The two main requirements in the design and construction of vertical curves are the
provision of:
• Adequate visibility, and
• Passenger comfort and safety.
In order to provide adequate visibility, oncoming vehicles or any obstructions in the road
must be seen clearly and in good time to ensure that vehicles travelling at the design speed
can stop or overtake safely. This requirement is achieved by use of sight distances and K-
Values to be discussed shortly in this chapter.
In order to provide passenger comfort, the effect of the radial force on the vehicle traversing a
vertical curve must be minimised. In crest curve design this effect could cause the vehicle to
leave the road surface (e.g. in hump-back bridges) while in the sag curve the underside of the
vehicle would come into contact with the surface, particularly where the gradients are steep
and opposed. The result is discomfort and danger to passengers travelling. This can be
minimised by:
• Restricting the gradients; this has the effect of reducing the radial force;
• Choosing a suitable type and length of curve such that this reduced
force is introduced gradually and uniformly as possible [Uren et al, 1989].
Gradients
The rate of rise or fall of road surface along its length with respect to horizontal distance is
termed as gradient [MoWH&C, 2004]. The use of steep gradients in hilly terrain generally
results in lower road construction and environmental costs. However, it also adds to road
user costs through delays, extra fuel costs and accidents. Gradients of up to about 7% have
little effect on the speeds of passenger cars. Nevertheless, the speeds of commercial vehicles
are considerably reduced on long hills with gradients in excess of 2%.
Maximum Grades as recommended by MoWH&C

Speed Maximum Grade (%)
(km/h) Flat Rolling Mountainous
50 6-8 7-9 9-10
80 4-6 5-7 7-9
100 3-5 4-6 6-8
According to British Standards of road design, a minimum longitudinal gradient of 0.5%
is needed to ensure effective drainage of carriageways with kerbs.
Climbing Lanes
The limitation of gradients to a maximum value is not in itself a complete design control,
and therefore an additional climbing lane is normally provided on long uphill climbs. The
provision of a climbing lane is normally considered when the combination of hill severity
and traffic volumes and composition is such that the operational benefits achieved are
greater than the additional costs of constructing an additional lane.
Climbing Lane outside the ordinary lane

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual (2004)
Cross falls
A minimum cross fall of 2.5% is normally recommended in the form of either a straight camber
extending from one edge to the other or as one sloped from the centre of the carriageway
towards both edges. The primary aim of these cross falls is to adequately get rid of surface
runoff from the highway pavement.
Highway Cross falls

Source: Rogers, 2003
Vertical Curves
A vertical curve provides a smooth transition between successive gradients in the road profile.
When the algebraic difference in gradients, A is positive the curve is called a crest or summit
curve whereas if it is negative the curve is called a sag or valley curve.
Typical Vertical Curves

Source: O‟Flaherty, 2002
a) Shape of the Curve

Where the ratio of length of curve to radius is less than 1-10, there is no practical
difference between the shapes of a circle, a parabola and an ellipse. Owing to the
fact that this condition can be shown to apply in most of the cases met in practice, a
parabolic form of vertical curve is therefore used to guide vertical curve design
[Bannister et al, 1998].
A Simple Symmetrical Parabolic curve : Source: Rogers (2002)
b) Equation of a Vertical Curve
According to Thagesen (1996), a simple parabola is recommended when modeling

vertical curves. The parabola provides a constant rate of change of curvature, and
hence visibility, along its length. The vertical curve is of the form:
Where; C1 is a constant. This implies
Where; A is the algebraic difference in grade (m - n)
Therefore the general equation used determine the reduced level at any point on the vertical
curve, RLx is given by;
c) K-Values
In the past it was necessary to use the appropriate sight distance for the road type and
design speed in question to calculate the minimum length of the vertical curve required.
Nowadays, however, constants which greatly simplify calculations have been
provided by the MoWH&C [Uren et al, 1989]. The minimum length of vertical curve
Lmin for any given road is obtained from the formula.
Lmin = KA …(4.28)
Where;
K = constant obtained from MoWH&C standards (K = R/100)
R = radius of curvature of the curve (in meters)
A = algebraic difference in grade (%)
d) Design Speed and Speed Limit

Design speed is a measure of road quality. The selection of design speeds for road
sections of a particular classification is primarily influenced by;
• Nature of terrain:- whether level, rolling or mountainous; and
• Motorist expectations: - in relation to free speed at which it is safe to drive (in
rural areas) or legal to drive (in urban areas) [O‟Flaherty, 2002].
Speed limit on the other hand is the maximum allowable speed on a road. The normal
speed limit on rural roads in Uganda is 80km/hr and that in trading centres, towns
and cities is 50km/hr.
In a nutshell, the design speed should not be lower than the speed limit and
should be preferably 10km/hr higher than the speed limit. Short rural sections with
design speeds lower than the speed limit should be treated with warning signs and no
overtaking markings [MoWH&C, 2004].
e) Phasing of the Vertical and Horizontal Alignment

Phasing is usually done when designing new roads or improving existing
alignments and follows the procedure below;
 Designing or redesigning the horizontal alignment;
 Taking reduced levels at regular intervals along the proposed centreline and
plotting a longitudinal profile;
 Superimposing chosen gradients on the longitudinal section, altering
their percentage as necessary to try to balance out any cut and fill in addition
to trying to get the vertical tangent points to coincide with those of the
horizontal curve.
It is this last point that often gives the length of vertical curve in order to avoid the
creation of optical illusions in the vertical plane [Uren et al, 1989].
f) Setting-Out Data
In setting out a vertical curve on ground, the objective is to place large pegs at the
required intervals along the line of the proposed roadway and to nail a cross-piece
to each peg at a certain height (usually 1.0m), above the proposed road level.
These pegs are called profiles and the erection of these profiles is the standard
method of setting out proposed levels on any construction site. The following
information is required for any setting out calculations; the length of the curve
(which is dependent on the gradient of the straights and site distance) and the
gradients of slopes together with one change point preferably a point of vertical
intersection [Irvine, 1998].
General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment

The following general controls for vertical alignment should be kept in view while designing
the vertical profile of a highway:
a) The grade line selected should be smooth with gradual changes, consistent with the class of
highway and terrain. Numerous breaks and short lengths of grades should be avoided;
b) The „roller-coaster‟ or „hidden type‟ of profile should be avoided as it is hazardous and
aesthetically unpleasant;
c) Undulating grade line, involving substantial lengths of momentum grades, should be
appraised for their effect upon traffic operation. Such profiles permit heavy trucks to
operate at higher overall speeds than when an upgrade is not preceded by a down grade, but
may encourage excessive speeds of trucks with consequent hazard to traffic;
d) A broken-back grade line (two vertical curves in the same direction separated by short
section of tangent grade) should generally be avoided;
e) On long continuous grades, it may be preferable to place the steepest grades at the bottom
and flatten the grades near the top. Alternatively, long grades may be broken by short
intervals of flatter grades;

f) Intersections on grades should be avoided as far as possible. Where unavoidable, the
approach gradients and the gradient through the intersections should be flattened to the
maximum possible extent.
Vertical Curve Examples
Question one
The elevation of an intersection of rising gradient of 1.5% and a falling gradient of 1.0% on a
proposed road is 93.600m AOD. Given that the K-Value for this particular road is 55, the
through stationing of the intersection point is 0 + 671.340 and the vertical curve is to have
equal tangent length. Calculate:
a) The through stationing of the tangent points of the vertical curve if the
minimum required length is to be used.
b) The elevations of the tangent points and the elevations at exact 20m multiples of through
stationing along the curve.
c) The position and level of the highest point on the curve.
Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Grades; Initial, m = 1.5% Final, n = -1.0%
b) Point of Intersection
Stationing of 0+
Elevation of 93.600m
c) K - v a l u e
2.0 Sketch Drawing
3.0 Length of Vertical Curve, L

L = KA
Where;
A = m–n = (+1.5%) – (-1.0%) = 2.5%
Therefore;
4.0 Stationing and Elevation of PVC and PVI

Stationing of Stationing of PVI –
(0+671.340) –
Elevation of Elevation of PVI –

93.600 –
92.570m
Stationing of PVI = Stationing of PVI + 0.5L

= (0+671.340) + 0.5(137.500)
= 0+740.090
Elevation of PVI = Elevation of PVI – n.L/200

= 93.600 – 1.0(137.500)/200
= 92.910m AOD
5.0 Table of Results
From which the table below is derived
Stationing Chord Curve Elevati

S Length x (m)
Length onElev.
0+602.590
ta. 0.000 0.000 92.570
0+620.000
(PVC) 17.410 17.410 92.804
0+640.000 20.000 37.410 93.004
0+660.000 20.000 57.410 93.131
0+680.000 20.000 77.410 93.186
0+700.000 20.000 97.410 93.168
0+720.000 20.000 117.410 93.077
0+740.000 20.000 137.410 92.913
0+740.090 0.090 137.500 92.912
Checks: (PVI)
Xmax = L = 137.500m It‟s OK
RLLa = RLPV = 921,912m AOD It‟s OK
st T
Question Two
An equal tangent vertical curve is to be constructed between grades of -2.0% (initial) and
+1.0% (final). The PVI (Point of vertical intersection) is at station 11 + 000.000 and
elevation 420.000m AOD. Due to a street crossing, the elevation of the roadway at station
11 + 071.000 must be at elevation 421.500m. Design the curve assuming it has a shape of
the form; y = ax 2 + bx + c .
Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Type of vertical Equal

b) Grades; Initial,
Final,
c) Point of Intersection,
420.000m
421.500m
d) Point of Interest
2.0 Sketch Drawing
Note: There is need to determine, L such that station 11+071.000 is at elevation 421.500m
AOD
5.0 Stationing and Elevation of PVC and PVT
Stationing of PVC = Stationing of PVI – 0.5L

= (11+000.000) – 0.5(449.842)
= 10+775.079
Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI + m.L/200

= 420 + 2.0(449.842)/200
= 424.498m AOD
Stationing of PVT = Stationing of PVI + 0.5L

= (11+000.000) + 0.5(449.842)
= 11+224.921
Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI + n.L/200
= 420 + 1.0(449.842)/200
= 422.249m AOD
Exercise
A 150m long equal tangent vertical curve connecting grades of +1.2% (initial) and -1.08% (final)
crosses a one-meter diameter pipe at right angles. The pipe is located at station 11 + 025.000 and
its centerline is at elevation 1091.6m. The PVI of the vertical curve is at station 11 + 000.000 and
elevation 1095.2m. Using offsets determine the depth, below the surface of the curve, to the top
of the pipe and determine the station of the highest point on the curve.
INTERSECTION AND JUNCTIONS
General
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join or cross,
within which are included the roadway and roadside design features which facilitate orderly
traffic movements in that area. An intersection leg is that part of any one of the highways
radiating from an intersection which is outside of the area of the intersection.
The importance of intersection design stems from the fact that efficiency of operation,
safety, speed, cost of operation and capacity are directly governed by the design. Since an
intersection involves conflicts between traffic in different directions, its scientific design can
control accidents and delay and can lead to orderly movement of traffic. Intersections
represent potentially dangerous locations from the point of view of traffic safety. It is
believed that well over half the fatal and serious road accidents in built-up areas occur at
junctions [Kadiyali, 2006].
The following principles should be considered in a good design:
a) The number of intersections should be kept to a minimum. If necessary, some minor roads
may be connected with each other before joining a major road;
b) The geometric layout should be so selected that hazardous movements by drivers are
eliminated. This can be achieved by various techniques such as channelizing and
staggering;
c) The design should permit the driver to discern quickly either from the layout or from traffic
signs about which path he/she should follow and the actions of merging and diverging.
This can be achieved by good layout, traffic islands, signs and carriageway
markings. Good visibility improves safety;
d) The layout should follow the natural vehicle paths. Smoothness, in contrast to abrupt and
sharp corners, should guide minor streams of traffic into stopping or slowing down
positions;
e) The number of conflict points should be minimised by separating some of the many
cutting, merging or diverging movements;
f) Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a traffic stream should be provided with
adequate space at the junction.
At-grade and Grade Separated Junctions

An intersection where all roadways join or cross at the same level is known as an at-grade
intersection. An intersection layout which permits crossing manoeuvres at different levels is
known as a grade separated intersection.
The choice between an at-grade and grade separated intersection at a particular site depends
upon various factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay etc. Grade-separated
junctions generally are more expensive initially, and are justified in certain situations. These are
on high type facilities such as expressways, freeways and motorways;
Basic Forms of At-grade Intersections
Intersections can be divided into the basic forms shown in the Figure below. From a design
aspect these intersections can also be divided according to whether they are controlled,
priority controlled (stop, Give Way), space-sharing (i.e. Roundabouts), time sharing (i.e.
traffic-signal controlled), or grade-separated (including interchanges) [O‟Flaherty, 2002].
Basic Intersection Forms

At-grade Intersection Types

A junction is the intersection of two or more classified roads on the same surface / at grade.
Different at-grade junction (intersection) types will be appropriate under different
circumstances depending on traffic flows, speeds, and site limitations.
At grade intersections can be classified in to two main intersection categories based on the
type of control used. For each category, there are a number of intersection types as shown
below.
Types of At-grade Intersections as recommended by MoWH&C
Priority Intersections
Roundabout Signalised intersection

Typical Designs for Control Intersections
Design requirements
The design of intersections must take account of the following basic requirements
 Safety
 Operational comfort
 Capacity
 Economy
CAPACITY OF A T-JUNCTION
The capacity of a T junction is primarily dependent upon the ratio of the flows on the major
and minor roads, the critical (minimum) gap in the main road traffic stream acceptable to
entering traffic and the maximum delay acceptable to minor road vehicles.
A T-intersection has six separate traffic streams (see Figure below), of which the through
streams on the major road (C-A and A-C) and the left-turn stream off the major road (A-B) are
generally assumed to be priority streams and to suffer no delays from other traffic, while the
two minor road streams (B-A and B-C) and the major road right-turn stream (C-B) incur delays
due to their need to give way to higher priority streams. Predictive capacity equations for the
three non-priority streams are as follows:
Selection of Control Intersection Type

 The superscript s (e.g. qsB-A) denotes the flow from the saturated stream i.e. one in
which there is stable queuing.
 The geometric parameters wB-A and wB-C denote the average widths of each of the minor
road approach lanes for waiting vehicles in streams B-A and B-C respectively, measured
over a distance 20m upstream from the Give Way line;
 wC-B denotes the average width of the right-turn (central) lane on the major road, or 2.1m
if there is no explicit provision for right turners in stream C-B.
 The parameters VrB-A and VlB-C denote right and left visibility distances, respectively,
available from the road;
 VrC-B is the visibility available to right-turning vehicles waiting to turn right from the
major road;
 W is the average major road carriageway width at the intersection; in the case of ghost or
raised islands, W excludes the width of the central (turning) lane;
 WCR is the average width of the central reserve lane at the intersection on a dual
carriageway road.
Design Reference Flow (DRF)

One of the methodologies used to assess the adequacy of the available to a non-priority
traffic stream is the ratio of the design reference flow (DRF) to the capacity called the
reference flow to capacity (RFC) ratio. For the satisfactory operation of any given
approach lane it is generally considered that reference flow to capacity ratio should not
exceed 0.85. DRF value considers the function of the road. The 200th highest hourly flow in
the design year is used on recreational roads, the 50th highest hourly flow on interurban
roads and the 30th highest hourly flow in the design year on urban roads. It would be
economically and/or environmentally undesirable to design for the highest hours in the
design year. For an existing intersection the DRF values are often determined from manual
counts (including classifications and turning movements) of the existing flows which are
grossed up to the design year using appropriate factors.
Delay
An estimate of the total 24 hour delay due to congestion, D24x, at an existing T-intersection
can be estimated from the empirically derived equation
Where; D3 = Total intersection delay (h) during the peak three hours,
and P3 = Ratio of flow in the peak three hours to the 24-hour flow.
The above formula assumes that delays are inflicted only on minor road vehicles, which have
to yield priority to the major road streams.
T-Junction Example
A new industrial complex is planned to be sited adjacent to an existing priority intersection.
The width of the main carriageway is 8m. The width of the carriageway for traffic movements
B-A, B-C and C-B are 3, 3 and 2m respectively. The visibility distances at the drivers‟ eye
height for the junction are: VrB-A = 60m, VlB-A = 75m, VrB-C = 60m, VrC-B = 60m.
The width of the central reservation is 2m wide. The design flows (in pcu/hr) are
represented in the figure below.
You are required to determine the following:

i) Calculate the capacities of the turning movements; qsB-A, qsB-
s
C, q C-B, for the priority intersection shown in the figure above.
ii) Asses the arms of the junctions and advise on which arms
have sufficient capacity and which ones do not.
Based on the reference flow capacity ratios obtained, it is apparent that all the arms
have exceeded their capacities and therefore need to be redesigned.
ROTARY INTERSECTIONS (ROUNDABOUTS)

A roundabout is a form of channelization intersection in which vehicles are guided onto a
one-way circulatory road about a central island. Entry to the intersection is controlled by
Give Way markings and priority is now given to vehicles circulating (clockwise in Uganda) in
the round about.
The main objective of roundabout design is to secure the safe interchange of traffic between
crossing traffic streams with the minimum delay. The operating efficiency of a roundabout
depends upon entering drivers accepting headway gaps in the circulating traffic stream.
Traffic streams merge and diverge at small angles and low relative speeds. For this reason,
accidents between vehicles in roundabouts rarely have fatal consequences.
General Usage of Roundabouts
Roundabouts are most effective as at grade intersections in urban or rural areas that have all or
a number of the following characteristics:
 High proportions and/or volumes of right turning traffic;
 Priority is not given to traffic from any particular road;
 Presence of accidents involving crossing or turning movements;
 Traffic on the minor roads is delayed by the use of „Stop‟ or „Give Way‟ signs;
 Where they cause less overall delay to vehicles than traffic signals;
 Where there is a marked change in road standard e.g. from a dual to a single
carriageway road.
Roundabout intersections are not appropriate at the following sites:

 Where there is inadequate space or unfavourable topography that limits a good
geometric design;
 Where traffic flows are unbalanced, e.g. at major/ minor T-Intersections;
 Where they follow a downhill approach, the approach should be at least a 2% grade
and should be flattened at least 30m to the intersection.
 Where there are heavy volumes of vehicular traffic and where there is heavy cyclist
and pedestrian traffic.
 Between traffic controlled signal intersections which could cause queuing back into
the roundabout exits.
Types of Roundabouts
In Uganda there are two types of roundabouts namely:
i) Normal roundabouts with a centre island radius greater than or equal to 10m.
The central island radius should normally be between 10m and 25m otherwise it
becomes difficult to control speeds for a radius bigger than the above range
and puts pedestrians and cyclists at risk. The width of the circulating carriageway
depends on whether it is one or two lane.
ii) Small roundabouts with a central island less than 10m. The inner
central island radius should be at least 2m.
Design Features of Roundabouts

 For small roundabouts, the central island should be approximately 1/3 of the
inscribed circle diameter (1/3D);
 At larger sites the proportion should be >1/3 to limit the circulatory width to a
maximum of 15m;
 The circulatory width around the roundabout should be constant at about 1.0 to1.2
times the highest entry width subject to the above maximum of 15m;
 Steep downhill gradients should be avoided at roundabout approaches;
 The frequent occurrence of roundabouts on high speed rural roads should be avoided;
 Mini roundabouts must only be used at existing junctions where there are
space limitations and where the 85 percentile approach speed on all approaches is
less than 50km/hr;
 Entries should be flares. Single and two lane approaches should become 3 and 4
lanes respectively at the give way line;
 The entry flare taper should be approximately 1 in 3. Each lane should be 2.5m to
3.5m wide at the give way line dependent on site conditions. The taper width at the
Give Way line should never be less than 3m. The best entry angle is approximately
30 degrees. Lanes may be tapered to 2m width (minimum) on the roundabout
approaches;
 The entry width of an approach arm at a roundabout is one of the major factors
apart from approach carriageway half width that affects capacity. Flares on the
approaches to roundabouts should be designed in such a way that maximum entry
widths are not greater than 10.5m on single carriageway roads and 15m on dual
carriageway approach roads. A typical flare length on a rural road is 25m. The length
can be as low as 5m on urban roads;
 Pedestrian crossing places (including zebras) should normally be within the
flared approach but as far from the Give Way line as pedestrian convenience will
allow. This reduces the road width to be crossed by pedestrians. A central refuge should
always be provided wherever possible. A deflection island may fulfill this function but
should be at least 1.2m wide;
 Pedestrian guard rail should be used, where necessary to control haphazard
pedestrian crossing of the traffic streams. It also improves safety.
Capacity of Roundabouts
The capacity of a roundabout as a whole is a function of the capacities of the individual
entry arms. The capacity of each arm is defined as the maximum inflow when the traffic
flow at the entry is sufficient to cause continuous queuing in its approach road.
The main factors influencing entry capacity are the approach half width, and the width and
flare of the entry, while the entry angle and radius also have small but significant effects.
The predictive equation used with all types of single at-grade roundabouts is
The symbols e, v, l‟, S, D, ϕ and r are described in Table below. Qe and Qc are in pcu/h, and
one heavy goods vehicle is assumed equivalent to 2 pcu for computation purposes.
The Limits of the Parameters used in Roundabout Capacity Equation
Practical
Geometric Parameter S ymbol Unit
Limits
Entry width e m 4 - 15
Approach half-Width v m 2 -7 .3
Average effective flare length l' m 1 - 100
Sharpnes s of flare S - 0 - 2.9
Ins cribed circle diameter D m 15 - 100
Entry angle ϕ deg 10 - 60
Entry radius r m 6 - 100
Design Reference Flow (DRF)

When designing a roundabout intersection, the entry angle for each arm of a trial layout is
compared with the hourly flow for the design (DRF). The reference flow to capacity ratio
(RFC) is an indicator of the likely performance of an intersection under the future year
traffic loading. If an RFC ratio of 0.85 occurs, it can be expected that queuing will
automatically be avoided in the design year peak hour in five out of six cases.
Roundabout Example
The table below shows measured turning movements in the AM peak period as recorded in a
traffic survey at a four arm roundabout. The survey was carried out in 2005. The expected
rate of traffic growth is 2%. It is assumed that funding will be readily available and that if any
redesign and reconstruction is needed, the roundabout will be reopened to traffic in the same
year the survey was carried out. The roundabout is being assessed for capacity to carry peak
flows in 2019. The geometric parameters for arms A and B are as shown below:
Geometric Parameter S Unit Arm A Arm B

Entry width ymbol m
e 1 9.
Approach half-Width v m 8
4. 4.
0
Average effective flare l' m 4. 40.
5
Sharpnes s of flare S - 0-
length 0.
0 0-
Ins cribed circle D m 3 30.
Entry angle ϕ deg 0
3 40.
diameter 0. 0
Entry radius r m 4
0. 30.
0
0
0.
0 0
The base year traffic survey carried out in 2005 revealed
0 the following traffic flows in
pcu/hr.
To (Des tination)
A B C D
From A - 22 45 210
B 20 0- 32
0 450
(Origin) C 55 25
0 0- 320
D 10
0 42
0 22 50
The general layout of the roundabout
0 is shown
0 above0
Determine the following;
• The design flows for the year 2019
• The approach capacity of arms A and B of the roundabout.
• Establish which of the two arms still has capacity and which one does not.

Chapter 2 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

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Chapter 2 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

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NDBCE 215: Road Construction and Plant 1

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

Highway Design Standards in Uganda

Design Controls and Criteria

ii) Design Hour Volume (DHV)

DHV is then expressed as DHV = AADT x K or ADT x K where K is estimated from

Traffic Conditions 30th HV as a fraction of ADT

iii) Directional Distribution of Traffic

iv) Traffic Composition

c) Design Vehicle Dimensions

ii) Dimensions of Design Vehicles

iii) Selection of the Design Vehicle

ii) Design Speed

The following three levels of access control are applicable:

Figure 2.1: Single Carriageway Cross-section Elements

Figure 2.2: Dual Carriageway Cross-section Elements

reasonably provide for future development.

Central Reservation (Median) Strip

Laybys and bus bays

Basic Formula for Movement of Vehicles on Curves

Figure 2.3: Forces acting on a vehicle on a horizontal curve

Value of the Coefficient of Lateral Friction, µ

Table 4.6: Coefficient of Lateral Friction as Recommended by AASHTO

Maximum super-elevation Value, emax

Super-elevation can be provided either to fully counteract the centrifugal force or to

The super-elevation computed from equation 4.13 is restricted to a value of 7%

Radii of curves for which no super-elevation is required

Method of Attainment of Super-elevation

2.0 Maximum Elevation, emax

3.0 Comments on the Result

a) Need for Transition

Main Elements of a Circular Curve Provided with Transitions

The following nomenclature applies

Some of the important properties of a spiral are given below:

Substituting the above in equation 4.15 gives

From which the length of transition curve, L is given by

Where v is speed in m/s and V is speed in Km/hr.

b) On curves, drivers have difficulty in

c) Drivers have psychological shyness to

From Figure below, considering the triangle

Neglecting m2, since it is small gives;

Where; R = radius in metres

Where; V = speed in kph; R = radius in metres

The total widening for pavements, We is given by the following formula:

Where; n = number of lanes

1.0 Data Summary

3.0 Transition Length, L

3.2 Based on the rate of change of super-elevation, Ls

Where; W=pavement width, e = super-elevation, S=longitudinal gradient, and

Maximum super-elevation, e, is given by

This value is high and should be restricted to 7% (i.e., e =7%)

From which equation (i) becomes

4.0 Tangent length, T

5.0 Total length of the horizontal Curve, LT 56

General Controls for Horizontal Alignment

a) The alignment should be as directional as possible;

Major Requirements of Vertical Curves