A full-wave half-controlled bridge has a supply voltage of 220V at 50Hz and supplies a load of 100Ω.

If the firing angle delay \ = 90 , determine the values of average and rms currents and load power.
Solution
'% 220√2
'*C = (1 + LME \) = (1 + LME 90) = 99'
D D
'*C
,*C = = 0.99W
(

'% 1 EFG 2\
'$%& = 6 _D − \ + ` = 155.6'
√2 D 2
'$%&
,$%& = = 1.556W
(
) = ,$%&  ( = 242[

Half-controlled bridge with highly inductive load

In the positive half-cycle, T1 is turned on at delay angle \, and current flows to the load through the
path T1, load and D1. When the supply voltage reverses, the energy stored in the inductor keeps load
current flowing through the path of D2, T1 and load. The devices in conduction (due to energy stored
in inductor) are T1 and diode D2 until T2 is fired at D + \. This is because in the negative half cycle,
(just after ÝÞ exceeds ß), diode D2 becomes forward-biased and it starts conducting whereas diode
D1 is reverse-biased and it stops conducting.

When T2 is fired at D + \, T1 turns off, and load current flows through T2, load and D2. The half-
controlled bridge thus has a freewheeling diode action built in, which uses one thyristor and a diode
in the freewheeling path. T2 and diode D1 would conduct during 0 < HI < c due to the freewheeling
action.

32
The average load voltage
1 K '% '*C
'*C =  '% EFG HI JHI = (1 + LME \); ,*C =
D p D R
Root-mean-square supply current is given by

K
1  JHI = , 6
(D − \)
,$%& =  ,*C *C
D D
p

Example
A 240V, 50Hz supply feeds a highly inductive load of 50Ω resistance through a thyristor bridge that is
half-controlled, calculate the dc load current, power and power factor when the firing angle delay
\ = 45
Solution
'% 240√2
'*C = (1 + LME \) = (1 + LME 45) = 184.4'
D D
'*C
,*C = = 3.69W
(

(D − \)
I$%& = ,*C 6 = 3.2W
D

) = ,$%&  ( = 511[
) 512
cos Ù = = = 0.665
V&,$%& I$%& 240U3.2

Half-controlled bridge with freewheeling diode and highly inductive load

Although the half-controlled bridge has a freewheeling diode action built in, a third diode can also be
connected directly across the inductive load. When the load voltage attempts to reverse, the energy
stored in the inductor circulates a load current in the closed path.

33
T1 and D1 conduct for \ < HI < D whereas during D < HI < (D + \),, the device in conduction is
diode D3. During (D + \) < HI < 2D, the devices in conduction are SCRs T2 and D2. Diode D3
would also conduct during 0 < HI < \ . The waveforms
forms and action is the same as before.

Single-phase
phase AC to DC variable speed drives
Various converters can be used to control the speed and torque of d.c. motors driven from a.c.
mains. When the field current is to be held constant, the field supply can be obtained from a diode
rectifier bridge. If the field current is to be varied, a thyristor-controlled
thyristor controlled rectifier bridge can be used.
The armature can be supplied from a thyristor-controlled
thyristor controlled rectifier bridge, which can be half
half-
controlled or fully controlled.. A symbolic representation of a separately-excited
separately excited DC motor is shown

In most of the cases, the speed of the motor is controlled by varying '* and holding '„ constant
(since the flux induced by the field winding is constant). The resistance of the field
field winding is Rf and
its inductance is Lf, whereas the resistance of the armature is Ra and its inductance is La.

When a separately excited motor is excited by a field current if and an armature current Ia flows into
the armature circuit, the motor develops a back emf and a torque to balance the load torque at a
certain speed. The field current is described by
JF„
„ + („ ,„ = '„ (1)
JI
If a steady voltage '„ is applied to the field, the field current settles down to a constant value
'„
,„ = (2)
(„
If the voltage applied to the armature is '* , then the differential equation describing the armature
circuit is

34
 JF*
* + (* ,* + ]* = '* (3)
JI
In steady-state
(* ,* + ]* = '* (4)
where ]* is the back e.m.f. The back e.m.f is proportional to the speed of motor H
]* = àC H (5)
where
i) áC is the armature voltage constant in V/rad-s.
ii) H is the armature speed in rad/s
If the armature current in steady-state is ,* , the electric power () = ]* ,* ) is converted to
mechanical power. Let the torque developed by the armature be T, in Nm, the electric power and
torque can be related
]* ,* = =H (6)
]* ,*
== = áC ,* (7)
H
From (7), if the voltage applied to the armature is raised, the armature current increases, hence the
torque developed by the motor increases, which in turn increases the speed of the motor.

Fully controlled bridge with SEDC motor

If we assume a constant load is connected and the resulting steady armature speed is H while the
generated voltage (back emf) is E. Also, assume that the motor inductance is large enough to give a
steady armature current between the firing periods. T1 and T3 are turned on in the positive half-
cycle, in this case with a delay angle \.

The conducting thyristors do not turn off as the mains voltage reverses because the motor
inductance acts to keep the current flowing. Turn-off occurs at D + \ in the negative cycle when T2
and T4 are switched on.

35
Note:
The bridge thyristors will not turn on until they are foward-biased, i.e. until Vs> E. This limits the
firing range to between \B and \ , as shown in the waveforms. The following equations are
obtained:
] = áC H − cEEmfJ LMGEIcGI
As for a fully controlled rectifier with a highly inductive load,
2'%
'*C = cos \
D
Average armature current
('*C − ])
,*C =
(*
Motor torque
= = áC ,*C

Example
A separately excited d.c. motor is driven from a 240V, 50Hz supply using a fully controlled thyristor
bridge circuit. The motor has an armature resistance Ra of 1.0Ω, and an armature voltage constant
áC of 0.8 V/rad/s. The field current is constant at its rated value.
i) Determine the values of armature current and torque for an armature speed of 1600
rev/min and a firing angle delay of 300. Assume that the armature current is steady.
ii) Calculate the limits of the firing angle delay for this speed.
Solution
i)

36
 2D
] = áC H = 0.8 U 1600 U = 134'
60
2'% 240
'*C = cos \ = 2√2 U cos 30 = 187.1'
D D
('*C − ]) 187.1 − 134
,*C = = = 53W
(* 1
= = áC ,*C = 0.8U53 = 42.4â
ii)
'% sin HI ≥ ]
√2U240 sin \B = ]; sin \B = 0.395; \B = 23.3
√2U240 sin(180 − \ ) = 134; sin(180 − \ ) = 0.395; (180 − \ ) = 23.3
\ = 156.7

Half-controlled bridge with SEDC motor

Assuming a constant speed and steady armature current, the conducting thyristors turn off at
HI = D, but armature current continues to circulate through D3 due to freewheeling diode action.

Limitations of firing angle delay to between \B and \ also apply to this bridge. Due to the absence
of negative armature voltage, the average voltage Vav is higher than the fully controlled case and is
the same expression as for average resistive load voltage, i.e.

37
 '%
'*C = (1 + cos \)
D
Example
A SEDC motor is driven from a 240V, 50Hz supply using a half-controlled thyristor bridge with a
freewheeling diode connected across the armature. The motor has an armature resistance Ra of
1.0Ω, and an armature voltage constant kv of 0.8 V/rad/s. The field current is constant at its rated
value. Assume that the armature current is steady. Determine the values of armature current and
torque for an armature speed of 1600 rev/min and a firing angle delay of 600.
Solution
2D
] = áC H = 0.8 U 1600 U = 134'
60
'% 240
'*C = (1 + cos \) = √2 U (1 + cos 60) = 162'
D D
('*C − ]) 162 − 134
,*C = = = 28W
(* 1
= = áC ,*C = 0.8U28 = 22.4â

THREE-PHASE RECTIFIERS
Single-phase supply rectifiers are adequate below a few kilowatts. At higher power levels, three
phase rectifiers are used because they give a better power factor, reasonably smooth waveform and
lower harmonic generation.

Three-phase half wave diode rectifier

Suppose three-phase AC voltages are applied to the three-phase uncontrolled half-wave rectifier,
which are 1200 out of phase and given by
v ° = V sin ωt
vä° = V sin(ωt − 120 )
v° = V sin(ωt − 240 )
Where V is the maximum value of the phase voltage. A transformer having a star connected
secondary is required for neutral access, N. The waveforms of the phase voltages are given

38
In the uncontrolled rectifier, the anode of a diode is connected to each phase voltage source. The
cathodes of all three diodes are connected together to form the positive load terminal. The negative
terminal of the load is connected to the supply neutral. The diode with the highest potential with
respect to the neutral conducts the current pulse. As the potential
ial of another diode becomes the
highest, load current is transferred to that device, and the previously conducting device is reverse
reverse-
biased.

K ŽK
By considering the interval from to in the output voltage, the average and rms values are
| |
Ž¶
3 | 3√3V
VË =  V sin ωt dωt =
2π ¶ 2π
|

Ž¶
¶
3 | 1 3√3
V =  YV sin ωtZ dωt = V 6 + = 0.8407V
2π ¶ 2 8π
|

Three-phase half-wave controlled converter

thyristor are displaced 1200 relative to each other.. A thyristor can be

The three gate pulses for three thyristors
fired to conduct when its anode voltage is positive with respect to its cathode voltage. In case of
\ ≤ 30 the voltages are shown

39
The rms output voltage is
Ž¶
3 | –Í 3√3V
'3+ =  V sin ωt dωt = cos α
2D ¶–Í  2π
|

Ž¶
3 | –Í 1 √3
V =  YV sin ωtZ dωt = √3V 6 + cos 2α
2π –Í
¶ 6 8π
|

In case of \ > 30 the voltages are shown

The average output voltage is

3 ¶ 3V π
'3+ =  V sin ωt dωt = ’1 + cos ’ + α””
2D –Í
¶ 2π 6
|

3 ¶ 5 α 1 π
V = 6  YV sin ωtZ dωt = √3V 6 − + sin ’ + 2α”
2π –Í
¶ 24 4π 8π 3
|

Example
1. A three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is operated from a three-phase Y-connected 208-V
(line-to-line voltage), 60Hz supply and the load resistance is R = 10 Ω. If the delay angle α = 15°,
calculate,
i) The average output voltage
ii) The rms and average output currents
iii) The average and rms thyristor currents

40
 iv) The output power
Solution
3 − dℎ, half wave controlled rectifier, VLL=208V, R=10Ω, \ = 15

From the output voltage waveform,

ŽK ŽK
–p –p
3 | 3 |
'X,*C =  '*z sin HI JHI =  ' sin HI JHI
2D K–p 2D K–p %ˆ
| |

3√3 '%ˆ 3√3 U169.83

'X,*C = cos \ = cos 15 = 135.66'
2D 2D
,X,*C = 13.566W

ŽK
3 p– | 
'X,$%& =  '%ˆ sin HIž JHI
2D p–K
|

1 √3 1 √3
'X,$%& = √3'%ˆ 6u + cos 2\v = √3U169.836u + cos 2 U15v = 140'
6 8D 6 8D

,X,$%& = 14'
)Xå‚ = ,X,$%&  ( = 1960[
Thyristor current, take T1 for example,
ŽK
1 p– | '%ˆ sin HIž ,X,*C 13.566
,ÜB,*C =  JHI = = = 4.522W
2D p–K ( 3 3
|
,X,$%& 14
,ÜB,$%& = = = 8.08W
√3 √3
2. Repeat problem (1) for a resistive load R = 15 Ω and a delay angle α = 60°.
3 K 3'%ˆ D 3U169.83 D D
'X,*C =  '%ˆ sin HI JHI = ’1 + cos ’ + \”” = ’1 + cos ’ + ””
2D –p
K 2D 6 2D 6 3
|

= 81.08'
'X,*C 81.08
,X,*C = = = 5.405W
( 15

41
 3 K 5 \ 1 D
'X,$%& = 6  '%æ  EFG HI JHI =
√3'%æ 6_ − + sin ’ + 2\”`
2D K–p 24 4D 8D 3
|

5 1 1 D 2D
= √3(169.83)6 − + sin _ + ` = 104'
24 12 8D 3 3
'X,$%&
,X,$%& = = 6.93W
(
,X,*C 5.405
,ÜB,*C = = = 1.8W
3 3
,X,$%& 6.93
,ÜB,$%& = = = 4W
√3 √3
)Xå‚ = ,X,$%&  ( = 6.93 U15 = 720.37[
3. Repeat problem (1) if the load is highly inductive with a resistance R = 10 Ω in series with a
battery E = -100 V, and the delay angle α = 120°.

ŽK ŽK
3 p– | 3 p– | 3√3
'X,*C =  T*z sin HI JHI =  '%æ sin HI JHI = ' cos \
2D p– K 2D p– K 2D %æ
| |

3√3
'X,*C = U169.83 cos 120 = −70.22'
2D
'X,*C − ] −70.22 + 100
,X,*C = = = 2.98W
( 10
,X,$%& = ,X,*C
,X,*C
,ÜB,*C = = 0.992W
3
,X,$%&
,ÜB,$%& = = 1.72W
√3

)Xå‚ = )X,*C = FX,$%& ( + ,X,*C ]
)Xå‚ = 2.98 U10 − 2.98U100 = −209.2[
4. Repeat problem (3) if a freewheeling diode is connected across the load.

42
 3 K 3'%æ D 3(169.83) 2D D
'X,*C =  '%æ sin HI JHI = u1 + cos ’\ + ”v = u1 + cos _ + `v
2D p– K 2D 6 2D 3 6
|

= 10.87A
'X,*C − ]ž 10.87 + 100
,X,*C = = = 11.09W
( 10
,X,$%& = ,X,*C = 11.09W
1 K ,X,*C D 11.09 2D D
,ÜB,*C =  ,X,*C JHI = ’D −\− ”= _D − − ` = 0.924
924W
2D p–K 2D 6 2D 3 6
|

1 K  1 2D D 1
,ÜB,$%& = 6  ,X,*C*C JHI = ,X,*C 6 _D − − ` = 11.096 = 3
3.2W
2D p– K 2D 3 6 12
|

)Xå‚ = 11.09 U10 − 11.09U100 = 120.9[

Three-phase full wave diode

iode rectifier

It can work with or without a transformer and gives six

six-pulse
pulse ripples on the output voltage. The
three phase rectifier can be divided
d into two groups. For the top group, the diode with its anode at
the highest potential will conduct at one time. The other two will be reversed. For
or bott
bottom group,
diode with the its cathode at the lowest potential will conduct. The other two will be reversed. The
output waveform repeats itself six times in one cycle of input voltage.
Note:
1. D1 and D4 cannot conduct at the same time. Similarly, D3 and D6 cannot conduct simultaneously,
nor can D5 and D2.
2. The output voltage across the load is one of line-to-line
line voltages of the source.

43
The average output voltage is
6 ¶/ π 3√3V π ¶/ 3√3V
VË =  √3V sin ’ωt + ” dωt = ç− cos ’ωt + ”è =
2π ¶/| 6 π 6 ¶/| π
The rms output voltage is

¶
6  π 
V =  ç√3V sin ’ωt + ”è dωt
2π ¶ 6
|


π
¶/ 1 − cos 2 ’ωt + ”
9V 6 dωt
= 
π ¶/| 2

9V 1 π ¶/
=6 éωt − sin 2 ’ωt + ”ê
2π 2 6 ¶/|

3 9√3
= V 6 +
2 4π

Three-phase full-wave controlled rectifier

SCRs do not conduct until gate signals are applied while forward biased. The delay angle is
referenced from where the SCR would begin to conduct. The delay angle is the interval between
when the SCR becomes forward biased and when the gate signal is applied.

The average output voltage is

44
 ¶ ¶
6  –Í π 3√3V π  –Í 3√3V
VË =  √3V sin ’ωt + ” dωt = ç− cos ’ωt + ”è¶ = cos α
2π ¶–Í 6 π 6 –Í π
| |

The rms output voltage is

¶
6  –Í π 
V =  ç√3V sin ’ωt + ”è dωt
2π ¶–Í 6
|

¶ π

9V  –Í 1 − cos 2 ’ωt + 6 ”
=  dωt
π ¶–Í 2
|

¶
9V 1 π  –Í
= éωt − sin 2 ’ωt + ”ê¶
2π 2 6 –Í
|

3 9√3
= V 6 + cos 2α
2 4π

Example
A three-phase full-wave controlled rectifier is operated from a three-phase Y-connected 220-V (line-
to-line voltage), 60Hz supply and the load is highly inductive with a resistance R = 5Ω in series with a
battery E = 20 V and the delay angle α = 75°. Calculate,
i) The average output voltage
ii) The rms and average output currents
iii) The average and rms thyristor currents
iv) The output power
Solution
3-ph, full wave controlled rectifier, VLL=220V, highly inductive, R=5Ω, E=20V, \ = 75
220
'ƒƒ = 220', 'æ = , '%æ = √2'æ = 179.63'
√3
1 p–K/ D 1 p–K/ D
'X,*C =  T*ë JHI ; T*ë = √3'%æ sin ’HI + ” =  √3'%æ sin ’HI + ” JHI
D/3 p–K/| 6 D/3 p–K/| 6

3√3 3√3
'X,*C = '%æ cos \ = (179.63) cos 75 = 76.9'
D D
'X,*C − ] 76.9 − 20
,X,*C = = = 11.38W
( 5
,X,*C = ,X,$%& = 11.38W
ŽK
1 p– | ,X,*C 11.38
,ÜB,*C =  ,X,*C JHI = = = 3.8W
2D p–K 3 3
|

45
 ,X,$%& 11.38
,ÜB,$%& = = = 6.57W
√3 √3

)Xå‚ = )X,*C = ,X,$%& ( + ,X,*C ]
)Xå‚ = 11.38 U5 + 11.38U20 = 875.12[

Repeat problem (1) if the delay angle α = 90° and a freewheeling diode is connected across the load.
1 ŽK/| D 1 ŽK/| D
'X,*C =  T*ë JHI ; T*ë = √3'%æ sin ’HI + ” =  √3'%æ sin ’HI + ” JHI
D/3 p–K/| 6 D/3 p–K/| 6

3√3 D 3√3 D D
'X,*C = '%æ (1 + cos ’\ + ” = (179.63) ’1 + cos ’ + ”” = 39.8'
D 3 D 2 3
'X,*C − ] 39.8 − 20
,X,*C = = = 3.96W
( 5
,X,*C = ,X,$%& = 3.96W
ŽK ÚK
1 | | ,X,*C 4D 4D ,X,*C 4D
,ÜB,*C = œ K ,X,*C JHI +  K ,X,*C JHIŸ = é −\+ − \ê = é − \ê
2D p– p– 2D 6 6 D 6
| 

3.96 4D D
= é − ê = 0.66W
D 6 2
ŽK ÚK
1 | | 2,X,*C  4D 1 4D D
,ÜB,$%& = œ K ,X,*C  JHI +  K ,X,*C  JHIŸ = 6 é − \ê = 3.966 é − ê
2D p– p– 2D 6 D 6 2
| 

= 1.617W

)Xå‚ = )X,*C = ,X,$%& ( + ,X,*C ]
)Xå‚ = 3.96 U5 + 3.96U20 = 157.6[

Filters for AC to DC converter

When ac power is converted to dc power using rectifiers, the dc output contains undesirable ac
components called ripple. Many rectifier applications require the ripple not to exceed a specified
value. If the ripple exceeds the specified value, different unwanted effects such as stray heating,
audible noise, appear in the system.

A circuit that minimizes or eliminates the ripple component from the rectified output is called a
filter. Filter systems in general are composed of a capacitor, an inductor, or both. Depending upon
the passive element used, the filters can be classified as

i) Capacitor filter
ii) Inductor filter
iii) Capacitor-Inductor filter

46
Half wave rectifier with R-C Load

If C is initially uncharged and the circuit is energised at HI = 0, the diode becomes forward biased as
the source become positive. When the diode is ON the output is the same as source voltage and the
capacitor charges until Vm.

K
After HI =  , the capacitor discharges into the load (R). The source becomes less than the output

voltage and the diode becomes reverse biased; isolating the load from source. The output voltage
decays exponentially.
'% sin HI ‡ℎfG JFMJf FE í⠊
TX = ì
'î f ^(‚^î)/sï ‡ℎfG JFMJf FE í22
'î = '% sin HI

Estimation of ð
The slope of the function is
J('% sin HI)
= '% cos HI
J(HI)
And
J'% sin ¤ . f ^(‚^î)/sï ž 1
= '% sin HI . _− ` . f ^(‚^î)/sï
J(HI) H(8
At HI = ¤, the slopes are equal
1
'% cos ¤ = '% sin ¤ . _− ` . f ^(î^î)/sï
H(8
'% cos ¤ 1
=−
'% sin ¤ H(8
¤ = IcG^B(H(8) = −IcG^B(H(8) + D
For practical circuits, H(8 is large, then

47
 D D
¤ = −IcG^B (∞) + D = − +D =
2 2
¤ is very close to the peak of the sine wave. Therefore'% sin ¤ = '%

Estimation of ò
At HI = 2D + \,
'% sin(2D + \) = '% sin ¤ . f ^(K–p^î)/sï
K–p^î
sin _\ − (sin ¤)f ^ sï ` =0

This equation must be solved numerically for \

Ripple Voltage
Max output voltage is Vmax
Min output voltage occurs at HI = 2D + \
∆'X = '%*Û − '%Az = '% − '% sin(2D + \) = '% − '% sin \
K K
If 'î = '% and ¤ =  , and C is large such that DC output voltage is constant, then \ = 

The output voltage evaluated at HI = 2D + \

K K
K– ^
^ô  õ K
sï ^’ ”
'X (2D + \) = '% f = '% f sï

The ripple voltage is approximated as

K K
^’ ” ^’ ”
∆'X = '% − '% f sï = '% _1 − f sï `

ö÷
^’ ” K
Using Series expansion f øùú = 1 − sï
2D '%
∆'X = '% _ `=
H(8 j(8

Capacitor current
The current in the capacitor can be expressed as
JTX (I)
F+ (I) = 8
JI
In terms of HI
JTX (HI)
F+ (HI) = 8
JHI
'% sin HI ‡ℎfG JFMJf FE í⠊
TX (HI) = ì
'î f ^(‚^î)/sï ‡ℎfG JFMJf FE í22
Substituting TX (HI)
H8'% cos HI , ‡ℎfG JFMJf FE íâ (2D + \ ≤ HI ≤ 2D + ¤)
F+ (HI) = û '% sin ¤ ^(‚^î)/sï Š
− f , ‡ℎfG JFMJf FE Mjj (¤ ≤ HI ≤ 2D + \)
(

48
Peak diode current
F& = F¬ = Fs + Fï
The peak diode current occurs at 2D + \
F+,:;*< = H8'% cos(2D + \) = H8'% cos \
Resistor current at 2D + \ can be obtained
'% sin(2D + \) '% sin \
Fs (2D + \) = =
( (
The diode peak current is
'% sin \
F¬,:;*< = H8'% cos \ +
(
Example
A half-wave rectifier has a 120V rms source at 60Hz. The load is =500Ω, C=100üF. Assume \ and ¤
are calculated as 480 and 930 respectively. Determine
i) Expression for output voltage
ii) Peak-to peak ripple
iii) Capacitor current
iv) Peak diode current
Solution

'% = 120√2 = 169.7'; ¤ = 93 = 1.62gcJ; \ = 48 = 0.843gcJ

Output voltage
'% sin HI = 169.7 sin HI ; ‡ℎfG JFMJf FE íâ
'X (HI) = ý ‚^î ‚^B.| Š
'î f ^ sï = 169.5f ^ B˜.˜Ž ; ‡ℎfG JFMJf FE í22
Ripple
Using ∆'X = '%*Û − '%Az = '% − '% sin(2D + \) = '% − '% sin \ = 43'
Using approximation
2D '% 169.7
∆'X = '% _ `= = = 56.7'
H(8 j(8 60U500U100ü
Capacitor current
H8'% cos HI = 6.4 cos HI W, ‡ℎfG JFMJf FE íâ
F+ (HI) = û '% sin ¤ ^‚^î ‚^B.| Š
− f sï = −0.339f ^ B˜.˜Ž W, ‡ℎfG JFMJf FE Mjj
(
Peak diode current
'% sin \
F¬,:;*< = H8'% cos \ +
(
169.7EFG1.62
= (2DU60)(100ü)169.7 cos(0.843) + = 4.62 + 0.34 = 4.5W
500

49