REAL ANALYSIS-II UNIT-I

UNIT – I
1.1 EXAMPLES ON CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

The following functions are continuous onthe complex plane C :

a ¿ the identity function defined by f (z)=z for all z ∈C .

b ¿ the constant function , defined by f (z )=0 for all z ∈C .

1.2 CONTINUITY ∧INVERSE IMAGE OF OPEN∨CLOSE SETS

Definition1.1 . Let f : S T be a function ¿ a set S ¿ a set T . If Y isset of T ,

the inverse image of Y under f , denoteby f −1 ( Y ) , is defined as follows :

−1
f (Y )={x : x ∈ S∧f ( x)∈Y }.

Note : f −1 ( A ) ⊆ f −1 ( B ) if A ⊆ B⊆T

Theorem :1.1 . Let f :S → T be a function ¿ S ¿ T . If X ⊆T ∧Y ⊆T ,

then we have :
a ¿ X =f −1 (Y )implies f ( X )⊆Y .

−1
b ¿ Y =f ( X)implies X ⊆ f (Y ).

−1
Proof . a ¿ Suppose that X =f ( Y ) ∧ y ∈ f ( X )

Then there is an element x ∈ X such that f ( x ) = y .

Since X=f −1 (Y )∧x ∈ X ⟹ x ∈ f −1 ( Y ) ⟹ f ( x ) ∈ Y

i .e . , y ∈Y ∧hence f ( X ) ⊆ Y .

b ¿ Let Y =f ( X ) ∧x ∈ X .

Then f ( x ) ∈ f ( X ) =Y ⟹ x ∈ f −1 ( Y ) ⟹ X ⊆ f −1 ( Y )

1
 REAL ANALYSIS-II UNIT-I

−1
Note :∈ general we cannot have that Y =f (X )implies X=f (Y ) .

Note :The statements a ¿∧b ¿∈theorem1.1 can be expressed as follows :

a ¿ X =f −1 ( Y ) implies f [f −1 ( Y ) ]⊆ Y .
−1
b ¿ Y =f ( X)implies X ⊆f [f ( X)]
Therom .1.2 Let f : S → T be a function ¿ one metric space ( S ,d S )
¿ another ( T , d T ) . Then f is continuous on S if ,∧only if , for every open set Y

¿ T , the inverse image f −1 (Y ) is open∈S .

Proof . Assume that f is continuous on S∧Y be an open set ∈T .
−1
Now we claimthat f ( Y ) is open∈S .
−1
Let p be a point ∈f ( Y ) ⟹ f ( p ) ∈Y by definition .
Since Y is open∈T , there exits an open ball B T ( f ( p ) , ε ) ⊆ Y , for some ε >0.
Since f iscontinuous at p , correspond ¿ this ε >0 , there exits a

δ >0 such that f (B S ( p , δ ))⊆ BT (f ( p ) , ε ).

Now B S ( p , δ ) ⊆ f
−1
[f ( B ( p , δ ) )] ⊆ f ( B
S
−1
T ( f ( p ), ε )) ⊆ Y ,
as X ⊆ f
−1
[f ( X ) ]. Hence B S ( p , δ ) ⊆Y ⟹ pis an interior point of f
−1
(Y ) .
−1
⟹f ( Y ) is open∈S .
Conversely , suppose that for every open set Y ∈T , its inverse image
−1
f ( Y ) is open∈S∧let p∈ S .
We know that every ball∈a metric space isan open set .
Hence , for every ε >0 , the ball Y =BT (f ( p), ε )¿ is an open∈T
−1 −1
Hence , by our assumption f (Y )=f [BT (f (p) , ε )]is open∈S .
−1
Now f ( p)∈ BT (f ( p) , ε)¿ ⟹ p ∈ f [ BT (f ( p), ε)]by definition .

⟹ p is an interior point of f
−1
[ B T (f ( p), ε )] .
−1
Therefore there is a δ > 0 such that B S ( p , δ )⊆ f [BT ( f ( p), ε )].

⟹ f [ BS ( p , δ ) ] ⊆ f { f [ BT ( f ( p) , ε)] } ⊆ BT (f (p) , ε )
−1

Therefore f is continuous at p∧hence f iscontinuous on S .

Hence thetheorem .

2
REAL ANALYSIS-II UNIT-I

Therom 1.3 Let f : S →T be a function ¿ one metric space ( S , d S )

¿ another ( T , d T ) . Then f is continuous on S if ,∧only if , for every closed set Y

¿ T , the inverse image f f −1 (Y ) is closed∈ S .

Proof . Assume that f is continuous on S∧Y be a closed set∈T
−1
Since T – Y is open∈T , by previoustheorem f (T – Y )is open∈ S .
But f −1(T – Y )=S−f −1 ( Y ) ⟹ f −1 (Y )is closed ∈S .
Conversely , suppose that for every closed set Y ∈T , the inverse image f −1 ( Y )
is closed∈ S∧let Y be an open set ∈T .
−1
As T −Y is closed ∈T , by our assumption f (T – Y ) is closed∈S .
But f −1 ( T – Y )=S−f −1 ( Y ) ⟹ f −1 (Y )is open∈S .
Hence theTheorem .

1.3 FUNCTIONS CONTINUOUS ON COMPACT SETS

The following shows that continuous image of a compact set iscompact .

Therom 1.4 Let f : S → T be a function ¿ one metric space ( S ,d S )

¿ another ( T , d T ) . If f is continuous on a compact set X of S , thenthe

image f (X )is a compact ⊂of T .∈ particular , f ( X )is closed∧bounded ∈T .

(¿)
Provethat continuous image of compact set is compact .
Proof . Assume that f is continuous on a compact set X of S∧F be an open covering
of f (X ).
i .e . , f ( X ) ⊆¿ A ∈ F A
Now we show that a finite of sets A∈ F also covers f ( X ) .
We know that

X⊆f
−1
[ f (X )] ⊆ f −1 [ ¿ A ∈ F A ] ⊆ ¿ A ∈ F A f −1( A) ⟹ X ⊆ ¿ A ∈ F f −1 ( A ).
This shows that the sets f −1 ( A ) is an open covering of X .
−1
Since X is compact , this open covering has a finitecover , say X ¿ i=1 ¿ p f ( Ai )

f ( X ) ⊆ f [ ¿ i=1¿ p f −1 ( Ai ) ] =¿ i=1 ¿ p f ( f −1 ( A i ) ) ⟹ f ( X ) ⊆ ¿ i=1¿ p A i

Hence f ( X ) is compact∧thuswe see that f ( X )is closed∧bounded .

3
REAL ANALYSIS-II UNIT-I

k
Definition.1 .2 . A function f : S → R is called bounded on S if there is
positive number M such that ‖f ( x )‖≤ M for all x ∈S .
k
Note : f is bounded on S if ∧only if f ( S ) is a bounded set of R .

k
Theorem 1.5 . Let f :S → R be a function ¿ one metric space S ¿ the
k
Euclidean space R . If f is continuous on a compact set X of S , then f
is bounded on X .
Proof . We know that continuous image of a compact set is compact .

Therefore f ( X ) is a compact ⊂of R k

k
⟹ f ( X ) is closed∧bounded⊂of R
⟹ f is a bounded on X .

Theorem 1.6 Let f : S → R be a real valued function ¿ a metric space S

¿ the Euclidean space R . Assume that f is continuous on a compact set X of S .
Then there exist points p∧q∈ X such that f ( p )=inf f ( X ) ∧¿

f (q)=f (X ).

Proof . We know that continu ous image of a compact set is compact .

Therefore f ( X )is a compact ⊂of R .

⟹ f ( X )is closed∧bounded⊂o f R

⟹ there ∃a positive number M such that|f (x )|≤ M for all x ∈X

⟹−M ≤ f ( X)≤ f ( X) for all x ∈ X
⟹ f ( X )is bounded above∧below .
Hence by completeness axiom f ( X ) has a supremum∧an infimum .

Let m=inf f ( X)∧n=f (X ).Then m∧n are adherent ¿ f ( X).

Since f ( X ) is closed m, n ∈ f ( X ) .
Therefore there ∃ points p∧q∈ X such that m=f ( p )∧n=f (q).
Note . Since f ( p ) ≤ f ( x ) ≤ f ( q ) for all x ∈X , thenumbers f ( p )∧f ( q )
are called , respectively , the absolute∨global minimum∧maximum values of f on X .

4
REAL ANALYSIS-II UNIT-I

Theorem 1.7 Let f : S →T be a function ¿ one metric space ( S , d S )

¿ another ( T , d T ) . Assume that f is one−¿−one on S , so that the inverse

f −1 ∃. If S is compact ∧if f is continuous on S , then f −1 is continuous on f (S).

Proof . ¿ prove f −1 : f ( S ) → S is continuous on f ( S ) ,is enough ¿ prove

−1
that for every closed set X ∈S , its inverse image ( f −1 ) ( X )=f ( X )
is closed∈ f ( S ) T .
Let X be a closed set∈ S∧hence X is compact .

Since f iscontinuous on X , f ( X ) iscompact ⊂of f ( S )

⟹ f ( X )is closed∈ f (S).

Hence thetheorem

1.4 TOPOLOGICAL MAPPINGS( HOMEOM 0 RPHISMS)

Definition1.3 . Let f : S → T be a function ¿ one metric space ( S , d S )

¿ another ( T , d T ) . Assume also that f is one−¿−one on S , so that the

−1 −1
inversefunction f ∃. If f is continuous on S∧if f is continuous on f ( S ) ,
t hen f iscalled a topological mapping∨a homeomorphism .

The metric spaces(S , ds)∧(T , dt) are said ¿ be homeomorphic .

−1
Note : If f is a homeomorphism ,then f is also a homeomorphism .

Definition1.4 . Anisometry is a function f : S → T which is one−¿−one

on s∧preserves the metric ;

that is, d T (f ( x) , f ( y ))=d S ( x , y)for all x∈S .

S∧T are called isometric .
Note : A simple arc isthe topological image of an intrval∧a simple
closed curveis thetopological image of a ¿˚

1.5 BOLZANO ’ S THEOREM

Now we prove alocal property of continuous functionsknown as
sign−preserving property .

5
REAL ANALYSIS-II UNIT-I

Theorem 1.8 .(Sign− preserving property ).

Statement : Let f be a function defined on an interval S∈R . Assume that f is

continuous at a point c ∈S∧that f ( c ) ≠ 0.Then there is a
1−ball B ( c ; δ ) such that f ( x ) the same sign as f ( c )∈B ( c ; δ ) ∩ S .
Proof . Assume that f is continuous at a point c ∈S .

Then , for every ε >0 there ∃a δ >0 such that |f ( x ) −f ( c )|< ε

whenever |x−c|< δ∧x ∈ S .
⟹−ε < f ( x ) – f ( c ) < ε whenever x ∈ B(c ; δ) ∩S .
⟹ f (c) – ε< f (x )<f (c)+ ε whenever x ∈ B(c ; δ )∩S .
Assumethat f ( c ) ≠ 0∧f (c )>0.
Take ε=f (c)/2>0. Corresponding ¿ this ε >0 , we have
f (c ) 3 f (c )
< f ( x )< whenever x ∈ B(c ; δ) ∩S
2 2
f (c )
f ( c ) <0 ⟹ f ( x ) > >0
2
Hence f ( x)the same sign as f (c)∈B(c ; δ)∩S .
−f ( c )
Assumethat f ( c ) < 0∧ε= >0
2
Corresponding ¿ this ε > 0 , we have

3 f (c)/2< f ( x)< f (c )/2 whenever x ∈ B(c ; δ )∩S .

f ( c)
Now f ( c ) <0 ⟹ f ( x )< <0
2
Hence f ( x)the same sign as f (c)∈x ∈ B (c ; δ)∩ S .
Hence thetheorem .

Theorem 1.9 .(BOLZANO).

Statement : Let f be a real−valued∧continuous function on acompact

interval [ a , b ] ∈R ,∧suppose that f ( a ) ∧f ( b ) have opposite signs ;

that is, assume f ( a ) f ( b )< 0.Then there is at least one point c
¿ the open interval(a , b)such that f (c)=0.

Proof . For definiteness , as sume that f ( a )> 0∧f ( b ) <0.

6
REAL ANALYSIS-II UNIT-I

Define a set A ∈[a , b]by

A={x : x ∈[a ,b ]∧f (x )≥ 0 }.

Since f ( a ) >0 , a A∧hence A is non−empty .
Also A is bounded above by b .
. .
By completeness axiom , A has a , say c = A . Then a<c <b .
Now we shall prove that f (c)=0.
Assumethat f (c )0. Then either f ( c)>0∨f ( c)<0.
Let f ( c )> 0.Then by sign property there is a 1−ball B ( c : δ ) ∈which

f ( x)the same sign f ( c).

That is , f ( x )> 0 for all x ∈ B ( c : δ ) [ a , b ] =( c−δ , c +δ ) [ a , b ] .
T ake an element x ( c , c+ δ ) ⋂ [ a , b ] ⊆ ( c−δ , c+ δ ) ⋂ [ a , b ]
⟹ f (x )>0 ⟹ x A .
.
As c= A , we have x ≤ c ,
which is a contradiction ¿ x (c , c+ δ)⋂[a , b].
Assumethat f ( c ) < 0.
Again by sign property there is a 1−ball B ( c : δ ) ∈which f ( x ) the same
signasf ( c ) .
That is , f ( x )< 0 for all x ∈ B( c :δ ) ⋂ [ a , b]=(c−δ , c +δ) ⋂ [a , b] .
δ
( )
Take an element x ∈ c− , c ⋂ [ a , b ] ( c−δ , c+ δ ) ⋂ [ a ,b ] ⟹ f ( x ) <0
2
δ
(
⟹ x ∉ A for all x c− ,c .
2 )
.
c−δ/ 2 is anupper bound for A which isa contradiction¿ c = A .
Thus∈both the cases we a have a contradiction .
Therefore we must have f ( c)=0.
Hence thetheorem .

Theorem 1.10 .(Intermediate value theorem for continuous function)

Statement : Let f be a real−v alued∧continuous function on a
compact interval S ∈R . Suppose that there are two points α < β ∈S
such that f ( α ) f ( β ) .Then f takes every value between f ( α )∧f ( β ) ∈the
interval( α , β).

7
REAL ANALYSIS-II UNIT-I

Proof . Assume that k lies between f ( α )∧f ( β ) .

Define a new function g : [ α , β ] ⟶ R by g ( x )=f ( x ) – k for all x ∈ [ α , β ] .
Since f iscontinuous on[α , β ], g is continuous on [α , β ].
Now g ( α ) g ( β )= [ f ( α ) −k ] [ f ( β ) – k ] <0 , as k lies between f (α )
¿ f ( β).
∴ g ( α )∧g ( β ) have opposite signs∧hence by Bolzano ’ s theorem ,
there is an element c ∈ [ α , β ] such that g ( c )=0 ⟹ f ( c )=k .
That is f takes every value between f (α )∧f ( β)∈the interval( α , β).