EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE QUARTER 2

• EVOLVING CONCEPT OF LIFE

There were no witnesses to the origin of life. However, there are possible explanations that
attempt different possibilities on how life could have begun:
1. Extraterrestrial Origin – The hypothesis explains that life originated on another planet
outside our Solar System. Life was then carried to Earth on a meteorite or an asteroid and colonized
Earth. However, this hypothesis has not been proven.
2. Panspermia – The theory presumes that the "seed" of life exists all over the universe and
can be propagated through space and that life on Earth originated from those seeds.
3. Divine Creation – Many people believe that life was put on Earth by Divine forces. Creation
theories are common to many of the world's religions and cultures.
4. Origin from Nonliving Matter (Abiogenesis or Spontaneous Generation) – Scientists believe
that life arose from inanimate matter after Earth had cooled. They stated that random events
probably produced stable molecules that could self-replicate. Then, natural selection favored
changes in the reproduction rate, which eventually led to the first cell.
5. Biogenesis – living things only come from other living things through reproduction.

Earth's age, as estimated by several independent studies, is about 4.5 billion years. So far, no
fossils have been found in the oldest rocks, which are about 3.8 billion years old. The oldest fossils
discovered were found in 3.5 billion-year-old rocks that were once sedimented on the ocean floor.
The tiny fossils found in these ancient rocks were bacteria.

As time went by, scientists questioned the early beliefs on the origin of life and began to
explore an opposing idea on biogenesis. It has the belief that life originates from pre-existing
life. Since then, several experiments have been conducted to prove these contracting beliefs
to know how life came about.
1. Miller and Urey's experiment – making an atmosphere into the flasks which contained simple
molecules that were probably present in the early Earth's atmosphere: hydrogen, carbon
dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrogen, ammonia, and carbon monoxide. They heated the
mixture zapped it with electrical sparks to simulate lightning. Within days, a dark, smelly
mixture developed. When this mixture was analyzed, they found that many complex
molecules had formed, including some amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.
Miller and other scientists generated many amino acids, RNA and DNA nucleotides, lipids,
 carbohydrates, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) using slightly different combinations of
starting molecules.
2. Francisco Redi's Experiment. In 1668, he disproved the theory of spontaneous generation.
His experimental setup involved disproving spontaneous generation using maggots that
arose in decaying meat.
3. John Needham's Experiment. In 1784, he challenged Redi's experiment. It was common
knowledge at that time that boiling could kill microorganisms. Needham's experiment tested
whether or not microorganisms can appear spontaneously after boiling. He concluded that
life in the broth was caused by spontaneous generation. In actuality, he did not heat it long
enough to kill all the microbes in the broth.
4. Lazzaro Spallanzani’s Experiment. In 1767, he challenged Needham's
experiment. He concluded that life occurred from something that entered the
unsealed flask and was responsible for life to grow. The results were not taken
completely by the believers of abiogenesis, who even stated that Spallanzani
excluded air from his sealed flasks, which they believed was needed for a
spontaneous generation to occur.
5. Louis Pasteur's Experiment. It was only in 1861 through Pasteur's experiment that
most scientists were convinced that spontaneous generation could not occur.
Pasteur designed an experiment to test the idea that a vital element from the air was
necessary for life to occur. His experiment supported the theory of biogenesis and
disproved spontaneous generation. This evidence suggests that new bacteria
appear only when existing bacteria produce them.

• TEN THEMES THAT UNIFY THE STUDY OF LIFE

Theme 1: Biological Systems A biological system is a
complex network of biologically relevant entities. The
biological organization spans several scales and is
determined based on different structures depending on
the system. Examples of biological systems at the
macro scale are populations of organisms. A system is
comprised of a combination of parts to form a more
complex organization based on the arrangements and
interactions of its parts. The biological systems theme
applies to all levels of life, from the biosphere to the
interactions of molecules in cells. Interaction of
organisms with each other and with the nonliving
environment puts the system in the ecosystem. The
biological systems theme applies to all levels of life,
from the biosphere down to the molecules.

Theme 2: High Degree of Organization New properties emerge at each level in the biological
hierarchy. The hierarchy of life unfolds as follows: biosphere – ecosystem – community – population
– organism -organ system – organ – tissue – cell – organelle – molecule - atom. With each step upward
from atoms, new properties emerge due to interactions among components at the lower levels.
1. Biosphere - As soon as we are near enough to Earth to make out its continents and oceans, we
begin to see signs of life—in the green mosaic of the planet's forests. The biosphere consists of all
life on Earth and all the places where life exists—most regions of land, most bodies of water, the
atmosphere to an altitude of several kilometers, and even sediments far below the ocean floor and
rocks many kilometers below Earth's surface.

2. Ecosystems - as we approach Earth's surface for an imaginary landing in Ontario, we can begin to
make out a forest with an abundance of trees that lose their leaves in one season and grow new
ones in another (deciduous trees). Such a deciduous forest is an example of an ecosystem.
Grasslands, deserts, and the ocean's coral reefs are other types of ecosystems. An ecosystem
consists of living things in a particular area and all the nonliving components of the environment
with which life interacts, such as soil, water, atmospheric gases, and light. All of Earth's ecosystems
combined make up the biosphere.

3. Communities - The entire array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem is called a biological
community. The community in our forest ecosystem includes many kinds of trees and other plants,
various animals, various mushrooms and other fungi, and enormous numbers of diverse
microorganisms, which are living forms, such as bacteria, that are too small to see without a
microscope. Each of these forms of life is called a species.

4. Populations - A population consists of all the individuals of a species living within the bounds of a
specified area. For example, our Ontario forest includes a population of sugar maple trees and
white-tailed deer. We can now refine our definition of a community as the set of populations that
inhabit a particular area.

5. Organisms - Individual living things are called organisms. Each of the maple trees and other plants
in the forest is an organism, and so is each forest animal—whether deer, squirrel, frog, or beetle.
The soil teems with microorganisms such as bacteria.

6. Organ and Organ Systems - The structural hierarchy of life continues to unfold as we explore the
architecture of the more complex organisms. A maple leaf is an example of an organ, a body part
that carries out a particular function in the body. Stems and roots are the other major organs of
plants. Examples of human organs are the brain, heart, and kidney. The organs of humans, other
complex animals, and plants are organized into organ systems, each a team of organs that cooperate
in a larger function. For example, the human digestive system includes such organs as the tongue,
stomach, and intestines. Organs consist of multiple tissues.

7. Tissues - Our next scale change—to see the tissues of a leaf—requires a microscope. Each tissue
consist of a group of cells that work together, performing a specialized function. The leaf shown
here has been cut on an angle. The honeycombed tissue in the leaf's interior (left portion of photo)
is the main location of photosynthesis. This process converts light energy to the chemical energy of
sugar and other food. We view the sliced leaf from a perspective that enables us to see the jigsaw
puzzle-like "skin" on the leaf's surface; a tissue called the epidermis (right part of the photo). The
pores through the epidermis allow the gas carbon dioxide, a raw material for sugar production, to
reach the photosynthetic tissue inside the leaf. At this scale, we can also see that each tissue has a
distinct cellular structure.

8. Cells - The cell is life's fundamental unit of structure and function. Some organisms, such as amoebas
and most bacteria, are single cells. Other organisms, including plants and animals, are multicellular.
Instead of a single cell performing all the functions of life, a multicellular organism has a division of
labor among specialized cells. A human body consists of trillions of microscopic cells of many
 different kinds, such as muscle cells and nerve cells, organized into various specialized tissues. For
example, muscle tissue consists of bundles of muscle cells. In the photo at the upper left, we see a
more highly magnified view of some cells in leaf tissue. One cell is only about 40 micrometers (μm)
across. It would take about 500 of these cells to reach across a small coin. As tiny as these cells are,
you can see that each contains numerous green structures called chloroplasts, which are responsible
for photosynthesis.

9. Organelles - Chloroplasts are examples of organelles, the various functional components present in
cells. In this image, a very powerful tool called an electron microscope brings a single chloroplast
into sharp focus.

10. Molecules - Our last scale change drops us into a chloroplast for a view of life at the molecular
level. A molecule is a chemical structure consisting of two or more small chemical units called atoms,
represented as balls in this computer graphic of a chlorophyll molecule. Chlorophyll is the pigment
molecule that makes a maple leaf green. One of the most important molecules on Earth, chlorophyll,
absorbs sunlight during the first step of photosynthesis. Within each chloroplast, millions of
chlorophyll molecules, together with accessory molecules, are organized into the equipment that
converts light energy to the chemical energy of food.

In a reductionism approach, complex systems are broken down into simpler components that
are more manageable to study. In systems biology, scientists attempt to model the dynamic
behavior of whole biological systems based on a study of the interactions among the system's parts.

Theme 3: Structure and Function

Structure and function are also related to living things. What something does in an organism
is directly related to its shape or form. Structure and function are related at the level of chemicals in
cells. For example, membrane channels and enzymes are proteins, but they have very different
structures and functions. A channel is a protein molecule that extends through a cell's membrane or
outer layer. It has a structure like a tube that allows specific chemicals to pass into and out of a cell.
Enzymes are protein molecules that make chemical processes possible in living things. These proteins
have shapes that allow them to attach to only certain chemicals and then cause the chemicals to react
with each other.

Structure and function are also related to the level of the organism. For example, your foot
structure allows you to walk easily on rough, fairly level surfaces. Walking on a surface such as ice is
more difficult, and walking up a wall is impossible for you.

Figure 10. The structure of a bird.

 The relationship between structure and function is apparent in the entire organism and
the physiological systems that serve them. The structure determines function, and function
reflects structure.

Theme 4: Reproduction and Inheritance

Sexual reproduction is the union of male and female gametes to form a fertilized egg or zygote.
The resulting offspring inherit one-half of their traits from each parent. The process where haploid
sex cells are created from diploid parents is called meiosis, and it occurs only in the reproductive
organs. The division of cells to form new cells is the foundation for all reproduction and the growth
and repair of multicellular organisms. Inside the dividing cell, you can see structures called
chromosomes, which are stained with a blue-glowing dye. The chromosomes have almost all of the
cell's genetic material, DNA (short for deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is the substance of genes, the
units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to offspring. Your blood group (A, B,
AB, or O), for example, is the result of certain genes that you inherited from your parents. In
humans, an egg cell from
the mother fuses with a
sperm cell from the
father, resulting in a
fertilized cell containing
a combination of DNA
from both parents. The
inherited DNA directs
the transformation of
the fertilized egg into a
person with his/her eye
color, facial features,
and other
characteristics. The
inherited information of
DNA enables organisms
to reproduce their kind.
Figure 11. Inherited DNA directs development of an organism

Theme 5: Life Requires Energy Transfer and Transformation

Energy is the ability to do work, where work is done when a force moves an object. While
the sun provides energy for our entire planet, the sun's energy must be transformed into more
usable forms for living organisms.

The input of energy from the sun makes life possible: A fundamental characteristic of living
organisms is their use of energy to carry out life's activities. Moving, growing, reproducing, and the
other activities of life work, and work requires energy. In the business of living, organisms often
transform one form of energy to another. Chlorophyll molecules within the tree's leaves harness
the energy of sunlight and use it to drive photosynthesis, converting carbon dioxide and water to
sugar and oxygen. The chemical energy in sugar is then passed along by plants and other
photosynthetic organisms (producers) to consumers. Consumers are organisms, such as animals
that feed on producers and other consumers. All organisms lose energy in the form of heat; an
 ecosystem cannot recycle energy. Life on Earth depends on a continuous supply of energy from the
sun.

The input of energy from the sun makes life possible: A fundamental characteristic of living
organisms is their use of energy to carry out life's activities. Moving, growing, reproducing, and the
other activities of life work, and work requires energy. In the business of living, organisms often
transform one form of energy to another. Chlorophyll molecules within the tree's leaves harness
the energy of sunlight and use it to drive photosynthesis, converting carbon dioxide and water to
sugar and oxygen. The chemical energy in sugar is then passed along by plants and other
photosynthetic organisms (producers) to consumers. Consumers are organisms, such as animals
that feed on producers and other consumers. All organisms lose energy in the form of heat; an
ecosystem cannot recycle energy. Life on Earth depends on a continuous supply of energy from the
sun.

Theme 6: Organisms Interact with Other Organisms And The Physical Environment

In an ecosystem, each organism interacts continuously with its environment, including

other organisms and physical factors. The leaves of a tree, for example, absorb light from the sun,
take in carbon dioxide from the air, and release oxygen to the air.

Both the organism and the environment are affected by the interactions between them. A
tree also interacts with other organisms, such as soil microorganisms associated with its roots,
insects in the tree, and animals eating its leaves and fruit. Interactions between organisms
ultimately result in the cycling of nutrients
in ecosystems. "No man is an island." This
saying is also true for organisms in an
ecosystem. No organism exists in
isolation. Individual organisms live
together in an ecosystem and depend on
one another. They have many different
types of interactions, and many of these
interactions are critical for their survival.
As part of an ecosystem, each organism
interacts continuously with its
environment. No organism is completely
isolated from its surroundings.
Theme 7: Organisms Must Maintain Homeostasis to Survive in a Diverse Environment

Homeostasis is the
maintenance of constant internal
conditions in an organism.
Homeostasis is important because
cells function best within a limited
range of conditions. Temperature,
blood sugar, acidity, and other
conditions must be controlled.
Breakdowns in homeostasis are
often life-threatening.
Homeostasis is usually maintained
through a process called negative
feedback. In negative feedback, a
change in a system causes a response that tends to return that system to its original state.

Suppose your body temperature drops below normal; systems in your body act to return
your temperature to normal. Your muscles cause you to shiver, and blood vessels near your skin's
surface constrict. If your body temperature rises above normal, different responses cool your body.
The ability of mammals and birds to regulate body temperature is another example of homeostasis
or "steady-state." Different mechanisms enable organisms to regulate their internal environment
despite changes in their external environment.

Theme 8: Evolution and Adaptation

Evolution is the change in living things over time. More specifically, evolution is a change in the
genetic makeup of a subgroup, or population, of a species. The concept of evolution links observations
from all levels of biology, from cells to the biosphere. A wide range of scientific evidence, including the
fossil record and genetic comparisons of species, shows that evolution continues today.

One way evolution occurs is through the natural selection of adaptations. In natural selection,
a genetic or inherited trait helps some species survive and reproduce more successfully than other
individuals in a particular environment. An inherited trait that gives an advantage to individual
organisms and is passed on to future generations is an adaptation.
 The study of evolution is helping professionals understand how disease-causing bacteria
become resistant to antibiotic drugs—environmental issues such as water and air pollution change
how people think about their relationship with the biosphere. The population then evolves with its
need for survival. Evolution is a unifying theme of biology because it accounts for both the diversity
and the similarities, or the unity, of life. All of the species alive now result from billions of years of
evolution and adaptation to the environment. How? Natural selection of genetic traits can lead to
the evolution of a new species. In the end, this genetic diversity is responsible for the diversity of
life on Earth.

Theme 9: Scientific Inquiry

In scientific inquiry, scientists
observe (collect data) and use inductive
reasoning to draw a general conclusion,
which can be developed into a testable
hypothesis. Deductive reasoning makes
predictions that can be used to test
hypotheses: If a hypothesis is correct,
and we test it, we can expect the
predictions to come true. Hypotheses
must be testable and falsifiable;
science can address neither the
possibility of supernatural phenomena
nor the validity of religious beliefs.
Controlled experiments, such as the study investigating mimicry in snake populations, are designed
to demonstrate the effect of one variable by testing control groups that differ in only one variable.

A scientific theory is broad in scope, generates new hypotheses, and is supported by a large
body of evidence. Through science, humans learn about the solution to various problems. The
scientific method can give direction and pace for every inquiry, and technology produced
machinery to lengthen the life of perishable goods. The technology applies scientific knowledge in
new ways.

Theme 10: Biology and Society

The relationship of science to society becomes clearer when we add technology to the picture.
Though science and technology sometimes employ similar inquiry patterns, their basic goals
differ. The goal of science is to understand natural phenomena. In contrast, technology generally
applies scientific knowledge for some specific purpose. Biologists and other scientists usually
speak of "discoveries," while engineers and other technologists more usually speak of
"inventions." Additionally, the beneficiaries of those inventions include scientists, who put new
technology to work in their research. Thus, science and technology are interdependent. Modern
biology is changing humans' everyday lives. New findings of the DNA affect medicine and
agriculture. Research on the nervous system is improving the treatment of certain mental
illnesses. The result of stem cell research, animal cloning, environmental issues, genetically
modified crops, or new ways to treat diseases shows biology's impact.
• REPRODUCTION

Reproduction means to multiply its kind. It is a biological process by which an organism

reproduces an offspring that is biologically similar to the organism. It is one of the defining
characteristics of living things. There are two basics types of reproduction: asexual reproduction and
sexual reproduction

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - The process of joining the haploid gametes (sex cells) forms a
diploid cell called a zygote. A zygote eventually becomes an embryo and later develops into an organism.
The female gamete is an egg cell that is usually non-motile to ensure the embryo's survival by storing
energy. The male gamete is a sperm cell, which is motile to search for the egg cell for fertilization. This
process is usually slow and
complex compared to
asexual reproduction. The
organisms so produced are
genetically diverse. Thus,
they can evolve along with
the changing climatic
conditions. In sexual
reproduction, the genetic
material of two individuals
combines to produce
genetically diverse offspring
that differ from their
parents. Humans and many
multicellular organisms
exhibit a sexual mode of
reproduction.
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - In asexual reproduction, the fusion of the egg cell and sperm
cell does not occur; reproduction is mainly through mitosis, which creates a parent clone. This type
of reproduction is practiced widely by unicellular organisms. The organisms produced by asexual
reproduction are less diverse in nature. Some animals produce offspring through asexual
reproduction, while other animals produce offspring through sexual reproduction. Both methods
have advantages and disadvantages. Asexual reproduction in animals occurs through fission,
budding, fragmentation, and parthenogenesis. Sexual reproduction may involve fertilization inside
the body or in the external environment.

*Take note that there are only 5 main types of Asexual Reproduction. Regeneration is under
Fragmentation.
• GENETIC ENGINEERING

The manipulation of organisms and their constituent parts to create products for the
benefit of mankind has been going on since ancient times as evidenced by products such as wines,
cheeses, and more. Genes play an important role in the process of manipulation. The main goal is
to ensure that the “desirable characteristics” are transferred from one species to the same or
another completely different species. Genetic engineering is the process of manually adding new
DNA to an organism.

Process of Genetic Engineering:

 Genetic engineering made tremendous contribution to the lives of diabetic individuals for
the creation of insulin from yeast and bacteria like E. coli. People with diabetes cannot make their
own insulin in their pancreas, a condition referred to as Type-1 Diabetes. This substance regulates
the sugar level in our blood. Hence, they need to inject insulin to control their blood sugar levels.
The genetically modified insulin, “Humulin” was licensed for the use of humans in 1982.

Humulin Production:

The genetic engineering process in insulin production starts when a small piece of circular
DNA called a Plasmid is extracted from the bacteria or yeast cell. A small section is then cut out
from the circular plasmid by Restriction enzymes or „molecular scissor‟. The gene for human Insulin
is inserted into the gap in the plasmid. This plasmid is now genetically modified. The genetically
modified plasmid is introduced into a new Bacteria/Yeast cell. This cell then divides rapidly and
starts making insulin. To create large amounts of the cells, the genetically modified bacteria or
yeast are grown in large Fermentation vessels that contain all the nutrients they need. The more
the cells divide, the more insulin is produced. When fermentation is complete, the mixture is
filtered to release the insulin. The insulin is then purified and packaged into bottles and insulin pens
for distribution to patients with diabetes.
 Genetic Engineering terms:

➢ DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)- A nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in

which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar
and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T); capable of
being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell‟s proteins.
➢ DNA ligase- A linking enzyme essential or DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of
the 3‟ end of one DNA fragment (such as an Okazaki fragment) to the 5‟ end of another DNA
fragment (such as a growing DNA chain).
➢ Gene- A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in
DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).
➢ Gene cloning- The production of multiple copies of a gene.
➢ Genetic engineering- The direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes.
➢ Genetically modified (GM) organism- An organism that has acquired one or more genes by
artificial means; also known as a transgenic organism.
➢ Recombinant DNA- DNA molecules formed when segments of DNA from two different
sources-often different species-are combined in vitro or in a test tube.
➢ Restriction enzyme-an enzyme produced chiefly by certain bacteria, having the property of
cleaving DNA molecules at or near a specific sequence of bases.

• GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM

Austrian monk Gregor Mendel is credited with identifying the founding principles of
genetics when he crossbred two pea breeds in 1866. In 1922, hybrid corn made its commercial
debut, while plant breeders discovered how to alter DNA with radiation and chemicals in 1940.
After 1973, the FDA approved insulin in 1982 as the first genetically engineered product for human
use. However, genetically modified food didn't get FDA approval until 1994, when a GMO tomato
became the first to go commercial. While on the surface it appears that GMOs are 100 percent
positive, they have been surrounded by controversy for decades.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are organisms that have been modified in a
laboratory in order to produce a specific result. For example, many types of food sources,
especially corn and soybean crops, are genetically modified in order to withstand herbicides and
insects. This method stems from the concept of selective breeding and dates back to at least 8000
BCE, although genetically altering DNA didn't happen until 1973. Table 1 shows examples of GMOs
resulting from agricultural biotechnology.
 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are changing the world, but is it for the better or
is it for the worse? GMOs are genetically modified organisms. This means that the DNA of an
organism, such as a plant, has been genetically altered to have specific traits. Figure 6 shows the
process of genetic modification of organism.

Benefits Of GMO’s In Different Fields:

Are GMOs Safe?

Though unproven, GMOs have been tied to everything from reduced fertility to cancer.
GMOs are considered safe by the FDA, but long-term effects are still being studied, and these
studies have only been performed on animals.

Cancer. Although correlations exist, there are currently no definitive studies that GMOs
cause cancer, and this is the stance of cancer organizations in the U.S., UK and Australia. A 2013
study raised concerns when it studied the effect of glyphosate, the active ingredient used in most
herbicides on GMO crops, in human breast cancer cells. The results suggested that glyphosate
could cause breast cancer, but the lab study also used breast cell tissue that was already
cancerous. Another study, this time from the International Agency for Research on Cancer in 2015,
reported that glyphosate doubled the risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, a type of blood cancer. It
connected the highest risk to farmers and farm workers, and California has since added glyphosate
to its list of cancer-causing chemicals. It should be noted that glyphosate is the main ingredient in
the popular weed killer Roundup, which has been linked to thousands of cases of non-Hodgkin's
lymphoma. Despite this, the EPA has declared glyphosate isn't likely to pose a cancer risk in
people. The question remains whether or not GMO crops require more pesticides (including
herbicides and insecticides) than non-GMO crops. A 2016 study examined this issue. On the one
hand, GMO crops altered to resist insects technically don't require additional insecticide. On the
other hand, it turns out that farmers sprayed more weed killers on glyphosate-tolerant corn after
2007. The same goes for glyphosate-tolerant soybeans. As to why, a co-author of that study
suggested it was due to weeds becoming more resistant to glyphosate over time.

Organism. In 2011, the journal Environmental Sciences Europe reviewed 19 studies

involving animals that were fed GMO diets of corn and soybeans. It concluded possible links
between this diet and kidney and liver disorders, as well as altered body weight and genital cancer
in second-generation females, but that further research was needed. A more recent 2019 study
published in GMO Science also suggested a link between liver and kidney damage in rats fed a
GMO corn diet. However, this particular diet involved Monsanto-engineered corn for the Egyptian
market containing a pest-deterring insecticide. The earlier study also fed rats an insecticide
variant.

Fertility Problems. A 2014 study possibly linked fertility issues to GMO-heavy diets, while a
2018 study in the Journal of the American Medical Association suggested that pesticide-tainted
food, often associated with herbicide-tolerant GMO crops, might have been the cause behind
100,000 unsuccessful pregnancies at fertility clinics. While the study recommended that pregnant
women and those trying to conceive should avoid pesticides and GMOs where possible, it didn't
measure how much of participants' pesticide consumption came from GMO foods that were
pesticide resistant.

Offspring. According to a 2015 Harvard University article, various studies haven't proven
any causation between GMO consumption and negative impacts on offspring. The article cites a
South Dakota State University study that tracked rats eating GMO corn for four generations,
including pregnant rats, and did not find any changes in offspring size or organ damage. It should
be noted that GMOs can be found in non-organic baby food, and just like other food studies, the
long-term effects are unknown at this time.

Allergies. An early study in the '90s found a possible allergic reaction to GMO soybeans,
but that was only upon adding a nut protein, and only affected people with specific nut allergies.
 The FDA states that people are only apt to be allergic to a GM food if they're already allergic to the
non-GM version, such as soy.

DNA Mutations. There have been some concerns that eating genetically altered food
would alter human DNA. Bruce Ames, a Professor Emeritus of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
at the University of California in Berkeley, developed a test to track mutations from food, and this
test has been used on GMO corn and tomatoes without any findings to suggest a connection. The
Royal Society, one of the world's oldest scientific organizations, asserts that one doesn't affect the
other, and that the DNA in GM food is no different from the DNA in non-GM foods.

• UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT ORGAN SYSTEMS IN REPRESENTATIVE ANIMALS

THE ORGAN SYSTEMS

Food is consumed by living creatures, particularly animals, in order to get the nutrients, they
require to exist. Through the four primary food processing stages of ingestion, digestion, absorption,
and excretion, the digestive system is responsible for the digestion and absorption of various foods
and nutrients needed for animal survival.
The Digestive System of Other Vertebrates
• FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS OF ORGAN SYSTEMS