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Chemical engineering Thesis and Dissertations
2018
Bar Soap Production, Characterization

and Feasibility Study from Aloe Vera gel
and Animal tallow
Liknaw, Tebelay
http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/11122
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BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering
Bar Soap Production, Characterization and Feasibility
Study from Aloe Vera gel and Animal tallow
Prepared by: ID
Tebelay Liknaw 0601585
Meketaye Abera 0601138
Sahlu Mhiret 0601405
Advisor: Mr. Kefale Wagaw
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, June 2010 E.C.

Production of Aloe Vera Bar Soap 2010 E.C.
Declaration
We are Fifth year chemical engineering students. We worked a final thesis project on the
production, Physico-Chemical characterization and feasibility study of bar soap from aloe Vera
leaf gel and animal tallow oil for partial fulfillment of the requirements bachelor degree in
chemical engineering under guidance of our project Mr. Kefale Wagaw (academic advisor). We
certify that our work is original except technical and special support of our advisor and also
compiled according the thesis writing guideline given by the faculty of chemical and food
engineering.
Academic Advisor Signature Date
Mr. Kefale Wagaw …………………. …………….
Name of student Signature Date
Sahlu Mhiret ………….. ………….
Meketaye Abera ……………. ………….
Tebelay Liknaw …………….. …………..
Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page i

Acknowledgement
We would like to forward our heartfelt gratitude for the following. First and foremost we would
like to thank the Almighty God for giving the strength to accomplish this work. None of the
activity is done without the will of God.
Secondly we would like to heartfelt gratitude to our advisor, Mr. Kefale Wagaw (M.Sc. in
process engineering) from Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology (BIT),
department of chemical engineering for his tireless advice, supervision, guidance and patience
throughout our thesis work.
We would like to convey great thanks to all laboratory assistant members in BIT chemical
engineering departments especially, Mr. Asnake and Mrs. Seble environmental engineering
laboratory assistant and Mr. Adugna and Ms. Senait analytical and organic laboratory assistant.
Last but not least we would like to thank all our friends for encouraging us through in our time of
need and giving information and material support.
Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page ii

Abstract
Soap is the sodium salts or potassium salts of stearic acids or any other fatty acids. It is
prepared by saponification process (cold process method), which is, reacting the oil or fat which
contain triglycerides with caustic soda (NaOH) to give the soap. However different oils have
different composition of fatty acids which are responsible for different properties of soaps made
out of them. The objective of this thesis is to study the production, characterization and
feasibility study of bar soap from aloe Vera leaf gel and animal tallow oil. These raw material
have contain important fatty acids involved in soap making which contribute to the detergency
properties, cleaning power, foam ability and washing properties of the soaps. In the present
work, aloe Vera leaf gel and animal tallow oil are blended in various ratios with olive, coconut
and palm oil to prepare 12 different samples of bar soap. The moisture content, PH value, total
fatty matter, foam ability, cleansing power and free caustic alkaline of these samples were
analyzed. From the experiments good quality soap was obtained at the following ingredient
recipes:60% tallow oil, 15% aloe Vera leaf gel, 10 % olive oil and 15% coconut oil with
corresponding quality parameters of; PH value 9.75, moisture content 14.85%, total fatty matter
76.8%, free caustic alkaline 0.08%, foam ability 7.3 cm and very good cleansing power. The
feasibility of production of bar soap from Aloe Vera gel and animal tallow oil was studied with
the plant capacity 1500 tons per year. The total investment cost and the net profit were 28.5
million and 4.34 million birr respectively. The project is feasible that returns the investment cost
in the rate of 15% within payback period of 3.58 years.
Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page iii

Table of Contents
Declaration ....................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. vii
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... vii
Acronyms ..................................................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem of statement ............................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 General objective ............................................................................................................ 4
1.3.2 Specific objectives .......................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Scope of the project ............................................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 5
Literature review ............................................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Aloe Vera .............................................................................................................................. 5
2.1.1 Origin and Distribution of Aloe Vera plant .................................................................... 5
2.1.2 Aloe Vera Gel Extractions .............................................................................................. 5
2.1.3 Physico-chemical properties of Aloe Vera Gel .............................................................. 6
2.1.4 Chemical composition of Aloe Vera gel ........................................................................ 6
2.1.5 Use of Aloe Vera gel ...................................................................................................... 7
2.2 The Chemistry of Soap .......................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Different types oils used for soap production ....................................................................... 9
2.4 Animal tallow ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.1 Physical and chemical properties animal tallow........................................................... 10
2.4.2 Fatty acid Composition of animal tallow ..................................................................... 11
2.4.3 Uses of animal tallow ................................................................................................... 11
2.5 Soap manufacturing process................................................................................................ 12
2.6 Method of Soap Production................................................................................................. 13
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2.7 Categorization of Soap ........................................................................................................ 17

2.8 Physico - Chemical Properties of Soap ............................................................................... 19
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 21
Materials and Methods .................................................................................................................. 21
3.1 Chemicals and Equipment’s ................................................................................................ 21
3.1.1 Chemicals ..................................................................................................................... 21
3.1.2 Equipment’s .................................................................................................................. 21
3.2 Method ................................................................................................................................ 22
3.2.1 Raw Material Collection and Preparation .................................................................... 22
3.2.1.1 Collection animal fat and Rendering of Tallow for Soap .......................................... 22
3.2.1.2 Characterizations of animal tallow oil ....................................................................... 23
3.2.1.3 Aloe Vera leaf collection and gel extraction ............................................................. 25
3.2.1.4 Characterization of Aloe Vera gel ............................................................................ 26
3.2.2 Soap preparation ........................................................................................................... 27
3.2.3 Characterization of the prepared soap .......................................................................... 29
3.2.3.1 PH value determination ............................................................................................. 29
3.2.3.2 Moisture content determination ................................................................................. 29
3.2.3.3 Total fatty fatter determination .................................................................................. 29
3.2.3.4 Foam ability taste determination ............................................................................... 30
3.2.3.5 Determination of Free Caustic Alkalinity ................................................................. 30
3.2.3.6 Test for cleansing power............................................................................................ 30
CHAPTHER FOUR ...................................................................................................................... 31
Result and Discussion ................................................................................................................... 31
4.1 Characterization of tallow oil .............................................................................................. 31
4.2 Characteristics of Aloe Vera gel ......................................................................................... 32
4.3 Physico-Chemical Characterization of the prepared bar soap ............................................ 34
4.3.1 PH value determination ................................................................................................ 35
4.3.2 Moisture content determination .................................................................................... 36
4.3.3 Total fatty matter determination ................................................................................... 37
4.3.4 Foam ability test determination .................................................................................... 38
4.3.5 Cleansing power test ..................................................................................................... 39
Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page v

4.3.6 Total free caustic alkali determination .................................................................... 40

CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 41
Feasibility Study of Bar Soap Production ..................................................................................... 41
5.1 Material and Energy Balance .................................................................................................. 41
5.1.1 Material Balance ........................................................................................................... 41
5.1.2 Energy Balance for Selected Unit Operations .............................................................. 45
5.2 Equipment Specification and Sizing ................................................................................... 49
5.3 Economic Analysis .............................................................................................................. 53
5.3.1 Capital cost estimation.................................................................................................. 55
5.3.2 Estimation of Total Production Cost (TPC) ................................................................ 56
5.3.3 Profitability analysis .................................................................................................... 60
5.4 Site Selection and Plant Layout .......................................................................................... 61
5.4.1 Site Selection ................................................................................................................ 61
5.4.2 Plant Layout .................................................................................................................. 64
CHATER SIX ............................................................................................................................... 65
Conclusion and Recommendation ................................................................................................ 65
6.1 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 65
6.2 Recommendation ................................................................................................................. 66
References ................................................................................................................................. 67
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List of Tables
Table 2.1: Physico-chemical properties of Aloe vera gel ............................................................... 6
Table 2.2: Amino acid (ppm) content of aloe Vera gel .................................................................. 6
Table 2.3: Vitamins (mg per 100ml) content of aloe Vera gel ....................................................... 7
Table 2.4: Enzymes content of aloe Vera gel ................................................................................. 7
Table 2.5: Fatty acids composition of animal tallow .................................................................... 11
Table 2.6: Physico-Chemical properties of commercial soap in Bangladesh ............................... 19
Table 4.1: Characterization of aloe Vera gel ................................................................................ 32
Table 4.2: Physico-Chemical characterization of the prepared bar soap ...................................... 34
Table 5.1: Raw materials for Soap Production ............................................................................. 50
Table 5.2: Equipment cost for soap production ........................................................................... 53
Table 5.3: Raw materials cost ....................................................................................................... 57
Table 5.4: Operating labor cost ..................................................................................................... 58
List of Figures
Fig 3.1: Animal tallow rendering process ..................................................................................... 23
Fig 3.2: Saponification value determination ................................................................................. 24
Fig 3.3: Acid value determination ................................................................................................ 24
Fig 3.4: Aloe Vera gel extraction .................................................................................................. 25
Fig 3.5: Aloe Vera gel homogenization ........................................................................................ 26
Fig 3.6: Soap production process .................................................................................................. 28
Fig. 4.1: PH value Determination ................................................................................................. 35
Fig 4.2: Total Fatty Matter determination..................................................................................... 37
Fig 4.3: Foam ability Test ............................................................................................................. 38
Fig. 4.4: Total free caustic alkali determination ........................................................................... 40
Fig 5.1: Soap Preparation Flow Diagram ..................................................................................... 41
Fig 5.2: Plant Layout..................................................................................................................... 64
Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page vii

Acronyms
A.V Acid value
BIS Bureau of Indian standard
FFA Free fatty acid
LABSA Linear alkyl benzene sulphonic acid
NAFDAC National agency for food and drug administration and
Control
PBP payback period
ROR Rate of return
RX refractive index
Sp.gr Specific gravity
S.V Saponification value
TCI Total capital Investment
TFM Total fatty matter
TFM Total fatty matter
TDS Total dissolved substance
VCO Virgin coconut oil
Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page viii

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1 Background
Soap is one of the oldest chemical products over two thousand years ago by saponification of
animal fats with the ashes from plants. Although soap are mainly used as surfactant for washing,
bathing cleaning, but they are also being used in textile spinning and as important constituent of
lubricating grease. Now soap and detergent have become integral part of our society. Soap is
produced by the saponification of a triglyceride (fat or oil). In the process the triglyceride is
reacted with a strong alkali such as; potassium or sodium hydroxide to produce glycerol and fatty
acid salts. The salt of the fatty acid is called soap. The soap‐making reaction is called
saponification [1].
Soap is the alkali salt of fatty acid. Some of the important fatty acids used in soap manufacture
are lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid,
reicinolenic acid. Fatty acids have varying chain length and may be saturated or unsaturated.
Fatty acid content of the oils varies. Unsaturated fatty acids give softer soap with lower melting
point and are less stable while soap from saturated fatty acids are firm, slowly soluble, milder
and have good detergency [2].
In addition to basic raw materials, other substances are added to the composition in order to
improve its application. For examples soap made for medicinal purposes other medicinal
importance ingredients are added to it to produce medicated soaps. In addition to potassium and
sodium salt, other metals such as calcium, magnesium and chromium are also used to produce
metallic insoluble soap that are not used as cleaning agents, but are used for other purposes.
Other properties of the soap such as hardness are function of the metallic element present in the
salt. For example, soap made up of Sodium salts shows little hardness compare to potassium
salts soaps, provided the same fat or oil is used in both cases [4].
The cleaning action of soap is due to its unique ability to emulsify or disperse water-insoluble
materials (dirt, oil and grease) and hold them in suspension in water. This ability comes from the
molecular structure of soaps. Soap has polar end which is hydrophilic (water loving) and a long
nonpolar chain, which is hydrophobic (water hating). As a consequence they can form emulsions
Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page 1

by suspending oil in water when their nonpolar end is in the oil and their polar end is in the
water. When soap is added to water that contains oil or other water-insoluble materials, the soap
or detergent molecules surround the oil droplets. The oil or grease is “dissolved” in the alkyl
groups of the soap molecules while the ionic end allows the micelle to dissolve in water. As a
result, the oil droplets are dispersed throughout the water and can be washed away [3].
A number of things affect the soap-making process and the quality of Soap produced. The
characteristics of Soap depend on the quality of oil, and the amounts of the caustic soda and
water used to make it. The speed of the reaction between the oil and the caustic soda is
influenced by free fatty acid content of the oil, the heat of the components before mixing, and
how vigorously the mixing is to be done. Free fatty acid contents, vigorous mixing, and heat,
speed up the given soap-making process [5].
For this bar soap production we want to use Aloe Vera leaf gel and animal tallow as raw material
to enhance Physico-chemical properties of soap, reduce usage of oil and increasing economic
value. In addition this aloe vera leaf has contained fatty acid composition that involved the
reaction with sodium hydroxide used for soap making. Also the aloe plant has long been revered
as a medicine for various skin ailments ranging from dryness to burns. Aloe Vera is known for
its soothing and powerful skin healing properties, making it a popular ingredient in soaps. Aloe
Vera soap is used to effectively heal chronic skin problems, such as psoriasis, acne and eczema.
Aloe Vera soap contains antiseptic agents: Lupeol, salicylic acid, urea nitrogen, cinnamonic acid,
phenols and sulfur and they all have inhibitory action on fungi, bacteria and viruses [9]. Animal
tallow also used to help good conditioning properties, creamy lather, moisturize and create
hardness of the produced bar soap due to similar chemical composition with different oils that
are used in soap production.

1.2 Problem of statement

In our country the raw material for soap production is basically imported from foreign countries.
Many oils essential and synthetic chemicals for the production of soaps are costive. Using a
domestic raw material for the production of soap is essential for cost minimization. Aloe Vera
plants are locally available raw materials for soap making. As their distribution indicate Aloes
are one of the plant in Ethiopian dry-land ecosystem including pastoralist and agro-pastoralist
area in which the amount of rain is low. Despite the large abundance of Aloes in Ethiopia both in
terms of distribution and species number, information on their uses and research are very limited
[9]. Due to enough amount of fatty acid found in aloe vera, Aloe Vera gel as soap preparing raw
material could be better alternative of reduction of essential oil usage and income generation.
Besides this it adds important minerals like zinc, Vitamins (A, C and E), glycoprotein,
Glutathione peroxidise activity, superoxide dismutase enzymes and a phenolic anti-oxidant were
found to be present in Aloe Vera gel that help in skin healing and rejuvenation if you use for
toilet soap. Animal tallow is also a domestic raw material, which is cheap and easily available in
our surrounding used for soap production due to similar chemical composition to oils. Animal
tallow fats are a byproduct of meat production by most standards. Some people used as food, But
using animal fat as food increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as heart attack and
atherosclerosis and also animal tallow contains mysteric acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic
acid, linoleic acid used for soap production [19]. In this thesis we are focused to use those two
raw materials with other additive for bar soap production which could minimizing healthy risk,
reduce oil usage and economically profitable. Besides this, it improves Physico-chemical
properties of soap.

1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 General objective
The main objective of this project is production and characterization of bar soap from Aloe Vera
leaf gel and animal tallow oil.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
The specific objectives of this project work can be stated briefly as follows:
 To extract and characterization of Aloe Vera gel from aloe Vera leaf
 To render and characterize tallow oil from animal fat
 To study the effect of proportion of Aloe Vera leaf gel to tallow oil on the quality of bar
soap
 To characterize Physico-chemical properties of the produced bar soap
 To study the feasibility of bar soap production from aloe Vera and animal tallow oil
1.4 Scope of the project
The scope of this project is production of bar soap and characterizes the produced bar soap by
fulfilling the above general and specific objectives, and also controls production of soap using
suitable parameter which is the proportion of aloe Vera gel to animal tallow oil in order to
produce good quality of soap.

CHAPTER TWO
Literature review
2.1 Aloe Vera
Aloe Vera is a stem less or very short-stemmed succulent plant growing to 60–100 cm (24–39 in)
tall, spreading by offsets. The leaves are thick and fleshy, green to grey-green, with some
varieties showing white flecks on their upper and lower stem surfaces. Aloe leaves consist of a
thick epidermis (skin) covered by a cuticle surrounding the mesophyll that includes
chlorenchyma cells and thinner walled cells that form the parenchyma (filet). The mesophyll
cells contain a transparent mucilaginous jelly called Aloe Vera gel. Aloe Vera common names
include Chinese Aloe, Indian Aloe, True Aloe, Ethiopian Eret, is a succulent plant species [8].
2.1.1 Origin and Distribution of Aloe Vera plant

Aloe Vera barbadensisa member of the lily family is a spiky, succulent, perennial plant and a
native to warm dry regions, especially southern Europe, Asia, and Africa. It is indigenous to
eastern and southern Africa and has been spread throughout many of the warmer regions of the
world. It grows best in full sunshine and does not require much water [12]. There are many
species of Aloe Vera grown throughout the world. However, only few species are grown
commercially today, with Aloe barbadensisa Miller and Aloe aborescens being the most popular.
In Africa, Aloe Vera plant occurs over much of Sub-Saharan Africa, although they are mainly
concentrated in the southern and eastern regions of the continent and only two or three species
are found in western Africa. High centers of Aloe diversity are found in South Africa,
Madagascar, Tropical East Africa (i.e. Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda), the Horn of Africa region
(i.e. Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia) and the Arabian Peninsula [9].
2.1.2 Aloe Vera Gel Extractions
Gel extraction from Aloe Vera leaves, remaining after the removal of its exudates were cut upon
and its mucilage was scraped out with blunt edged knife. This mucilage was stirred vigorously in
a blender to make it uniform. After removal of the ‘peel’ the colorless hydro parenchyma was
ground in a blender and centrifuged at 10,000 x g for 30 min at 4oC to remove the fibers. Leaves
weighing 800g produced about 300 ml of gel. Microbial growth was inhibited by addition of a
preservative, 0.05 % sodium azide [12].

2.1.3 Physico-chemical properties of Aloe Vera Gel

The Physico-chemical properties of Aloe Vera gel and shown below the table. This meets or
exceeds the standards established by the International Aloe Science Council's (IASC)
certification program for the determination of purity. Aloe Vera gel contains approximately
98.5% water. The remaining 1.5% solid material consists of a range of compounds including
water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins, minerals, enzymes, polysaccharides, phenolic compounds
and organic acids [10].
Table 2.1: Physico-chemical properties of Aloe vera gel

Test Value
Appearance Clear Yellow / Green Liquid
Absorbance @ 400nm NMT 0.500
Refractive Index 1.3340-1.3355
Specific Gravity 1.0030-1.0070
pH Value 3.5-4.7
Total Solids NLT 0.46% by weight
Source (Yaron. A, 1993)
2.1.4 Chemical composition of Aloe Vera gel

The Chemical composition of Aloe Vera gel as reported by Wang and Strong are presented in
table below.
Table 2.2: Amino acid (ppm) content of aloe Vera gel

Lysine 5-6 Histadine 2.8-3.3 Arginine 4.5-5.5
Threonine 5-6 Aspartic Acid 13-15 Serine 6-7
Glutamic 13.5-15.5 Proline 8-9 Analine 1-1.3
Acid
Glycine 7-8 Valine 6.5-7 Methionine 1.5-2
Isoleucine 3.5-4 Leucine 8.5-9 Tyrosine 2.8-3.3
Pheylalanine 4.3-4.7
Source (Shari. N. et al, (2000)

Table 2.3: Vitamins (mg per 100ml) content of aloe Vera gel
B-1 6-7 B-2 6-7 C 47-61
Niacinamide 30-37 B-6 3-3.7 Choline 9.5-11.2
Table 2.4: Enzymes content of aloe Vera gel

Amylase 1100-1600 units Lipase 600-800 units
Proteins 0.11g/100gr Fat 0.09g/100gr
Ash 0.25% Crude 0.10%
fiber
Calories 0.33g/100gr
2.1.5 Use of Aloe Vera gel

The Aloe Vera plant has been known and used for centuries for its health, beauty, medicinal and
skin care properties. Antiseptic effect: Aloe Vera contains six antiseptic agents: Lupeol, salicylic
acid, urea nitrogen, cinnamonic acid, phenols and sulfur. They all have inhibitory action on
fungi, bacteria and virus .Aloe Vera contains over 200 active components including vitamins,
minerals, amino acids, enzymes, polysaccharide, and fatty acids. Generally aloe Vera contains
the following compounds and their purpose [11].
a) Aloe Vera is high in vitamins and minerals

Aloe Vera contains many vitamins including A, C, E, folic acid, choline, B1, B2, B3 (niacin),
B6.Aloe Vera is also one of the few plants that contain vitamin B12.Some of the 20 minerals
found in Aloe Vera include: calcium, magnesium, zinc, chromium, selenium, sodium, iron,
potassium, copper, manganese.
b) Aloe Vera is high in amino acids and fatty acids

Estimates of the amino acids found in aloe range from 18-20 amino acids, with all 8 essential
amino acids. Aloe Vera also includes quite an impressive range of fatty acids like palmitic acid,
Myristic acid, Stearic acid, Oleic acid and Linoleic acid. Aloe contains three plant sterols, which
are important fatty acids- HCL cholesterol (which lowers fats in the blood), camp sterol, and B
sitosterol. All are helpful in reducing symptoms of allergies and acid indigestion.

c) Aloe Vera is great for the skin

It is a known vulnerary (meaning it helps heal wounds) and is great for applying topically to
burns, abrasions, psoriasis and even to bug bites. Aloe Vera acts as an analgesic, acting to help
relieve pain of wounds. Due to aloe’s high water content (over 98% water) it is a great way to
hydrate, moisturize and rejuvenate the skin.
d) Disinfectant, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, antiseptic, anti-fungal and anti-viral

Aloe Vera contain active ingredients are Sulphur, Lupeol, salicylic acid, cinnamic acid, urea,
nitrogen and phenol which are substances that prevent the growth of disease-causing
microorganisms and act as a team to provide antimicrobial activity thus eliminating many
internal and external infections, also active against bacteria. It also helps to treat fungal and viral
infections. Antimicrobial activity of various antiseptic and herbal market soaps was determined
against bacterial isolates present on the skin surface like Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis.
2.2 The Chemistry of Soap

Soap is a salt of a compound, known as a fatty acid. A soap molecule has a long hydrocarbon
chain with a carboxylic acid group on one end, which has ionic bond with metal ion, usually
sodium or potassium. Soaps belong to a class of compounds called surface-active agents or
surfactants, which also include detergents and emulsifying agents. A Surfactant is defined as a
compound that reduces surface tension when dissolved in water or in aqueous solutions. All
surfactants have two basic features in common. One end of a surfactant molecule is usually
along, non-polar hydrocarbon chain. The hydrocarbon end is non-polar which is highly soluble
in non-polar substances and the ionic end is soluble in water.
O
||
-
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-C-O Na+
Non – polar hydrocarbon chain Ionic end
(Soluble in non – polar substances) (Soluble in water)
Soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strong base,
such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an aqueous solution. The process of soap
making is called Saponification. Saponification is a process by which triglycerides are reacted

with sodium or potassium hydroxide (lye) to produce glycerol and a fatty acid salt, called soap.
The triglycerides are most often animal fats or vegetable oils.
Triglyceride + Sodium hydroxide (or potassium hydroxide) → Glycerol + 3 Soap molecules
C3H5 (OOCR) 3 + 3KOH 3KOOCR + C3H5 (OH)3
Fat Potassium Hydroxide Soap Glycerol
C3H5 (OOCR) 3 + 3NaOH 3NaOOCR + C3H5 (OH)3

Fat Sodium Hydroxide Soap Glycerol
In this reaction, the triglyceride fats first hydrolyze into free fatty acids, and then the latter
combine with the alkali to form crude soap. In soap making process, different oils produce soaps
of varying hardness, odor and lathering properties [6].
2.3 Different types oils used for soap production

Fats and oils are esters of different fatty acids and glycerol. The common chemical characteristic
of such oils and fats is that they are composed by units commonly called "triglycerides" resulting
from the combination of one unit of glycerol and three units of fatty acids. They may be
decomposed into glycerin and one or more acids of the class known to chemists as fatty acids.
They may be burned without leaving any residue, i.e. ash. The common physical properties of
such oils and fats are that they float on water but are not soluble in it; they are greasy to the
touch, and have lubricating properties; they are not readily volatile [19].
Fats and oils are divided into three classes: fixed oils, mineral oils and essential oils. Fixed oils
form the main raw materials for soap making as they decompose into fatty acids and glycerol
when strongly heated, and can be easily saponified by alkali. Fixed oils, which include both
animal and vegetable fats and oils, are further classified according to its physical properties as
follows [13].
a. Nut oils
These oils are characterized to be having large proportion of fatty acids with low molecular
weight, especially lauric and stearic acid. Examples of these oils are coconut oil.
Coconut oils, when used in toilet soaps are the chief foam-producing ingredients. It does this
with properties such as its three fatty acids, capric acid, lauric acid and caprylic acid, which are

wonderful for our bodies. In addition, coconut oil is said to have properties that reduce fungus,
bacteria, and inflammation. So, this oil is perfect for effective, clean skin care. The product that
will definitely benefit from the addition of coconut oil is cold process soap.
a. Hard fat
The hard fats contain appreciable quantities of palmitic and stearic acids. Examples of these oils
are palm oil, animal tallow and hydrogenated fats. These oils produce slow-lathering soaps but
the lather produced is more resistant over long periods of time than the nut oils. In soap making,
they are first saponified with weak alkali, and in the final stages with stronger alkali solutions.
b. Soft Oils
These oils have substantial amounts of unsaturated acids, namely oleic, linoleic and linolenic
acids. The soap making properties of these oils vary with their fatty acid composition, and their
physical and chemical properties of the acids. Examples of these kind oils are groundnut, cotton
seed, fish oil and olive oil. Olive Oil attracts external moisture to your skin, helping to keep skin
soft, moisturizing and supple.
2.4 Animal tallow

Tallow is a rendered form of beef or mutton fat, and is primarily made up of triglycerides. It is
solid at room temperature. Unlike suet, tallow can be stored for extended periods without the
need for refrigeration to prevent decomposition, provided it is kept in an airtight container to
prevent oxidation. Tallow consists mainly of triglycerides (fat), whose major constituents are
derived from stearic and oleic acid. Animal tallow is a by-product of the meat-processing
industry, butchers, and slaughter houses obtained by rendering the body fat from cattle or sheep.
Animal tallow is used in soap industries, leather dressing, candle, greases, manufacture of stearic
and oleic acids, animal feed and as adherent in tire molds. Animal tallow is mostly used in soap
production. Most of the market - famous soaps contain an ingredient called ’sodium tallowate’
which is from rendered beef fat. Tallow gives you a super-hard, white bar of soap with low,
creamy, stable lather that is very moisturizing [18].
2.4.1 Physical and chemical properties animal tallow

It is dark yellow oily liquid with a waxy odor; Insoluble in water and less dense than water.
Hence floats on water. The freezing point is 35-45°F. An animal fat contains principally

glycerides of oleic and stearic acids. Exact composition depends on the species and the diet of
the animal from which the fat is rendered [19].
2.4.2 Fatty acid Composition of animal tallow

Fatty acid present in tallow are mysteric acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid
whereas the coconut oil contains lauric acid, mysteric acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid. Different
oils produce soaps of varying hardness, odor and lathering properties. Normally 55-80% tallow
and 15-20 % coconut oil is used in bar soap making with other additive. C12 and C14 soaps lather
quickly but they produce unstable, coarse bubble foam while C16 and C18 lather slowly but lead
to stable, fine bubble foamed [20].
Table 2.5: Fatty acids composition of animal tallow

Saturated Fatty acids
Palmitic acid (C16:0) 26%
Stearic acid (C18:0) 14%
Myristic acid (C14:0) 3%
Monounsaturated fatty acids:
Oleic acid (C18-1, ω-9) 47%
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1) 3%
Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Linoleic acid 3%
Linolenic acid 1%
Source (National Research Council, 1976)
2.4.3 Uses of animal tallow

a) Production of biodiesel
Tallow can be used for the production of biodiesel in much the same way as oils from plants are
currently used because tallow is derived from animal by-products; it has little to no value in
commercial food industries.
b) Lubrication
Early in the development of steam-driven piston engines, the hot vapors and liquids washed
away most lubricants very quickly. It was soon found that tallow was quite resistant to this

washing. Tallow and compounds including tallow were widely used to lubricate locomotive and
steamship engines at least until the 1950s. Tallow is still used in the steel rolling industry to
provide the required lubrication as the sheet steel is compressed through the steel rollers [18].
c) Medicinal
In Germany, tallow is used as a base ingredient in certain salves used by athletes to prevent sore
skins or blisters. Animal fats were an incredibly important component of traditional medicinal
salves, ointments and poultices from Ancient Babylonians, Australian Indians to our great
Grandmothers. Medicinal plants and herbs need fatty acids as a base to help with the delivery
and penetration of their lipid-soluble healing compounds into the skin [19].
F) Soap making
Tallow has a very similar composition to palm oil. It makes a hard long-lasting soap with a light
creamy lather. Tallow is also similar to human fat, and so it makes a great moisturizer. Tallow
soap with a super fat of 6% is a lovely soap for your skin. That means there’s 6% of the oils in
your recipe stay in your bars as oil and aren’t converted into soap. These oils, which found
animal tallow help good conditioning properties, creamy lather, moisturize and create hardness
of the produced, bar soap [18].
2.5 Soap manufacturing process

The soap making process consists of reaction of animal fats and oil with sodium or potassium
hydroxide. The traditional process consists of direct saponification of oil and fats in batch
process. The commercial process consist saponification in a kettle pan boiling batch process or a
continuous process. Soap was manufactured by using batch kettle boiling method until
continuous processes were developed. Now a day, continuous process of soap making is
preferred because of their speed, flexibility and cost economy. The production of soap comprises
saponification (soap making), removal of glycerol, soap purification, finishing which consist of
mixing and homogenization of the soap base with additive such as perfumes, coloring matter,
skin grooming substances and final extrusion, cutting shaping and packaging [7].
1. Saponification
A mixture of tallow (animal fat), oils, sodium hydroxide and salt are mixed in fixed proportion
and fed to a reactor (Kettle or pan) with and heated with steam. Effective mixing and proper

blending of raw material is very important to ensure a consistent reaction. The soap batch is
boiled using steam sparging. The soap produced is the salt of a long chain carboxylic acid.
2. Glycerin removal
Upon completion of Saponification additional salt to the wet soap causing it to separate out into
soap and glycerin in salt water as soap is not very soluble in salt water. Glycerine is very
valuable by product soap, so effective removal is very important process. Upon addition of salt
the single phase soap is converted to two layers. The bottom layer is high level of salt, glycerol
and only small amount of soap while the top layer is soap which is allowed to settle for several
hours. Aqueous solution called lye is drawn from the bottom which consists of most of the
glycerin which is sent to the glycerin recovery plant where glycerol is recovered, purified.
3. Soap purification and drying

The soap remaining in the kettle still contains some glycerin which is removed by adding small
amount of caustic soda in the wash column. The soap and lye are separated. The lye removed is
reused in the process. The top neat soap layer still contains some caustic soda which is
neutralized with a weak acid such as citric acid. The separated soap containing water is further
dried by heating under vacuum.
4. Finishing
Finally additives such as preservatives, color and perfume are added and mixed in with the soap
and it is shaped into bars for sale.
2.6 Method of Soap Production

Various attempts have been made to produce soap by first decomposing the fat or oil into fatty
acids and glycerin, and then converting the fatty acids into the soap by treatment with sodium or
potassium carbonate. Three conventional methods of soap making are generally used in both
large and small scale soap production units [6]:
a. Semi boiling
The soft and hard oils or their blends are very suitable for this process in which the fat is first of
all melted, followed by treatment with a weak 9-10% caustic soda solution followed by boiling
of the mixture. The quantity of caustic soda required for the saponification of the oil is 14-15%

of the weight of the oil. When the caustic solution is added into oil, then saponification starts
when an emulsion is formed as the soap is stirred. More caustic solution is then added in to
prevent the thickening of mass. After sufficient solution is added bit by bit to complete the
saponification and the boiling of the mass continues until the soap was clear.
During the boiling process moderate heat was maintained and each addition of caustic soda
solution must be allowed to react with the oil before the next addition is made. A hasty addition
in the initial stages of the process may retard the saponification, or at the final stages of the
saponification may result in the drying of the soap, while judicious addition will keep the mass in
a form of smooth homogeneous emulsion.
After the completion of the boiling process, the fire is taken off, and the soap is allowed to cool
with little stirring. At this point, perfume and color can be added into the soap. This process is
not suitable for the production of toilet soap, can be used to produce laundry and all other types
of soft and liquid soaps. The process does not permit the removal of waste alkali which contains
the glycerin produced in the soap making process, and hence the glycerin, which tends to
decrease the hardening property of the soap and improves the cosmetic property, is retained in
the finished soap. This method has some advantage over the other two since large quantities of
good soap can be produced within a short time [15].
The semi-boiled process differs from the cold process in the fact that the saponification mixture
is heated to 65 - 70° C using a steam-heated coil to accelerate and complete the saponification
reaction. Dyes, perfumes, and additives are added at the end of the process to prevent them from
evaporating. The process allows the quantity of soda undergoing saponification to be adjusted
before the crude soap is drawn off. It also allows manufacturing waste to be recycled, better
incorporation of the additives and a wider choice of raw materials [16].
b. Full boiling
Full Boiling: The process consists of 4 stages:
 Saponification of the oil with alkali
 Graining out of the soap
 Boiling on strength (clear boiling) and Filling.

a) Saponification of the oil with alkali:

The process is started by putting the melted oil into the boiling tank and running a weak caustic
soda solution into the oil. The mixture is then slowly boiled to start the saponification. When
saponification is completed, the soap becomes very firm and dry with a permanent faint caustic
like flavor on the tongue when cooled. The soap, which now consists of this imperfect soap
together with water in which is dissolved glycerin and any slight excess of caustic soda, is then
ready for graining out.
b) Graining out of the soap:

The objective of this is to separate the waste lye which is a mixture of glycerine produced during
the soap boiling process and excess caustic soda solution from the soap. This is brought about by
small use of common salt in dry form or as brine. The term graining is used here because after
the introduction of the salt, the homogeneous soap gives the appearance of grains. The graining
is complete when the soap is practically free from foam and floats as clean soap on the lye. At
this stage, this sample of soap taken from the tank consists of distinct grains of soap and a liquid
portion which is easily separated.
C) Clear boiling and fitting

The object of clear boiling and fitting is to obtain a pure soap suitable for the making of toilet
soaps, by removing the last traces of impurities from the grained soap. In the clear boiling,
complete saponification is attained and the soap is hardened. During the process, the bottom
layer of the soap is drained out after the graining.
The soap is then boiled with a little water to make it smooth and homogeneous. This boiling
process is called ‘fitting’. During the fitting operation, samples of the soap are taken from time to
time to determine the quality of the soap and the end of the operation. After the fitting, the
boiling pan is covered and allowed to stay for 2-6 days depending on the quality of soap in the
pan.
The full boiled process differs from the semi-boiled process in its various glycerine extraction,
washing, and adjustment operations which occur after saponification. The temperature at which
the mixture is kept under vigorous agitation is generally higher (100°C), allowing a wider range
of fatty raw materials to be used. After saponification the mass is subjected to several washes

using brine. The more intensely the glycerine is washed, the lower the glycerin content of the
soap. By recycling the washing waters drawn off several times, glycerin concentrations in the
region of 15 to 20% can be obtained [17].
c. Cold Process
This process involves the treatment of fat or oil with a definite amount of alkali and no
separation of waste lye. Although it is possible with lot care to produce neutral soap by this
process the soap is very liable to contain both free alkali and unsaponified fat. The process is
usually based on the fact that the glycerols of certain low fatty acids oils (nut oils like coconut
and palm kernel oils) readily combines with strong caustic soda solutions at low temperatures,
and generate little heat to complete the saponification reaction.
In this process, it is absolutely necessary to use high grade raw materials. Oils and fats should be
free from excess acidity because caustic soda rapidly neutralizes the free fatty acids forming
granules of soap which grain out in the presence of strong caustic solution, and since the grainy
soap is very difficult to remove without heat increase, the soap tends to become thick and gritty
and sometimes discolors. The caustic soda being used should also be pure, it must contain as
little carbonate as possible, and the water must be soft and all other materials carefully freed
from particles of dirt.
The process involves stirring into the milled fat in a tank, half of its weight of caustic soda
solution of at the temperature of 24°C for coconut and 38°C to 49°C for the blend. The pushing
of the caustic solution into the oil must be done not only slowly and continuously. When the
solution is being run into the oil, the mixture must be stirred in only one direction. When all the
caustic soda solution had been run into the oil and the mixture stirred for 30 to 45 minutes,
chemical reaction takes place with lot of generation of heat, finally resulting in the saponification
of the oil. The content of the tank looks thin, but after some few hours it becomes a solid mass.
The edges of the soap become more transparent as the process advances further, and when the
transparency has extended to the full mass, the soap is ready, after perfuming to be poured into
molding boxes for hardening, cutting and stamping. A little caustic potash solution is used to
blend the caustic soda solution which greatly improves the appearance of the given soap, making
it smoother and milder [4].

Cold Process differs from full boiling process in various aspects of soap production:
 External Heat and Saponification time
Cold process soaps use the exothermic heat reaction that is created from the acid and base
reaction of the fatty acids (soap making oils) and the lye solution. When making cold process
soaps you may have initially melted your solid oil down to a liquid form so that you can
adequately mix the lye solution with the soap recipe fatty acids. No additional heat is used to
actually facilitate the saponification process. Saponification takes about 18 to 24 hours to
complete. With full boiling process soap making an external heat source is used to accelerate
saponification. The external heat source can be a crock pot, a double boiler or the oven.
Saponification will be complete in approximately 2 hours.
 Cure Time:
Soaps made using the cold process method take about 3 to 4 weeks to cure. This of course
depends on where you live. If you live in a region where the humidity is very low such as
Colorado it could take your soaps one to two weeks to cure. If the soaps were made using the full
boiling process method one week of cure time is sufficient.
 Aesthetics:
Another difference between the two methods is how the soaps look. Cold process soaps have a
more smooth finish. Whereas, full boiling process soaps have a more textured; rustic finish. This
is due to when the additives are added in both soaps. In hot process soaps, the additives are
added at the end of the “cook” time. In cold process soaps the additives are added while the soap
is still fluid giving the finished soap a more smother finish [2].
Due to the above mentioned factors consideration and soap produced easily dissolve in water
increasing with abundant lather, less skill labour &simple process technique, glycerin produced
during the soap making process is retained in the soap and preventing the cracking of soap in this
thesis we are used cold process method for production of bar soap.
2.7 Categorization of Soap

Soaps have been graded in terms of total fatty matter. Soap may be categorized as toilet soaps or
bathing soap or specialty soap like baby (comparatively of high purity), herbal and antibacterial
soap. Bureau of Indian standards (BIS) has categorized on the basis of total fatty matter (TFM):
Grade I (Minimum 76%), Grade II (minimum 60%), Grade III (minimum 50%), and bathing bar
(minimum TFM 40%).Grade I toilet soap should have TFM value above 80 percent, except in
ayurvedic soap. Any soap which has a TFM value less than 55% is not considered as toilet soap
at all [15].
i. Bathing bars Soap

The bathing bar shall be a product containing acceptable surface active agents which could be
used for bathing purposes. One or more of the following surfactants confirming to the relevant
Indian standards, can be used bathing bar Soap of fatty acids. Fatty acid ester sulphonates, Fatty
alkanol amide, Fatty alcohol ethoxylates, Sarcosinates, Taurides, Fatty isothionates ,Alpha olefin
sulphonates, Alcohol sulphates and Amphoterics such as betaines. In addition to surfactants and
perfume, the bathing bar soap may contain other ingredients such as electrolytes, bar structuring
and processing aids, coloring matter, permitted antioxidants, preservatives, permissible
germicides super fatting agents, humectants and such additional substances that are declared on
the label [2].
ii. Baby Soaps

Baby soaps are not much different from ordinary soaps, but they are comparatively of high
purity. Baby’s skin is soft and sensitive. Hence the oil used for making baby soap should be
clean and bleached. No pigments, rosin and metallic impurities are allowed in baby soap and
fragrance materials added should be bare minimum. Free alkali content present in baby soap
should not exceed 0.05 percent.
iii. Medicinal Soap

As per many advertisements medicinal soaps are supposed to contain deodorants antiseptics and
some medicines that cure skin diseases. They say that medicinal soaps are cleansing agents well
as antiseptics. Here soap is treated as a carrier of medicines that is it serves the purpose an
ointment or oil. But we should remember that soap is essentially a cleansing agent. After
applying soap to the body, we should give enough time for the medicine, to be absorbed by the
skin [15].

2.8 Physico - Chemical Properties of Soap

A good soap is biodegradable when it does not contain chemicals that cannot be made to their
natural elements. Neither does it contain chemicals that can be harmful to the environment or
cause undue destruction to the environment.
 A good soap gets dissolved easily and removes stains from the clothes, human skin or
any material being cleaned.
 It gets dissolved in water and produces enough suds.
 It gives a clear and sparkling kind of cleanliness.
 It gives a pleasant smell.
 A good soap does not leave sticky traces on the clothes or on the skin.
 It has a good color that is even and does not streak..
 It does not damage the fibers or textile.
Table 2.6: Physico-Chemical properties of commercial soap in Bangladesh

Sample Moisture Total alkali Total fatty pH of 5% pH of 10%
content (%) (%) matter (%) amount of amount of
soap soap
Toilet soap
Lux 11.30 ±0.02 1.24 ± 0.04 85.10 ± 0.01 9.73 ± 0.04 9.73 ± 0.03
Meril 9.64 ± 0.03 1.24 ± 0.04 73.37 +0.02 9.79 ± 0.02 9.81 ± 0.02
Lifebuoy 11.80 ± 0.05 0.99 ± 0.00 87.23 ± 0.04 9.71 ± 0.01 9.63 ± 0.01
Dettol 10.97 ± 0.01 0.00 ± 0.01 100.0 ± 0.00 9.79 ± 0.01 9.68 ± 0.01
Harmony 9.88 ± 0.00 1.24 ± 0.01 87.75 ± 0.02 9.69 ± 0.02 9.75 ± 0.02
Laundry soap
Chaka ball 21.06 ± 0.04 6.20 ± 0.02 68.33 ± 0.07 9.92 ± 0.06 10.05 ± 0.03
Tibet 570 14.75 ± 0.01 1.18 ± 0.00 72.07 ± 0.02 10.06± 0.01 10.17 ± 0.01
Wheel 17.08 ± 0.07 1.89 ± 0.03 79.37 ± 0.01 10.13± 0.00 10.31 ± 0.02
Tibet ball 15.14 ± 0.02 2.48 ± 0.03 71.40 ± 0.05 10.11± 0.02 10.32 ± 0.02
Source (Ashrafy Habib. et al, 2016)

The quality of soaps depends on their Physico-chemical properties. We can determine the
competency and cleaning properties of soaps by knowing the Physico-chemical properties. The
quality of the soaps in the local markets of Bangladesh assessment shows that; nine commercial
soaps were taken for moisture content, total alkali, total fat substance, free caustic alkali and pH
according to documented methods of analysis. Values of moisture content ranged between 9.64%
to 21.06%, total alkali ranged between 0.00% to 6.20%, free caustic alkali was found between
0.00% to 0.99%, total fatty substance was found between 68.33% to 100%, pH for 5% solution
ranged between 9.69 to 10.13 and pH for10% solution ranged between 9.63 to 10.32 [15]
The production of bath soap from virgin coconut oil (VCO) and NaOH as precursors which
diluted in goat milk at 50-55oC has been carried out. The addition of cinnamon oil gives an
essential fragrance in order to cover up the smell of goat milk. While, Jasmine oil remains to be
known as an additive essence to eliminate goat milk odor. Therefore, cinnamon oil was added to
substitute jasmine oil as an essential perfume to the bath soap. The determination of optimal
condition was conducted by varying VCO volume. Its various volumes were 20, 22, 24, 26, 28,
30 and 32 ml. The quality of bath soap has been tested in accordance with SNI 06-3532-1994
which control the content of water, fatty acid, FFA/free alkaline, unsaponified fatty acid, and
mineral oil. Moreover, pH and its foam height were also analyzed as its benchmark quality. The
result showed the higher of VCO volume will be affecting soap grade as a determination of its
quality. The best soap quality was 30 mL of VCO which contain 67.06 % of fatty acid, 0.25 % of
free alkaline, 2.39 % of unsaponified fatty acid, 16.75 % of water, pH 10, foam height as high as
2.5 cm [13].
Neem oil was obtained from the seeds of the Neem tree, Azadirachta indica, exploiting a
manually operating bridge press, and used to prepare toilet soap. The chemical properties of the
soap were 63.75 %, 0.24 %, 0.06, 1.15 %, 12.6 % and 10.4 as its total fatty matter, total alkali,
free caustic alkali, percentage chloride (% Cl-), % moisture and pH respectively. Due to the
different constituents in neem oil and the favorable chemical characteristics of the soap, it can be
used as medical and cosmetics toilet soap. Such neem soap may act to protect the skin [17].

CHAPTER THREE
Materials and Methods
3.1 Chemicals and Equipment’s
3.1.1 Chemicals
Aloe Vera gel raw materials to produce soap and it also add moisturizing value of soap. Water is
used to dissolve the sodium hydroxide lye so it can interact with the soaping oils to begin the
Saponification process. As the soap cures, some of the water evaporates and makes a harder,
longer-lasting bar of soap. Sodium hydroxide is used up in the Saponification process to turn oil
into soap. Caustic soda neutralizes or adjusts the acidity of the other ingredients in soap and
detergents production. Sodium chloride or table salt will be facilitated draw out impurities during
tallow rendering, thickening agent; provides viscosity to the soap. Oil (coconut, palm and olive)
and animal tallow oil raw material to produce soap by blending the two. They are made of ester
molecules called triglycerides and react with lye to make Saponification reaction. Sodium
silicate and LABSA (linear alkyl benzene sulphonic acid) a liquid substance That serve as
hardening, enhancing foaming and leavening agent, prevent separation or deterioration of
ingredients in the product. Sodium Sulphates help in the binding of the soap chemicals and it
induces the foaming ability of the soap. It is equally a binder and an extender provides proper
flow or solubility to soap, cleans without leaving residue. Citric acid is used to neutralize the
excess alkalinity of soap and adjust its PH. Ethyl alcohol used for acid value test. Hydrochloric
acid used for determination Saponification value of animal tallow oil and free caustic alkali of
soap. Nitric and chloroform used to determination of total fatty matter of the produced bar soap.
Phenolphthalein used as indicator.
3.1.2 Equipment’s
Molder to give the required shape of the product. Electronic mass balance used to measure the
weight of samples. Viscometer used to measure the viscosity of Aloe Vera gel. Refract meter
used for measurement of refractive index and total dissolved substance (TDS) of aloe Vera gel.
Thermometer used to measure the temperature of sample during the process.PH meter used to
measure the acidity and alkalinity of aloe Vera gel, animal tallow oil and soap. Oven used to dry
sample in required temperature during determination of moisture content raw material and
product. Water bath is used to incubate (heat) samples in water at a constant temperature over a

long period of time during soap preparation. Spoon used to determine the amount of salt during
animal fat rendering process. Refrigerator used to extend the shelf life of perishable and heat-
sensitive sample. We used to keep for aloe Vera gel. A sharp knife used for chopping or slicing
animal fat and removing unwanted parts. It also used for removing trimming parts of aloe Vera
leaf during gel extraction. Magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs
a rotating magnetic field to cause a stir bar immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus
stirring it. We use magnetic stirrer in oil blending and Saponification reaction. Burette is an
apparatus used in quantitative chemical analysis to measure the volume of a liquid or a gas. It
consists of a graduated glass tube with a stopcock at one end. Burette used in determining the
free caustic alkali test of our soap. A Disperser is a single shaft mixer used to break apart or
dissolve solid aloe Vera gel in to uniform liquid. A plastic container is used to collect aloe Vera
gel and animal tallow. Beaker is used to mix and heat liquids with water bath during soap
preparation. Stew pot used for rendering of animal fat.
3.2 Method
3.2.1 Raw Material Collection and Preparation
3.2.1.1 Collection animal fat and Rendering of Tallow for Soap
Animal fats were collected from butchers around Bahir Dar city. After collecting, tallow was
prepared and characterized by rendering. "Rendering" simply means melting the fat to separate it
from the meat, gristle, and other impurities. The animal fat was trimmed, removed unwanted part
of it and cut into smaller chunks by using sharp edge knife. The fat was dumped into a big stew
pot, no more than half full, to accommodate some expansion of the suet as it heats or bubbles and
water was added just enough to cover the tallow. For every pound of fat about one tablespoon of
salt was added to help separate the impurities from the mixture. The water keeps it from burning
and the salt helps to draw out impurities. The mixture was heated to boiling, and then reduced
the heat to a low simmer kept just below the boiling point of water. The chunks was started to
release liquid fat. The mixture was continued to simmer, stirring often, until the mixture is just
melted. The fat was melted for 30 minutes. The tallow was strained from chunks of meat, gristle
and other impurities with no more attached tallow to them, by using muslin cloth. The tallow was
mashed to get every last drop of liquid fat out at that stage. The tallow was got golden brown in
color with a soft texture. The liquid was poured into a large bowl through a muslin cloth and
refrigerated overnight. It was formed into a large white disc on top while the water was at the
bottom. The tallow was unmolded; unwanted sediments were removed by using spoon and later,
the required amount of tallow is melting for each soap making
a) Collecting fat b) melting fat c) animal tallow d) tallow oil

Fig 3.1: Animal tallow rendering process
3.2.1.2 Characterizations of animal tallow oil

A. Saponification Value determination
2g of the tallow oil sample was added to a volumetric flask with 20ml of 97 % ethanol and 20 ml
of 0.1 N NaOH and was then attached to a cooler for 30 minutes to ensure that the sample is
fully dissolved. After sample has cooled 2-3 drop of phenolphthalein was added and titrated with
0.5 M HCl until pink color indicator just disappeared. The same procedure was followed for the
blank test by omitting tallow oil [20].
The expression for Saponification value is given by:
(𝑉𝑜−𝑉1)
Saponification value = 40.02N * 𝑊
Where V0 = the volume of the solution used for blank test; VI = the volume of the HCl solution
used for determination; N = actual normality of the HCl used; 40.02=molecular weight of NaOH
and W = weight of tallow oil.

Fig 3.2: Saponification value determination
B. Acid values determination

100 ml of 97% ethanol was heated with 10g of tallow oil sample in a volumetric flask until the
mixture began to boil. The heating was stopped and two drop of phenolphthalein was added to
the solution. The solution was titrated with standard 0.1N NaOH to the end point with consistent
shaking for which a permanent pink color was obtained. The Acid value was calculated using the
[18]. The Acid value was calculated using the expression:
(𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 0.1𝑁 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻)
Acid value = 4.002 ∗ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
Fig 3.3: Acid value determination

C. PH Value determination
2g of the sample was poured into a clean 250 ml beaker and 13ml of hot distilled water was
added to the sample in the beaker and stirred slowly. It was then cooled in a cold-water bath to
25°C. The pH electrode was standardized with buffer solution and the electrode immersed into
the sample and the pH value was read and recorded [19].
D. Specific Gravity determination

The density of the tallow oil was determined by using density cylinder. A clean and dry cylinder
of 50 ml capacity was weighed (W0) and then the bottle was filled with the oil, stopper inserted
and reweighed to give (W1). The oil was substituted with water in equivalent volume after
washing and drying the bottle and weighed to give (W2).
The expression for specific gravity (Sp.gr) is [20]:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑊1−𝑊0
Sp.gr = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊2−𝑊0
3.2.1.3 Aloe Vera leaf collection and gel extraction

The other raw material for bar soap production is Aloe Vera gel. The aloe Vera leaf was
collected from south Gondar 200 kilometers away from Bihar Dar city. The gel was extracted
from Aloe Vera leaf by hand filleting method using knife. Aloe leaf was first rinsed the outer
skin well under running water. The serrated edges and skin was removed. Aloe Vera gel is found
in between the top and bottom layer of skin of leaf. The leaf was peeled by running the knife
under the surface. Gel extraction from Aloe Vera leaves, remaining after the removal of its
exudates were cut upon and its mucilage was scraped out with Sharpe edged knife.
Fig 3.4: Aloe Vera gel extraction

This mucilage was stirred vigorously in a disperser (found food engineering laboratory) at speed
700 rpm until uniform gel was formed. To remove unnecessary fiber or impurity the gel was
strained through a muslin cloth and filtered. The Aloe gel was collected by plastic container.6.52
g Ascorbic acid and 22.68 g citric acid per 3.78 kg aloe Vera gel were added to preserve or stable
the gel and finally stored in refrigerator at -2℃ till we used for Soap production.
Fig 3.5: Aloe Vera gel homogenization
3.2.1.4 Characterization of Aloe Vera gel

A. Moisture Content determination
The moisture content of the Aloe Vera gel was measured by oven found in organic laboratory
school of food and chemical engineering. The gel sample was placed in the oven with crucible
and dried for a temperature of 105oC until the weight difference of the gel become negligible.
The difference in weight between the dried and the wet gel sample was the moisture content. It
was calculated by the following formula:
(𝑊1−𝑊2)
Moisture content (%) = *100
𝑊1
Where, W1 is the weight of gel and crucible before drying

W2 is the weight of gel and crucible after drying
B. Refractive Index determination

Refractive Index is the ratio of the Sine of the angle of incidence to the Sine of the angle of
refraction, when a ray of light of monochromatic sodium light of wavelength 589.3 0 A passes
from (defined wavelength passes from) air into the material keeping temperature as constant i.e.
20oC [12]. First the Refractometer (RX-5000i-plus) that found thermo-fluid laboratory was

calibrated with known refractive indices with distilled water (1.3323) at 20oC. Then two drops of
Aloe Vera gel was placed on the Refractometer prism surface and closed carefully. The mirror
was adjusted until the reading become sharp. The instrument was allowed to stand for a few
minutes before the reading was taken so that the sample and instrument came to equilibrium. The
Refractometer (RX-500I-plus) was record two results i.e. refractive index and total dissolved
solid (in terms of Brix).
C. Viscosity determination
The viscosity of a fluid is a very important property in the analysis of liquid behavior and fluid
motion near a solid boundary. Often it is defined as the resistance to flow of a fluid. The
resistance is caused by intermolecular friction exerted when layers of fluids attempts to slide by
another layer. It is measured in units of poises (dyne-seconds per square centimeter), stokes or a
subdivision of poises [11]. The viscometer was used for the measurement of viscosity of the
Aloe Vera gel that found organic and analytical laboratory.
D. PH value determination
PH of Aloe Vera gel was measured by a recording the value in the pH meter that found energy
center laboratory of Bahir dar institute of technology. The pH of aloe Vera gel is indicating the
negative logarithm (base 10) of the activity or the product of the molar concentration and the
activity coefficient of the hydrogen ions (H+) of the gel [10]. Aloe Vera gel sample was taken in
a test tube then the probe (PH meter) was inserted into the test tube and reading was taken as the
pH of the aloe Vera gel.
3.2.2 Soap preparation

Before we begin, our soap-making ingredients and equipment’s were gathered up. The amount of
soap produced is depending on the customer and specific application of the soap produced. It is
not common from one producer to other producers. But every of the produced soap has its own
standard quality and all additives components. In this thesis focused on 250 gram bar soap
production from Aloe Vera gel and animal Tallow with other ingredients. 80ml of 30%
concentration of NaOH solution was prepared which means 56 ml distilled water was measured
into one beaker and 24g sodium hydroxide into another. The sodium hydroxide was added to
water and the mixture was stirred continuously until the sodium hydroxide flakes dissolved.

While the 30 % concentration of sodium hydroxide cools down; 12g Coconut oil, 14g olive oil
and 112g tallow was measured out. The coconut oil, olive oil and tallow blend were heated up to
380C and stirred well. When the temperature of 30% concentration sodium hydroxide has
reached the same temperature as the blended oils, it was poured gradually into the pot of melted
oils and stirred gently in one direction to enhance through mixing of the solution until it reached
a light trace.8 ml of 33% Sodium sulfate solution were added. At this point, the aloe Vera gel
was added and continued to mix until it established trace. Also 8ml Sodium silicate and 4ml
LABSA (linear alkyl benzene sulphonic acid) were added to enhance foam ability of the
produced bar soap and mixed well. When the mixture reached a medium to heavy trace, the soap
was poured into mold. The mold was covered with the lid left for 24 hours before removing the
coverings. Our soap recipes were checked out after 24 hours. The cold and firm recipes were
taken out from the mold letting the soap air. The experiments were repeated by varying the
amount of aloe Vera gel (5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% of the total tallow used) and also olive
substitute by palm oil same amount with other raw material and additive are remain constant.
Finally the Physico- chemical characterization of the bar soap were analyzed.
!
1) mixing of raw material 2) molding the soap 3) soap after curing
Fig 3.6: Soap production process

3.2.3 Characterization of the prepared soap

3.2.3.1 PH value determination
Soaps undergo a hydrolysis reaction in water. As a result, soap solutions tend to be alkaline. The
PH was determined using a PH meter that found research and post graduated laboratory.10% of
soap solution was prepared by 5g of the soap weighted and dissolved 50 ml of distilled water in
beaker. It may help to heat the water to get the soap to dissolve completely. The electrode of the
pH meter was inserted into the solution. The pH reading value of the solution was recorded. This
is carried out for all the cases [16].
3.2.3.2 Moisture content determination

3.0 g bar soap of samples were taken in dried and tarred moisture crucible and dried in an oven
for 2 h at 105°C and this process was repeated until the weight became constant [15]. The
moisture content was determined by employing the following formula:
𝑊1
% Moisture content = 𝑊2 ∗ 100
Where, W1 is weight of sample after drying and W2 is weight of sample before drying
3.2.3.3 Total fatty fatter determination

Accurately weighed 5 gm of soap was added into beaker. To dissolve the soap completely, 100
ml hot water was added. 40 ml of 0.5 N HNO3 was added to the mixture until contents were
slightly acidic. The mixture was heated over water bath until the fatty acids were floating as a
layer above the solution. Then the mixture is cooled suddenly in ice water in order to solidify the
fatty acids and separate them. 50 ml of chloroform was added to the remaining fatty acid and
transferred into a separating funnel. The solution is shaken and allowed to separate into 2 layers
and the bottom layer was drained out. 50 ml of chloroform was added to the remaining solution
in the separating funnel. The fatty acid dissolved in the chloroform is again separated as in the
previous case and it is transferred to the collected fatty matter. The fatty matter was weighed in a
previously weighed crucible after drying. From the difference in weight, the % of fatty matter
was calculated in the given soap sample [21].
(𝑊2−𝑊1)
% of fatty mater = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑎𝑝 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∗ 100
Where, W1 is weight of the crucible and W2 is weight of crucible + Soap after drying

3.2.3.4 Foam ability taste determination

About 1.00g of each sample of soap was added to in 50 ml measuring cylinder containing 25ml
of distilled water and the mixture was shaken vigorously so as to generate foams. After shaking
for 2 minutes, the cylinder was allowed to stand for about 10 minutes. Then the height of foam in
the solution was measured and record. These steps were repeated using bar soaps produced from
each animal tallow oil and aloe Vera gel by varying the proportion [17].
3.2.3.5 Determination of Free Caustic Alkalinity

5g of finished soap was weighed and dissolved in 100 mL of ethanol. Few drops of
phenolphthalein indicator and 20 ml 10% barium chloride solution added to precipitate the
possible impurities of carbonate and silicate .A pink colour of the solution indicated the presence
of free caustic alkali. The resulting solution was titrated immediately with 0.1N hydrochloric
acid (HCl) until the colour disappeared [21].
The free caustic alkalinity was calculated by:
% free caustic alkalinity = (0.4V)/W
Where, V = volume of 0.1N HCl (ml) and W = weight of sample (g).
3.2.3.6 Test for cleansing power

To determine the cleaning property of the prepared soaps, a drop of oil was placed on separate
strips of Muslim cloth. The Muslim cloth with the oil spot were immersed in a separate test tube
containing soap solution (2 g soap shaving with 100ml distilled water) each was shaken
vigorously for 2 minutes. The Muslim cloth were removed and rinsed with distilled water and the
degree of cleanliness in each Muslim cloth was observed [21].

CHAPTHER FOUR
Result and Discussion
4.1 Characterization of tallow oil
1. Saponification value determination
Saponification value was calculated through titration using equation described under Chapter
three. First the blank level changed from pink to colorless at 25.8mL titration volume. The color
at which the Saponification test changed from pink color to red color was 17.3 mL of titration
volume.
(𝑉0−𝑉1)
S.V = 40.02 * N * Where, V0 = 25.8ml of volume HCl solution used for blank test
𝑊
V1= 17.31ml of volume HCl

N = 0.5 normality of HCl
w = 2g tallow oil sample
(25.8−17.3)
S.V = 40.02 * 0.5 * 2
= 85.14ml/g NaOH =181.78 mg/g NaOH

The Saponification value of tallow was 181.78 mg/gNaOH as shown above. This value is
slightly similar to the standard value (190 – 202mg/gNaOH). The value is lower than that of
olive oil (192.0 mg/g NaOH) and but higher than that of beeswax (93.0mg/g NaOH) which are
commonly used in soap making.
2. Acid value determination

Acid value can be calculated using equation below as follows. For testing acid value, mixture
was kept until it changed to pink after 43.1 ml of titration volume added.
40.02∗𝑉∗𝑁
A.V= , V = 43.3 ml of NaOH used in titration
𝑊
N = 0.1normality of NaOH
W =10g tallow oil
40.02∗43.3∗0.1
A.V =
10
=17.32 mg/g NaOH

Tallow is one of the principal fatty acid material used in soap making. It contains mainly
the palmitic, stearic and oleic acids [19]. The acid value was 17.3 mg/gNaOH relatively

similar to the value reported for Albizia seed oil. It indicates tallow oil is advantageous
and recommended for soap making.
3. PH value determination
Using pH electrode the value of pH 5.45 was recorded after immersing the electrode into 4mL of
the tallow oil after the pH electrode was standardize by buffer solution. PH of tallow oil is
recorded 5.45 using PH meter which indicate acidic like other oil that used to produce bar soap.
4. Specific gravity value determination

Specific gravity of the oil is determined by specific gravity bottle using equation described under
Chapter three.
𝑊1
Sp.gr = 𝑊2 , Where: W1 = 8.55 gram mass of tallow oil
W2 = 9.2 gram mass of water an equal volume of tallow oil

8.55
Sp.gr = = 0.929
9.2
The above calculated value of animal tallow oil is Physico-chemical analytical results of local
animal tallow oil. It equally implies that the tallow would have longer shelf life as oil that is
satisfactory for use in soap production. The off-white color, specific gravity(0.929), high titrate
value or acid value(17.32mg/gNaOH) and Saponification value (181.78 mg/gNaOH) results
completely agree with Codex Alimentarium Commission (1999) and ISO (1988) standards for
edible tallow. This indicates that the tallow would be very good in bar soap manufacture similar
to other edible and nonedible oil.
4.2 Characteristics of Aloe Vera gel
Table 4.1: Characterization of aloe Vera gel

No Test Value
1 Moisture content 99.23 %
2 PH 4.82
3 Refractive index 1.3378
4 TDS 3.350 Brix
5 Viscosity 1.359 CP

The Physico-chemical properties of extracted gel, namely; moisture content, refractive index,
fiber content, viscosity, and TDS content were determined to study the quality of gel. The total
dissolved solids content is the summation of all the solids dissolved in the gel, including with
sugar, salts, protein, acids, etc. The total solid contents in the extracted gel affect its quality.
More will be the total solids in the gel; poor will be the quality of gel. Refractometer was used
for the measurement of total soluble solid content. This device used for measuring concentrations
of aqueous solutions and it gives direct reading of total soluble solid content was 3.350 degree
Brix. The % Brix scale expresses the concentration percentage of the soluble solids content of a
sample with water solution taken as reference materials [11]. The Refractometer used for
measurement of refractive index having range of Refractive Indices between 1.3000 and 1.7000
with an accuracy of + 0.0002. It was calibrated with known refractive indices distilled water
(1.3323) at 200C.The refractive index of Aloe Vera gel was 1.3378. It is slightly greater than the
refractive index of water because Aloe Vera gel contains other organic and inorganic substances
in addition to water. Aloe Vera gel with lowest refractive index is the best treatment for
extraction process to produce soft soap which is comfortable to skin. More refractive index
indicates the impurities in the extracted gel.
The moisture content of Aloe Vera gel was 99.23%. This is due to the gel contains about 97-99%
water and can be removed at 105oc. as compare to the standard value (the moisture content of
aloe Vera gel 99.98%) there slightly different due to accuracy the instrument and species vary
that used in our process, but this value is does not affect that much the production of bar soap
and also high moisture content of aloe vera gel is used to produce moisturizing soap.
The pH value of Aloe Vera gel was 4.82 which indicate it is acidic substance. Also the results
indicate that Aloe Vera plants under our conditions are able to buffer acidic PH. This is due to
the presence of different fatty acids like linoleic acid, oleic acid etc. the standard pH value of
Aloe Vera gel is between 4.55 and 5.5 [10]. PH value of aloe vera gel results between standard
values; that is good for to produce bar soap during the reaction with sodium hydroxide [9].

4.3 Physico-Chemical Characterization of the prepared bar soap

The quality of soaps depends on their Physico-chemical properties. We can determine the
competency and cleaning properties of soaps by knowing the Physico-chemical properties. In
this chapter to determine the produced bar soap Physico-chemical properties for moisture
content, total fatty matter, free caustic alkali, foam ability, cleansing power and pH value
according to documented methods of analysis and also we observed those properties satisfied or
not the international standard properties of bar soap.
Table 4.2: Physico-Chemical characterization of the prepared bar soap

Percentage (%) Physico-Chemical Characterization
No Tallo Aloe Olive Coconut Palm PH Moistu Foam Total Free Cleani
w Vera oil oil oil value re (%) ability fatty causti ng
gel (cm) matter c power
(%) alkali
(%)
1 75 - 10 15 - 10.3 12.42 1.15 56.75 1.16 Poor
2 70 5 10 15 - 10.13 12.63 3.4 62.42 0.98 Good
3 65 10 10 15 - 10.1 14.2 5.4 73.66 0.58 Good
4 60 15 10 15 - 9.75 14.85 7.3 76.8 0.08 Very
Good
5 55 20 10 15 - 9.79 21.5 6.8 72.78 0.14 Very
Good
6 50 25 10 15 - 10.12 23.7 7.1 69.56 0.18 Good
7 75 - - 15 10 10.43 11.5 1.07 53.47 1.23 Poor
8 70 5 - 15 10 10.31 12.3 2.2 58.2 1.15 Poor
9 65 10 - 15 10 9.81 13.6 3.5 67.57 0.78 Good
10 60 15 - 15 10 9.92 15 4.8 73.33 0.13 Very
good
11 55 20 - 15 10 10.11 18.3 4.2 70.09 0.15 Good
12 50 25 - 15 10 10.19 21 3.9 71.33 0.14 Good

4.3.1 PH value determination
PH value
10.6
10.4
10.2
PH value
10 10% olive oil

10 % palm oil
9.8
9.6
9.4
0 5 10 15 20 25
Aloe vera gel (%)
Fig. 4.1: PH value Determination
PH is a measurement of the hydrogen ion concentration in an aqueous (water) solution. The pH

values observed from fig 4.1: for the produced Soaps were 9.75 to 10.43; which are comparably
within the standard soap PH range of 9-11.5, which are considered as high and low levels
respectively by the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC).
From the fig 4.1 above shown that the minimum PH value the prepared bar soap was 9.75 that
prepared from 60% animal tallow oil, 15% aloe Vera gel, 10% olive oil and 15% coconut oil
which lower than PH 9.81 of 10% palm oil substitution by olive oil with same amount the above
raw materials. The PH of the soap was decreased from 10.3 to 9.75 as the percentage of Aloe gel
usage increased to 15%. This is due to the acidic nature of the gel which neutralizes the basic of
sodium hydroxide of soap. The high pH content indicated high percentage amount of
unsaponifiable matter due to incomplete hydrolysis from Saponification process fatty acid of
tallow oil with sodium hydroxide. This can be overcome by the addition of weak acid and super
fatting during formulation in fact this reduce the harshness of the soap [17]. Super fatting soaps
with 4-6% neutral oils or glycerin also resulted in the better quality of soaps that were free of
cracks and the prepared soap is not corrosive to the skin and cloth. The maximum value PH of

the prepared bar soap is 10.43 signifying that the soap is strongly basic in nature is not skin
friendly, because skin friendly PH soap supposed to have pH 8.5-10, NAFDAC [8].
4.3.2 Moisture content determination

Moisture attributes the existence of liquid especially water, usually in trace extent. One of the
most important aspects of creating high quality soap flakes is optimizing moisture content. If
moisture is not kept at the right levels during the production process, the product quality
becomes inferior, which leads to waste and losses in profit. The percentage of moisture contents
of bar soap samples from the table 4.2 was observed 11.5% to 23.7%. The experiment shows that
most of the prepared bar soap PH value satisfied the standard limits moisture content (%) soap
Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemical Analysis (10% - 15%). In the above table 4.2 observed that
when the aloe Vera gel increase the moisture content of the produced bar soap also increase due
to high water content of aloe Vera gel by nature. The minimum moisture (%) content value of
the produced bar observed was 11.5% without addition of aloe Vera gel in the recipe, but the
maximum moisture content was 23.7% which contain maximum addition of aloe Vera gel (25%)
and also when use substitute tallow oil by aloe Vera gel up to 15% the moisture content of the
produced bar soap is satisfied standard limits of moisture content (10-15%). The moisture also
affects the lathering and cleansing property of the soaps. However this moisture is reduced with
passage of time to remove dirt from the skin and cloth during washing. Palm oil it makes a
harder bar because it is less soluble in water, unlike olive oil. Palm oil contains very little natural
glycerin, so although it makes nice bubbles, it is not considered a moisturizing type of oil that
used to bar soap production [20].

4.3.3 Total fatty matter determination
Total fatty matter

90
80
Total fatty matter (%)
70
60
50
40 Olive oil (10%)
30 Palm oil (10%)
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Aloe Vera (%)
Fig 4.2: Total Fatty Matter determination
The total fatty matter is one of the most important characteristics describing the quality of soap
and it is always specified in commercial transactions. TFM is a measure of identifying the
amount of fatty matter present in soap or Total fatty matter is the ratio of mass of fatty matter to
the total mass of the soap. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has categorized soaps in to three
grades based on the total fatty matter [21]. If TFM is above 76%, grade I, which is having good
quality. TFM above 60% belongs to grade II and TFM above 50% belongs to grade III.
According to International Standards (ISO), good quality soaps must have TFM above 76%. The
maximum total fatty matter (TFM) observed in the fig 4.2 was 76.8% that contain 15% aloe Vera
gel, 60% tallow oil, 10% olive and 15% coconut oil with other additive satisfied international
standard good quality soap, and the minimum total fatty matter of the produced bar soap was
53.47% which prepared from 75% tallow oil, 10% palm oil without addition aloe Vera gel that
include under low quality soap of TFM above 50% grade III, due to the presence of unreacted
NaOH in the mixture. Dry skin needs soap which is high in TFM above 75%. This re-hydrates,
the skin making it smooth and additionally the high oil content within the soap acts as a lubricant
throughout the day [17]

4.3.4 Foam ability test determination
Foam ability
8
7
Foam heght (cm)
6
5
4
Olive oil (10%)
3
Palm oil (10%)
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Aloe Vera gel (%)
Fig 4.3: Foam ability Test
Foam height could be traced to the type of oil (olive, coconut and palm oil) whose major fatty
acid component is lauric acid which is known for its high foam ability. Usually, the efficiency of
a washing soap is assessed through the amount of foam it is capable of producing [21]. The
maximum foam height of the produced bar soap that contain 10% olive oil shown the above fig
4.3 was 7.3 cm persisted for about 10 minutes and is higher than 4.8 cm that prepared by 10%
palm oil with same amount of 60% tallow oil, 15% aloe Vera gel, 15% coconut oil and other
additive, this foam ability value higher than the literature review 2.5 cm [17]. As it observed
from the table the foam ability of the soaps were increased with the increment of aloe vera gel.
This is due to Aloe Vera gel is a foam boasting agent. Addition of LABSA and sodium silicate
are increase the foam ability and cleansing power due to their surfactant nature. The factors that
affect these foam ability properties of oil the concentration of hardness ions. Due to high
hardness nature of animal tallow oil (75%) is that formed low foam ability (1.15cm) bar soap as
compared to tallow oil (50%) the foam ability (7.1cm). The similarity of fatty acid composition
palm oil and animal tallow oil, the foam ability the produced bar soap of palm oil is lower than
olive oil with same substitution of tallow by aloe Vera gel as observed in the above table.

4.3.5 Cleansing power test

The cleansing capability of various soaps to remove the “dirt” was assessed by comparing the
readings before and after the washing process. Most of the dirt is oily in nature and oil does not
dissolve in water. The molecule of soap constitutes sodium or potassium salts of long chain
carboxylic acids. In the case of soaps the carbon chain dissolves in oil and the ionic end dissolves
in water. Therefore, it forms emulsion in water and helps in dissolving the dirt when we wash out
clothes. Here from the above table 4.2: observed the olive oil is found to have high cleansing
power than palm oil with same amount blend with coconut oil and Aloe vera gel. The cleansing
power (very good) was formed when tallow oil is substitute by 15-20% aloe Vera gel within 10%
olive and 15% coconut oil. While the produced soaps were poor cleansing power when
maximum percentage of animal tallow oil (70-75%), 15% coconut oil, 5% aloe Vera gel and
10% olive or palm oil are used. This is due to tallow contains relatively lower saturated fatty
acids (lauric acid and myristic acids) reduce the cleansing power [3]. When we substitute the
tallow by aloe vera gel the cleansing of the soap improved because aloe vera contains saturated
fatty acids.

4.3.6 Total free caustic alkali determination
Total free caustic alkali

1.4
1.2
Free caustic alkali (%)
0.8
0.6 Olive oil(10%)
0.4 palm oil(10%)
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Aloe vera gel (10%)
Fig. 4.4: Total free caustic alkali determination
The free caustic alkali is the amount of alkali free to prevent soap from becoming oily or that is
not bound as a compound at the time of making soap. Ghana Standards require soaps to have free
caustic alkali of 0.09. The minimum experimental value of free caustic alkali in our prepared bar
soap was 0.08 lower than the standard set, which indicating comparable satisfactory effect.
Moreover, the detected free caustic alkali content of the soap (0.06%) is in harmony with the
Egyptian Standards and for Malaysian soap and less than 1.14%, because of the amount of
caustic potash they used. Excess free caustic alkali causes skin itching and clothes wear out. As
we have seen above fig 4.4 the maximum free caustic alkali is 1.23% which contain 75% tallow
oil, 15% coconut oil, 10% palm oil without addition of aloe Vera gel and also the minimum free
caustic alkali bar soap are prepared from 15% tallow oil substitute by aloe Vera gel with 10%
olive oil, 15% coconut oil. This soap has no effect to use for human skin and cloth because of
low percent free caustic alkali. Due to fatty acid composition of animal tallow oil with sodium
hydroxide is not completely reacting the produced bar soap has high total free caustic alkali
when you used high amount of tallow oil. But as you seen from fig 4.4: when you substitute
tallow oil by aloe vera gel up to 15% the total free caustic alkali is decreased. This indicates the
produced bar soap is comfortable to skin and cloth when the addition of aloe vera gel.

CHAPTER FIVE
Feasibility Study of Bar Soap Production
5.1 Material and Energy Balance
5.1.1 Material Balance
Lye
Lye storage
Water
Tank
Saponification Static
Tallow Wet Soap Spent lye
Vessel Separator
Olive oil
Coconut oil
Crude soap
Water Washing Column Glycerin
Soap Wet soap

Plodding Soap Dryer Neutralizer
Milling Additives
Soap Cutting
and Stamping Weak Acid
Soap
Packing
Fig 5.1: Soap Preparation Flow Diagram
Assumptions
1. The process is an open system
2. The process occurs at a steady-state condition
The soap recipe contains the following oils which are taken from Experimental results.

 60% animal tallow oil

 15% coconut oil
 10% olive oil
 15% Aloe Vera gel
Material balancing is basically based on the law of conservation of mass which stated mass is
neither created nor destroyed. This project is aimed to calculate the material balance of the plant
which has a production capacity 1500 tones/year.
 300 working day in year with three shifts every 8 hour per day.
Capacity 1500 tones/300 days = 5 tons per day
 The process is continuous.
a. Material Balance on Saponification Vessel
Lye solution
Animal fat (M1) Saponification

Olive oil (M2) vessel Crude soap (M4)
Coconut oil (M3)
Material out = material in + generation - consumption – accumulation

M1 + M2 + M3 + lye solution = M4
M4= 3400 + 672 + 384 + 2124 = 6580 kg/day
b. Material Balance on Washing Column

In the washing column glycerine is removed
Washing
Column
Crude Soap (C1) Glycerin (G1)
Spent lye 7%
Washed Soap (W1)

Theoretically the amount of Glycerin formed is 12% of the weight of crude soap. Glycerine with
7% spent lye settle at the bottom of the column.
C1 = W1 + G1
G1 = 0.12 * C1
= 0.12 * 6580 kg/day
= 844.6 kg/day
Now, W1 = C1 – G1
= 6580 – 844.6
= 5735 kg/day
Spent lye = 0.07 * 84 = 60 kg/day
c. Material Balances on Neutralizer

Neutralization reaction
NaOH + H3PO4 NaH2PO4+ H2O
The wet soap after washing column will contains about 0.3% NaOH and 67 - 68% solid matter.
The remaining are water and other impurities. The neutralized soap will contains 31% water,
69% solid and 1% impurities. Aloe vera gel and additives such as LABSA and Sodium silicate
are added to enhance the foam ability of our soap. LABSA (linear alkyl benzene sulphonic acid)
can also neutralize the excess alkalinity of the soap.
Washed Soap
Neutralized Soap
Additives (A) Neutralizer
Salt
Weak acid
Total material balance
Additives + Washed Soap + weak acid = Neutralized Soap + salt

(540 + 252 + 112) +5735 + weak acid = Neutralized Soap + salt
6639 + weak acid = Neutralized Soap + salt
NaOH balance
= 0.003 (5735)
= 17.21 kg/day
From the chemical reaction stoichiometry 1mol NaOH requires 1mol H3PO4
n(NaOH) = m/ M where M (NaOH) = 40kg/kmol
= 17.21/40
= 0.43 kmol/day
Which is equal to the amount of mole of H3PO4?
Mass of H3PO4 = 0.43 * 98 kg/mol
= 42.2 kg/day
From stoichiometry again 1mol NaH2PO4 is formed
So that, n NaH2PO4 = 0.43 kmol/day
M NaH2PO4 = 121 kg/kmol
m (NaH2PO4) = nM
= 121 * 0.43
= 52 kg/day
From the above
6639 + weak acid = Neutralized Soap + salt
Neutralized Soap = 6639 + weak acid - salt
= 6639 + 42.2 – 52
= 6630 kg/day
d. Material Balance on Dryer
The moisture content of soap after drying is 12%.

Water (w)
Neutralized soap Soap (m4)

Vacuum Dryer
Moisture = 30% Moisture = 12%
Solids = 70% Solids = 88%
Solid balance
0.7 * (6630 + 52) = 0.88 m4
m4 = 5315 kg/day
Water Balance
0.3 * 6630 = W + 0.12 * 5315
W = 1351.2 kg/day
5.1.2 Energy Balance for Selected Unit Operations

In process design, energy balances are made to determine the energy requirements of the
process: the heating, cooling and power required. It shows the pattern of energy usage and
suggests areas for conservation and savings.
Assumptions:
 No accumulation of material and energy
 Open systems only
 The type of process taking place is continuous; and
 No change in density of material along the process line.
General energy balance equation
Recall the general balance equation that was derived for any system property, the law of
conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor destroyed, but it can change from
one form to another.
Ein – Eout = Eacumulated
Assuming accumulation of energy neglected for steady state system.
Ein – Eout = 0

Steady State Energy Balance on an Open System

∑(1/2 mv2 + mgh + H) in – ∑ (1/2 mv2 + mgh + H)out + ∑Q + ∑Ws = 0
In our system potential and kinetic energy terms are negligible
∆H = Q – Ws
Q = ∆H + Ws
a. Energy Balance on Saponification Vessel

Assumptions
 The saponification process is cold process at 40oc.
 Working hour = 8hr/day
Q = ∆H + Ws
Where, Ws = 8.5 kW for turbine agitators.
∆H = Hout - Hin
= [m ∫(𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑡)𝑜𝑢𝑡 − m ∫(𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑡)𝑖𝑛]
Taking reference temperature 25oc
40 25
∆H = m [ ∫25 𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑡 +∫25 𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑡 ]
40
= m [ ∫25 𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑡
Where
Cp (wet soap) = 1.22 kj∕kg. k
M (mass flow rate) = 6580 kg/day
Then,
(6580 ∗ 1.22) (40 – 25)
∆H = 28,800
= 4.2 kW
Q = 8.5 + 4.2
= 12.7 kW
b. Energy balance on washing column

Q = ∆H + Ws
The column uses turbine agitator type Ws = 6 kW
∆H = Hout - Hin

Where,
Hout = Hwashed soap + Hglycerine
In the column, the materials heated to 55℃ to prevent solidifying of soap before separating the
glycerine.
55
Hwashed soap = m [ ∫40 𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑡
m = 5735 kg/day
cp (washed soap) =1.22 kj/kg.k
Wwashed soap = 5735 kg/day * 1.22 kj/kg.k * (55 - 40)k

(104950.5)
=
28,800
= 3.646 kW
55
Hglycerine = m [ ∫40 𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑡
Where, m = 782 kg/day cp (glycerine) = 2.43 kj/kg.k
Hglycerine = 782 kg/day * 2.43 kj/kg.k * (55 - 40)k

(28503)
= 28,800
= 1.0 kW
55
Hin = Hcrude soap = m [ ∫40 𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑡
= 6517 kg/day * 1.22 * 15

(119261)
= 28,800
= 4.14 kW
∆H = 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐻𝑖𝑛
= (3.646 + 1.0) – 4.14
= 0.506 kW
Then Q = ∆H + Ws
= 0.506 + 6
= 6.506 kW

c. Energy balance on Neutralizer

NaOH + H3PO4 + H2O
Q = ∆H + Ws
Ws = 6 kW turbine agitator
Where, ∆H is the heat of reaction for this chemical reaction.
∆H = ∆Hrxn = ∆Hrxn (product) - ∆Hrxn (reactant)
= ∑ vp ∆Hfp - ∑vr ∆Hfr
∆Hf value for each compound tabulated as follows
Compounds ∆Hf (kj/kg.k)
NaOH - 469.4
H3PO4 - 1294.23
NaH2PO4 - 1748.1
H2O - 285. 85
Now we can calculate ∆H:

∆H = ∆Hrxn = [( V NaH2PO4 ∆Hf NaH2PO4 + V H2O ∆Hf H2O) – (V H3PO4 ∆Hf H3PO4 + V NaOH ∆Hf NaOH)]
= [(1*(- 1748.1) + (1* (- 285. 85))] – [(1 * (- 1294.23)) + (1* (- 469.4))]
= -2033.95 – (- 1763.66)
= -270 kW
Q = -270 kj/mol
The negative value of Q indicates heat is removed from the reaction.
d. Energy balance on dryer

Mechanical agitation is not required here.
Q = ∆H
48
∆H = m [ ∫35 𝑐𝑝𝑑𝑡
𝑄 = ∆H (neutralized soap)
= m (cp∆𝑡) solid + [mcp∆𝑡 (water) + heat of vaporization of water + latent heat of water]
= ms [Cp (Tsf - Tsi) + [XaCpl (TV – Tsi) + (Xa - Xb) λ + Xb Cpl (Tva – Tv) + (Xa - Xb) Cpv
(Tva - Tv)
Where,

Tsi: feed temperature = 48oC

TV: vaporization temperature = 100oC
Tsf: final solid temperature = 35oC
Tva: final vapour temperature = 35oC
Cps: heat capacity of Solid = 1.22 kj/kg.k
Cpl: heat capacity of liquid = 4.187 kj/kg.k
Cpv: heat capacity of vapour = 4.285 kj/kg.k
Xa = 0.3
Xb = 0.12
Λ: latent heat of water = 225kj/kg
Then total rate of heat transfer (Q)
Q/m = [(1.22) (35 - 48) + (0.3) (4.187) (100 - 48) + (0.3 – 0.12) (225kj/kg)
+ (0.12) (4.187) (70 - 100) + (0.3 – 0.12) (4.285) (35 - 100)]
= - 15.86 + 65.32 + 40.5 - 32.65 – 50.11
Q/m = 7.22
Where, m = 5315 kg/day
Q = 7.22 * 5315
= 0.67 kW
Hence the energy needed by the dryer is 0.67 kW
5.2 Equipment Specification and Sizing

Equipment Specifications
Equipment specification typically includes the determination of vessel dimensions and
description of other internal parts of the equipment. It also involves the determination
of parameters like speed, power and any other operating parameters pertaining to the particular
equipment. The major considerations under equipment specification are:
1. Identification of the equipment
2. Function of the equipment
3. Material handled
4. Basic design data
5. Material of construction

I. Saponification vessel
Duty: To react sodium hydroxide, tallow, oils and lye.
The volume of the vessel calculated as follows
V = mass/density
Mass of tallow = 426 kg/hr
Mass of olive oil = 55 kg/hr
Mass of Coconut oil = 84 kg/hr
Mass of lye solution = 265.5 kg/hr
Table 5.1: Raw materials for Soap Production

No Materials Mass flow rate Density V = m/D (m3)
(kg/hr) (kg/m3)
1 Tallow 426 916 0.24
2 Olive oil 55 996 0.043

3 Coconut oil 84 920 0.027
4 NaOH 87 2130 0.041

5 Water 162 1000 0.162
Total 0.78
Assuming 80% full at operation
Vtot = 0.78/0.8
= 0.975 m3
Taking 15% Allowance
Vtot = 1.2 m3
Approximately = 1200 litres.
Diameter and Height

The most commonly used height to diameter ratio is 3.
H/D = 3
H= 3D

Volume of reactor considering cylindrical vessel

Vtot = (πD2/4) * H
= (πD2/4)*3D
= 3πD3/4
1.2 = 3πD3/4
D = ∛[(1.2 * 4)/ 3π]
= 0.8m
H = 3 * 0.8 = 2.4m
II. Tallow storage tank
Duty: To serve as storage for the tallow.
Description: Vertical cylindrical tank with flat ends.
Material of construction: Carbon Steel.
Capacity = 4.5 m3 per day with 15% allowance.
Thickness: 7mm
III. Lye solution temporary storage tank
Description: Vertical cylindrical tank with flat ends.
Material of construction: Carbon Steel
Thickness: 7mm
Number required: 1
Capacity = 2m3 with 20% allowance.
IV. Aloe Vera gel Preparation Equipments
1. Aloe Vera peeling machine
Aloe vera peeling machines is special designed for circular and elongated
fruit and vegetable peel etc.
Machine capacity 500 – 1200 kg/hr
Machine power = 0.5kw
2. Aloe Vera gel making mixer (homogenizer)
Duty: To homogenize solid peeled aloe Vera to gel.
Capacity = 200L available in the market and it is suitable (Our requirement 80 L/hr)
Mixing power consumption = 0.85kw
Homogenizing speed(r/min) = 3000 rpm.

V. Washing column
Duty: To remove glycerin from the soap by settling slightly inclined way.
Type: column with rings fixed on its inside surface.
Description: Cylindrical and slightly inclined to the horizontal
Volume: 5m3
Inside diameter of washing column: 1.3m
Length: 4m
Material of construction: Mild Steel
VI. Neutralizer
Duty: to react weak acid with sodium hydroxide.
Type: Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
Material of Construction: Carbon Steel
VII. Vacuum Dryer
Duty: to reduce water levels to about 12% in the toilet soap
Type: vacuum shelf dryer
Number: 1
Capacity: 950kg/h with 15% allowance.
VIII. Soap Roller mills
Duty: Soap roller machine is used for rolling of soap
Type: Three roller mill
Roll speed ratio: 1:3:6
Capacity: 950 kg/h with 15% allowance
IX. Vacuum Plodder
Duty: to grind, refine and press soap material into soap bar.
Capacity: 800-1500 kg/hr (Available in the market and suitable for us).
Diameter of screw: 230 mm;
Speed: top 15; bottom: 12-18;
Power: top: 11 kW; bottom: 15 kW;
Dimension: 4350×1200×2630 mm

X. Cutting Machine
Duty: used to cut soaps into cakes and stamp patterns on the soap.
Capacity: the same speed of vacuum plodder;
Soap size (l, w, h): (3-40) x (1-10) x (1-3.5) cm; the length is not adjustable after the
cutter is finished, while the soap’s weight can be changed by adjusting soap’s width and
thickness.
XI. Packing Machine
Duty: used to pack soaps with plastic films.
General power: 3.5 kw
Capacity (bag/min):25-180 (our capacity requirement is 50 bar/min)
Model: zh-320
5.3 Economic Analysis
 Plant Parameters
 Capacity = 1500tones/year
 Number of shifts /day = one working shifts
 Number of days/year = 300
Equipment costs
The total purchased cost of equipments in 2016 is tabulated as follows
Table 5.2: Equipment cost for soap production

Equipments Capacity with Quantity Cost (USD) Material of
safety factor construction
Saponification 1.2 m3 1 69,000 Stainless steel
Vessel
Tallow melting 1 10,800 Stainless steel
tank with coil
Tallow storage 4.5 m3 1 5,200 Carbon steel and
tank API
Aloe Vera 1000kg/hr 1 12,800
peeling machine

Aloe Vera gel 200L 1 4,100

making mixer
Aloe Vera 580L 1 3,800 Stainless steel
storage tank for
one day
Lye solution 1 5,200 Stainless steel
storage tank 2 m3
Washing column 5 m3 1 10,600
Neutralizer 1 m3 1 18,600
Vacuum Dryer 950kg/h 1 6,700
Soap Roller mills 950kg/h 1 3,800 Alloy (Roller)

carbon steel
Vacuum plodder 950kg/h 1 10,000
Cutter 950kg/h 1 690 304 stainless

(50 bar/min) steel
Packing Machine 50 bar/min 1 6,600 304 stainless
steel
Total 167,890
Source for equipment cost:www.matche.com/equipment, Alibaba.com equipment cost
Financial and Economic Evaluation/Analysis becomes necessary to clearly quantify and predict
financial and Economic risks or success of various alternative Plant Design Projects. Before
capital is invested in a project or enterprise, it is necessary to know how much profit can be
obtained and whether or not it might be more advantageous to invest the capital in another form
of enterprise. Thus, the determination and analysis of profits obtainable from the investment of
capital and the choice of the best investment among various alternatives are major goals of an
economic analysis.

5.3.1 Capital cost estimation

From the above table, total equipment cost is $167,890
Direct cost = Purchased Equipment Cost + Purchased Equipment Installation + Instrumentation
and Controls + Piping + Electrical Installation + Building including services + Yard
improvement + Service facilities + Land
1. Purchased Equipment Cost(PE) = 27 * 167,890
= 4,533,030 ETB
= 4,533,000 ETB
2. Equipment installation (including insulation and painting) is 50% of equipment cost
= 0.5 * 4,533,000
= 2,266,500 ETB
3. Instrumentation and controls installed, taking 25% of PE
= 0.25 * 4,533,000
= 1,133,250 ETB
4. Piping installed, taking 65% of PE
= 0.65 * 4,533,000
= 2,946,450 birr
5. Electrical installed, taking 30 % of PE
= 0.3 * 4,533,000
= 1,359,900 birr
6. Building, process and auxiliary, taking 50% of PE
= 0.5 * 4,533,000
= 2,266,500 birr
7. Service, facilities and yard improvement, taking 75% of PE
= 0.75 * 4,533,000
= 3,399,750 birr
8. Land 4-8% of purchased-equipment cost taking 6%
= 0.06 * 4,533,000
= 271,980 birr
Total direct cost = 18,177,330 birr
Direct cost = 70 – 85 % FCI, taking 75%

FCI = Direct cost/0.75

= 18,177,330 /0.75
= 24,237,000 birr
Indirect costs - costs which are not involved directly with materials and labor of actual
installation of complete facility.
1. Engineering and supervision, taking 10% of direct cost
= 0.1 * 18,177,330
= 1,817,733 birr
2. Construction expense and contractor’s fee, taking 18% 0f DC
= 0.18 * 18,177,330
= 3,271,919 birr
3. Contingency, taking 9% of FCI
= 0.09 * 24,237,000
= 2,181,330 birr
Total sum of indirect costs = 7,270,982 birr
Total Capital Investment (TCI)

TCI = FCI + WC, where WC is working capital (10 – 20 % 0f total capital investment).
Taking, WC = 15% of TCI
TCI = FCI + 0.15TCI
TCI - 0.15TCI = 24,237,000
0.85TCI = 24,237,000
TCI = 28,514,117 birr
WC = TCI – FCI
= 28,514,117 - 24,237,000
= 4,277,117 birr
5.3.2 Estimation of Total Production Cost (TPC)

Total Production Cost (TPC) = Manufacturing Cost (ME) + General Expenses (GE)
Manufacturing Cost = Fixed charges + Direct production costs + Plant overhead costs

Fixed Charges
a. Depreciation: (10% of FCI for machinery)
= 0.1 * 24,237,000
= 2,423,700 birr
b. Local taxes :(1- 4% of FCI), taking 3%
= 0.03 * 24,237,000
= 727,110 birr
c. Insurances :( 0.4-1% of FCI), taking 0.6%
= 0.006 * 24,237,000
= 145,422 birr
d. Rent:( 8-12% of FCI), Assume 10%FCI
= 0.1 * 24,237,000
= 2,423,700 birr
Therefore total fixed charges = 5,719,932 birr
Direct production cost
1. Raw materials cost
The total annual raw materials cost calculated as follows.
Table 5.3: Raw materials cost

Roll No Items Quantity (kg) Price (ETB)
required/day
1 Tallow 3400 10,500
2 Olive oil 672 56,528
3 Coconut oil 384 3372
4 NaOH 638 6380
5 Sodium Silicate 112 560
6 LABSA 252 6300
7 Aloe Vera gel 540
8 Fragrance 40 2000
Total 85,632

Total annual raw material cost = 300 * 85630

= 25,689,600 birr
2. Operating labor (OL) Cost
Table 5.4: Operating labor cost

Sr. No. Description Req. No. Monthly
Salary/person
1 General manager 1 18,500
2 Executive secretary 1 3500
3 Production Manager 1 16,000
4 Chemist 2 8,100
5 Chemical Engineer 2 10,000
6 Mechanical Engineer 1 10,000
7 Electrical Engineer 1 10,000
8 Quality Assurance Manager 1 7,500
9 Supervisors 3 6,500
10 Skilled operators 13 6,500
11 Unskilled workers 20 3,700
12 Human Resource Manager 1 8100
13 Administrative and finance 1 7,500
manager
14 Sales Manager 1 6,000
15 Accountant 2 5,000
16 Cashier 1 4,000
17 Purchaser 2 6,000
18 Sales person 1 5,000
19 Store keeper 2 4,000
20 Receptionist and Secretary 1 3000
21 Cleaners 6 1550
22 Driver 3 3600
23 Guard 6 3000

24 Time keeper 1 3,500

Total 68 381,150
Total annual salary 4,573,800
Employees benefit (25% of the 1,146,132
total)
The total operating labor cost = 5,719,932 birr

= 5,720,000 birr
3. Direct supervisory and clerical labor, taking 10% of operating labor
= 0.1 * 5,719,932
= 571,993 birr
4. Utilities (U) 20 – 25% FCI, taking 24% of FCI
= 0.24 * 24,237,000
= 5,816,880 birr
5. Maintenance and repairs (M) (2-10% of FCI), taking 4% of FCI
= 0.04 * 24,237,000
= 969,480 birr
6. Operating supplies (OS) , 10% of maintenance and repairs
= 0.1 * 969,480
= 96,948 birr
7. Laboratory charges, 15% operating labor
= 0.15 * 5,719,932
= 857,989 birr
Total direct production cost = 39,625,874 birr
Plant –overhead cost;
= 50-70% of (OL+ OS + M), Assume 60%
= 0.5 * (5,719,932 + 96,948 + 969,480)
= 6,786,360 birr
Manufacturing cost = fixed charge + direct cost + plant overhead
= 5,719,932 + 39,625,874 + 6,786,360
= 52,132,166 birr

General expenses (GE)

a. Administration cost :( 40-60% of OL), Assume 45% OL
= 0.45 * 5,719,932
= 2,573,969 birr
b. Distribution and selling costs (20 - 30% of FCI), Assuming 15% FCI
= 0.23 * 24,237,000
= 5,574,510 birr
c. Research and development costs, 5% FCI
= 0.05 * 24,237,000
= 1,143,986 birr
d. Financing (interest) is 0 – 10% of TCI, taking 5%,
= 0.05 * 28,514,117
= 1,425,705 birr
The general expenses = 10,863,592 birr
Therefore Total production costs = MC + GE
= 52,132,166 + 10,863,592
= 62,995,758 birr
5.3.3 Profitability analysis

Plant capacity = 1500tones/year
= 1,500,000 kg/year
= 6,000,000 soap bar/year
The selling price of most commonly used 250 gram bar soap in Ethiopian market is 10 – 25 birr
We set our soap price 12 ETB/bar.
Total income in = (6,000,000 soap bar/year) * (12 ETB/bar)
= 72,000,000 birr/year
Gross income = Total income – Total production cost
= 72,000,000 - 62,995,758
= 9,004,241 birr
Total Profit before depreciation and taxes = 9,004,241 birr
Depreciation = 2,423,700 birr

Profit after depreciation = Gross income – Depreciation

= 27,697,314 - 2,423,700
= 6,580,541 birr
Net profit = Profit after depreciation - Tax
Assuming tax 34% of gross income;
Tax = 0.34 * 6,580,541
= 2,237,383 birr
Net profit = 6,580,541 - 2,237,383
= 4,343,157 birr
Now we can see the feasibility by Rate of return (ROR)
Net Profit
ROR = Total Capital Investment
4,343,157
= 28,514,117
= 15.23%
Depreciable fixed capital investment
Payback Period = After tax cash flow
𝐹𝐶𝐼
= 𝑁𝑃+𝑑
24,237,000
= 4,343,157 +2,423,700
24,237,000
= 6,766,857
= 3.58 years
5.4 Site Selection and Plant Layout

5.4.1 Site Selection
The geographical location of the plant has a strong influence on the success or failure of the
plant. It has a crucial effect on the profitability of a project, and the scope for future expansion.
In order to make the design project realistic, the aspect of site selection must be given
consideration. By considering the following major constraints we selected Bahir Dar city is
suitable location for our plant. Factors that must be considered in site selection are as follows;

1. Raw Material
The main raw materials for the bar soap plant are tallow and Sodium hydroxide. The source of
raw material is one of the most important factors influencing the selection of a plant site. This is
particularly true if large volumes of raw materials are consumed, because location near the raw
materials source allowed considerable reduction in transportation and storage charges. Bahir Dar
city is selected as a location for this plant since it is one of the largest city in Ethiopia and its
people are higher consumer of meat products. There are many abattoir and Boucher houses in
Bahir Dar city so that enough amount of animal fat will be collected for our plant. NaOH, other
oils and additives can easily be imported for the purpose of soap production.
2. Market
The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost of product
distribution and the time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an important
consideration in the selection of a plant site, because the buyer usually finds it advantageous to
purchase from nearby sources. It should be noted that markets are needed for by products as well
as for the major final products. The demand for soap in our country is no doubt that increasing
dramatically from time to time. The existing soap factories in the country, on the average, cover
54 per cent of the supply of the product. The remaining demand meets by import from other
countries.
3. Utilities
Power and steam are required in soap plants, and fuel is ordinarily required to supply these
utilities. Consequently, power and fuel can be combined as one major factor in the choice of a
plant site. In soap plant steam is required from boiler so furnace oil or natural gas required
operating the boiler.
4. Climate
This is considered a very important factor when choosing a location for the plant. Generally,
adverse climate conditions at a plant site will increase cost. Bahir Dar has two major seasons
(dry and rainy seasons) which is common to all the possible plant location. This factor thus
favors the possible plant location.

5. Transportation Facilities
Water railroads and high ways are the common means of transportation used by industrial
concerns. The kind and amount of products and raw materials determine the most suitable type
of transportation facilities. In any case, careful attention should be given to local freight rates and
existing railroad lines. The proximity to railroad centers and the possibility of canal, river, lake
or ocean transport must be considered.
6. Labor Supply
The type and supply of labor available in the vicinity of a proposed plant site must be examined.
Consideration should be given to prevailing pay rates restriction on number of hours worked per
week, competing industries that can cause dissatisfaction or high turnover rates among the
workers racial problem and variations in the skill and intelligence of the workers.
7. Taxation and Legal Restrictions

State and local tax rates on property, income, unemployment insurance and similar items vary
from one location to another. Similarly, local regulations on zoning, building codes, nuisance
aspects, and transportation facilities can have a major influence on the final choice of the plant
site. In fact, zoning difficulties can often be much more important in terms of cost and time
delays than many of the factors discussed in the preceding sections.
8. Local Community Consideration

It is important to locate the plant in a safe community and where it is accepted. The community
should also be able to provide adequate facilities for plant personnel such as schools, banks,
housing, and recreational and cultural facilities. Since Bahir Dar is the regional capital; schools,
banks, housing and other recreational facilities are present with more to be created upon the
establishment of the plant thus making it a favorable location.
9. Environmental impact assessment

For providing of a high level of protection of the environment and to contribute to the integration
of sustainable development, environmental considerations and assessment are necessary. The
industry has been proactive in the development of management systems, operational practices
and engineering technology targeted at minimizing environmental impact, and this has
significantly reduced the number of environmental incidents.

5.4.2 Plant Layout
Security
Police House
Office
Raw Material Main Soap

storage production Plant
Cafeteria
Future Expansion Area
Toilet and Shower Security
Fig 5.2: Plant Layout

CHATER SIX
Conclusion and Recommendation
6.1 Conclusion
Soap was prepared using all varieties of oils including that of all the various blends of oils. In
this thesis work, the production of bar soap from animal tallow oil and aloe Vera gel as raw
material with olive, coconut and palm oil by direct saponification, those raw material contain
important fatty acids that involved saponification reaction with sodium hydroxide in soap
making and it is evaluated for moisture content (%), pH value, total fatty matter, free caustic
alkali, cleansing power and foam ability of the produced bar soap. The production of bar soap
was performed by cold process. The effect of the proportion of animal tallow oil with aloe Vera
gel and olive oil to palm oil on the bar soap quality were determined. From recorded data
observed the best blend was found out to be 60% animal tallow oil, 15% aloe Vera gel, 10%
olive oil and 15% coconut oil with other additive. Its TFM value was found to be 76.8% ,9.75
PH, 14.85% moisture content, 7.3 cm foam ability, 0.08% free caustic alkali and very good
cleansing power value, which lies in the range of good quality soaps. From the Physico-
chemical characterization, except the PH value and free caustic alkali other properties of the
prepared bar soap were increased, which indicates the quality of soap also increase when
substitute animal tallow oil by aloe Vera gel up to 15%. A plant for the production of bar soap
from aloe vera gel and animal tallow with a capacity of 1500 tonnes per annum. The project is
financially viable with a rate of return (ROR) of 15.23% and a payback period of 3.58 years.

6.2 Recommendation
By considering all activities, it needs to forward some recommendations which are not
successfully done in the work of this thesis due to the lack of opportunities to have well smart
working environment. During our work we have faced many problems the absence of chemicals
like sodium tripolyposphate to increase the softening of soap and equipments like a jacketed
agitator reactor to heat and cool with well mixing process. The saponification process was
carried out by beaker with manual mixing, affects the speed of saponification and the well
mixing of oils and caustic soda. This results incomplete saponification and raises the PH value,
low total fatty matter and high total free caustic alkali of soap. We want to recommend that the
soap should prepare with desired perfume/fragrance as additive which enhances pleasant odor of
the produced bar soap. Absence of fragrance, the prepared soap has not that much pleasant odor.
To determine the performance of cleansing power of the prepared bar we use simply observe the
difference between the dirty cloth and washed cloth in our naked eye. But this not true
performance evaluation of the soap. So the performance evaluation cleansing power of soap
should further study using spectrophotometer. Due to the hardness nature of animal tallow oil
when use large amount, the cleansing power getting poor and low foam ability of the produced
bar soap. It is not recommended to use tallow above 60% of the total oil requirement for the
recipe.

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Bar Soap Production, Characterization

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Advisor: Mr. Kefale Wagaw

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, June 2010 E.C.

Mr. Kefale Wagaw …………………. …………….

Name of student Signature Date

Sahlu Mhiret ………….. ………….

Meketaye Abera ……………. ………….

Tebelay Liknaw …………….. …………..

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page i

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page ii

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page iii

2.7 Categorization of Soap ........................................................................................................ 17

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page v

4.3.6 Total free caustic alkali determination .................................................................... 40

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Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page vii

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page viii

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page 1

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page 2

1.2 Problem of statement

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page 3

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page 4

2.1.1 Origin and Distribution of Aloe Vera plant

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2.1.3 Physico-chemical properties of Aloe Vera Gel

Table 2.1: Physico-chemical properties of Aloe vera gel

2.1.4 Chemical composition of Aloe Vera gel

Table 2.2: Amino acid (ppm) content of aloe Vera gel

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page 6

Table 2.4: Enzymes content of aloe Vera gel

2.1.5 Use of Aloe Vera gel

a) Aloe Vera is high in vitamins and minerals

b) Aloe Vera is high in amino acids and fatty acids

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page 7

c) Aloe Vera is great for the skin

d) Disinfectant, anti-microbial, anti-bacterial, antiseptic, anti-fungal and anti-viral

2.2 The Chemistry of Soap

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C3H5 (OOCR) 3 + 3NaOH 3NaOOCR + C3H5 (OH)3

2.3 Different types oils used for soap production

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2.4 Animal tallow

2.4.1 Physical and chemical properties animal tallow

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page 10

2.4.2 Fatty acid Composition of animal tallow

Table 2.5: Fatty acids composition of animal tallow

2.4.3 Uses of animal tallow

Bahir Dar institute of Technology Page 11

2.5 Soap manufacturing process

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3. Soap purification and drying

2.6 Method of Soap Production

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a) Saponification of the oil with alkali:

b) Graining out of the soap: