Simple Bending

(Pure Bending Stresses)

Assumptions

i. The beam is prismatic (straight and of uniform cross-section)

ii. Cross section has a VERTICAL PLANE OF SYMMETRY, and the beam is loaded in this plane.
iii. Also, deformations take place in or parallel to the plane of symmetry.

iv. Material is homogeneous and Youngs modulus is the same for tension and compression.

Approach to be Followed in analysis.

a. Consider likely deformation
b. Apply Hooke’s law to deformation and determine the stresses for deformations
c. By equilibrium, relate these stresses to applied loads.

Consider a short length of the beam 𝛿𝑥 with a constant B.M. M, and M alone (pure bending)

The likely deformation is shortening of the top and lengthening of the bottom.
1
Under the action of M, the beam curves to a curvature 𝑅, where R is the radius of curvature.
Neutral plane- this is where deformations do not take place(refer to figure below)

Fibres at the top shorten and lengthen at the bottom. Somewhere in the middle, the fibres stay the
same length. This plane on which this happens is called the Neutral plane. The line where this plane cuts
the vertical axial plane of the whole beam is called the Neutral axis. Also, where this plane cuts the cross
section is called the Neutral axis.

Take the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 the neutral axis and the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 from the neutral axis.

Consider geometry after deformations.

Consider a typical fibre distance 𝑦 from the neutral axis. 𝑅 is the radius of curvature of the neutral axis.
The length of the fibre =(𝑅 + 𝑦)𝛿𝜃
Original length of the fibre 𝛿𝑥=𝑅𝛿𝜃
(𝑅+𝑦)𝛿𝜃−𝑅𝛿𝜃
Hence strain on the fibre = 𝑅𝛿𝜃
= 𝜀𝑥
𝑦
𝜀𝑥 = 𝑅 ………………………………………………………(1)

Thus, the strain is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis

Hooke’s Law
𝛾
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜀𝑥 = 𝐸 𝑅 …………………………………………………………(2)

Thus, the stress distribution across the section is proportional to 𝑦.

To see if these stresses are consistent with the applied moment M, consider the elemental area 𝛿𝐴.
𝑦
Force on the element 𝛿𝐴 = 𝜎𝑥 . 𝛿𝐴 = 𝐸 . 𝛿𝐴.
𝑅

The resultant horizontal forces must be zero i.e.,

𝑦 𝐸
∫𝐴 𝐸 𝑅 . 𝑑𝐴 = 0 . Thus, ∫𝐴 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅
≠ 0.

But ∫𝐴 𝑦𝑑𝐴 = 0 = 𝑦̅𝐴 = 0. Where, A = the total area and

𝑦̅ = the distance from the neutral axis to the centroid.

But A ≠ 0, hence 𝑦̅ = 0. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑.

𝐸
Moment of the force on the elemental area 𝛿𝐴, 𝑑𝑀 = 𝜎𝑥 . 𝛿𝐴. 𝑦 = 𝑅
. 𝑦 2 . 𝑑𝐴
𝐸 𝐸
Total moment, 𝑀 = ∫𝐴 𝑅 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑅 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
𝐴

𝐸
𝑀= 𝑅
𝐼 where 𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
𝑦 𝑀
𝑂𝑟 𝑅
= 𝐸𝐼
………………………………………………………………………………… (3)
1
Thus, the 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑀 and also to .
𝐸𝐼
For a particular section,
𝑬𝑰 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑭𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑜𝑟 𝑭𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 .

Substituting (3) into (2), we have

𝑀
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐼
𝑦 …………………………………………………..(4)

Determination of I
The First step is to determine the centroid of the section.
∫𝐴 𝑥𝑑𝐴 ∑ 𝑥̅𝑖 𝐴𝑖
We can define the centroid as 𝑥̅ = = ∑ 𝐴𝑖
𝐴

∫𝐴 𝑦𝑑𝐴 ∑ 𝑦̅𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝑦̅ = 𝐴
= ∑ 𝐴𝑖

Example:

∫𝐴 𝑦𝑑𝐴 ∑ 𝑦̅𝑖 𝐴𝑖 (100𝑥20)𝑥10+(100𝑥20)𝑥70 20,000+140,000

𝑦̅ = 𝐴
= ∑ 𝐴𝑖
= (100𝑥20)+(100𝑥20)
= 4,000
= 40 𝑚𝑚
Definitions:

(i) The second moment area of a finite area about an axis in the plane of the area is given by the
summation of the second moments of area about the same axis of all elements of the area contained
therein.

Hence 𝐼𝑥 = ∫𝐴 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴

𝐼𝑦 = ∫𝐴 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴

(ii)Parallel axis theorem

If the moment of inertia of an area w.r.t an axis (say 𝑥° − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠) through the centroid is known, the
moment

of inertia w.r.t any other axis (𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑥 ′ − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠) can be calculated form the equation

𝐼𝑥 ′ = 𝐼𝑥 0 + 𝐴𝑑2

𝐼𝑥 ′ = ∫ (𝑦 + 𝑑)2 𝑑𝐴 = ∫𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 + 2𝑑∫𝐴 𝑦𝑑𝐴(= 0) + ∫ 𝑑2 𝑑𝐴

𝐴 𝐴
𝐴

𝐼𝑥 ′ = ∫𝐴 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 + ∫𝐴 𝑑 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑥 0 + 𝐴𝑑2

𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚, 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑.
Relations between 𝐽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼

By definition,

𝐽 = ∫𝐴 𝑟 2 𝑑𝐴, but 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐽 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝐴

Therefore, 𝐽 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦

Therefore, the polar second moment of area w.r.t any point 0 is equal to the sum of 2nd moments of area
w.r.t two mutually perpendicular axes 𝑥 and 𝑦 through the same point.

If the section is symmetrical about any two perpendicular axes e.g., a circular section, then

𝐽 𝛱 𝑑4 𝜋 𝑑4
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦 = 𝐽= ∴ 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦 =
2 32 64

Rectangular section

ℎ ℎ
𝑏ℎ 3
𝛿𝐼𝑥 = 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑦 2 b𝛿𝑦 𝐼𝑥 = 2 ∫02 𝑏𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑏 ∫02 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 =
12

ℎ𝑏3
Similarly, 𝐼𝑦 = 12
𝑇 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Determine the centroid:

∑ 𝑦̅𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ∑13 𝐴𝑖𝑦

̅ (2𝑥3)𝑥1+(7𝑥2)𝑥3.5+(3𝑥2)𝑥1 61
𝑖
𝑦̅ = ∑ 𝐴𝑖
= ∑13 𝐴𝑖
= (2𝑥3)+(7𝑥2)+(3𝑥2)
= = 2.35 𝑐𝑚
26

Use the parallel axis theorem.

3𝑥23 73
𝐼𝑥𝐺 = 2( + 2𝑥3(1.352 ) + 2 ( ) + 2𝑥7(1.15)2
12 12

𝐼𝑥𝐺 = 101 𝑐𝑚4

Choice of Cross-Section for Practical Applications

The choice of the shape of the cross-section will depend on some properties of the material:

i. If the material has same proof stress in both tension and compression, it is sensible to use a
section symmetrical about the neutral axis e.g., circular, rectangular, I-sections
ii. For materials stronger in compression and weaker in tension, e.g., cast iron, use cross-
section where the distance to the other fibre is proportional to respective proof stresses
e.g., T-section, ꓕ-sections.
Comparison of Circular and Square sections

𝑑 ℎ
𝑀𝑦 𝑀. 32𝑀 𝑀𝑦 𝑀. 6𝑀
2 2
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐼
= 𝜋𝑑4
= 𝜋𝑑3 𝜎𝑥 = 𝐼
= ℎ4
= ℎ3
64 12

𝜋𝑑 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4
Area = ℎ2
8𝑀 6𝑀
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑑
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐴ℎ

For beams of the same area (i.e. weight per unit length) and for the same bending moment M,
1 1
𝜎𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ ( 𝑜𝑟 )
ℎ 𝑑
𝜋 𝑑
If the areas are the same, 4 𝑑2 = ℎ2 , 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, ℎ = 2 √𝜋.
6𝑀 12𝑀 6.8𝑀
Hence for a square section, 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑑 = 𝐴𝑑 =
√𝜋.𝐴2 √𝜋 𝐴𝑑

8𝑀
For a circular section, 𝜎𝑥 =
𝐴𝑑

Therefore for the same moment M, the preferable for a large M is the square section.

Example:

A steel beam AC is 10 m long and is supported at A and B, which is 8 m from A. the beam carries a
uniformly distributed load 50𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚 from A to B and a point load at C. Draw the S.F. and B.M. diagrams
inserting key values. If the beam has an I-Section as shown in the figure below, calculate the bending

stress in the beam.

Solution:

By Equilibrium, 𝑅 + 𝑆 = 80 + (50𝑥8) = 480𝑘𝑁

𝑑𝐹
𝑑𝑥
= −𝜔

S.F & B.M diagrams

↺ 𝑀𝐴 = 8. 𝑆 = 50𝑥8𝑥4 + 80𝑥10 = 2,400𝑘𝑁. 𝑚

𝑆 = 300𝑘𝑁
𝑅 = 180𝑘𝑁
B.M: 𝑀𝐴 = 𝑀𝐶 = 0
𝜔𝑥 2 𝑑𝑀 𝑅 180
𝑀𝑥 = 𝑅. 𝑥 − 2
‫؞‬ 𝑑𝑥
=0 ∴𝑥=𝜔= 50
= 3.6𝑚
 1
𝐼𝑥 = 2 { (1000𝑥10−3 𝑥2𝑥10−3 )(100𝑥10−3 )2 + (200𝑥100)𝑥10−6 𝑥(502 )𝑥10−6
12
(20𝑥10−3 𝑥(80𝑥10−3 )3
+ }
12

𝐼𝑥 = (1.0987𝑥10−4 )𝑚4

𝐼𝑥 = 10.99𝑥10−5 𝑚4
𝑀𝑦 (324𝑥103 )𝑥(60𝑥10−3 )
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥
= 10.99𝑥10−5
𝑁𝑚−2 = 176.89MPa

𝜎𝑥 = 176.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

Combined Loading
This can be tension or compression, torsion combined with bending, in many practical designs, cases
arise where the structure undergoes combined loading i.e., combination of bending and thrust or pull.

Bending and torsion, torsion and thrust or pull.

Bending and Axial loading

𝐻 𝑀𝑦
𝜎𝑎 = 𝐴
; 𝜎𝑏 = 𝐼

The N.A will be displaced because the compressive stress will be reduced and the tensile will be
increased by the axial stress, 𝜎𝑎 .
𝑀𝑦 𝐻
Maximum Tensile stress = 𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝑎 = +
𝐼 𝐴
−𝑀𝑦 𝐻
Maximum compressive stress = −𝜎𝑏 + 𝜎𝑎 = +
𝐼 𝐴
Example 2: Example 2: Eccentric loading

Consider a compression specimen. The load P is not applied through the axis of the specimen but at an
eccentricity e from the axis. This results to bending effect on the specimen, and the result is an axial load
P and a bending moment M = Pe.
𝑑
𝑀𝑦 𝑃.𝑒. 32𝑃𝑒
2
Bending stress 𝜎𝑏 = ± 𝐼
= ± 𝜋𝑑4
=± 𝜋𝑑 3
64

𝑃 𝑃 4𝑃
Direct stress 𝜎𝑎 = − = − 𝜋𝑑2 = −
𝐴 𝜋𝑑 2
4

32𝑃𝑒 4𝑃
At point B: 𝜎𝐵 = −
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 2
32𝑃𝑒 4𝑃
At point A: 𝜎𝐴 = − 𝜋𝑑 3
− 𝜋𝑑2
32𝑃𝑒 4𝑃 𝑑
The largest eccentricity to make 𝜎𝐵 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 − = 0. ∴ 𝑒=
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 2 8

𝑎
𝑀𝑦 𝑃.𝑒. 𝑃 𝑎
2
For a square cross-section, 𝜎𝑏 − 𝜎𝑎 = 0: 𝜎𝑏 = 𝐼
= 𝑎4
= 𝑎2 = 𝜎𝑎 : ∴ 𝑒=6
12

Combined bending and Torsion:

One of the most important applications of the theory of combined stress arises in the case of shafts
subjected to both bending and torsion e.g., transmission shafts. Consider a portion of a shaft of circular
cross-section acted upon by a bending moment 𝑀 in the 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛e and twisting torque 𝑇 in the 𝑦𝑧 −
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 (about the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠).
 𝑑
𝑇𝑟 𝑇. 16𝑇
2
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = = 𝜋𝑑4 . = 𝜋𝑑 3.
𝐽
32

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝜎𝑦 = 0. Hence the principal stresses are given by

𝜎𝑥+ 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥− 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2
𝜎𝑥 𝜎
𝜎1,2 = 2
± √( 2𝑥 )2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 ⟸ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠.

𝜎1− 𝜎2 𝜎
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = ±√( 𝑥 )2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 ⟸ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠.
2 2

From the Principal stress and maximum shear stress equations, it is necessary to find which of them
govern the design of the shaft and then select the required diameter accordingly.

(i) For Brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the maximum Normal stress is used.

(ii) For Ductile materials e.g. Mild steel, the maximum shear stress is used.
 𝜎𝑥 𝜎 16
For Brittle materials: 𝜎1 = 2
+ √( 2𝑥 )2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝜋𝑑3 (𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )

𝜎 16
For Ductile materials: 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √( 2𝑥 )2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝜋
(√𝑀2 + 𝑇2)

The allowable working stresses are 𝜎𝑤 and 𝜏𝑤 . Hence the diameter for direct stress.

3 16
𝑑𝐷 = √𝜎 (𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )
𝑤𝜋

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 :

3 16
𝑑𝑠 = √𝜎 (√𝑀2 + 𝑇2)
𝑤𝜋

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠, 𝑑𝐷 = 𝑑𝑠 , hence

𝑀
𝜎𝑤 = 𝜏𝑤 { + 1}
√𝑀 2 +𝑇 2

Example:

A torsion pendulum consists of a solid circular disc suspended by a thin steel shaft of circular cross-
section as shown in the figure below. The disc weighs 445 N and the shaft has a length of ℓ = 50.8 𝑚𝑚
and a diameter, 𝑑 = 3.2 𝑚𝑚. The allowable tension and shear stresses are 110 MPa and 55 MPa
respectively.

What is the maximum angle of twist, 𝜃, that the shaft may have during oscillations of the disc without

exceeding either given working stresses? G = 80 GPa.

Solution:

The shaft is subjected to tension and torsion.

𝑊 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐 445𝑥10−3
Direct stress 𝜎𝑥 = =𝜋 = 55.3 MPa.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 (3.22 )𝑥(10−6 )
4
 𝐺𝜃
Shear stress, 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝐿
𝑟

𝜎𝑥 𝜎
Principal stresses, 𝜎1,2 = 2
± √( 2𝑥 )2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2

55.3𝑥106 55.3𝑥106 2
110𝑥106 = 2
± √( 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2

2 2
55.3 55.3𝑥106
[(110 − ) 𝑥106 ] =( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

[(82.35)𝑥106 ]2 = (27.65 𝑥106 )2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2

𝜏𝑥𝑦 = (√82.352 − 27.652 )𝑥106

𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 77.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎.

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜏𝑥𝑦 > 𝜏𝜔 , thus, the allowable stress in tension is not the critical one but the Maximum shear stress
is.

𝜎
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √( 2𝑥 )2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 ⇒55.6𝑥106 = √(27.65𝑥106 )2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2

2
𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 = 55.6𝑥106 − (27.65𝑥106 )2

𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 47.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎.; which is < 𝜏𝜔 (55.6𝑥106 )

𝜏𝑥𝑦 . 𝐿 2(47.5𝑥106 ). (50.8𝑥10−3 )

𝜃= =
𝑑 (80𝑥109 ). (3.2𝑥10−3 )
𝐺. 2

𝜃 = 0.189 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠