2022

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Prepared By:
Devendra Onem
[email protected]
Lord Buddha Education Foundation
9/28/2022
Table of Contents
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.....................................................................................................2
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................................................................................3
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................3
INTELLIGENCE:-......................................................................................................................3
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:-...............................................................................................3
HISTORY........................................................................................................................................4
GOALS............................................................................................................................................6
GOALS OF A.I............................................................................................................................6
Deduction, reasoning, problem solving:-.....................................................................................6
Knowledge representation:-.........................................................................................................7
Planning:-.....................................................................................................................................7
Natural language processing:-.....................................................................................................7
Motion and manipulation:-..........................................................................................................7
Perception:-..................................................................................................................................8
Social intelligence:-.....................................................................................................................8
General intelligence:-...................................................................................................................8
CATEGORIES OF A.I....................................................................................................................9
Conventional AI :-.......................................................................................................................9
Computational Intelligence (CI) :-...............................................................................................9
Automation:-..............................................................................................................................10
Cybernetics:-..............................................................................................................................10
Hybrid intelligent system :-.......................................................................................................11
Intelligent agent:-.......................................................................................................................11
Intelligent control:-....................................................................................................................11
Automated reasoning:-...............................................................................................................11
Data mining:-.............................................................................................................................11
Behavior-based robotics:-..........................................................................................................12
Developmental robotics:-...........................................................................................................12
Evolutionary robotics:-..............................................................................................................12
Chatbot:-....................................................................................................................................12
 Knowledge Representation:-.....................................................................................................12
American Association for Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) :-.........................................................13
Applications of AI.........................................................................................................................13
FUTURE SCOPE OF A.I..............................................................................................................15
CONCLUSION OF A.I.................................................................................................................16

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

ABSTRACT
This paper is the introduction to Artificial intelligence (AI). Artificial
intelligence is exhibited by artificial entity, a system is generally assumed to
be a computer. AI systems are now in routine use in economics, medicine,
engineering and the military, as well as being built into many common home
computer software applications, traditional strategy games like computer
chess and other video games. We tried to explain the brief ideas of AI and its
application to various fields. It cleared the concept of computational and
conventional categories. It includes various advanced systems such as
Neural Network, Fuzzy Systems and Evolutionary computation. AI is used
in typical problems such as Pattern recognition, Natural language processing
and more. This system is working throughout the world as an artificial brain.
Intelligence involves mechanisms, and AI research has discovered how to
make computers carry out some of them and not others. If doing a task
requires only mechanisms that are well understood today, computer
programs can give very impressive performances on these tasks. Such
programs should be considered ``somewhat intelligent''. It is related to the
similar task of using computers to understand human intelligence. We can
learn something about how to make machines solve problems by observing
other people or just by observing our own methods. On the other hand, most
work in AI involves studying the problems the world presents to intelligence
rather than studying people or animals. AI researchers are free to use
methods that are not observed in people or that involve much more
computing than people can do. We discussed conditions for considering a
machine to be intelligent. We argued that if the machine could successfully
 pretend to be human to a knowledgeable observer then you certainly should
consider it intelligent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The task of completion of the seminar requires co-operation and contribution
of several individuals. We students of 6th semester (Computer) are grateful
to Mrs. for her kind help and guidance in the completion of the seminar. We
are highly obliged to all of them. We thank COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
for providing wonderful library without which the project wouldn’t have
materialized. We are also obliged to all my friends and family for their
support throughout. Thanking you, Yours sincerely, SOURABH SHARMA

INTRODUCTION
The simple definition of artificial is that objects that are made or produced
by human beings rather than occurring naturally.

INTELLIGENCE:-
The simple definition of intelligence is a process of entail a set of skills of
problem solving, enabling to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that
encounters and to create an effective product and must also entail the
potential for finding or creating problems and thereby laying the
groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:-
Artificial intelligence is a branch of science which deals with helping
machines find solution to complex problems in a more human like fashion.
This generally involves borrowing characteristics from human intelligence,
and applying them as algorithms in a computer friendly way. A more or less
or flexible or efficient approach can be taken depending on the requirements
established, which influences how artificial intelligent behavior appears.
Artificial intelligence is generally associated with computer science, but it
has many important links with other fields such as maths, psychology,
cognition , biology and philosophy , among many others . Our ability to
combine knowledge from all these fields will ultimately benefits our
 progress in the quest of creating an intelligent artificial being. A.I is mainly
concerned with the popular mind with the robotics development, but also the
main field of practical application has been as an embedded component in
the areas of software development which require computational
understandings and modeling such as such as finance and economics, data
mining and physical science. A.I in the fields of robotics is the make a
computational models of human thought processes. It is not enough to make
a program that seems to behave the way human do. You want to make a
program that does it the way humans do it. In computer science they also the
problems bcoz we have to make a computer that are satisfy for
understanding the high-level languages and that was taken to be A.I.

HISTORY

The intellectual roots of AI, and the concept of intelligent machines, may be
found in Greek mythology. Intelligent artifacts appear in literature since
then, with real mechanical devices actually demonstrating behaviour with
some degree of intelligence. After modern computers became available
following World War-II, it has become possible to create programs that
perform difficult intellectual tasks.
1950s: The Beginnings of Artificial Intelligence (AI) Research
With the development of the electronic computer in 1941 and the
stored program computer in 1949 the condition for research in artificial
intelligence is given, still the observation of a link between human
intelligence and machines was not widely observed until the late in 1950

The first working AI programs were written in 1951 to run on the

Ferranti Mark I machine of the University of Manchester (UK): a draughts-
playing program written by Christopher Strachey and a chess-playing
program written by Dietrich Prinz.

The person who finally coined the term artificial intelligence and is
regarded as the father of the of AL is John McCarthy. In 1956 he organized
a conference “the Darthmouth summer research project on artificial
intelligence" to draw the talent and expertise of others interested in machine
intelligence of a month of brainstorming. In the following years AI research
centers began forming at the Carnegie Mellon University as well as the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and new challenges were
faced:
1) The creation of systems that could efficiently solve problems by limiting
the search.
2) The construction of systems that could learn by themselves.

 1960:- By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U.S. was heavily funded
by the Department of Defense and laboratories had been established around
the world. AI's founders were profoundly optimistic about the future of the
new field: Herbert Simon predicted that "machines will be capable, within
twenty years, of doing any work a man can do" and Marvin Minsky agreed,
writing that "within a generation .

By the 1960’s, America and its federal government starting pushing more
for the development of AI. The Department of Defense started backing
several programs in order to stay ahead of Soviet technology. The U.S. also
started to commercially market the sale of robotics to various manufacturers.
The rise of expert systems also became popular due to the creation of
Edward Feigenbaum and Robert K. Lindsay’s DENDRAL. DENDRAL had
the ability to map the complex structures of organic chemicals, but like
many AI inventions, it began to tangle its results once the program had too
 many factors built into it... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence'
will substantially be solved". The same predicament fell upon the program
SHRDLU which would use robotics through a computer so the user could
ask questions and give commands in English.

1980:- In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial

success of expert systems, a form of AI program that simulated the
knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts. By 1985 the
market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's
fifth generation computer project inspired the U.S and British governments
to restore funding for academic research in the field. In the 1990s and early
21st century, AI achieved its greatest successes, albeit somewhat behind the
scenes. Artificial intelligence is used for logistics, data mining, medical
diagnosis and many other areas throughout the technology industry

1990 :- From 1990s until the turn of the century, AI has reached some
incredible landmarks with the creation of intelligent agents. Intelligent
agents basically use their surrounding environment to solve problems in the
most efficient and effective manner. In 1997, the first computer (named
Deep Blue) beat a world chess champion. In 1995, the VaMP car drove an
entire 158 km racing track without any help from human intelligence. In
1999, humanoid robots began to gain popularity as well as the ability to
walk around freely. Since then, AI has been playing a big role in certain
commercial markets and throughout the World Wide Web. The more
advanced AI projects, like fully adapting commonsense knowledge, have
taken a back-burner to more lucrative industries.

GOALS
GOALS OF A.I
The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken
down into a number of specific sub-problems. These consist of particular
traits or capabilities that researchers would like an intelligent system to
display. The traits described below have received the most attention.
Deduction, reasoning, problem solving:-
For difficult problems, most of these algorithms can require enormous
computational resources most experience a "combinatorial explosion": the
amount of memory or computer time required becomes astronomical when
 the problem goes beyond a certain size. The search for more efficient
problem-solving algorithms is a high priority for AI research.
Human beings solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive
judgements rather than the conscious, step-by-step deduction that early AI
research was able to model. AI has made some progress at imitating this
kind of "sub-symbolic" problem solving: embodied agent approaches
emphasize the importance of sensorimotor skills to higher reasoning; neural
net research attempts to simulate the structures inside the brain that give rise
to this skill; statistical approaches to AI mimic the probabilistic nature of the
human ability to guess.
Knowledge representation:-
Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering are central to AI
research. Many of the problems machines are expected to solve will require
extensive knowledge about the world. Among the things that AI needs to
represent are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects;
situations, events, states and time; causes and effects; knowledge about
knowledge (what we know about what other people know) and many other,
less well researched domains. A representation of "what exists" is an
ontology: the set of objects, relations, concepts and so on that the machine
knows about. The most general are called upper ontologies, which attempt
provide a foundation for all other knowledge.
Planning:-
Intelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them. They need a
way to visualize the future and be able to make choices that maximize the
utility (or "value") of the available choices. In classical planning problems,
the agent can assume that it is the only thing acting on the world and it can
be certain what the consequences of its actions may be. However, if the
agent is not the only actor, it must periodically ascertain whether the world
matches its predictions and it must change its plan as this becomes
necessary, requiring the agent to reason under uncertainty.
Natural language processing:-
Natural language processing gives machines the ability to read and
understand the languages that humans speak. A sufficiently powerful
natural language processing system would enable natural language user
interfaces and the acquisition of knowledge directly from human- written
sources, such as Internet texts. Some straightforward applications of
natural language processing include information retrieval (or text mining)
and machine translation. A common method of processing and extracting
 meaning from natural language is through semantic indexing. Increases
in processing speeds and the drop in the cost of data storage makes
indexing large volumes of abstractions of the users input much more
efficient.
Motion and manipulation:-
The field of robotics is closely related to AI. Intelligence is required for
robots to be able to handle such tasks as object manipulation and
navigation, with sub-problems of localization (knowing where you are, or
finding out where other things are), mapping (learning what is around
you, building a map of the environment), and motion planning (figuring
out how to get there) or path planning (going from one point in space to
another point, which may involve compliant motion - where the robot
moves while maintaining physical contact with an object).
Perception:-
Machine perceptionis the ability to use input from sensors (such as
cameras, microphones, sonar and others more exotic) to deduce aspects
of the world. Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input. A few
selected subproblems are speech recognition facial recognition and object
recognition.
Social intelligence:-
Affective computing is the study and development of systems and
devices that can recognize, interpret, process, and simulate human
affects. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences,
psychology, and cognitive science While the origins of the field may be
traced as far back as to early philosophical inquiries into emotion. A
motivation for the research is the ability to simulate empathy.
The machine should interpret the emotional state of humans and adapt its
behaviour to them, giving an appropriate response for those emotions.
Emotion and social skills play two roles for an intelligent agent. First, it
must be able to predict the actions of others, by understanding their
motives and emotional states. (This involves elements of game theory,
decision theory, as well as the ability to model human emotions and the
perceptual skills to detect emotions.) Also, in an effort to facilitate
human-computer interaction, an intelligent machine might want to be
able to display emotions—even if it does not actually experience them
itself—in order to appear sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human
interaction.
General intelligence:-
Most researchers think that their work will eventually be incorporated
into a machine with general intelligence (known as strong AI),
combining all the skills above and exceeding human abilities at most or
all of them. A few believe that anthropomorphic features like artificial
consciousness or an artificial brain may be required for such a project.
Many of the problems above may require general intelligence to be
considered solved. For example, even a straightforward, specific task like
machine translation requires that the machine read and write in both
languages (NLP), follow the author's argument (reason), know what is
being talked about (knowledge), and faithfully reproduce the author's
intention (social intelligence). A problem like machine translation is
considered "AI-complete". In order to solve this particular problem, you
must solve all the problems.

CATEGORIES OF A.I
AI divides roughly into two schools of thought:
1. Conventional AI.
2. Computational Intelligence (CI).

Conventional AI :-
Conventional AI mostly involves methods now classified as machine
learning, characterized by formalism and statistical analysis. This is also
known as symbolic AI, logical AI, neat AI and Good Old Fashioned
Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI).

Methods include:
i. Expert systems: apply reasoning capabilities to reach a
conclusion. An expert system can process large amounts of
known information and provide conclusions based on
them.
ii. Case based reasoning
iii. Bayesian networks
iv. Behavior based AI: a modular method of building AI
systems by hand.
Computational Intelligence (CI) :-
Computational Intelligence involves iterative development or learning (e.g.
parameter tuning e.g. in connectionist systems). Learning is based on
empirical data and is associated with non-symbolic AI, scruffy AI and soft
computing.

Methods include:
i. Neural networks: systems with very strong pattern recognition
capabilities.
ii. Fuzzy systems: techniques for reasoning under uncertainty, has
been widely used in modern industrial and consumer product
control systems.
iii. Evolutionary computation: applies biologically inspired
concepts such as populations, mutation and survival of the
fittest to generate increasingly better solutions to the problem.
These methods most notably divide into evolutionary
algorithms (e.g. genetic algorithms) and swarm intelligence
(e.g. ant algorithms).

Typical problems to which AI methods are applied :-

 Pattern recognition
o Optical character recognition
o Handwriting recognition
o Speech recognition o Face recognition
 Natural language processing, Translation and Chatter bots
 Non-linear control and Robotics
 Computer vision, Virtual reality and Image processing
 Game theory and Strategic planning
Other fields in which AI methods are implemented :-
Automation:-
 Automation is the use of machines, control systems and information
technologies to optimize productivity in the production of goods and
delivery of services. The correct incentive for applying automation is to
increase productivity, and/or quality beyond that possible with current
human labor levels so as to realize economies of scale, and/or realize
predictable quality levels. automation greatly decreases the need for human
sensory and mental requirements while increasing load capacity, speed, and
repeatability.
Cybernetics:-
 Cybernetics in some ways is like the science of organisation, with special
emphasis on the dynamic nature of the system being organised. The human
brain is just such a complex organisation which qualifies for cybernetic
study. It has all the characteristics of feedback, storage, etc. and is also
typical of many large businesses or Government departments.
 Cybernetics is that of artificial intelligence, where the aim is to show how
artificially manufactured systems can demonstrate intelligent behaviour.

Hybrid intelligent system :-

 Hybridization of different intelligent systems is an innovative approach to
construct computationally intelligent systems consisting of artificial neural
network, fuzzy inference systems, rough set, approximate reasoning and
derivative free optimization methods such as evolutionary computation,
swarm intelligence, bacterial foraging and so on. The integration of different
learning and adaptation techniques, to overcome individual limitations and
achieve synergetic effects through hybridization or fusion of these
techniques, has in recent years contributed to a emergence of large number
of new superior class of intelligence known as Hybrid Intelligence.
Intelligent agent:-
 In artificial intelligence, an intelligent agent (IA) is an autonomous entity
which observes through sensors and acts upon an environment using
actuators (i.e. it is an agent) and directs its activity towards achieving goals.
Intelligent control:-
 Intelligent Control or self-organising/learning control is a new emerging
discipline that is designed to deal with problems. Rather than being model
based, it is experiential based. Intelligent Control is the amalgam of the
disciplines of Artificial Intelligence, Systems Theory and Operations
Research. It uses most recent experiences or evidence to improve its
performance through a variety of learning schemas, that for practical
implementation must demonstrate rapid learning convergence, be temporally
stable, be robust to parameter changes and internal and external
disturbances.
Automated reasoning:-
 The study of automated reasoning helps produce software that allows
computers to reason completely, or nearly completely, automatically.
Although automated reasoning is considered a sub-field of artificial
 intelligence, it also has connections with theoretical computer science, and
even philosophy.
Data mining:-
 Data mining (the analysis step of the "Knowledge Discovery in Databases"
process, or KDD), an interdisciplinary subfield of computer science, is the
computational process of discovering patterns in large data sets involving
methods at the intersection of artificial intelligence, machine learning,
statistics, and database systems. The overall goal of the data mining process
is to extract information from a data set and transform it into an
understandable structure for further use
Behavior-based robotics:-
 Behavior-based robotics is a branch of robotics that bridges artificial
intelligence (AI), engineering and cognitive science. Its dual goals are:
a. To develop methods for con- trolling artificial systems, ranging
from physical robots to simulated ones and other autonomous
software agents
b. To use robotics to model and understand biological sys- tems
more fully, typically, animals ranging from insects to humans.
Cognitive robotics.

Developmental robotics:-
 Developmental Robotics (DevRob), sometimes called epigenetic robotics, is
a methodology that uses metaphors from neural development and
developmental psychology to develop the mind for autonomous robots. The
program that simulates the functions of genome to develop a robot's mental
capabilities is called a developmental program.

Evolutionary robotics:-
 Evolutionary robotics (ER) is a methodology that uses evolutionary
computation to develop controllers for autonomous robots

Chatbot:-
 Chatterbot, a chatter robot is a type of conversational agent, a computer
program designed to simulate an intelligent conversation with one or more
human users via auditory or textual methods.
  Internet Relay Chat bot, a set of scripts or an independent program that
connects to Internet Relay Chat as a client, and so appears to other IRC users
as another user.
Knowledge Representation:-
 Knowledge representation (KR) is an area of artificial intelligence research
aimed at representing knowledge in symbols to facilitate inferencing from
those knowledge elements, creating new elements of knowledge.
 The KR can be made to be independent of the underlying knowledge model
or knowledge base system (KBS) such as a semantic network

American Association for Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) :-

Founded in 1979, the American Association for Artificial Intelligence

(AAAI) is a nonprofit scientific society devoted to advancing the scientific
understanding of the mechanisms underlying thought and intelligent
behaviour and their embodiment in machines. AAAI also aims to increase
public understanding of artificial intelligence, improve the teaching and
training of AI practitioners, and provide guidance for research planners and
funders concerning the importance and potential of current AI developments
and future directions.

Applications of AI
Artificial intelligence has been used in a wide range of fields including
medical diagnosis, stock trading, robot control, law, scientific discovery and
toys.
 Hospitals and medicine:- A medical clinic can use artificial
intelligence systems to organize bed schedules, make a staff
rotation, and provide medical information. Artificial neural
networks are used as clinical decision support systems for medical
diagnosis, such as in Concept Processing technology in EMR
software. Other tasks in medicine that can potentially be performed
by artificial intelligence include:
 Computer-aided interpretation of medical images. Such
systems help scan digital images, e.g. from computed
 tomography, for typical appearances and to highlight
conspicuous sections, such as possible diseases. A typical
application is the detection of a tumor.
 Heart sound analysis.
 Heavy industry:-
Robots have become common in many industries. They are
often given jobs that are considered dangerous to humans.
Robots have proven effective in jobs that are very repetitive
which may lead to mistakes or accidents due to a lapse in
concentration and other jobs which humans may find
degrading.
 Game Playing :-
 This prospered greatly with the Digital Revolution, and
helped introduce people, especially children, to a life of
dealing with various types of Artificial Intelligence
 You can also buy machines that can play master level chess
for a few hundred dollars. There is some AI in them, but
they play well against people mainly through brute force
computation--looking at hundreds of thousands of positions.
 The internet is the best example were one can buy machine
and play various games.
 Speech Recognition :-
In the 1990s, computer speech recognition reached a
practical level for limited purposes. Thus United Airlines
has replaced its keyboard tree for flight information by a
system using speech recognition of flight numbers and
city names. It is quite convenient. On the other hand,
while it is possible to instruct some computers using
speech, most users have gone back to the keyboard and
the mouse as still more convenient.
 Understanding Natural Language :-
Just getting a sequence of words into a computer is not
enough. Parsing sentences is not enough either. The
computer has to be provided with an understanding of the
domain the text is about, and this is presently possible
only for very limited domains.
 Computer Vision :-
The world is composed of three-dimensional objects, but the
inputs to the human eye and computer’s TV cameras are two
 dimensional. Some useful programs can work solely in two
dimensions, but full computer vision requires partial three-
dimensional information that is not just a set of two-
dimensional views. At present there are only limited ways of
representing three-dimensional information directly, and
they are not as good as what humans evidently use.
 Expert Systems :-
A ``knowledge engineer'' interviews experts in a certain
domain and tries to embody their knowledge in a computer
program for carrying out some task. How well this works
depends on whether the intellectual mechanisms required for
the task are within the present state of AI. One of the first
expert systems was MYCIN in 1974, which diagnosed
bacterial infections of the blood and suggested treatments. It
did better than medical students or practicing doctors,
provided its limitations were observed.
 Heuristic Classification :-
One of the most feasible kinds of expert system given the
present knowledge of AI is to put some information in one
of a fixed set of categories using several sources of
information. An example is advising whether to accept a
proposed credit card purchase. Information is available
about the owner of the credit card, his record of payment
and also about the item he is buying and about the
establishment from which he is buying it (e.g., about
whether there have been previous credit card frauds at this
establishment).

FUTURE SCOPE OF A.I

 In the next 10 years technologies in narrow fields such as speech
recognition will continue to improve and will reach human levels.
 In 10 years AI will be able to communicate with humans in
unstructured English using text or voice, navigate (not perfectly) in an
unprepared environment and will have some rudimentary common
sense (and domain-specific intelligence).
 We will recreate some parts of the human (animal) brain in silicon.
The feasibility of this is demonstrated by tentative hippocampus
 experiments in rats There are two major projects aiming for human
brain simulation, CCortex and IBM Blue Brain.
 There will be an increasing number of practical applications based on
digitally recreated aspects human intelligence, such as cognition,
perception, rehearsal learning, or learning by repetitive practice.
 The development of meaningful artificial intelligence will require that
machines acquire some variant of human consciousness.
 Systems that do not possess self-awareness and sentience will at best
always be very brittle.
 Without these uniquely human characteristics, truely useful and
powerful assistants will remain a goal to achieve. To be sure,
advances in hardware, storage, parallel processing architectures will
enable ever greater leaps in functionality
 Systems that are able to demonstrate conclusively that they possess
self awareness, language skills, surface, shallow and deep knowledge
about the world around them and their role within it will be needed
going forward.
 However the field of artificial consciousness remains in its infancy.
 The early years of the 21st century should see dramatic strides
forward in this area however

CONCLUSION OF A.I
We conclude that if the machine could successfully pretend to be human to a
knowledgeable observer then you certainly should consider it intelligent. AI
systems are now in routine use in various field such as economics, medicine,
engineering and the military, as well as being built into many common home
computer software applications, traditional strategy games etc.
AI is an exciting and rewarding discipline. AI is branch of computer science
that is concerned with the automation of intelligent behavior. The revised
definition of AI is - AI is the study of mechanisms underlying intelligent
behavior through the construction and evaluation of artifacts that attempt to
enact those mechanisms. So it is concluded that it work as an artificial
human brain which have an unbelievable artificial thinking power.