Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 185 (2019) 172763

Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 185 (2019) 172763
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Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/pharmbiochembeh
Co-treatment of piracetam with risperidone rescued extinction deficits in T

experimental paradigms of post-traumatic stress disorder by restoring the
physiological alterations in cortex and hippocampus
Ankit Uniyala,b, Raghunath Singha, Ansab Akhtara, Yashika Bansala, Anurag Kuhada,
⁎
Sangeeta Pilkhwal Saha,
a
Pharmacology Division, University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, UGC-CAS, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
b
Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT-B.H.U.), Varanasi 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India
A B S T R A C T
Pharmacotherapy and cognitive behavioral therapy, both fail to treat post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a considerable number of populations. The persistence
of traumatic memories and deficit in extinction contributes to the failure of exposure therapy in PTSD.
With the objective to enhance the outcomes of exposure therapy by targeting the extinction window using pharmacological agents in PTSD, the present study was
aimed to explore the effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations in experimentally-induced PTSD-like phenotype in rats. Male SD rats were exposed to
single prolonged stress model (SPS) for induction of PTSD-like behavioral changes. Piracetam, risperidone and their combination were used as therapeutic inter-
ventions while sertraline was used as a standard treatment for 14 days along with extinction training. Induction of PTSD-like behaviors were assessed in behavioral
tests such as fear conditioning, elevated plus maze, social interaction test, and the marble burying test. Neurotransmitters (dopamine and serotonin and their
metabolites), BDNF, proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6), caspase-3, and markers for oxidative stress were assessed in the hippocampus and cortex while
corticosterone and nitrite levels were estimated in plasma. Our result indicated that the SPS paradigm efficiently induced PTSD-like phenotype in rats. Risperidone
and piracetam were found to be effective alone, while their high dose combination, produced potentiating effect in reversing the extinction deficit, behavioral
alterations, altered cortical and hippocampal BDNF, IL-6, TNF-α, caspase-3, oxidative stress markers, and neurotransmitter levels. Plasma corticosterone and nitrite
levels were also found to be reversed in the combination treated groups. Our preliminary study suggests that piracetam, risperidone and their combination restored
the physiological cascades in cortex and hippocampus along with successful suppression of fear memory and a symptom cluster of PTSD-like phenotype in rats. Hence
they could be used as an effective adjunct to enhance the outcome of exposure therapy for the management of PTSD.
1. Introduction failure has been reported with PTSD patient (Kar, 2011; Steenkamp
et al., 2015). Exposure-based therapy mainly aims at replacing the
PTSD is a psychopathological response that comes into the picture trauma conditioned stimulus associations with new and more appro-
as a result of exposure to an extremely traumatic event. Its prevalence priate associations. Generalized extinction deficit in PTSD patients
ranges from 0.5% to 14.5% worldwide (Kessler et al., 2017). Diagnostic makes them resistant towards exposure-based therapies (Davis et al.,
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder's (DSM-5) fifth edition re- 2006; Milad et al., 2008, 2006). Thus, regardless of the glorious ther-
commends the diagnostic standard of PTSD as “an individual presenting apeutic efficacy of exposure therapies the high non-response and
symptom cluster such as intrusive memory or re-experiencing the dropout rates were reported with PTSD (Schottenbauer et al., 2008).
trauma, hyperarousal or heightened anxiety, avoidance of trauma as- The traumatic event associated fear memories have a significant
sociated stimuli and negative mood alteration after experiencing the contribution to the development and progression of PTSD. PTSD patient
trauma” (DSM 5, 2013). Current treatments for PTSD include both feels frightened in a safe environment as the memories of the traumatic
pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy such as exposure therapy or event are revisited. Renewal of fear memory activates the hippocampal
cognitive behavioral therapy (Abdallah et al., 2019; Asmundson et al., neurons which are projecting towards the amygdala and provides
2019; Kar, 2011). The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) contextual information (Jin and Maren, 2015) whereas, the cortical
hold the first-line therapy for PTSD but these drugs are partially ef- neurons regulates the output response of amygdala by top-down reg-
fective against this disorder (Mendlowicz, 2010). Exposure therapies ulation (Bukalo et al., 2015). Hence it could be concluded that cortical
are the gold standard for anxiety disorders but the higher possibility of and hippocampal neuronal input drives the amygdala to form, proceed
⁎
Corresponding author at: University Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, UGC-CAS, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India.
E-mail address: spilkhwal@rediffmail.com (S.P. Sah).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2019.172763
Received 21 July 2019; Received in revised form 20 August 2019; Accepted 21 August 2019
Available online 22 August 2019
0091-3057/ © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
A. Uniyal, et al. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 185 (2019) 172763
and behave with regard to fear memory input and healthy interaction Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, United States). 5% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)
between cortico-hippocampal amygdala circuitry is essential for a and water for injection was used to dissolve sertraline HCl, which was
successful extinction and recall of fear memory (Hobin et al., 2006; then administered intraperitoneally (10 mg/kg). Normal saline (0.9%
Milad et al., 2007; Rosas-Vidal et al., 2018, 2014). The amygdala which NaCl) was used to dissolve piracetam and given i.p. in doses of 150 mg/
critically contributes in the processing of emotions and modulation of kg and 300 mg/kg. Normal saline was also used to dissolve risperidone,
fear response seems to be highly reactive in patients with PTSD, as followed by incorporation of a minimal amount of acetic acid and the
medial prefrontal cortex which exhibits inhibitory control over the pH was maintained to 6.5–7.0 by addition of sodium hydroxide which
stress and emotional response of the amygdala seems to be less re- was then injected i.p. at doses of 0.5 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg. All the in-
sponsive in PTSD individuals (Morgan et al., 1993). terventions were given for a duration of 14 days. Piracetam and ris-
This neurocircuitry involved in the normal processing of fear peridone doses were decided according to previously reported studies
memories gets disturbed in PTSD thus making fear memory to remain (Abdel-Salam et al., 2011; Baptista et al., 2002; Sun et al., 2010).
dominate even after years of trauma. The disruption in multiple do-
mains of emotional memory processing enhances the susceptibility to 2.3. Experimental design
develop PTSD and further maintenance of symptoms (Blechert et al.,
2007; Fani et al., 2012; McGlinchey et al., 2014). The extinction deficit The whole experimental-protocol lasted for 31 days from the in-
and neuropsychological aberration in PTSD patients are further evident duction of PTSD-like phenotype to the day of sacrifice. The induction of
by structural and functional impairments in various brain regions ma- PTSD-like phenotype by the SPS model was performed on day zero
jorly the prefrontal cortex (PFC), hippocampus, and amygdala (Pitman followed by 7 days of the undisturbed period. At the end of the seventh
et al., 2012; Rauch et al., 2006). The low hippocampal volume leading day of the undisturbed period, a brief re-stress was given to animals. On
to the disrupted functioning, impaired activation of the PFC resulting in 8th and 9th, day, the fear conditioning paradigm was performed in
impaired top-down control and hyperactive amygdala, are associated order to install fear and further 14 days of extinction training (with or
with symptomatic severity in patients with PTSD (Pitman et al., 2012; without treatment) was given. On 25th day, elevated plus maze test was
Rauch et al., 2006). performed and the social interaction test and marble burying test was
The emotional response associated with psychological trauma can done on 28th and 30th day, respectively. Animals were sacrificed on the
have long-term cognitive effects and altered cognition is one of the 31st day, blood was collected, and brain areas (cortex and hippo-
hallmarks of PTSD (Hayes et al., 2012). Piracetam is a nootropic that campus) were dissected and used for further biochemical and ELISA
enhances glutamatergic transmission by acting on neuronal AMPA re- analysis. The experimental design is shown in Fig. 1 and the timeline of
ceptors (Ahmed and Oswald, 2010). The recent preclinical report had the protocol in Fig. 2. A total number of 66 rats were used in this study,
also demonstrated that piracetam suppresses neuroinflammation and out of which 56 rats underwent SPS for induction of PTSD-like phe-
improve cognitive function (Tripathi et al., 2017). Besides other notype. Whereas, the results of 3 animals were removed from the study
symptoms, there are coexisting psychotic symptoms like hallucinations, as they fit the exclusion criterion which was performance in any task
delusions, violent thoughts and behaviors in PTSD patients, hence analysis ≥2 S.D. away from the mean. We randomly assigned rats into
atypical antipsychotics are gradually gaining more importance in terms groups as control, PTSD and treatments, comprising of 7 animals
of adjunctive utilization (Adetunji et al., 2005). Risperidone which is an (n = 7) in each group. Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) was given to the
atypical antipsychotic agent, a 5-HT2A antagonist found to suppress the control group. PTSD group was exposed to SPS paradigm thus re-
symptoms of PTSD pre-clinically as well as clinically up to an extent presenting the diseased symptomatic and pathological clusters, suitable
although it did not provide a significant therapeutic relief (Krystal for comparison with other groups. PTSD induced rats received sertra-
et al., 2011). Thus, we hypothesized, that targeting the extinction line (10 mg/kg) which served as a standard group while piracetam (150
window during the exposure therapy, along with suppressing the and 300 mg/kg) and risperidone (0.5 and 1 mg/kg) served as test
symptoms of PTSD could provide a better therapeutic platform for the groups. The combination of piracetam and risperidone were given in
management of PTSD. This combination has been successfully used in a two different groups with low doses [piracetam (150 mg/kg) + risper-
certain population with autism spectrum disorder thus, representing the idone (0.5 mg/kg)] and high dose [piracetam (300 mg/kg) + risper-
high translational value of the regimen (Akhondzadeh et al., 2008). idone (1 mg/kg)].
Hence, the present study was undertaken to target the cognitive system
to enhance extinction and simultaneously managing the symptoms of 2.4. Single prolonged stress (SPS)-induced rat model of PTSD-like
PTSD, with piracetam and risperidone combined with extinction phenotype
therapy in single-prolonged stress-induced rat PTSD model.
The SPS paradigm to induce PTSD-like behavioral phenotype in rats
2. Material and methods was carried out according to previous studies (Liberzon et al., 1997a,
1997b). In this model, the plastic cone is used to restrain the rats for
2.1. Animals 2 h. Immediately after restraining, animals were subjected to forced
swim test for 20 min in a plexiglass container (22.0-inch diameter)
Male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing 200–250 g, were procured filled with 2/3rd water (maintained at 20 °C) followed by a recupera-
from Central Animal House of Panjab University Chandigarh, India. All tion period of 15 min. Further, diethyl ether vapor was used in de-
the rats were housed in a room with 12 h alternate light and dark siccators containing rats, to make the animals fall unconscious. After
periods and food, as well as water ad libitum, was provided. Whole completion of the whole procedure, animals were then kept to their
experimental protocols were conducted between 9 am and 5 pm. respective cages, which were then kept undisturbed for one week. On
Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision on Experiments the last day of the undisturbed period, rats were briefly restrained for
on Animals (CPCSEA) guidelines were followed to conduct the experi- 10 min in order to expose them to re-stress.
ments. The study was approved by the Institutional Animal Ethical
Committee, Panjab University, Chandigarh approval number (PU/45/ 2.5. Behavioral tests
99/CPCSE/IAEC/2017/11).
2.5.1. Fear conditioning paradigm
2.2. Drugs Fear memory expression and dominance were evaluated by a fear
conditioning paradigm as it is an effective technique for the same
Sertraline, risperidone, and piracetam were procured from Sigma- (Curzon et al., 2009). The procedures were taken from previously
2
Fig. 1. Study design. PTSD - PTSD-like phenotype, PIR - Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone, SERT - Sertraline.
published work with some minimal modifications (Noble et al., 2019, intervention was done 1 h before extinction training. This extended
2017). In the fear conditioning paradigm, the “ABB” model was used: extinction training period is very similar to a clinical presentation of a
conditioning was done in context A (plexiglass chamber with black rare multiple day's exposure therapies for PTSD patients. The percent
wall, electric grid floor, and overhead red illuminating light) and ex- freezing duration in each 30 s tone presentation was recorded and
tinction task was performed in context B (transparent plexiglass scored. Time spent on presenting freezing behavior was used as a
chamber, overhead white illuminating light and peppermint oil added measure of fear response during that 30 s tone presentations. The
for distinct odor). On the 1st day of fear conditioning, rats were in- freezing was considered as the cessation of movement apart from
dividually put into the plexiglass chamber to get acclimatize for 2 min. breathing. Scoring was done in a blind fashioned manner by 2 ob-
After acclimatization, rats were exposed to 4 pre-tones (70 dB) lasting servers. The remission of fear was considered as the freezing time below
for 30 s without unconditioned stimulus (foot shock) and baseline 10% of the total time of tone presentation (120 s) (Peña et al., 2013)
readings were measured by scoring the freezing behavior. Immediately
after the pre-tones, rats were exposed to 8-tones i.e. conditioned sti-
mulus (CS) coupled with a foot shock (1 s, 0.4 mA). A random interval 2.5.3. Elevated plus maze
was chosen between the tone presentation ranging between 60 and Elevated plus maze was performed for assessment of anxiety-related
120 s. During the last 20 s of each 30 s tone, the foot shocks were paired. behavior in rats. The whole procedure was performed as previously
After this fear installation process, animals were put back to the re- described (Cruz et al., 1994; Pellow et al., 1985). The apparatus com-
spective cages. After 24 h, rats again underwent fear conditioning prised of two arms. One is an open arm and another one is a closed arm
paradigm but without exposure to pre-tones, the eight tones and shock of dimensions, 10 cm wide and 50 cm long. On the other hand, the
were merged in the same way as on the previous day. closed arms were enclosed by 30 cm wall, while 2 open arms were kept
with no walls. The whole apparatus was kept at 60 cm of height from
the floor. Animals were put one by one in the center area facing towards
2.5.2. Extinction training the open arm. The trial duration lasted for 5 min and the sessions were
The extinction training was performed for 14 days in context B after videotaped for further analysis. The scoring was done for 3 parameters
24 h of fear conditioning paradigm. During the extinction days, only CS separately: as a number of entries in closed arms and open arms as well
was presented as 4 tones every day without the presentation of any time duration stayed in the open arms. The arm entries were considered
reinforcement (US) and this training period lasted for 14 days. Along as rat put all four paws in a particular arm. All parameters were scored
with extinction training, the interventions were given to see the effect in a blinded fashioned manner.
of pharmacological agents on extinction. Administration of each
Fig. 2. Timeline of the protocol. SPS - Single pro-

longed stress, EPM - Elevated plus maze, SIT - Social
interaction test, MBT - Marble burying test.
3
2.5.4. Social interaction test prepared just before use) were prepared. 1 mL of sample was added
Social interaction test was done to assess social withdrawal (File, with an equal volume of ethanol, further 1 mL reagent A was included
1978). A black square shaped wooden box arena (40 × 40 × 35 cm) and then the resulting solution was put for 5 min in ice water. After that
was used. Two days before the trial, the weight of each experimental rat 0.5 mL of 0.10 M freshly prepared NaOH was added followed by in-
was matched to another new target rat (not from this study). The rats cubation for 5 h, protecting from light at 0 °C. Further, the 2 mL of
were acclimatized in arena for 10 min a day before testing. On testing freshly prepared buffer (0.20 M boric acid, 0.20 M KCl and 0.20 M KOH,
day, the rats were put one by one inside the arena for 10 min, and social pH 9.4) was added into the above solution followed by the addition of
interaction session (10 min) began by introducing the target weight reagent B and reagent C. This final mixture was kept for 10 min in a
matched rat into the arena. All rats were used a single time for the water bath (20 ± 2 °C). Reading was taken at 650 nm (UV–VIS Spec-
study. After each session, 70% ethanol was used to clean the arena. The trophotometer, Perkin Elmer, Lambda 20).
social interaction sessions were videotaped and the scoring was per-
formed. The time in which the experimental rats were found to be ac- 2.6.3. Estimation of plasma nitrite
tively engaged in social interaction with target rats was measured. The The assay for nitrite was done as observed by the nitrite production
active social interaction time was measured by summing up the time indicated by Griess reagent (1:1 solution of 1% sulfanilamide in 5%
spent on behaviors such as contact behavior (physical contact: genital phosphoric acid and 0.1% naphthylamine diamine dihydrochloric acid
exploration, sniffing along with direct body touch), following, boxing, in water). The 500 μL of Greiss reagent was added to 100 μL of a plasma
sniffing, crawling and grooming with the target male rat. Whereas, zero sample. Absorbance readings were taken at 546 nm (Perkin Elmer
contact time was considered as non-social interaction time and counted UV–VIS Spectrophotometer, Lambda 20) (Green et al., 1982). For cal-
as such. The percentage of social interaction time was calculated. culating the plasma nitrite, an already established standard curve of
sodium nitrite was used and results were expressed as μg/mL.
Percentage social interaction time
= (Time spent on active social interaction/total time) × 100
2.6.4. Estimation of protein
The Lowry method was used for determining the protein con-
2.5.5. Marble burying test centration of each sample (Lowry et al., 1951). Bovine serum albumin
Defensive burying behavior is used as a parameter to assess avoid- (BSA) is used as a standard. The working reagent was prepared by
ance-like behavior (De Boer and Koolhaas, 2003). Rats undergone fear addition of 2 mL mixture of an equal volume of 1.56% copper sulfate
conditioning were observed individually for this avoidance-like beha- solution and 2.37% sodium potassium tartrate with 100 mL of a mixture
vior. Marble burying test is considered to be sensitive for anxiolytic of equal volumes of 2% sodium carbonate and 0.1 N NaOH and then
agents (Njung'e and Handley, 1991). Hence, the marble burying test 10 min incubation was done. Folin-Phenol reagent (0.5 mL) was mixed
was used to measure anxiety and avoidance like behaviors in rats. In and incubated for 30 min. BSA concentrations from 0.05 to 1 mg/mL
this test, rats were acclimatized for wood chips bedding in their home were prepared for the standard plot. The intensity of color was observed
cages. On the day of the assessment, the rats were individually placed in at 660 nm (UV–VIS Spectrophotometer, Perkin Elmer, Lambda 20) and
a square-shaped transparent acrylic chamber, with same wood chip the protein content of the sample was found out from the graph ob-
bedding filled up to 10 cm height and having fifteen identical black tained by the standard plot.
shiny marbles (1.5 cm diameter) placed in three rows. After completion
of 30 min, the rats were taken out of the chamber and the number of 2.6.5. Estimation of reduced glutathione
marbles buried was counted. The marbles covered with wood chip The procedure for the assay of reduced glutathione was followed
bedding > 2/3rd were considered as buried. The novel object avoid- based on a previous study (Jollow et al., 1974). In this method, pre-
ance was measured by calculating the percentage of marble buried. cipitation of 1.0 mL of the supernatant of tissue homogenate in a con-
centration of 10% w/v was done with 1.0 mL of sulphosalicylic acid
Percentage marbles buried
(4%). Further, these processed samples were incubated for 1 h at 4 °C
= (Number of marbles buried/Number of marbles unburied) × 100. followed by centrifugation at 1200g at 4 °C for 15 min. Further to this,
2.7 mL of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH adjusted to 7.4) and 0.2 mL of
2.6. Molecular and biochemical estimations 5,5, dithiobis-2-nitro benzoic acid (DTNB) was added. The yellow color
was produced whose absorbance was taken immediately at 412 nm
2.6.1. Sample collection and isolation (UV–VIS Spectrophotometer, Perkin Elmer, Lambda 20). Calculated
After the completion of behavioral assessments, the anesthesia was values were depicted as μmoles per mg protein.
induced in rats using ketamine (70 mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg).
Blood was isolated through retro-orbital plexus and kept in EDTA 2.6.6. Estimation of superoxide dismutase (SOD)
containing centrifugation tubes. Plasma was separated by centrifuga- Assay for SOD enzyme was done, in which nitro blue tetrazolium
tion process performed at 10,000 rpm for 10 min. Further, plasma was (NBT) was added to the samples and further, the hydroxylamine hy-
stored at −80 °C for corticosterone and nitrite assay. Rats were sacri- drochloride was added to this mixture (Yasuhisa Kono, 1978). The re-
ficed, the brain was separated from which cortex and hippocampus was action was observed by taking readings at 560 nm in a spectro-
dissected. The isolated tissue were homogenized in 10% (w/v) homo- photometer (UV–VIS Spectrophotometer, Perkin Elmer, Lambda 20) (Y
genization buffer (consisting of 10 mM Tris-HCl, 150 mM MgCl2, 1 mM Kono, 1978). The SOD units/mg protein was calculated.
EDTA, 1% Triton X 100, pH −7.4). Further, at 10,000 rpm the homo-
genate was centrifuged at 4 °C for 20 min. The supernatant was pipette 2.6.7. Estimation of catalase
out and kept at a storage temperature of −80 °C for the enzymatic The catalase assay was performed as described previously (Lück,
activity of antioxidants assay and ELISA assay. 1965). In this, the breakdown of hydrogen peroxides (H2O2) was ob-
served during the reaction. Briefly, the H2O2 was dissolved in phos-
2.6.2. Estimation of plasma corticosterone phate buffer and to this solution, sample supernatant (0.05 mL) was
The corticosterone estimation was done following a previously de- added. Any change in absorbance for 2 min at 240 nm was observed
scribed study (Bartos and Pesez, 1979). The reagent A (0.10% p-nitroso- using UV-spectroscopy (UV–VIS Spectrophotometer, Perkin Elmer,
N,N-dimethylaniline in ethanol), reagent B (0.10% phenol in ethanol) Lambda 20). The amount of H2O2 decomposed per mg of protein/min
and reagent C (1% aqueous solution of potassium ferricyanide, freshly was calculated.
4
2.6.8. Estimation of lipid peroxidation (LPO) showed remission of fear on day 13 and this continued till day 14.
LPO assay was performed by quantifying malondialdehyde (Wills, Sertraline (10 mg/kg) and piracetam (150 mg/kg) treated group rats
1965). Briefly, the addition of tissue homogenate supernatant (0.5 mL) demonstrated a significant decreased freezing behavior as compared to
was done to 0.5 mL of Tris-HCl followed by 2 h incubation at 37 °C. To PTSD-like phenotype rats, starting from day 11 (p < 0.05) and con-
this, 1 mL of TCA (10%) was added to the above mixture and 10 min tinued to day 14 (p < 0.0001). The remission of fear with sertraline
centrifugation was performed at 1000g. The supernatant (1 mL) from (10 mg/kg) and piracetam (150 mg/kg) treatments was achieved on
the processed mixture was pipette out and added to 1 mL of thio- day 14, whereas, piracetam (300 mg/kg) exert a significant decrease in
barbituric acid (0.67% w/v). The tubes containing mixture were kept freezing behavior as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats from day 10
for 10 min in hot boiling water followed by cooling and addition of (p < 0.05) and continued until the end day. The remission of fear in
1 mL of double distilled water (DDW). Reading for absorbance was this group was achieved on day 13 and this continued till day 14. Rats
taken at 532 nm (UV–VIS Spectrophotometer, Perkin Elmer, Lambda treated with risperidone (0.5 mg/kg) showed significantly decreased
20). The MDA levels were calculated and expression of results was done freezing as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats on day 9 (p < 0.05)
as the amount of MDA per mg protein. continued up to day 14 (p < 0.0001), whereas the fear remission in
this group was achieved on day 13 and continued on day 14. The rats
2.6.9. Estimation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and caspase- treated with risperidone (1 mg/kg) were observed with a significant
3 by ELISA decrease in freezing behavior as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats
BDNF and caspase-3 quantification were done by Elabscience rat starting from day 8 (p < 0.05) and continued up to day 14
BDNF and caspase-3 immunoassay kit, respectively as per manufacturer (p < 0.0001). This group achieved remission of fear on day 13 and the
instructions. effect was observed to be continued on day 14. Treatment with the
combination piracetam (150 mg/kg) + risperidone (0.5 mg/kg) and
2.6.10. Estimation of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor–alpha piracetam (300 mg/kg) + risperidone (1 mg/kg) produced significant
(TNF-α) by ELISA decrease in freezing behavior as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats
IL-6 and TNF-α quantification was done by Peprotech rat IL-6 and on day 6 (p < 0.05) and day 5 (p < 0.05) respectively and continued
TNF-α immunoassay kit as per manufacturer instructions. till day 14 (p < 0.0001). The fear remission with low and high dose
combination was achieved on day 12 and day 11 respectively and
2.6.11. Estimation of serotonin and dopamine neurotransmitters and their continued across day 14. The high dose combination of piracetam and
metabolite by HPLC risperidone suppressed freezing behavior significantly as compared to
Hippocampus and cortex tissue homogenates were used for esti- piracetam (300 mg/kg), risperidone (1 mg/kg) and sertraline (10 mg/
mations of neurotransmitters serotonin (5-HT), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic kg) on day 7 and 8 (Table 1).
acid (5-HIAA), a metabolite of serotonin, dopamine (DA) homovanillic
acid (HVA), a metabolite of dopamine. Both 5-HT and 5-HIAA estima- 3.1.2. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on elevated
tion was done using UV-detector while photodiode array detector plus maze test in PTSD-like phenotypic rats
(PDA) was used for DA and HVA. Waters standard system, C18 reverse One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test suggested the
phase column, acting as autoinjector, having high-pressure isocratic significant effect across the groups assessed for a number of entries in
pump was used. 5-HT and DA were given flow rates of 0.8 mL/min and the open arm [F(8,54) = 13.87 (p < 0.0001) and time spent in open
0.9 mL/min respectively. Injection volume was set to 10 μL and the run arms [F(8,54) = 13.44 (p < 0.0001)]. PTSD-like phenotype rats showed
time was set for 10 min. Hippocampal and cortical tissues were significantly less number of entries into the open arm (p < 0.0001)
homogenized in 1% formic acid in 50:50 acetonitrile (ACN)/water so- and less time spent in open arms (p < 0.0001) as compared to control
lution and centrifugation was done at 14000 rpm at 4 °C for 15 min. The rats. A significantly increased number of entries and time spent in open
supernatant was separated followed by filtration by 0.22 μm syringe arm as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats was observed with ser-
filters before injecting into injection column of HPLC. 1% formic acid in traline (10 mg/kg) (p < 0.001), piracetam [(150 and 300 mg/kg);
water and 1% formic acid in ACN (ratio for 5-HT, 75:25 and for DA (p < 0.001, p < 0.5; p < 0.001) (p < 0.5 respectively), risperidone
73:27) was made for the purpose of the mobile phase. [(0.5 and 1 mg/kg); (p < 0.001, p < 0.01; p < 0.0001, p < 0.001
respectively). Treatment with combinations of piracetam (150 mg/
2.7. Statistical analysis kg) + risperidone (0.5 mg/kg) and piracetam (300 mg/kg) + risper-
idone (1 mg/kg) also significantly increased number of entries
Analysis of data was done using a one-way ANOVA or a two-way (p < 0.0001) and time spent (p < 0.0001) in open arm as compared
ANOVA followed by a Tukey's post hoc test for multiple comparisons or to PTSD-like phenotype rats. The high dose combination treatment re-
a Bonferroni's post hoc test for multiple comparisons. Statistically sig- gimen produces a potent anxiolytic effect than the individual effect of
nificant effects were defined as those with P-values < 0.05. The stan- piracetam (p < 0.05) and risperidone (p < 0.05) and sertraline
dard error of the mean was represented by error bars. Prism Graph pad (10 mg/kg) (p < 0.05) (Fig. 3).
5.0 (Graphpad Software Inc., Ca, USA) was used to analyze data.
3.1.3. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on social
3. Results interaction test in PTSD-like phenotype rats
The social withdrawal was assessed in social interaction behavior.
3.1. Behavioral tests The one-way ANOVA followed Tukey's post hoc test suggested a sig-
nificant effect across the groups [F(8,54) = 12.60 (p < 0.0001)]. PTSD-
3.1.1. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on like phenotype rats spent significantly less time in social activities
conditioned fear extinction in PTSD-like phenotype rats (p < 0.0001) as compared to control rats. A significant increase in
A significant effect was observed across the days on freezing beha- time spent in social activities as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats
vior after two-way ANOVA analysis [F(13,756) = 448.8 (p < 0.0001)]. was observed with sertraline (10 mg/kg; p < 0.01), piracetam (150
The PTSD-like phenotype rats displayed more freezing behavior on CS and 300 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.05 respectively), risperidone (0.5
presentation as compared to control rats on day 9 (p < 0.05) and this and 1 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.001 respectively) treated rats. Both
effect continued up to day 14 (p < 0.0001). PTSD-like phenotype rats combinations of piracetam and risperidone-treated rats also showed
did not achieve remission of conditioned fear (< 10% freezing on significantly increased social interaction (p < 0.0001) as compared to
presentation of CS) during the 14 days of extinction. Control rats PTSD-like phenotype rats High dose combination showed more
5
Data was analyzed using two-factor repeated measure ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's multiple comparisons. All values are expressed as a percent of time spent freezing mean ± SEM. PIR - Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone,
significant results as compared to the individual effect of piracetam
PIR (300 mg/kg) + RIS (1 mg/kg)
(p < 0.001) and risperidone (p < 0.05). Moreover, this combination
was significantly more effective than sertraline (10 mg/kg) treatment
(p < 0.01) (Fig. 4).
32.22 ± 3.46#,α,ϕ,$
24.09 ± 3.48#,α,ϕ,$
40.21 ± 3.00#,α,$
17.61 ± 2.30#,α,$
10.62 ± 2.96#,α,$
8.20 ± 2.51#,α,$
5.95 ± 1.60#,$
52.44 ± 3.91# 3.1.4. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on
86.26 ± 4.22
78.66 ± 4.86
69.32 ± 4.97
61.22 ± 4.85
3.87 ± 2.64#
3.12 ± 2.94#
avoidance-like behavior in marble burying test in PTSD-like phenotype rats
The avoidance-like behavior was tested in the marble burying test.
A one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test indicated the
significant effect across the groups [F(8,54) = 16.11, p < 0.001]. PTSD-
like phenotype rats buried a significantly more number of marbles
PIR (150 mg/kg) + RIS (0.5 mg/kg)
(p < 0.001) as compared to control rats. A significant decrease in

number of marble buried as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats was
observed in rats treated with sertraline (10 mg/kg, p < 0.01), pir-
acetam (150 and 300 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.05 respectively), ris-
peridone (0.5 and 1 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.01). The piracetam and
18.03 ± 2.50#,α,$
40.48 ± 3.05#,$
33.09 ± 3.63#,$
26.54 ± 2.97#,$
13.81 ± 2.16#,$
risperidone combinations decreased avoidance-like behavior

9.86 ± 2.63#,$
49.07 ± 4.16#
89.72 ± 4.46
81.42 ± 4.61
73.67 ± 4.20
66.49 ± 4.46
57.07 ± 4.60
6.42 ± 2.71#
5.35 ± 2.99#
(p < 0.001) as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats. Whereas, high

dose combination of piracetam and risperidone produced significant
more effect as compared to the individual effect of piracetam
(p < 0.01), risperidone (p < 0.05) and sertraline (p < 0.01) (Fig. 5).
20.53 ± 2.88#,α,$
3.2. Molecular and biochemical estimations

29.3 ± 3.33#,$
36.69 ± 4.29#
18.53 ± 2.88#
14.06 ± 3.42#
87.09 ± 4.15
82.73 ± 4.21
76.62 ± 4.39
69.25 ± 3.07
60.20 ± 4.79
51.76 ± 3.32
43.22 ± 3.79
8.69 ± 2.69#
6.30 ± 2.33#
RIS (1 mg/kg)
3.2.1. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on plasma

Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combination on conditioned fear extinction measured as a percent of time spent freezing.
corticosterone levels in PTSD rats

A significant effect was demonstrated across the groups after ana-
lysis by one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test on serum
corticosterone levels [F(8,54) = 17.28, p < 0.001]. The serum corti-
RIS (0.5 mg/kg)
33.04 ± 3.41#
28.95 ± 3.61#
20.57 ± 2.49#
15.59 ± 3.19#
9.89 ± 2.63#
86.14 ± 4.18
80.09 ± 3.82
74.43 ± 4.38
70.13 ± 4.17
63.59 ± 4.16
54.31 ± 4.05
49.85 ± 3.52
41.07 ± 4.49
costerone levels were significantly decreased in PTSD-like phenotype

10 ± 2.60#
rats as compared to control rats (p < 0.001). A significant increase in

serum corticosterone levels as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats
was observed with sertraline (10 mg/kg, p < 0.01), piracetam (150
and 300 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.05), risperidone (0.5 and 1 mg/kg;
PIR (300 mg/kg)
p < 0.001, p < 0.001). Treatment with combinations also increased

30.51 ± 3.05#
20.13 ± 2.61#
13.97 ± 3.09#
86.25 ± 4.27
80.37 ± 4.38
76.98 ± 4.73
68.20 ± 4.49
64.51 ± 4.94
50.63 ± 4.60
42.73 ± 3.02
38.81 ± 3.14
9.29 ± 3.17#
7.71 ± 1.92#
corticosterone levels in PTSD-like phenotype rats (p < 0.001). The

58 ± 4.79
high dose combination treatment produced significantly more effect

than the individual effect of piracetam (p < 0.05) and risperidone
(p < 0.05) (Fig. 6).
PIR (150 mg/kg)
3.2.2. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on

28.03 ± 2.35#
19.34 ± 2.00#
16.30 ± 3.93#
84.98 ± 4.15
83.15 ± 4.13
78.01 ± 4.59
72.68 ± 4.25
68.09 ± 4.06
63.09 ± 4.24
56.59 ± 4.34
48.99 ± 4.52
42.20 ± 3.23
37.17 ± 3.25
9.80 ± 2.40#
hippocampal and cortical antioxidant enzymes in PTSD-like phenotype rats

A significant effect across the groups was observed on antioxidant
enzyme activity of GSH, SOD, catalase in hippocampus after one-way
ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test [(F(8,27) = 20.67;
p < 0.0001), (F(8,27) = 25.25; p < 0.0001) and (F(8,27) = 15.62;
SERT (10 mg/kg)
p < 0.0001), respectively], and also in cortex [(F(8,27) = 23.18;

31.22 ± 3.10#
26.19 ± 2.19#
19.13 ± 2.93#
86.03 ± 4.25
81.58 ± 4.67
76.18 ± 5.89
69.21 ± 2.64
66.11 ± 4.94
62.60 ± 4.76
58.35 ± 5.26
51.83 ± 4.66
46.26 ± 3.31
39.09 ± 3.19
8.94 ± 3.51#
p < 0.0001)], (F(8,27) = 20.13; p < 0.0001), and [F(8,27) = 25.78

(p < 0.0001), respectively]. The antioxidant enzyme activity of GSH,
SOD, and catalase were found to be significantly decreased in the
p < 0.05 as compared to SERT (10 mg/kg).
p < 0.05 as compared to PIR (300 mg/kg).
hippocampal and cortical region of PTSD-like phenotype rats brain as

p < 0.05 as compared to RIS (1 mg/kg).
compared to control rats (p < 0.0001). A significance increase in en-

4.06⁎
4.35⁎
3.98⁎
3.23⁎
3.87⁎
3.49⁎
zymatic activity of GSH, SOD and catalase was observed in hippo-

4.66
3.94
3.76
4.72
3.65
4.04
4.37
4.03
p < 0.05 as compared to control.
campus and cortex on treatment with sertraline (10 mg/kg; p < 0.05,
p < 0.05 as compared to PTSD.
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
p < 0.01 respectively), piracetam (150 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.05
88.05
84.27
78.55
75.78
70.80
66.65
60.56
55.21
51.25
49.09
48.01
45.22
41.35
39.13
PTSD
respectively), piracetam (300 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.01 respec-

tively), risperidone (0.5 mg/kg; p < 0.01, p < 0.01) and risperidone
(1 mg/kg; p < 0.001, p < 0.001). Both combinations significantly
86.24 ± 4.26
80.37 ± 4.37
72.98 ± 5.69
65.20 ± 5.10
61.51 ± 4.93
45.62 ± 4.60
39.72 ± 4.02
32.81 ± 4.14
25.51 ± 3.05
16.13 ± 3.61
12.97 ± 2.09
8.29 ± 2.58
6.92 ± 2.34
restored the enzymatic activity of GSH, SOD, and catalase in hippo-

54 ± 5.21
campus and cortex as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats

SERT - Sertraline.
Control
(p < 0.0001). The high dose combination treatment produced po-

tentiating effect which was significantly increased in hippocampus and
cortex than individual dose of piracetam (p < 0.01, p < 0.001 re-
Table 1
Day
spectively), risperidone (p < 0.01, p < 0.05 respectively) and sertra-

10
11
12
13
14
#
α
$
⁎
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
line (10 mg/kg; p < 0.01, p < 0.001 respectively) (Fig. 7).
6
Fig. 3. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on anxiety-like behavior in PTSD-like phenotypic rat: a) entries into open arms b) percentage time
spent in open arms c) entries into closed arms. Data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. All values are expressed as
mean ± SEM. ⁎p < 0.05 as compared to control, #p < 0.05 as compared to PTSD, βp < 0.05 as compared to PIR (150 mg/kg), αp < 0.05 as compared to PIR
(300 mg/kg), ϕp < 0.05 as compared to RIS (1 mg/kg) and $p < 0.05 as compared to SERT (10 mg/kg).PIR - Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone, SERT - Sertraline.
Fig. 4. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on social in-

teraction test in PTSD-like phenotype rats. Data was analyzed using one-way Fig. 6. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on plasma
ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. All values are expressed as corticosterone levels in PTSD-like phenotype rats. Data was analyzed using one-
mean ± SEM. ⁎p < 0.05 as compared to control, #p < 0.05 as compared to way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. All values are expressed as
PTSD, ϕp < 0.05 as compared to RIS (1 mg/kg) and $p < 0.05 as compared to mean ± SEM. ⁎p < 0.05 as compared to control, #p < 0.05 as compared to
SERT (10 mg/kg). PIR - Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone, SERT - Sertraline. PTSD, αp < 0.05 as compared to PIR (300 mg/kg), ϕp < 0.05 as compared to
RIS (1 mg/kg) and $p < 0.05 as compared to SERT (10 mg/kg). PIR - pir-
acetam, RIS - risperidone, SERT - Sertraline.
hippocampus [F(8,27) = 29.57 (p < 0.001)] and cortex [F(8,27) = 28.38

(p < 0.001)], and plasma nitrite (NO) [F(8,27) = 22.88 (p < 0.0001)].
LPO levels were significantly higher in the hippocampus (p < 0.0001)
and cortex (p < 0.0001) along with significantly elevated NO levels in
plasma (p < 0.0001) of PTSD-like phenotype rats as compared to
control rats. The LPO levels were suppressed in hippocampus and
cortex of rats administered with sertraline (10 mg/kg; p < 0.01,
p < 0.05 respectively), piracetam (150 mg/kg; p < 0.01, p < 0.05),
Fig. 5. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on avoidance- piracetam (300 mg/kg; p < 0.001, p < 0.01 respectively), risperidone
like behavior in marble burying test in PTSD-like phenotype rats. Data was (0.5 mg/kg; p < 0.001, p < 0.001) and risperidone (1 mg/kg;
analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. All p < 0.001, p < 0.001). The plasma NO levels were also decreased
values are expressed as mean ± SEM. ⁎p < 0.05 as compared to control, with sertraline (10 mg/kg; p < 0.05), piracetam (150,300 mg/kg;
#
p < 0.05 as compared to PTSD, αp < 0.05 as compared to PIR (300 mg/kg), p < 0.05; p < 0.05 respectively), risperidone (0.5 and 1 mg/kg;
ϕ
p < 0.05 as compared to RIS (1 mg/kg) and $p < 0.05 as compared to SERT p < 0.01, 0.001 respectively) as compared to PTSD-like phenotype
(10 mg/kg). PIR - Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone, SERT - Sertraline. rats. Both combinations significantly decreased LPO levels in the hip-
pocampus as well as in cortex, and also the plasma NO levels as com-
3.2.3. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on pared to PTSD-like phenotype rats (p < 0.0001). The high dose com-
hippocampal and cortical lipid peroxidation and plasma nitrite levels in bination significantly reversed the SPS induced LPO and NO levels, this
PTSD-like phenotype rats effect was significant as compared to the individual effect of piracetam
The significant effect was seen on lipid peroxidation (LPO) in (p < 0.001), risperidone (p < 0.05) and sertraline (10 mg/kg)
7
Fig. 7. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on hippocampal and cortical antioxidant enzymes in PTSD-like phenotype rats. GSH level in a)
hippocampus b) cortex, SOD level in c) hippocampus d) cortex, catalase level in e) hippocampus and f) cortex. Data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by
Tukey's post hoc analysis. All values are expressed as mean ± SEM. ⁎p < 0.05 as compared to control, #p < 0.05 as compared to PTSD, βp < 0.05 as compared to
PIR (150 mg/kg), αp < 0.05 as compared to PIR (300 mg/kg), θp < 0.05 as compared to RIS (0.5 mg/kg), ϕp < 0.05 as compared to RIS (1 mg/kg) and $p < 0.05
as compared to SERT (10 mg/kg). PIR - Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone, SERT - Sertraline.
(p < 0.001) (Fig. 8). 3.2.5. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on cortical
and hippocampal neuroinflammation in PTSD-like phenotype rats
One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test demonstrated
3.2.4. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on significant effect on hippocampal [F(8,18) = 18.31 (p < 0.001)] and
hippocampal and cortical BDNF levels in PTSD-like phenotype rats cortical [F(8,18) = 16.58 (p < 0.001)] levels of IL-6 and hippocampal
A significant decreased hippocampal [F(8,18) = 17.21 (p < 0.001)] [F(8,18) = 24.44 (p < 0.0001)] and cortical [F(8,18) = 21.90
and cortical [F(8,18) = 12.70 (p < 0.001)] levels of BDNF across the (p < 0.0001)] TNF-α levels across the groups. The cortical and hip-
groups were observed in one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc pocampal IL-6 and TNF-α levels were significantly increased in PTSD-
test. The BDNF levels were reduced significantly in both hippocampal like phenotype rats as compared to control rats (p < 0.001,
and cortical regions of PTSD-like phenotype rats as compared to control p < 0.0001 respectively) A significantly decreased IL-6 level in hip-
rats (p < 0.001 for both). BDNF levels were significantly increased in pocampus and cortex was observed with sertraline (10 mg/kg)
hippocampus and cortex of rats treated with sertraline (10 mg/kg; (p < 0.05, p < 0.01 respectively), piracetam (150 mg/kg; p < 0.01
p < 0.05 for both regions), piracetam (150 mg/kg; p < 0.05 for both for both regions), piracetam (300 mg/kg; p < 0.01 for both regions),
regions), piracetam (300 mg/kg; p < 0.01 for both regions) and ris- risperidone (0.5 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.01 respectively), and ris-
peridone (0.5 and 1 mg/kg; p < 0.01 for both regions) as compared to peridone (1 mg/kg; p < 0.01 for both regions) treatments as compared
PTSD-like phenotype rats. Rats treated with both combinations were to PTSD rats. Both the combinations significantly reduced the levels of
also found to have significantly increased BDNF levels in both regions IL-6 in both hippocampal and cortical regions as compared to PTSD-like
as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats (p < 0.001). The high dose phenotype rats (p < 0.001). The high dose combination reduced the
combination showed the significant potentiating effect on BDNF levels IL-6 in both hippocampus and cortex significantly as compared to pir-
as compared to an individual dose of piracetam (p < 0.05) and ris- acetam (300 mg/kg; p < 0.05 for both regions), risperidone (1 mg/kg;
peridone (p < 0.05), and sertraline (10 mg/kg; p < 0.05) (Fig. 9). p < 0.05 for both regions) and sertraline (10 mg/kg; p < 0.05 for
both regions).
8
a) 4 b) Cortex
Hippocampus 2.5
LPO [MDA (nmoles/mgprotien)]
LPO [MDA (nmoles/mgprotien)]

*
* 2.0
3
# # #
# 1.5
# # # #
2 #
# # β$
#β $ 1.0
# αφ $ # αφ $
1
0.5
0 0.0
c)
15
Serum nitrite (nmole/mg protien)
*
Control
# #
10 # PTSD
# #β$ SERT (10 mg/kg)
# αφ $ PIR (150 mg/kg)
PIR (300 mg/kg)
5 PIS (0.5 mg/kg)
PIS (1 mg/kg)
PIR (150 mg/kg) + RIS (0.05 mg/kg)
PIR (300 mg/kg) + RIS (1 mg/kg)
0
Fig. 8. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on a) hippocampal and b) cortical LPO level and c) plasma nitrosative stress in PTSD-like phenotype
rats. Data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. All values are expressed as mean ± SEM. ⁎p < 0.05 as compared to control,
#
p < 0.05 as compared to PTSD,βp < 0.05 as compared to PIR (150 mg/kg),αp < 0.05 as compared to PIR (300 mg/kg), ϕp < 0.05 as compared to RIS (1 mg/kg)
and $p < 0.05 as compared to SERT (10 mg/kg). PIR - Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone, SERT - Sertraline.
A significant reduction in SPS induced TNF-α levels was observed in (p < 0.0001). The high dose combination reversed the TNF-α level and
hippocampus and cortex of rats treated with sertraline (10 mg/kg; this was significantly more effective as compared to the individual ef-
p < 0.01 for both regions), piracetam (150 mg/kg; p < 0.05 for both fect of piracetam (p < 0.001), risperidone (p < 0.05) and sertraline
regions), piracetam (300 mg/kg; p < 0.05 for both regions), risper- (10 mg/kg; p < 0.001) (Fig. 10).
idone (0.5 mg/kg; p < 0.001 for both regions) and risperidone (1 mg/
kg; p < 0.000, p < 0.001 respectively) as compared PTSD-like phe-
3.2.6. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on cortical
notype rats. Treatment with both the combinations of piracetam and
and hippocampal caspase-3 activity in PTSD-like phenotype rats
risperidone, also significantly reduced the TNF-α levels in the hippo-
A significant effect on hippocampal [F(8,18) = 27.82 (p < 0.001)]
campus and cortex region as compared the PTSD-like phenotype rats
and cortical [F(8,18) = 29.70 (p < 0.001)] levels of caspase-3 across
Fig. 9. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on hippocampal and cortical BDNF levels in (a) Hippocampus (b) Cortex in PTSD-like phenotype rats.
Data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. All values are expressed as mean ± SEM. ⁎p < 0.05 as compared to control,
#
p < 0.05 as compared to PTSD, αp < 0.05 as compared to PIR (300 mg/kg), ϕp < 0.05 as compared to RIS (1 mg/kg) and $p < 0.05 as compared to SERT
(10 mg/kg). PIR - Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone, SERT - Sertraline.
9
Fig. 10. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on cortico-hippocampal neuroinflammation in PTSD-like phenotype rats. IL-6 level in a) hippo-
campus b) cortex and TNF-α levels in c) hippocampus d) cortex. Data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. All values are
expressed as mean ± SEM. ⁎p < 0.05 as compared to control, #p < 0.05 as compared to PTSD,βp < 0.05 as compared to PIR (150 mg/kg),αp < 0.05 as com-
pared to PIR (300 mg/kg), ϕp < 0.05 as compared to RIS (1 mg/kg) and $p < 0.05 as compared to SERT (10 mg/kg). PIR - Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone, SERT -
Sertraline.
Fig. 11. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on hippocampal and cortical Caspase-3 activity in a) hippocampus b) cortex in PTSD-like phenotype
rats. Data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. All values are expressed as mean ± SEM. ⁎p < 0.05 as compared to control,
#
p < 0.05 as compared to PTSD, αp < 0.05 as compared to PIR (300 mg/kg), ϕp < 0.05 as compared to RIS (1 mg/kg) and $p < 0.05 as compared to SERT
(10 mg/kg). PIR - Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone, SERT - Sertraline.
the groups was seen in one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc (0.5 mg/kg; p < 0.01, p < 0.001 respectively) and risperidone (1 mg/
analysis. Caspase-3 levels were increased in brain hippocampal and kg; p < 0.01, p < 0.001 respectively) as compared to PTSD-like
cortical regions of PTSD-like phenotype rats as compared to control rats phenotype rats. Both combination treatments also reduced caspase-3
(p < 0.001). The hippocampus and cortex caspase-3 levels were re- levels in hippocampal and cortical regions as compared to PTSD-like
duced significantly by treatment with sertraline (10 mg/kg; p < 0.05, phenotype rats (p < 0.001). The high dose combination reversed the
p < 0.01 resp), piracetam (150 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.01 respec- SPS induced elevated caspase-3 levels and this effect was significant as
tively), piracetam (300 mg/kg; p < 0.01 for both regions), risperidone compared to an individual dose of piracetam (p < 0.001), risperidone
10
(p < 0.05), and sertraline (10 mg/kg; p < 0.001) (Fig. 11). p < 0.05). 5-HIAA levels were also reversed by both the combinations
in the hippocampus (p < 0.0001) and cortex (p < 0.01) (Fig. 12).
3.2.7. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combination on cortical

and hippocampal serotonergic neurotransmitter level in PTSD-like phenotype 3.2.8. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combination on cortical
rats and hippocampal dopaminergic neurotransmitter levels in PTSD-like
A significant effect on 5-HT and 5-HIAA levels in hippocampus phenotype rats
[(F(8,18) = 42.38 (p < 0.0001)), (F(8,18) = 17.99 (p < 0.0001) re- One-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc test demonstrated A
spectively), and cortex [(F(8,18) = 14.36 (p < 0.0001), (F(8,18) = 13.88 significant effect on DA and HVA levels in hippocampus
(p < 0.0001) respectively) across the groups was observed in one-way [(F(8,18) = 20.82 (p < 0.0001)), (F(8,18) = 32.52 (p < 0.0001)) re-
ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. The 5-HT and 5-HIAA spectively] and cortex [(F(8,18) = 23.88 (p < 0.0001)), (F(8,
levels were decreased in the hippocampus (p < 0.0001) and cortex 18) = 48.90 (p < 0.0001)) respectively] The DA and HVA levels were
(p < 0.01) of PTSD-like phenotype rats as compared to control rats. A decreased in PTSD-like phenotype rats as compared to control rats
significantly improved 5-HT levels were found in hippocampus and (p < 0.0001). Piracetam (150 mg/kg), risperidone (0.5 mg/kg) sig-
cortex of rats treated with piracetam (300 mg/kg; p < 0.001, nificantly increased cortical DA levels (p < 0.0001) and HVA levels in
p < 0.05) respectively, risperidone (0.5 mg/kg; p < 0.0001, both the hippocampal (p < 0.0001) and cortical regions
p < 0.01 respectively), risperidone (1 mg/kg; p < 0.0001; p < 0.01 (p < 0.0001). Whereas, treatments with piracetam (300 mg/kg) and
respectively) and sertraline (10 mg/kg: p < 0.0001, p < 0.05 re- risperidone (1 mg/kg) significantly improved DA and HVA levels as
spectively) as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats. Piracetam compared to PTSD rats in hippocampus [(p < 0.05) (p < 0.0001)]
(150 mg/kg; p < 0.01) treatment significantly increased the 5-HT level and cortex [(p < 0.0001) (p < 0.0001) respectively]. Treatment with
in the hippocampus only as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats. both the combinations increased DA and HVA levels significantly as
Whereas, 5-HIAA levels were significantly increased in cortex and compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats in both hippocampus
hippocampus by piracetam (300 mg/kg; p < 0.001, p < 0.01), ris- (p < 0.001) and cortex (p < 0.0001). The low dose combination
peridone (1 mg/kg; p < 0.001, p < 0.01 respectively) and sertraline produced a significant rise in DA levels in the hippocampal region as
(10 mg/kg; p < 0.0001, p < 0.05 respectively). Treatment with both compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats and this effect was significant as
the combinations also increased 5-HT levels in both hippocampus compared to their individual effects. While the high dose combination
(p < 0.0001) and cortex (p < 0.0001) of PTSD-like phenotype rats increased DA levels in hippocampus and cortex significantly more than
and this effect was significantly more than the individual dose of pir- the individual effect of piracetam (p < 0.05) and risperidone
acetam (p < 0.05), risperidone (p < 0.05) and sertraline (10 mg/kg; (p < 0.05) (Fig. 13).
Fig. 12. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on hippocampus a) 5-HT levels b) 5-HIAA levels; and c) Cortex c) 5-HT levels and d) 5-HIAA levels in
PTSD-like phenotype rats. Data was analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. All values are expressed as mean ± SEM. ⁎p < 0.05 as
compared to control, #p < 0.05 as compared to PTSD, αp < 0.05 as compared to PIR (300 mg/kg), ϕp < 0.05 as compared to RIS (1 mg/kg) and $p < 0.05 as
compared to SERT (10 mg/kg). PIR - Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone, SERT - Sertraline.
11
Fig. 13. Effect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on hippocampal a) DA b) 5-HVA and cortical c) DA d) HVA levels in PTSD-like phenotype rats: Data
was analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's post hoc analysis. All values are expressed as mean ± SEM. ⁎p < 0.05 as compared to control, #p < 0.05
as compared to PTSD, αp < 0.05 as compared to PIR (300 mg/kg), ϕp < 0.05 as compared to RIS (1 mg/kg) and $p < 0.05 as compared to SERT (10 mg/kg). PIR -
Piracetam, RIS - Risperidone, SERT - Sertraline.
4. Discussion significantly reversed the conditioned fear by enhancing the extinction

phase. The combination of both also successfully managed the symptom
The impaired extinction in PTSD is responsible for the dominance cluster of PTSD (anxiety, avoidance-like behavior, social withdrawal).
and persistence of fear memory and development of anxiety-like Cortisol is a compensatory hormone which strengthens the stress
symptoms. In the current study we had used the pharmacological tar- combat system. Hypocorticosteronemia, one of the biomarkers for
geting of extinction which gives a relevance to the clinical implication PTSD (Yehuda et al., 2000) is responsible for altered glucocorticoid
of these agents with exposure therapy. Furthermore, this work has receptor signaling leading to increased inflammation (Cohen et al.,
demonstrated the common molecular mechanisms of piracetam and 2012). Thus, the dysregulation of the stress response system occurs in
risperidone that contribute to the significant suppression of PTSD pa- PTSD promoting neuropsychological aberrations (Yehuda, 2006). The
thophysiology. In the present study, rats exposed to SPS paradigm for stress re-stress paradigms were found to suppress the basal corticos-
7 days earlier to the fear conditioning protocol, showed impaired ex- terone levels in rats and our results were in line to these studies (Harvey
tinction of the fear responses. In the presence of trauma associated et al., 2006; Liberzon et al., 1997a, 1997b). In the present study pir-
reminders (CS), they re-experience the trauma which was evident by acetam, risperidone and their combinations maintained the plasma
increased freezing behavior and untouched fear remission margin. This corticosterone levels, while the potentiating effect was seen with high
finding is consistent with previous observations of extinction deficit rats dose combination that successfully reversed the SPS induced decreased
in the SPS paradigm (Noble et al., 2017; Yamamoto et al., 2008). An- basal plasma corticosterone levels.
xiety and its ramification (hyperarousal), are associated with PTSD and The oxidative and antioxidant system play a crucial role in main-
in the present study the anxiety-like behavior, assessed in EPM revealed taining the stress level in the brain and are linked with various harmful
that PTSD-like phenotype rats showed heightened anxiety as compared neuromodulations such as apoptosis and neuroinflammation (Garabadu
to control rats. Avoidance, which is also a core feature of PTSD, was et al., 2015a) which are also associated with PTSD (Wilson et al., 2013).
assessed using marble burying test and PTSD-like phenotype rats SPS impaired antioxidant system (GSH, SOD and catalase levels), in-
showed the increased avoidance which is in line with the previous creased oxidative stress (LPO levels), and plasma nitrosative stress in
studies (Noble et al., 2017). Social withdrawal and decreased interest in PTSD-like phenotype group, which is in accordance to a previous report
activities is another symptom cluster of PTSD and rats showed social (Garabadu et al., 2015a). Piracetam, risperidone and their combina-
withdrawal after SPS exposure in the current study. Thus, the SPS tions successfully improved the antioxidant enzymatic activity of GSH,
model closely represents the PTSD-like phenotype, supporting previous SOD, and catalase whereas, reduced the oxido-nitrosative stress. The
reports regarding the good validity of SPS for induction of PTSD-like additional stress compensating the effect of risperidone is supported by
phenotype (Yamamoto et al., 2009). In the present study, the piracetam our study (Garabadu et al., 2015b). This reversal of oxido-nitrosative
and risperidone were found to decrease the fear response to CS pre- stress could be attributed to strengthened stress response system and
sentation at different doses and combinations. Whereas, the high dose homeostasis.
combination achieved the fear remission earliest and hence Synaptic plasticity is critical for the formation of new memories and
12
consolidation process. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has symptomatology as well as biomarker representations which closely
been implicated in the neurobiological mechanisms of memory forma- resemble that seen in PTSD patients. Piracetam and risperidone alone
tion, synaptic plasticity and has a close correlation with clinical man- have limited efficacy to suppress the symptoms and pathophysiology of
ifestations of PTSD (Heldt et al., 2007; Kozlovsky et al., 2007; PTSD, while their combination successfully reversed cortical and hip-
Martinotti et al., 2015). In the present study, SPS-induced PTSD rats pocampal functioning, strengthens the stress response system and
showed decreased hippocampal as well as cortical BDNF levels, while suppressed the symptoms of PTSD. Thus, in order to enhance the
treatment with piracetam, risperidone, and their combinations in- therapeutic outcome of exposure therapy, piracetam and risperidone
creased BDNF levels in both the regions which are in line to the pre- combined treatment based multidimensional targeting can be used as
vious studies (Chen and Huang, 2011; Chen et al., 2017; Pandey and an effective adjunct with exposure therapy.
Garabadu, 2017; Rogóż et al., 2017). The extinction itself is a learning
process, thus the increase in BDNF levels after treatment gives a re- Declaration of competing interest
presentation of the piracetam and risperidone induced synaptic plasti-
city which could have contributed in extinction enhancement. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Neuroinflammation plays an important role in the symptomatic
progression of fear and anxiety based symptom cluster in PTSD Acknowledgments
(Furtado and Katzman, 2015; Mendoza et al., 2016; Michopoulos et al.,
2017). In the present study, the elevated hippocampal and cortical IL-6 Financial support from All India Council for Technical Education
and TNF-α levels were observed in SPS-induced PTSD-like phenotype (AICTE), New Delhi, Govt. of India is gratefully acknowledged.
rats, similar to previous findings (Lee et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2016).
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Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior

Co-treatment of piracetam with risperidone rescued extinction deﬁcits in T

Fig. 2. Timeline of the protocol. SPS - Single pro-

(p < 0.001) as compared to control rats. A signiﬁcant decrease in

risperidone combinations decreased avoidance-like behavior

(p < 0.001) as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats. Whereas, high

3.2. Molecular and biochemical estimations

3.2.1. Eﬀect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on plasma

corticosterone levels in PTSD rats

costerone levels were signiﬁcantly decreased in PTSD-like phenotype

rats as compared to control rats (p < 0.001). A signiﬁcant increase in

p < 0.001, p < 0.001). Treatment with combinations also increased

corticosterone levels in PTSD-like phenotype rats (p < 0.001). The

high dose combination treatment produced signiﬁcantly more eﬀect

3.2.2. Eﬀect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on

hippocampal and cortical antioxidant enzymes in PTSD-like phenotype rats

p < 0.0001), respectively], and also in cortex [(F(8,27) = 23.18;

p < 0.0001)], (F(8,27) = 20.13; p < 0.0001), and [F(8,27) = 25.78

hippocampal and cortical region of PTSD-like phenotype rats brain as

compared to control rats (p < 0.0001). A signiﬁcance increase in en-

zymatic activity of GSH, SOD and catalase was observed in hippo-

p < 0.05 as compared to control.

respectively), piracetam (300 mg/kg; p < 0.05, p < 0.01 respec-

restored the enzymatic activity of GSH, SOD, and catalase in hippo-

campus and cortex as compared to PTSD-like phenotype rats

(p < 0.0001). The high dose combination treatment produced po-

spectively), risperidone (p < 0.01, p < 0.05 respectively) and sertra-

Fig. 4. Eﬀect of piracetam, risperidone and their combinations on social in-

hippocampus [F(8,27) = 29.57 (p < 0.001)] and cortex [F(8,27) = 28.38

LPO [MDA (nmoles/mgprotien)]

LPO [MDA (nmoles/mgprotien)]

3.2.7. Eﬀect of piracetam, risperidone and their combination on cortical

4. Discussion signiﬁcantly reversed the conditioned fear by enhancing the extinction

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