Unit 1: Introduction to Computer

Blue Color: Syllabus Topics

Pink Color: Extra Topics
Yellow Color: Highlight part

What Does Computer Mean?

A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations, and
operations based on instructions provided by a software or hardware program. It
has the ability to accept data (input), process it, and then produce outputs.

Computers can also store data for later uses in appropriate storage devices, and
retrieve whenever it is necessary.

Modern computers are electronic devices used for a variety of purposes ranging
from browsing the web, writing documents, editing videos, creating applications,
playing video games, etc.

They are designed to execute applications and provide a variety of solutions by

combining integrated hardware and software components.

Types of Computers

1) Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to
process huge amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of
instructions in a second. It has thousands of interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications

such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations, and nuclear energy research.

2) Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users

simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means
they can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe
computers make them ideal for big organizations like the banking and telecom
sectors, which need to manage and process a high volume of data.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer

It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors

and can support 4 to 200 users at one time. Mini-frame computers are used in
institutes and departments for tasks such as billing, accounting, and inventory
management. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and
microcomputer as it is smaller than the mainframe but larger than a
microcomputer.

4) Workstation

A workstation is a single-user computer that is designed for technical or

scientific applications. It has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM,
and high-speed graphic adapters. It generally performs a specific job with great
expertise; accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstations,
music workstations,s, and engineering design workstations.

5) Microcomputer

A microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose

computer that is designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central
processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit, and output unit. Laptops and
desktop computers are examples of microcomputers. They are suitable for personal
work that may make an assignment, watch a movie, or at the office for office work.

Applications of Computer

Home: Computers are used at home for several purposes like online bill payment,
watching movies or shows at home, home tutoring, social media access, playing
games, internet access, etc. They provide communication through electronic mail.
They help to avail work-from-home facilities for corporate employees. Computers
help the student community to avail of online educational support.

Medical Field: Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients'

history, diagnosis, X-rays, live monitoring of patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use
robotic surgical devices to perform delicate operations and conduct surgeries
remotely. Virtual reality technologies are also used for training purposes. It also
helps to monitor the fetus inside the mother’s womb.

Entertainment: Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as
a virtual entertainer by playing games, listening to music, etc. MIDI instruments
greatly help people in the entertainment industry in recording music with artificial
instruments. Videos can be fed from computers to full-screen televisions. Photo
editors are available with fabulous features.

Industry: Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing
inventory, designing purposes, creating virtual sample products, interior designing,
video conferencing, etc. Online marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability
to sell various products to inaccessible corners like interior or rural areas. Stock
markets have seen phenomenal participation from different levels of people through
the use of computers.
Education: Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online
examinations, referring e-books, online tutoring, etc. They help in increased use of
audio-visual aids in the education field.

Government: In government sectors, computers are used in data processing,

maintaining a database of citizens, and supporting a paperless environment. The
country’s defense organizations have greatly benefitted from computers in their use
for missile development, satellites, rocket launches, etc.

Banking: In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers
and conduct transactions, such as withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs.
Banks have reduced manual errors and expenses to a great extent through the
extensive use of computers.

Business: Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main
objective of business is transaction processing, which involves transactions with
suppliers, employees or customers. Computers can make these transactions easy
and accurate. People can analyze investments, sales, expenses, markets and other
aspects of business using computers.

Training: Many organizations use computer-based training to train their

employees, to save money and improve performance. Video conferencing through
computers allows saving of time and traveling costs by being able to connect people
in various locations.

Arts: Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The
fluid movement of dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized
using computers.
Science and Engineering: Computers with high performance are used to
stimulate dynamic process in Science and Engineering. Supercomputers have
numerous applications in area of Research and Development (R&D). Topographic
images can be created through computers. Scientists use computers to plot and
analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.

Characteristics of Computer System

The characteristics of the computer system are as follows −

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans while
performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions (1,000,000)
of instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their operations is
microseconds and nanoseconds.

Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy.

Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency
and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also
makes it superior to that of human beings.

Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of work
with the same accuracy and efficiency.

Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent results for a similar set of data i.e., if
we give the same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.
Automation

The computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without
manual intervention.

Memory
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage is removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are
also used to store data.

Block Diagram of Computer

Input

All the data received by the computer goes through the input unit. The input unit
comprises different devices. Like a mouse, keyboard, scanner, etc. In other words,
each of these devices acts as a mediator between the users and the computer.

The data that is to be processed is put through the input unit. The computer
accepts the raw data in binary form. It then processes the data and produces the
desired output.

The 3 major functions of the input unit are-

● Take the data to be processed by the user.

● Convert the given data into machine-readable form.
● And then, transmit the converted data into the main memory of the
computer. The sole purpose is to connect the user and the computer. In
addition, this creates easy communication between them.

CPU – Central Processing Unit

Central Processing Unit or the CPU, is the brain of the computer. It works the same
way a human brain works. As the brain controls all human activities, the CPU to
controls all tasks.

Moreover, the CPU conducts all the arithmetical and logical operations in the
computer.

Now the CPU comprises two units, namely – ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and CU
(Control Unit). Both of these units work in sync. The CPU processes the data as a
whole.

Let us see what particular tasks are assigned to both units.

ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit

The Arithmetic Logic Unit is made of two terms, arithmetic and logic. There are two
major functions that this unit performs.

1. Data is inserted through the input unit into the primary memory.
Performs the basic arithmetical operation on it. Like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. It performs all sorts of
calculations required on the data. Then sends back data to the storage.
2. The unit is also responsible for performing logical operations like AND,
OR, Equal to, Less than, etc. In addition to this it conducts merging,
sorting, and selection of the given data.

CU – Control Unit

The control unit as the name suggests is the controller of all the activities/tasks and
operations. All this is performed inside the computer.
The memory unit sends a set of instructions to the control unit. Then the control
unit in turn converts those instructions. After that these instructions are converted
to control signals.
These control signals help in prioritizing and scheduling the activities. Thus, the
control unit coordinates the tasks inside the computer in sync with the input and
output units.

Memory Unit
All the data that has to be processed or has been processed is stored in the
memory unit. The memory unit acts as a hub of all the data. It transmits it to the
required part of the computer whenever necessary.
The memory unit works in sync with the CPU. This helps in faster accessing and
processing of the data. Thus, making tasks easier and faster.
There are two types of computer memory-

1. Primary memory – This type of memory cannot store a vast amount

of data. Therefore, it is only used to store recent data. The data stored
 in this is temporary. It can get erased once the power is switched off.
Therefore, is also called temporary memory or the main memory.

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is an example of primary

memory. This memory is directly accessible by the CPU. It is used for
reading and writing purposes. For data to be processed, it has to be
first transferred to the RAM and then to the CPU.

2. Secondary memory – As explained above, the primary memory

stores temporary data. Thus it cannot be accessed in the future. For
permanent storage purposes, secondary memory is used. It is also
called permanent memory or auxiliary memory. The hard disk is an
example of secondary memory. Even in a power failure data does not
get erased easily.

Output

There is nothing to be amazed by what the output unit is used for. All the
information sent to the computer once processed is received by the user through
the output unit. Devices like printers, monitors, projectors, etc. all come under the
output unit.

The output unit displays the data either in the form of a soft copy or a hard copy.
The printer is for the hard copy. The monitor is for the display. The output unit
accepts the data in binary form from the computer. It then converts it into a
readable form for the user.

What is computer memory?

is any physical device, used to store data, information or instruction temporarily or
permanently. It is the collection of storage units that stores binary information in
the form of bits. The memory block is split into a small number of components,
called cells. Each cell has a unique address to store the data in memory, ranging
from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the size of computer memory
is 64k words, the memory units have 64 * 1024 = 65536 locations or cells. The
address of the memory's cells varies from 0 to 65535.

Why do we need computer memory?

In the computer system, we need computer memory to store various types of data
like text, images, video, audio, documents, etc. We can retrieve it when the data is
required. For example, when we write and execute any computer program, it is
initially stored in primary memory. If the processor does not need particular items
for a longer time, the program or data is automatically saved into permanent or
secondary memory. Then the data is called from secondary memory to main
memory and performs the execution of codes.

Classification of Memory
Primary or Main Memory

Primary memory is also known as the computer system's main memory that
communicates directly within the CPU, Auxiliary memory, and Cache memory. Main
memory is used to keep programs or data when the processor is active to use
them. When a program or data is activated to execute, the processor first loads
instructions or programs from secondary memory into main memory, and then the
processor starts execution. Accessing or executing data from primary memory is
faster because it has a cache or register memory that provides a faster response
and is located closer to the CPU. The primary memory is volatile, which means the
data in memory can be lost if it is not saved when a power failure occurs. It is
costlier than secondary memory, and the main memory capacity is limited as
compared to secondary memory.

Primary memory is further divided into two parts:

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read Only Memory)

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Is one of the faster types of main memory accessed directly by the CPU. It is the
hardware in a computer device to temporarily store data, programs, or program
results. It is used to read/write data in memory until the machine is working. It is
volatile, so if a power failure occurs or the computer is turned off, the information
stored in RAM will be lost. All data stored in computer memory can be read or
accessed randomly at any time.

There are two types of RAM:

● SRAM
● DRAM

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Is a memory device or storage medium that is used to permanently store
information inside a chip. It is a read-only memory that can only read stored
information, data, or programs, but we cannot write or modify anything. A ROM
contains some important instructions or program data that are required to start or
boot a computer. It is a non-volatile memory; it means that the stored information
cannot be lost even when the power is turned off or the system is shut down.
Types of ROM

There are five types of Read Only Memory:

1. MROM (Masked Read Only Memory):

MROM is the oldest type of read-only memory whose program or data is
pre-configured by the integrated circuit manufacturer at the time of
manufacturing. Therefore, a program or instruction stored within the MROM
chip cannot be changed by the user.

2. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):

It is a type of digital read-only memory, in which the user can write any type
of information or program only once. It means it is the empty PROM chip in
which the user can write the desired content or program only once using the
special PROM programmer or PROM burner device; after that, the data or
instruction cannot be changed or erased.

3. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):

It is the type of read-only memory in which stored data can be erased and
reprogrammed only once in the EPROM memory. It is a non-volatile memory
chip that holds data when there is no power supply and can also store data
for a minimum of 10 to 20 years. In EPROM, if we want to erase any stored
data and re-programmed it, first, we need to pass the ultraviolet light for 40
minutes to erase the data; after that, the data is re-created in EPROM.

4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only

Memory):
The EEROM is an electrically erasable and programmable read-only memory
used to erase stored data using a high voltage electrical charge and
re-programmed it. It is also a non-volatile memory whose data cannot be
erased or lost; even if the power is turned off. In EEPROM, the stored data
can be erased and reprogrammed up to 10 thousand times, and the data
erase one byte at a time.

5. Flash ROM:
Flash memory is a non-volatile storage memory chip that can be written or
programmed in small units called blocks or Sectors. Flash Memory is an
 EEPROM form of computer memory, and the contents or data cannot be lost
when the power source is turned off. It is also used to transfer data between
the computer and digital devices.

Cache memory:- is a high-speed memory, which is small in size but faster than
the main memory (RAM). The CPU can access it more quickly than the primary
memory. So, it is used to synchronize with high-speed CPU and to improve its
performance.
Cache memory can only be accessed by CPU. It can be a reserved part of the main
memory or a storage device outside the CPU. It holds the data and programs which
are frequently used by the CPU. So, it makes sure that the data is instantly
available for CPU whenever the CPU needs this data. In other words, if the CPU
finds the required data or instructions in the cache memory, it doesn't need to
access the primary memory (RAM). Thus, by acting as a buffer between RAM and
CPU, it speed up the system performance.

Input Devices

Keyboard

● A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an alphabet,
number, or number command which can be given to a computer for various
actions to be performed
● It has a modified version of typewriter keys
● The keyboard is an essential input device and computers and laptops both
use keyboards to give commands to the computer

Mouse

● It is also known as a pointing device

● Using a mouse we can directly click on the various icons present on the
system and open up various files and programs
● A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom
which helps in selecting and moving the mouse around, respectively
 ● In the case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement for the mouse
which helps in the movement of the mouse pointer

JoyStick

● It is a device that comprises a stick that is attached at an angle to the base

so that it can be moved and controlled
● Mostly used to control the movement in video games
● Apart from a computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an
airplane, wheelchairs, cranes, trucks, etc. to operate them well

Scanner

● This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal
● When we place any piece of a document on a scanner, it converts it into a
digital signal and displays it on the computer screen

Microphone device(Mic)

● A microphone is an input device that was developed by Emile Berliner in

1877. It is used to convert sound waves into electric waves or input the audio
into computers. It captures audio by converting sound waves into an
electrical signal, which may be a digital or analog signal.

LED & Touch Screen

A touch screen is a display device that allows users to interact with a computer
using their finger or stylus. They're a useful alternative to a mouse or keyboard for
navigating a GUI (graphical user interface). Touch screens are used on various
devices, such as computer and laptop displays, smartphones, tablets, cash
registers, and information kiosks. Some touch screens use a grid of infrared beams
to sense the presence of a finger instead of utilizing touch-sensitive input.

Output Devices

1. Printer

Printers are information output devices that allow you to print data on paper. Or in
other words, it is an output device that creates a hard copy of the processed data
or information. Printers are divided into two categories:
(1) Impact Printer: In impact printers, characters are printed on the ribbon,
which is then smashed on the paper. Or we can say that such type of printer uses a
print head or hammer to print the data on the paper. Here to print the paper the
hammer or print head strikes an ink ribbon against the paper and the character
starts printing. Some of the types of impact printers are:
1)Dot matrix printer: A dot matrix printer is an impact printer that prints
using a fixed number of pins or wires. Typically the pins or wires are
arranged in one or several vertical columns. The pins strike an ink-coated
ribbon and force contact between the ribbon and the paper so that each pin
makes a small dot on the paper.

2)Daisy wheel printer: The printer uses a metal or plastic disk containing each of
the letters, numbers, and other characters it supports. When printing, the printer
rotates the disk to each character and, using a hammer, strikes each character into
an ink ribbon to create characters on paper.

3)Line printer: Line Printer can Print One Line at a Time. A line printer is a form of
high-speed impact printer. They can Print 300 to 3000 Lines per Minute. So that
they are very fast. Large Computer systems typically use Line Printer. Line Printers
are of two Types. Drum Printers, Chain Printers.

4)Chain printer: An early line printer that used type slugs linked together in a
chain as its printing mechanism. The chain spins horizontally around a set of
hammers. When the desired character is in front of the selected print column, the
corresponding hammer hits the paper into the ribbon and onto the character in the
chain.

Impact printers have the following characteristics:

● Extremely low consumable costs.
● Fairly noisy
● It’s perfect for large-scale printing because of its inexpensive cost.
● Physical contact with the paper is required to form print.

(2) Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers print characters without the use of
a ribbon. These printers are often known as Page Printers because they print a full
page at a time. Some of the types of non-impact printers are:
1)Laser printer: When a document is sent to the printer, a laser beam "draws" the
document on a selenium-coated drum using electrical charges. The drum is then
rolled in toner, a dry powder type of ink that adheres to the charged image on the
drum. The toner is transferred onto a piece of paper and fused to the paper with
heat and pressure.

2)Inkjet printer: Inkjet printers are a category of printer in which printing is done
with the help of inkjet technology. The technology works by spraying ionized ink
directed by magnetic plates onto the paper, which is fed through the printer. As
inkjet printers are more affordable than other types of printers, they are commonly
used as home and business printers.

Non-impact printers have the following characteristics:

● Quicker
● They don’t produce much noise.
● Superior quality
 ● Supports a wide range of fonts and character sizes

2. Plotter: A plotter is a device that prints high-quality graphics in a variety of

color formats. It works in a similar way to a printer, although it has more advanced
features. It is used to print large maps, architectural drawings, large-format
printing, and create pictures, 3D postcards, advertising signs, charts, and various
designs of the internal structure of building machines, as well as create pictures, 3D
postcards, advertising signs, charts, and various designs of the internal structure of
building machines.

Characteristics of Plotter:
● Large-size prints can be taken via plotters
● It is slow & expensive.

3. Speakers
A computer speaker is an output hardware device that connects to a computer to
generate sound. The signal used to produce the sound that comes from a computer
speaker is created by the computer's sound card.
External speakers are connected to a computer or another device to give the sound
more amplification (make it louder), add more bass with a subwoofer, or create
surround sound. If you have a laptop, smartphone, or another device with built-in
speakers, you do not need external speakers unless you need louder sounds, more
bass, or surround sound

Secondary Storage

Hard Disk
A hard disk is a memory storage device that looks like this:
The disk is divided into tracks. Each track is further divided into sectors. The point
to be noted here is that outer tracks are bigger in size than inner tracks but they
contain the same number of sectors and have equal storage capacity. This is
because the storage density is high in sectors of the inner tracks whereas the bits
are sparsely arranged in sectors of the outer tracks. Some space in every sector is
used for formatting(insert, delete). So, the actual capacity of a sector is less than
the given capacity.
Read-Write(R-W) head moves over the rotating hard disk. It is this Read-Write head
that performs all the read and writes operations on the disk and hence, the position
of the R-W head is a significant concern. To perform a read or write operation on a
memory location, we need to place the R-W head over that position. Some
important terms must be noted here:

1. Seek time – The time taken by the R-W head to reach the desired track
from its current position.
2. Rotational latency – Time taken by the sector to come under the R-W
head.
3. Data transfer time – Time is taken to transfer the required amount of
data. It depends upon the rotational speed.
4. Controller time – The processing time taken by the controller.
5. Average Access time – seek time + Average Rotational latency + data
transfer time + controller time.

SSD
An SSD, or solid-state drive, is a type of storage device used in computers. This
non-volatile storage media stores persistent data on solid-state flash memory. SSDs
replace traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) in computers and perform the same
basic functions as hard drives. But SSDs are significantly faster in comparison. With
an SSD, the device's operating system will boot up more rapidly, programs will load
quicker and files can be saved faster.
SSDs are used anywhere that hard drives can be deployed. Consumer products, for
example, are used in personal computers (PCs), laptops, computer games, digital
cameras, digital music players, smartphones, tablets, and thumb drives. They are
also incorporated with graphics cards. However, they are more expensive than
traditional HDDs.

SSDs read and write data to an underlying set of interconnected flash

memory chips. These chips use floating gate transistors (FGTs) to hold an electrical
charge, which enables the SSD to store data even when it is not connected to a
power source. Each FGT contains a single bit of data, designated either as a 1 for a
charged cell or a 0 if the cell has no electrical charge.

Every block of data is accessible at a consistent speed. However, SSDs can only
write to empty blocks. And although SSDs have tools to get around this,
performance may still slow over time.

CD Drive
CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually
lasers, to read and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of
storage space for less than a dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into the CPU
cabinet. They are portable as you can eject the drive, remove the CD and carry it
with you. There are three types of CDs −
● CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these
CDs are recorded by the manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio, or
video are released on CD-ROMs.
● CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user
once on the CD-R. It cannot be deleted or modified later.
● CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted
on these optical disks again and again.

PD(Pen drive)
A pen drive is a compact secondary storage device. It is also known as a USB flash
drive, thumb drive, or jump drive. It connects to a computer via a USB port. It is
commonly used to store and transfer data between computers. For example, you can
write a report using a computer and then copy or transfer it to the pen drive. Later, you
can connect this pen drive to a computer to see or edit your report. You can also store
your important documents and pictures, music, and videos in the pen drive and keep it
in a safe place.

Pen drive does not have movable parts; it comprises an integrated circuit memory chip
that stores the data. This chip is housed inside a plastic or aluminum casing. The data
storage capacity of the pen drive generally ranges from 2 GB to 128 GB. Furthermore, it
is a plug-and-play device as you don't need additional drives, software, or hardware to
use it.
OPEN ELECTIVE U1

History of Computer

Since the evolution of humans, devices have been used for calculations for
thousands of years. One of the earliest and most well-known devices was an
abacus. Then in 1822, the father of computers, Charles Babbage began developing
what would be the first mechanical computer. And then in 1833 he actually
designed an Analytical Engine which was a general-purpose computer. It contained
an ALU, some basic flow chart principles and the concept of integrated memory.
Then more than a century later in the history of computers, we got our first
electronic computer for general purpose. It was the ENIAC, which stands for
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. The inventors of this computer were
John W. Mauchly and J.Presper Eckert.
And with time the technology developed and the computers got smaller and the
processing got faster. We got our first laptop in 1981 and it was introduced by
Adam Osborne and EPSON.

5 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

FIRST GENERATION: VACUUM TUBES (1940–1956)

The first computer systems used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
main memory, and they were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. These
computers were very expensive to operate, and in addition to using a great deal of
electricity, the first computers generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions. The maximum internal storage capacity was 20,000 characters.

First-generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level

programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they
could only solve one problem at a time. It would take operators days or even weeks
to set up a new problem. The input was based on punched cards and paper tape,
and the output was displayed on printouts.

In this generation, the Von Neumann architecture was introduced, which displays
the design architecture of an electronic digital computer. Later, the UNIVAC and
ENIAC computers, invented by J. Presper Eckert, became examples of
first-generation computer technology. The UNIVAC was the first commercial
computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

SECOND GENERATION: TRANSISTORS (1956–1963)

The world would see transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of
computers. The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 but did not see
widespread computer use until the late 1950s. This generation of computers also
included hardware advances like magnetic core memory, magnetic tape, and
magnetic disk.

The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become
smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient, and more reliable than their
first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of
heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the
vacuum tube. A second-generation computer still relied on punched cards for input
and printouts for output.

THIRD GENERATION: INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (1964–1971)

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation
of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users would interact with a

third-generation computer through keyboards, monitors, and interfaces with an
operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at
one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers, for the
first time, became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors.

FOURTH GENERATION: MICROPROCESSORS (1971–PRESENT)

The microprocessor in the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits, were built onto a single silicon chip. The technology in the first
generation that filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel
4004 chip, developed in 1971, integrated all computer components, from the
central processing unit and memory to input/output controls, on a single chip.

In 1981, IBM introduced its first personal computer for the home user, and in 1984
Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm(an
area of activity, knowledge, or interest) of desktop computers and into many areas
of life as more and more everyday products began to use the microprocessor chip.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to
form networks, eventually leading to the Internet's development. Each
fourth-generation computer also saw the computer development of GUIs, the
mouse, and handheld technology.

FIFTH GENERATION: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (PRESENT AND BEYOND)

Fifth-generation computer technology, based on artificial intelligence, is still in

development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that
are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping
to make artificial intelligence a reality. This is also so far the prime generation for
packing a large amount of storage into a compact and portable device.

Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the
face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to
develop devices that will respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.