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Basic Electronics Notes

Information Technology (Dedan Kimathi University of Technology)

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BASIC ELECTRONICS

[Craft Certificate in Information and Communication Technology]

KIPSOEN TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL COLLEGE

NOTES COMPILED BY:

K. WESLEY
©2021

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DISCLAIMER

This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for prescribed
textbooks. The matter presented here is prepared by the author for their respective teaching
assignments by referring the text books. Further, this document is not intended to be used for
commercial purpose and the Institution is not accountable for any issues, legal or otherwise,
arising out of use of this document.

Students are reminded not to treat these lecture notes as a comprehensive and solely sufficient
for their studies. These notes are aimed at providing a quick reference and a brief guidance for
the students NOT a substitute for attending regular classes and reading recommended textbooks.

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COURSE OUTLINE

1. Introduction to electrical circuits

• Basic electrical quantities and their units
2. Simple A.C circuits
• Effects of passive elements on current and voltage in A.C circuits
3. Simple D.C circuits
• Simple D.C circuit & Resistivity of metal conductors
4. Electronic components
• Electronic components, Explanation of characteristics of electronic components &
Statement of application of various components
5. Semi-conductor theory
• Structure of matter, Movement of electrons in conductors and semiconductors,
Semiconductor materials, Formation of P and N-type materials & Operation of
PNP and NPN transistors
6. Memories
• Definition of terminologies, Classification of memories, Magnetic memories &
Optical storage
7. Number systems
• Number systems, Base conversions & Binary arithmetic operations
8. Binary codes
• Importance of binary codes, Binary codes & BCD arithmetic
9. Logic gates and Boolean algebra
• Definition & Minimization of logic expressions
10. Emerging trends in electronics
• Emerging, Challenges & Coping

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REFERENCES

B.L. THERAJA, A. T. (n.d.). A TEXTBOOK OF ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY. (S.

TARNEKAR, Ed.) S. CHAND & COMPANY LTD.
Bird, J. (2017). Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology (6 ed.). Routledge.
Eggleston, D. L. (2011). Basic Electronics for Scientists and Engineers. Cambridge University
Press.
Gussow, M. (2007). Basic Electricity, Schaum's Outline Series (2 ed.). McGrawHill.
ROGER L. TOKHEIM, M. (1994). SCHAUM’S OUTLINE OF DIGITAL PRINCIPLES (3rd
ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Schultz, M. E. (2016). GROB’S BASIC ELECTRONICS (12 ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

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Table of Contents
DISCLAIMER.................................................................................................................................................... i
COURSE OUTLINE .......................................................................................................................................... ii
References ................................................................................................................................................... iii

TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ............................................. 1

1.1. BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS................................................................................... 1

TOPIC 2. ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS............................................................................ 7

2. 1. RESISTOR............................................................................................................................................... 7
2. 2. CAPACITOR .......................................................................................................................................... 13
2. 3. INDUCTOR ........................................................................................................................................... 16
2. 4. DIODE................................................................................................................................................. 19
2. 5. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ........................................................................................................................... 24

TOPIC 3. SIMPLE D.C. CIRCUITS ..................................................................................... 27

3.1. D.C Circuit ......................................................................................................................................... 27

3.2. resistivity of Metal Conductors ......................................................................................................... 36

TOPIC 4. SIMPLE A.C. CIRCUITS ..................................................................................... 38

4.1. Waveforms ........................................................................................................................................ 41

4.2. Terminologies ................................................................................................................................... 42
4.3. Phase Relationships .......................................................................................................................... 46
4.4. Characteristic Values of Voltage and Current ................................................................................... 51
4.5. Effects of Passive Elements on Current and Voltage in A.C. Circuit ................................................. 52

TOPIC 5. SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY ........................................................................... 60

5.1. Semiconductor Materials .................................................................................................................. 60

5.2. Atomic Structure ............................................................................................................................... 60
5.3. Electrons in Conductors and Semi-conductors ................................................................................. 63
5.4. Formation of P and N-type Semiconductor Materials ...................................................................... 66
5.5. Operation of PNP and NPN Transistors ............................................................................................ 68

TOPIC 6. COMPUTER MEMORIES ................................................................................... 72

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6.1. Memory and Storage ........................................................................................................................ 72

6.2. Storage Devices ................................................................................................................................. 73
6.3. Data Storage Capacity ....................................................................................................................... 85

TOPIC 7. NUMBER SYSTEMS ............................................................................................. 87

7.1. Introduction to Number System ....................................................................................................... 87

7.2. Base Conversion ................................................................................................................................ 90
7.3. Binary Arithmetic .............................................................................................................................. 95

TOPIC 8. BINARY CODES .................................................................................................... 98

8.1. Introduction to Binary Codes ............................................................................................................ 98

8.2. BCD Encoding & Arithmetic ............................................................................................................ 103

TOPIC 9. LOGIC GATES & BOOLEAN ALGEBRA ...................................................... 109

9.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 109

9.2. Minimization of Logic Expressions .................................................................................................. 117

TOPIC 10. EMERGING TRENDS ...................................................................................... 128

10.1. Emerging Trends ........................................................................................................................... 128

10.2. Challenges of Emerging Trends..................................................................................................... 131
10.3. Coping with Emerging Trends ....................................................................................................... 133

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TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

We start our study of electronics with definitions and the basic laws that apply to

all circuits.

1.1. BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS ........................................ 1

2. 1. RESISTOR ..................................................................................................................................... 7
2. 2. CAPACITOR ................................................................................................................................. 13
2. 3. INDUCTOR .................................................................................................................................. 16
2. 4. DIODE ....................................................................................................................................... 19
2. 5. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ................................................................................................................... 24
3.1. D.C CIRCUIT ......................................................................................................................................... 27
3.2. RESISTIVITY OF METAL CONDUCTORS ........................................................................................................ 36
4.1. Waveforms ........................................................................................................................................ 41
4.2. Terminologies ................................................................................................................................... 42
4.3. Phase Relationships .......................................................................................................................... 46
4.4. Characteristic Values of Voltage and Current ................................................................................... 51
4.5. Effects of Passive Elements on Current and Voltage in A.C. Circuit ................................................. 52
5.1. Semiconductor Materials .................................................................................................................. 60
5.2. Atomic Structure ............................................................................................................................... 60
5.3. Electrons in Conductors and Semi-conductors ................................................................................. 63
5.4. Formation of P and N-type Semiconductor Materials ...................................................................... 66
5.5. Operation of PNP and NPN Transistors ............................................................................................ 68
6.1. Memory and Storage ........................................................................................................................ 72
6.2. Storage Devices ................................................................................................................................. 73
6.3. Data Storage Capacity ....................................................................................................................... 85
7.1. Introduction to Number System ....................................................................................................... 87
7.2. Base Conversion ................................................................................................................................ 90
7.3. Binary Arithmetic .............................................................................................................................. 95
9.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 109
9.2. Minimization of Logic Expressions .................................................................................................. 117

1.1. BASIC ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS

In electronics, we are interested in keeping track of two basic quantities: the

currents and voltages in a circuit. If you can make these quantities behave like you

want, you have succeeded.

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1.1.1. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Due to the force of its electrostatic field, an electric charge has the ability to do the work of
moving another charge by attraction or repulsion. The ability of a charge to do work is called its
potential. When one charge is different from the other, there must be a difference in potential
between them.

The sum of the differences of potential of all the charges in the electrostatic field is referred to as
electromotive force (emf).

The basic unit of potential difference is the volt (V). The symbol for potential difference is V,
indicating the ability to do the work of forcing electrons to move. Because the volt unit is used,
potential difference is called voltage.

Example 1.

What is the meaning of a battery voltage output of 6 V?

A voltage output of 6 V means that the potential difference between the two terminals of the
battery is 6 V. Thus, voltage is fundamentally the potential difference between two points.

1.1.2. CURRENT

The movement or the flow of electrons is called current. To produce current, the electrons must
be moved by a potential difference. Current is represented by the letter symbol I . The basic unit
in which current is measured is the ampere (A). One ampere of current is defined as the
movement of one coulomb past any point of a conductor during one second of time. Electricity
can be termed as electric current.

The definition of current can be expressed as an equation:

𝑄
𝐼 =
𝑇

𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = 𝐼 × 𝑇 = 𝐼𝑇

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where I = current, A

Q = charge, C

T = time, s

Charge differs from current in that Q is an accumulation of charge, while I measure the intensity
of moving charges.

In a conductor, such as copper wire, the free electrons are charges that can be forced to move
with relative ease by a potential difference. If a potential difference is connected across two ends
of a copper wire, Figure 1-1, the applied voltage (1.5 V) forces the free electrons to move.

Figure 1-1: Potential difference and electric current.

In basic electricity, circuits are usually analyzed in terms of conventional current because a
positive potential is considered before a negative potential. Therefore, the direction of
conventional current is the direction of positive charges in motion.

Example: The charge of 12 C moves past a given point every second. How much is the intensity
of charge flow?

Solution;

𝑄 5𝐶
𝐼= = = 𝟓𝑨
𝑇 1𝑠
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1.1.3. RESISTANCE

It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the flow of
electricity

(i.e., electrons) through it. Metals (as a class), acids and salts solutions are good conductors of
electricity. Amongst pure metals, silver, copper and aluminium are very good conductors in the
given order.

Those substances which offer relatively greater difficulty or hindrance to the passage of these
electrons are said to be relatively poor conductors of electricity like glass, rubber, p.v.c.
(polyvinyl chloride) and dry wood etc.

The practical unit of resistance is ohm. The symbol for ohm is Ω. A conductor is said to have a
resistance of one ohm if it permits one ampere current to flow through it when one volt is
impressed across its terminals.

The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance and is measured in siemens (S). Thus,
𝟏
conductance, in siemens 𝑮 =
𝑹

Example: Calculate the resistance for the following conductance values: (a) 0.05 S (b) 0.1 S

Notice that a higher value of conductance corresponds to a lower value of resistance.

Example: Calculate the conductance for the following resistance values: (a) 1 𝑘Ω (b) 5 𝑘Ω.

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Notice that a higher value of resistance corresponds to a lower value of conductance.

1.1.4. ENERGY

Energy is the ability to do work or apply force to move an object. In the case of electrical energy,
the force is electrical attraction or repulsion between charged particles.

The SI unit of energy is the joule.

Electrical energy may be either potential energy or kinetic energy, but it's usually encountered as
potential energy, which is energy stored due to the relative positions of charged particles or
electric fields.

1.1.5. POWER

Power is defined as the rate of doing work or transferring energy.

The unit of power is the watt (W), where one watt is one joule per second.

𝑾
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓, 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 𝑷 =
𝒕

where W is the work done or energy transferred, in joules, and t is the time, in seconds. Thus,

𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚, 𝒊𝒏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝑾 = 𝑷𝒕

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The electric power P used in any part of a circuit is equal to the current I in that part multiplied
by the voltage V across that part of the circuit. Its formula is

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉

where P = power, W

V = voltage, V

I = current, A

Hence, Electric energy (E) can be given by;

𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡

Although the unit of energy is the joule, when dealing with large amounts of energy, the unit
used is the kilowatt hour (kWh) where

1 kWh =1000-watt hour

=1000×3600-watt seconds or joules

=3 600 000 J

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TOPIC 2. ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Every circuit will rely on them so you need to understand the various types and how they are
represented on circuit board diagrams.

Electronic components can be of two types;

Active components

These are devices that can be used for amplification, rectification or change of energy from one
form to another. Examples are diodes and transistors i.e. LED convert electrical energy to light
energy.

Passive Components

These are devices which can be used to complete a circuit with voltage and current sources and
active components. Examples are resistor, capacitor and inductor.

2. 1. RESISTOR

A resistor is a device whose resistance to current flow is a known, specified value. Resistance is
the opposition to current flow. To add resistance to a circuit, resistors are used. Resistance is
measured in ohms (Ω) and is represented by the symbol R in equations.

Resistors are common components of many electrical and electronic devices. Some frequent uses
for resistors are;

➢ to establish the proper value of circuit voltage,

➢ to limit current, and
➢ to provide a load.

2.1.1. TYPES OF RESISTORS

1. Fixed Resistors

A fixed resistor is one that has a single value of resistance which remains constant under normal
conditions.

The two main types of fixed resistors are carbon-composition and wire-wound resistors.
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i. Carbon-Composition Resistors

The resistance element is primarily graphite or some other form of solid carbon carefully made
to provide the desired resistance. These resistors generally are inexpensive and have resistance
values that range from 0.1Ω 𝑡𝑜 22𝑀Ω.

ii. Wire-Wound Resistors

The resistance element is usually nickel–chromium wire wound on a ceramic rod. The entire
assembly is normally covered with a ceramic material or a special enamel. They have resistance
values from 1Ω 𝑡𝑜 100 𝑘Ω.

2. VARIABLE RESISTORS

Variable resistors are used to vary or change the amount of resistance in a circuit. Variable
resistors are called potentiometers or rheostats. Potentiometers generally consist of carbon-
composition resistance elements, while the resistance element in a rheostat is usually made of
resistance wire. In both devices, a sliding arm makes contact with the stationary resistance
element (Figure 2-1). As the sliding arm rotates, its point of contact on the resistance element
changes, thus changing the resistance between the sliding arm terminal and the terminals of the
stationary resistance.

Figure 2-1: Sliding arm of a variable resistor

Rheostats are often used to control very high currents such as those found in motor and lamp
loads (Figure 2-2).

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Figure 2-2: Use of rheostat to control current in a lamp circuit

Potentiometers can be used to vary the value of voltage applied to a circuit (Fig. 3-7).

Figure 2-3: Use of potentiometer to change voltage

In this circuit, the input voltage is applied across the terminal AC of the stationary resistance. By
varying the position of the sliding arm (terminal B), the voltage across terminals BC will change.
As the sliding arm moves closer to terminal C, the voltage of the output circuit decreases. As the
sliding arm moves closer to terminal A, the output voltage of the circuit increases. Potentiometers
as control devices are found in amplifiers, radios, television sets, and electrical instruments. The
rating of a variable resistor is the resistance of the entire stationary resistance element from one
end terminal to the other.

2.1.2. RESISTOR COLOUR CODING

Because carbon resistors are small, they are color-coded to mark their R value in ohms. The basis
of this system is the use of colours for numerical values, as listed in Table 2-1.

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Table 2-1

A mnemonic could be Better Be Right Or Your Great Big Venture Goes West.

The use of coloured bands or stripes is the most common system for color-coding resistors, as
shown in Figure 2-4.

Figure 2-4: How to read color stripes on carbon resistors for R in ohms.

The coloured bands or stripes completely encircle the body of the resistor and are usually
crowded toward one end. Reading from the left to right, the first band closest to the edge gives
the first digit in the numerical value of R. The next band indicates the second digit. The third
band is the decimal multiplier, which tells us how many zeros to add after the first two digits.

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In Figure 2-5, the first stripe is red for 2 and the next stripe is green for 5. The red coloured
decimal multiplier in the third stripe means add two zeros to 25, or multiply the number 25 by
102 .

Figure 2-5

The result can be illustrated as follows:

Therefore, this R value is 2500 Ω or 2.5 𝑘Ω.

The example in Figure 2-6 illustrates that black for the third stripe just means “do not add any
zeros to the first two digits” or multiply 25 by 100 . Since this resistor has red, green, and black
stripes, the R value is 25 V.

Figure 2-6

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2.1.3. RESISTORS UNDER 10 Ω

For these values, the third stripe is either gold or silver, indicating a fractional decimal multiplier.
When the third stripe is gold, multiply the first two digits by 0.1.

Figure 2-7

In Figure 2-7, the R value is

25 × 0.1 = 2.5 Ω.

Silver means a multiplier of 0.01. If the third band in Figure 2-7 were silver, the R value would
be

25 × 0.01 = 0.25 Ω.

It is important to realize that the gold and silver colours represent fractional decimal multipliers
only when they appear in the third stripe. Gold and silver are used most often however as a
fourth stripe to indicate how accurate the R value is. The colours gold and silver will never
appear in the first two colour stripes.

2.1.4. RESISTOR TOLERANCE

The amount by which the actual R can differ from the color-coded value is the tolerance, usually
given in percent. For instance, a 2000 Ω resistor with ±10% tolerance can have resistance 10%
above or below the coded value. This R, therefore, is between 1800 and 2200 Ω. The calculations
are as follows:

10% 𝑜𝑓 2000 𝑖𝑠 0.1 × 2000 = 200.

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For +10%, the value is

2000 + 200 = 2200 Ω.

For −10%, the value is

2000 − 200 = 1800 Ω.

As illustrated in Figure 2-4, silver in the fourth band indicates a tolerance of ±𝟏𝟎%, gold
indicates ±𝟓%. If there is no colour band for tolerance, it is ±𝟐𝟎%. The inexact value of
carbon-composition resistors is a disadvantage of their economical construction. They usually
cost only a few cents each, or less in larger quantities. In most circuits, though, a small difference
in resistance can be tolerated.

2. 2. CAPACITOR

A capacitor is an electrical device which consists of two conducting plates of metal separated by
an insulating material called a dielectric (Figure 2-8a). Schematic symbols shown (Figure 2-8b
and c) apply to all capacitors. A capacitor stores electric charges in the dielectric.

Figure 2-8: Capacitor and schematic symbols

CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR

The two plates of the capacitor, shown in Figure 2-9a, are electrically neutral since there are as
many protons (positive charge) as electrons (negative charge) on each plate. Thus, the capacitor
has no charge. Now a battery is connected across the plates (Figure 2-9b). When the switch is
closed (Figure 2-9c), the negative charge on plate A is attracted to the positive terminal of the

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battery, while the positive charge on plate B is attracted to the negative terminal of the battery.
This movement of charges will continue until the difference in charge between plates A and B is
equal to the electromotive force (voltage) of the battery. The capacitor is now charged.

Figure 2-9: Charging a capacitor

Since almost none of the charge can cross the space between plates, the capacitor will remain in
this condition even if the battery is removed (Figure 2-10a). However, if a conductor is placed
across the plates (Figure 2-10b), the electrons find a path back to plate A and the charges on each
plate are again neutralized. The capacitor is now discharged.

Figure 2-10: Discharging a capacitor

CAPACITANCE

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Electrically, capacitance is the ability to store an electric charge. The unit of capacitance is the
farad (F). Capacitance is equal to the amount of charge that can be stored in a capacitor divided
by the voltage applied across the plates:

𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉

where C = capacitance, F

Q= amount of charge, C

V = voltage, V

The characteristic of a dielectric that describes its ability to store electric energy is called the
dielectric constant.

The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the area of the conductor plates, the separation
between the plates, and the dielectric constant of the insulating material. For a capacitor with two
parallel plates, the formula to find its capacitance is;

𝐴
𝐶 = 𝑘 (8.85 × 10−12 )
𝑑

where C = capacitance, F

k = dielectric constant of the insulating material

A = area of the plate, 𝑚2

d = distance between the plates, m

The farad is too high a unit for most capacitors. Therefore, we conveniently use the microfarad
(μF), the nano-farad (nF), and the picofarad (pF). 1 𝐹 = 106 𝜇𝐹 = 109 𝑛𝐹 = 1012 𝑝𝐹.

TYPES OF CAPACITORS

Commercial capacitors are named according to their dielectric. Most common are air, mica,
paper, and ceramic capacitors, plus the electrolytic type. These types are compared in Table 2-1.
Most types of capacitors can be connected to an electric circuit without regard to polarity. But

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electrolytic capacitors and certain ceramic capacitors are marked to show which side must be
connected to the more positive side of a circuit.

Table 2-2: Types of Capacitors

2. 3. INDUCTOR

Inductance is the ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage when the current varies.
Components manufactured to have a definite value of inductance are coils of wire, called
inductors. The symbol for inductance is L, and the unit is the henry (H).

Figure 2-11: Typical inductors with symbols (a)air core coil (b)iron core coil

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The wire for a coil can be wound around a hollow, insulating tube, or the coil can be the wire
itself. This type is an air-core coil because the magnetic field of the current in the coil is in air.
With another basic type, the wire is wound on an iron core to concentrate the magnetic flux for
more inductance. Air-core coils are used in rf circuits because higher frequencies need less L for
the required inductive effect. Iron-core inductors are used in the audio-frequency range,
especially in the AC power-line frequency of 60 Hz and for lower frequencies in general.

The formula for inductance is

𝑣𝐿
𝐿 =
∆𝑖/∆𝑡

where L = inductance, H

𝑣𝐿 = induced voltage across the coil, V

∆𝑖/∆𝑡 = rate of change of current, A/s

The self-induced voltage 𝑣𝐿 is

∆𝑖
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿
∆𝑡

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

When the current in a conductor or coil changes, the varying flux can cut across any other
conductor or coil located nearby, thus inducing voltages in both. A varying current in L1,
therefore, induces voltage across L1 and across L2 (Figure 2-12).

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Figure 2-12: Mutual inductance between 𝐿1 and 𝐿2

When the induced voltage 𝑣𝐿2 produces current in L2, its varying magnetic field induces voltage
in L1. Hence, the two coils L1 and L2 have mutual inductance because current change in one coil
can induce voltage in the other. The unit of mutual inductance is the henry, and the symbol is LM.
Two coils have LM of 1 H when a current change of 1 A/s in one coil induces 1 V in the other
coil. The schematic symbol for two coils with mutual inductance is shown in Figure 2-13.

Figure 2-13: Schematic symbols for two coils with mutual inductance

FACTORS AFFECTING INDUCTANCE

A coil’s inductance depends on how it is wound, the core material on which it is wound, and the
number of turns of wire with which it is wound.

CORE LOSSES

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Losses in the magnetic core are due to eddy-current losses and hysteresis losses. Eddy currents
flow in a circular path within the core material itself and dissipate as heat in the core.

Hysteresis losses arise from the additional power needed to reverse the magnetic field in
magnetic materials with an alternating current. Hysteresis losses generally are less than eddy
current losses.

To reduce eddy-current losses while sustaining flux density, the iron core can be made of
laminated sheets insulated from each other, insulated powdered-iron granules pressed into one
solid, or ferrite material. Air-core coils have practically no losses from eddy currents or
hysteresis.

2. 4. DIODE

A popular semiconductor device called a diode is made by joining p- and n-type semiconductor
materials, as shown in Figure 2-14.

Figure 2-14: Construction of a diode

Notice that the doped regions meet to form a p-n junction.

Diodes are unidirectional devices that allow current to flow through them in only one direction.
The schematic symbol for a semiconductor diode is shown in Figure 2-15. The p side of the
diode is called the anode (A), whereas the n side of the diode is called the cathode (K).

Figure 2-15: Schematic symbol for a semiconductor diode

DEPLETION ZONE

Figure 2-16 shows a p-n junction with free electrons on the n side and holes on the p side.

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Figure 2-16: P-N junction

Notice that the free electrons are represented as dash (–) marks and the holes are represented as
small circles (o). At the instant the p-n junction is formed, free electrons on the n side migrate or
diffuse across the junction to the p side. Once on the p side, the free electrons are minority
current carriers. The lifetime of these free electrons is short, however, because they fall into
holes shortly after crossing over to the p side. The important effect here is that when a free
electron leaves the n side and falls into a hole on the p side, two ions are created: a positive ion
on the n side and a negative ion on the p side (see Figure 2-17).

Figure 2-17: Formation of depletion zone

As the process of diffusion continues, a barrier potential, 𝑉𝐵 , is created and the diffusion of
electrons from the n side to the p side stops. The barrier potential stops the diffusion of current
carriers. For silicon, the barrier potential at the p-n junction is approximately 0.7 V. For
germanium, 𝑉𝐵 is about 0.3 V. The area where the positive and negative ions are located is called
the depletion zone. Other names commonly used are depletion region and depletion layer. The
word depletion is used because the area has been depleted of all charge carriers. The positive and
negative ions in the depletion zone are fixed in the crystalline structure and are therefore unable
to move.

BIASING DIODE

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The term bias is defined as a control voltage or current. Forward-biasing a diode allows current
to flow easily through the diode. Figure 2-18 illustrates a p-n junction that is forward-biased.

Figure 2-18: Forward-biased p -n junction.

In Figure 2-18, notice that the n material is connected to the negative terminal of the voltage
source, V, and the p material is connected to the positive terminal of the voltage source, V. The
voltage source, V, must be large enough to overcome the internal barrier potential 𝑉𝐵 .

Figure Figure 2-19 shows how to reverse-bias a p-n junction.

Figure 2-19: Reverse-biased p -n junction.

Notice that the negative terminal of the voltage source, V, is connected to the p-type
semiconductor material and that the positive terminal of the voltage source, V, is connected to
the n-type semiconductor material. The effect is that charge carriers in both sections are pulled
away from the junction. This increases the width of the depletion zone, as shown. Free electrons
on the n side are attracted away from the junction because of the attraction of the positive

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terminal of the voltage source, V. Likewise, holes in the p side are attracted away from the
junction because of the attraction by the negative terminal of the voltage source, V.

Even a reverse-biased diode conducts a small amount of current, called leakage current. The
leakage current is mainly due to the minority current carriers in both sections of the diode. The
minority current carriers are holes in the n side and free electrons in the p side. The minority
current carriers exist as a result of thermal energy producing a few electron-hole pairs. Since
temperature determines the number of electron-hole pairs generated, leakage current is mainly
affected by temperature. Any increase in the temperature of the diode increases the leakage
current in the diode. These minority current carriers move in a direction that is opposite to the
direction provided with forward bias.

VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE

Figure 2-20 is a graph of diode current versus diode voltage for a silicon diode.

Figure 2-20: Volt-ampere characteristic curve of a silicon diode.

The graph includes the diode current for both forward- and reverse-bias voltages. The upper right
quadrant of the graph represents the forward-bias condition. Notice that very little diode current

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flows when the forward voltage, VF, is less than about 0.6 V. Beyond 0.6 V of forward bias,
however, the diode current increases sharply. Notice that the forward voltage drop, VF, remains
relatively constant as IF increases. A voltage of 0.7 V is the approximate value assumed for the
barrier potential of a silicon p-n junction. The barrier potential of germanium diodes is
approximately 0.3 V. Therefore, if the graph in Figure 2-20 were for a germanium diode, the
current would increase sharply for a forward voltage of about 0.3 V.

Breakdown Voltage, VBR

The lower left quadrant of the graph in Figure 2-20 represents the reverse-bias condition. Notice
that only a very small current flows until the breakdown voltage, VBR, is reached. The current
that flows prior to breakdown is mainly the result of thermally produced minority current
carriers. As mentioned earlier, this current is called leakage current and is usually designated IR.
Leakage current increases mainly with temperature and is relatively independent of changes in
reverse-bias voltage. The slight increase in reverse current, IR, with increases in the reverse
voltage, VR, is a result of surface leakage current. Surface leakage current exists because there
are many holes on the edges of a silicon crystal due to unfilled covalent bonds. These holes
provide a path for a few electrons along the surfaces of the crystal.

Avalanche occurs when the reverse-bias voltage, VR, becomes excessive. Thermally produced
free electrons on the p side are accelerated by the voltage source to very high speeds as they
move through the diode. These electrons collide with valence electrons in other orbits. These
valence electrons are also set free and accelerated to very high speeds, thereby dislodging even
more valence electrons. The process is cumulative; hence, we have an avalanche effect.

When the breakdown voltage, VBR, is reached, the reverse current, IR, increases sharply. Diodes
should not be operated in the breakdown region. Most rectifier diodes have breakdown voltages
exceeding 50 V.

USES OF DIODES

One of the most useful applications is converting an AC voltage into a DC voltage. When used
for this purpose, diodes are typically referred to as rectifier diodes. A circuit that converts the AC
power-line voltage to the required DC value is called a power supply. The most important
components in power supplies are rectifier diodes, which convert AC line voltage to DC voltage.

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Diodes are able to produce a DC output voltage because they are unidirectional devices allowing
current to flow through them in only one direction.

Besides rectification, a semiconductor diode has many other useful applications. For example,
semiconductor diodes can be manufactured to regulate voltage and emit different colours of
light. These diodes are called light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Some common LED colours are red,
green, yellow, orange, and even infrared light. A Zener diode is a special diode whose voltage
remains constant despite load current variations.

2. 5. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

An IC is a collection of electronic components - resistors, transistors, capacitors, etc. - all stuffed

into a tiny chip, and connected together to achieve a common goal. They come in all sorts of
flavours: single-circuit logic gates, op amps, 555 timers, voltage regulators, motor controllers,
microcontrollers, microprocessors, FPGAs...the list just goes on-and-on.

INSIDE THE IC

The real "meat" to an IC is a complex layering of semiconductor wafers, copper, and other
materials, which interconnect to form transistors, resistors or other components in a circuit. The
cut and formed combination of these wafers is called a die.

IC PACKAGES

The package is what encapsulates the integrated circuit die and splays it out into a device we can
more easily connect to. Each outer connection on the die is connected via a tiny piece of gold
wire to a pad or pin on the package. Pins are the silver, extruding terminals on an IC, which go
on to connect to other parts of a circuit. These are of utmost importance to us, because they're
what will go on to connect to the rest of the components and wires in a circuit.

POLARITY MARKING AND PIN NUMBERING

All ICs are polarized, and every pin is unique in terms of both location and function. This means
the package has to have some way to convey which pin is which. Most ICs will use either
a notch or a dot to indicate which pin is the first pin. (Sometimes both, sometimes one or the
other.)

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Once you know where the first pin is, the remaining pin numbers increase sequentially as you
move counter-clockwise around the chip.

MOUNTING STYLE

One of the main distinguishing package type characteristics is the way they mount to a circuit
board. All packages fall into one of two mounting types: through-hole (PTH) or surface-mount
(SMD or SMT). Through-hole packages are generally bigger, and much easier to work with.
They're designed to be stuck through one side of a board and soldered to the other side.

Surface-mount packages range in size from small to minuscule. They are all designed to sit on
one side of a circuit board and be soldered to the surface.

COMMON ICs

Integrated circuits are prevalent in so many forms across electronics, it's hard to cover
everything. Here are a few of the more common ICs you might encounter in educational
electronics.

i. Logic Gates, Timers, Shift Registers, Etc.

Logic gates, the building blocks of much more ICs themselves, can be packaged into their own
integrated circuit. Some logic gate ICs might contain a handful of gates in one package

ii. Microcontrollers, Microprocessors, FPGAs, Etc.

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Microcontrollers, microprocessors, and FPGAs, all packing thousands, millions, even billions of
transistors into a tiny chip, are all integrated circuits.

iii. Sensors

Modern digital sensors, like temperature sensors, accelerometers, and gyroscopes all come
packed into an integrated circuit.

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TOPIC 3. SIMPLE D.C. CIRCUITS

3.1. D.C CIRCUIT

A simple D.C circuit has at least four basic components as shown in Figure 2.1;

1. Source of electromotive force – usually a battery

2. Conductor – wires that connect the components
3. A load – usually a resistor
4. A control – usually a switch

3.1.1. D.C. CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

A schematic diagram is one that shows by means of graphic symbols the electrical connections
and the functions of the different parts of a circuit.

Examples of common letter symbols used to denote various circuit components are given in
Table 3-1.

Table 3-1: Examples of Letter Symbols for Circuit Components

The standard graphic symbols for the commonly used electrical and electronic components are
given in Figure 3-1.

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Figure 3-1: Standard circuit symbols

A complete or closed circuit (Figure 3-2) is an unbroken path for current from the emf, through a
load, and back to the source.

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Figure 3-2: Closed circuit

A circuit is called incomplete or open (Fig. 3-2a) if a break in the circuit does not provide a
complete path for current.

Figure 3-3: Open circuit

To protect a circuit, a fuse is placed directly into the circuit (Figure 3-4). A fuse will open the
circuit whenever a dangerously large current starts to flow. A fuse will permit currents smaller
than the fuse value to flow but will melt and therefore break or open the circuit if a larger current
flow. A dangerously large current will flow when a “short circuit” occurs. A short circuit is
usually caused by an accidental connection between two points in a circuit which offers very
little resistance (Figure 3-4).

Figure 3-4: Short circuit

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OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s law states that in a closed circuit, the amount of current, I, is directly proportional to the
voltage, V, and inversely proportional to the resistance, R.

There are three ways to express Ohm’s law mathematically.

i. The current in a circuit is equal to the voltage applied to the circuit divided by the
resistance of the circuit:

𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑅

ii. The resistance of a circuit is equal to the voltage applied to the circuit divided by the
current in the circuit:

𝑉
𝑅 =
𝐼

iii. The applied voltage to a circuit is equal to the product of the current and the resistance of
the circuit:

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

where I = current, A

R = resistance, _

V = voltage, V

If you know any two of the quantities V, I, and R, you can calculate the third.

Example: Find I when V = 120 V and R = 30Ω.

Solution;

𝑉 120
𝐼 = = = 𝟒 𝑨 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
𝑅 30

Example: Find R when V = 220 V and I = 11 A.

Solution;

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𝑉 220
𝑅 = = = 𝟐𝟎 𝛀 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
𝐼 11

Example: Find V when I = 3.5A and R = 20 Ω.

Solution;

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = 3.5 × 20 = 𝟕𝟎 𝑽

Example: An electric light bulb draws 1.0 A when operating on a 120-V dc circuit. What is the
resistance of the bulb?

Solution;

𝑉 120
𝑅 = = = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝛀 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
𝐼 1

3.1.2. RESISTORS IN SERIES

Components connected in series are connected in a head-to-tail fashion, thus forming a line or
series of components. When forming equivalent circuits, any number of resistors in series may
be replaced by a single equivalent resistor given by:

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖
𝑖

where the sum is over all the resistors in series.

To see this, consider the circuit shown in Figure 3-5.

Figure 3-5: Equivalent circuit for resistors in series.

We would like to replace the circuit on the left by the equivalent circuit on the right. The circuit
on the right will be equivalent if the current supplied by the battery is the same.

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By KCL, the current in each resistor is the same. Applying KVL around the circuit loop and
Ohm’s Law for the drop across the resistors, we obtain

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3

= 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )

= 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞

Where 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 .

This derivation can be extended to any number of resistors in series.

In a series circuit

a) the current I is the same in all parts of the circuit and hence the same reading is
found on each of the ammeters shown, and
b) the sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 is equal to the total applied voltage, V,
i.e.
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

Figure 3-6

Example: A series circuit has a 50Ω, a 75 Ω, and a 100 Ω resistor in series (Figure 3-7). Find the
total resistance of the circuit.

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Figure 3-7

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 50 + 75 + 100 = 225 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

3.1.3. RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

Components connected in parallel are connected in a head-to-head and tail-to-tail fashion. The
components are often drawn in parallel lines, hence the name. When forming equivalent circuits,
any number of resistors in parallel may be replaced by a single equivalent resistor given by:

1 1
=∑
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝑖
𝑖

where the sum is over all the resistors in parallel.

To see this, consider the circuit shown in Figure 3-8. Again, we would like to replace the circuit
on the left by the equivalent circuit on the right.

Figure 3-8: Equivalent circuit for resistors in parallel.

First, note that KCL requires

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

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Since the resistors are connected in parallel, the voltage across each one is the same, and, by
KVL is equal to the battery voltage: 𝑉 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 , 𝑉 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 , 𝑉 = 𝐼3 𝑅3 . Solving these for the
three currents and substituting in gives;

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 1 1 1 𝑉
𝐼 = + + = 𝑉( + + )=
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑒𝑞

1 1 1 1
Where = + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Again, this derivation can be extended to any number of resistors in parallel.

A frequent task is to analyze two resistors in parallel. Of course, for this special case we get;

1 1 1 1
= + . It is often more illuminating to write this as an equation for 𝑅𝑒𝑞 rather than .
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞

After some algebra, we get;

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

This special case is worth memorizing.

Example: Find the total resistance of a 2Ω, a 4 Ω, and an 8 Ω resistor in parallel.

Write the formula for three resistances in parallel.

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Substitute the resistance values.

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑇 2 4 8
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Add fractions.

1 4 2 1 7
= + + =
𝑅𝑇 8 8 8 8

Invert both sides of the equation to solve for 𝑅𝑇 .

8
𝑅𝑇 = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒Ω 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
7

Note that when resistances are connected in parallel, the total resistance is always less than the
resistance of any single branch. In this case, 𝑅𝑇 = 1.14Ω is less than 𝑅1 = 2Ω, 𝑅2 =
4Ω, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 = 8Ω .

3.1.4. SERIAL PARALLEL CONNECTION

A series-parallel circuit, also called a combination circuit, is any circuit that combines both series
and parallel connections. Although many applications exist for series or parallel circuits alone,
most electronic circuits are actually a combination of the two.

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Example;

For the circuit shown in figure below, calculate equivalent resistance.

Solution;

i. Combine the two 5 kΩ series resistors into a 10 kΩ resistor.

ii. This 10 kΩ resistor is then in parallel with the 20 kΩ resistor. Combining these we get;

𝑅1 𝑅2 10 𝑘Ω × 20 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = = 6.67 𝑘Ω.
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 10 𝑘Ω + 20 𝑘Ω

iii. This 6.67 kΩ resistor is then in series with a 10 kΩ resistor, giving a total equivalent
circuit resistance Req = 16.67 kΩ.

3.2. RESISTIVITY OF METAL CONDUCTORS

The resistance of an electrical conductor depends on four factors, these being:

a) the length of the conductor,

b) the cross-sectional area of the conductor,
c) the type of material and
d) the temperature of the material.
1. Length

Resistance, R, is directly proportional to length, l, of a conductor,

i.e. 𝑅∝𝑙

2. Cross-sectional area

Thus, for example, if the length of a piece of wire is doubled, then the resistance is doubled.

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Resistance, R, is inversely proportional to cross sectional area, a, of a conductor,

1
i.e. 𝑅∝
𝑎

Thus, for example, if the cross-sectional area of a piece of wire is doubled then the resistance is
halved.

1
Since 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙 and 𝑅 ∝ then
𝑎

𝑙
𝑅∝
𝑎

By inserting a constant of proportionality into this relationship the type of material used may be
taken into account. The constant of proportionality is known as the resistivity of the material and
is given the symbol ρ (Greek rho). Thus,

𝒍
𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑹 = 𝝆 𝒐𝒉𝒎𝒔
𝒂

ρ is measured in ohm metres (Ω-m).

Example: A coil is wound from a 10 m length of copper wire having a cross sectional

area of 1.0 mm2. Calculate the resistance of the coil. (𝜌 = 1.59 × 10−8 )

3. Conductivity

Electrical conductivity (σ) is the reciprocal of the electrical resistivity (ρ):

1
𝜎 =
𝜌

SI units of conductivity is Siemens per meter (S/m)

Electrical conductivity is the measure of the amount of electrical current a material can carry or
its ability to carry a current.

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TOPIC 4. SIMPLE A.C. CIRCUITS

An ac voltage is one that continually changes in magnitude and periodically reverses in polarity
(Figure 4-1). The zero axis is a horizontal line across the center. The vertical variations on the
voltage wave show the changes in magnitude. The voltages above the horizontal axis have
positive (+) polarity, while voltages below the horizontal axis have negative (−) polarity.

Figure 4-1: An ac voltage waveform

An ac voltage can be produced by a generator, called an alternator (Figure 4-2).

Figure 4-2: Loop rotating in magnetic field produces an AC voltage

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Because the cycles of voltage correspond to rotation of the loop around a circle, parts of the
circle are expressed in angles. The complete circle is 360◦. One half cycle, or one alternation, is
180◦. A quarter turn is 90◦. Degrees are also expressed in radians (rad). One radian is equal to
57.3◦. A complete circle has 2π rad; therefore

The voltage waveform (Figure 4-3) is called a sine wave.

Figure 4-3: Two cycles of alternating voltage generated by rotating loop.

The instantaneous value of voltage at any point on the sine wave is expressed by the equation

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑀 sin 𝜃

where v = instantaneous value of voltage, V

𝑉𝑀 = maximum value of voltage, V

θ = angle of rotation, degrees (θ is the Greek lowercase letter theta)

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Example: A sine wave voltage varies from zero to a maximum of 10 V. What is the value of
voltage at the instant that the cycle is at 30◦? 45◦? 60◦? 90◦? 180◦? 270◦?

Solution;

Substitute 10 for 𝑉𝑀 in equation 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑀 sin 𝜃

𝑣 = 10 sin 𝜃

𝐴𝑡 30°: 𝑣 = 10 sin 30 ° = 10(0.5) = 5 𝑉 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

𝐴𝑡 45° ∶ 𝑣 = 10 sin 45 ° = 10(0.707) = 7.07 𝑉 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

𝐴𝑡 60° ∶ 𝑣 = 10 sin 60 ° = 10(0.866) = 8.66 𝑉 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

𝐴𝑡 90° ∶ 𝑣 = 10 sin 90 ° = 10(1) = 10 𝑉 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

𝐴𝑡 180° ∶ 𝑣 = 10 sin 180 ° = 10(0) = 0 𝑉 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

𝐴𝑡 270° ∶ 𝑣 = 10 sin 270 ° = 10(−1) = −10 𝑉 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

When a sine wave of alternative voltage is connected across a load resistance, the current that
flows in the circuit is also a sine wave (Figure 4-4).

Figure 4-4: One cycle of alternating current

Example 12.4 The ac sine wave voltage (Fig. 12-5a) is applied across a load resistance of
10Ω (Fig. 12-5b). Show the resulting sine wave of alternating current.

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Solution;
𝑣
The instantaneous value of current is 𝑖 = . In a pure resistance circuit, the current waveform
𝑅

follows the polarity of the voltage waveform. The maximum value of current is

𝑉𝑀 10
𝐼𝑀 = = = 1𝐴
𝑅 10

In the form of an equation 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑀 sin 𝜃.

4.1. WAVEFORMS

If values of quantities which vary with time t are plotted to a base of time, the resulting graph is
called a waveform. Some typical waveforms are shown below.

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Waveforms (a) and (b) are unidirectional waveforms, for, although they vary considerably with
time, they flow in one direction only (i.e. they do not cross the time axis and become negative).
Waveforms (c) to (g) are called alternating waveforms since their quantities are continually
changing in direction (i.e. alternately positive and negative).

A waveform of the type shown in (g) is called a sine wave. It is the shape of the waveform of
e.m.f. produced by an alternator and thus the mains electricity supply is of ‘sinusoidal’ form.

4.2. TERMINOLOGIES

a) Cycle
One complete revolution of the loop around the circle is a cycle.

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In Figure 4-3, the generator loop is shown in its position at each quarter-turn during one
complete cycle. The corresponding wave of induced voltage also goes through one cycle.
b) Frequency and Period
The number of cycles per second is called frequency. It is indicated by the symbol f and is
expressed in hertz (Hz). One cycle per second equals one hertz. Thus 60 cycles per second
(formerly abbreviated cps) equals 60 Hz. A frequency of 2 Hz (Figure 4-5b) is twice the
frequency of 1 Hz (Figure 4-5a).

Figure 4-5: Comparison of frequencies

The amount of time for the completion of 1 cycle is the period. It is indicated by the symbol T
for time and is expressed in seconds (s). Frequency and period are reciprocals of each other.

1
𝑓 =
𝑇

1
𝑇 =
𝑓

The angle of 360◦ represents the time for 1 cycle, or the period T. So, we can show the
horizontal axis of the sine wave in units of either electrical degrees or seconds (Figure 4-6)

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Figure 4-6: Relationship between electrical degrees and time

Example: An ac current varies through one complete cycle in 1/100 s. What are the period and
frequency? If the current has a maximum value of 5 A, show the current waveform in units of
degrees and milliseconds.

Solution;

1
𝑇 = 𝑜𝑟 0.01 𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒔 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
100𝑠

1 1
𝑓 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑯𝒛 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
𝑇 1
100

c) Wavelength, 𝜆

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The wavelength λ (Greek lowercase lambda) is the length of one complete wave or cycle. It
depends upon the frequency of the periodic variation and its velocity of transmission. Expressed
as a formula,

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜆 =
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

For electromagnetic radio waves, the velocity in air or a vacuum is 3 × 108 m/s, which is the

speed of light. The equation is written in the familiar form is

𝑐
𝜆 =
𝑓

Where λ = wavelength, m
𝑚
c = speed of light, 3 × 108 , a constant
𝑠

f = radio frequency, Hz

Example: TV Channel 2 has a frequency of 60 Hz. What is its wavelength?

Solution;

Convert f = 60 MHz 𝑡𝑜 𝑓 = 60 × 106 Hz.

𝑐 3 × 108
𝜆 = = = 𝟓 𝒎 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
𝑓 60 × 106

d) Peak Value and Average Value

This is the maximum value 𝑉𝑀 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑀 . For example, specifying that a sine wave has a peak value
of 170 V states the highest value the sine wave reaches. All other values during the cycle follow
a sine wave. The peak value applies to either the positive or the negative peak.

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To include both peak amplitudes, the peak-to-peak (p-p) value may be specified. For the same
example, the peak-to-peak value is 340 V, double the peak value of 170 V, since the positive and
negative peaks are symmetrical. Note that the two opposite peak values cannot occur at the same
time. Furthermore, in some waveforms, the two peaks are not equal.

Average value is an arithmetic average of all values in a sine wave for one alternation, or half
cycle. The half-cycle is used for the average because over a full cycle the average value is zero,
which is useless for comparison. If the sine values for all angles up to 180° for one alternation
are added and then divided by the number of values, this average equal 0.637.

Since the peak value of the sine function is 1 and the average equals 0.637, then

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.637 × 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

With a peak of 170 V, for example, the average value 𝑖𝑠 0.637 × 170 𝑉, which equals
approximately 108 V.

4.3. PHASE RELATIONSHIPS

The phase angle between two waveforms of the same frequency is the angular difference at a
given instant of time. As an example, the phase angle between waves B and A (Figure 4-7a) is
90°.

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Figure 4-7: Wave B leads wave A by a phase angle of 90°

Take the instant of time at 90◦. The horizontal axis is shown in angular units of time. Wave B
starts at maximum value and reduces to zero value at 90◦. Wave B reaches its maximum value
90◦ ahead of wave A, so wave B leads wave A by 90◦. This 90◦ phase angle between waves B
and A is maintained throughout the complete cycle and all successive cycles. At any instant of
time, wave B has the value that wave A will have 90◦ later. Wave B is a cosine wave because it
is displaced 90◦ from wave A, which is a sine wave. Both waveforms are called sinusoids.

PHASORS

To compare phase angles or phases of alternating voltages and currents, it is more convenient to
use phasor diagrams corresponding to the voltage and current waveforms. A phasor is a quantity
that has magnitude and direction. The terms phasor and vector are used for quantities that have
direction. However, a phasor quantity varies with time, while a vector quantity has direction in
space. The length of the arrow in a phasor diagram indicates the magnitude of the alternating
voltage. The angle of the arrow with respect to the horizontal axis indicates the phase angle. One
waveform is chosen as the reference. Then the second waveform can be compared with the
reference by means of the angle between the phasor arrows. For example, the phasor 𝑉𝐴

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represents the voltage wave A with a phase angle of 0◦ (Figure 4-7b). The phasor 𝑉𝐵 is vertical
(Fig. 12-10b) to show the phase angle of 90◦ with respect to phasor VA, which is the reference.
Since lead angles are shown in the counter clockwise direction from the reference phasor, 𝑉𝐵
leads 𝑉𝐴 by 90◦ (Figure 4-7b).

Generally, the reference phasor is horizontal, corresponding to 0◦. If 𝑉𝐵 were shown as the
reference (Figure 4-8b), 𝑉𝐴 would have to be 90◦ clockwise in order to have the same phase
angle. In this case 𝑉𝐴 lags 𝑉𝐵 by 90◦. There is no fundamental difference between VB leading 𝑉𝐴
by 90° (Figure 4-8a) or 𝑉𝐴 lagging 𝑉𝐵 by 90◦ (Figure 4-8b).

Figure 4-8: Leading and lagging phase angles

When two waves are in phase (Figure 4-9a), the phase angle is zero. Then the amplitudes add
(Figure 4-9b).

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Figure 4-9: Two waves in phase with angle of 0°

When two waves are exactly out of phase (Figure 4-10a), the phase angle is 180◦. Their
amplitudes are opposing (Figure 4-10b). Equal values of opposite phase cancel each other.

Figure 4-10: Two waves in opposite phase with angle of 180°

Example:

What is the phase angle between waves A and B (Figure 4-11)? Draw the phasor diagram first
with wave A as reference and then with wave B as reference.

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Figure 4-11: Finding the phase angle between wave A and wave B.

Solution;

The phase angle is the angular distance between corresponding points on waves A and B.
Convenient corresponding points are the maximum, minimum, and zero crossing of each wave.
At the zero crossings on the horizontal axis (Figure 4-11), the phase angle 𝜃 = 30°. Since wave
A reaches its zero crossing before wave B does, A leads B.

Wave A as reference: 𝑉𝐵 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑉𝐴 𝑏𝑦 30°.

Wave B as reference: 𝑉𝐴 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑉𝐵 𝑏𝑦 30°.

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4.4. CHARACTERISTIC VALUES OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Since an ac sine wave voltage or current has many instantaneous values throughout the cycle, it
is convenient to specify magnitudes for comparing one wave with another. The peak, average, or
root-mean-square (rms) value can be specified (Figure 4-12). These values apply to current or
voltage.

Figure 4-12: Amplitude values for ac sine wave

The peak value is the maximum value of 𝑉𝑀 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑀 . It applies to either the positive or negative
peak. The peak-to-peak (p-p) value may be specified and is double the peak value when the
positive and negative peaks are symmetrical.

The average value is the arithmetic average of all values in a sine wave for 1 half-cycle. The
half-cycle is used for the average because over a full cycle the average value is zero.

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.637 × 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

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𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 0.637 𝑉𝑀

𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 0.637 𝐼𝑀

The root-mean-square value or effective value is 0.707 times the peak value.

𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.707 × 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707 𝑉𝑀

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707 𝐼𝑀

The rms value of an alternating sine wave corresponds to the same amount of direct current or
voltage in heating power. An alternating voltage with an rms value of 115 V, for example, is just
as effective in heating the filament of a light bulb as 115 V from a steady dc voltage source. For
this reason, the rms value is also called the effective value.

Example:

If the peak voltage for an ac wave is 60 V, what are its average and rms values?

Solution;

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.637 × 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.637(60) = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟐 𝑽 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.707 × 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 0.707(60) = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟒 𝑽 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

4.5. EFFECTS OF PASSIVE ELEMENTS ON CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN A.C.

CIRCUIT

4.4.1. RESISTANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

In an ac circuit with only resistance, the current variations are in phase with the applied voltage
(Figure 4-13).

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Figure 4-13: AC circuit with only resistance.

This in-phase relationship between V and I mean that such an ac circuit can be analyzed by the
same methods used for dc circuits. Therefore, Ohm’s laws for dc circuits are applicable also to ac
circuits with resistance only. The calculations in ac circuits are generally in rms values, unless
𝑉 110
otherwise specified. For the series circuit (Figure 4-13a), 𝐼 = = = 11 𝐴. The rms power
𝑅 10

dissipation is 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 112 × 10 = 1210 𝑊.

Example:

A 110 V ac voltage is applied across 5Ω and 15 Ω resistances in series (Fig. 12-17a). Find the
current and voltage drop across each resistance. Draw the phasor diagram.

Use Ohm’s law,

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 5 + 15 = 20

𝑉 110
𝐼 = = = 𝟓. 𝟓 𝑨 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
𝑅𝑇 20

𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 = 5.5 × 5 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟓 𝑽 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

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𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 = 5.5 × 15 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟓 𝑽 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

Since the ac voltages 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 are in phase, phasors 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 are added to obtain phasor V. See
Figure 4-14. The length of each phasor is proportional to its magnitude. I is in phase with V.

Figure 4-14

4.4.2. INDUCTANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

If an ac voltage v is applied across a circuit having only inductance (Figure 4-15a), the resulting
ac current through the inductance, 𝑖𝐿 , will lag the voltage across the inductance, 𝑣𝐿 , by 90°
(Figure 4-15b and c).

Figure 4-15: Circuit with L only.

Voltages 𝑣 and 𝑣𝐿 are the same because the total applied voltage is dropped only across the
inductance. Both 𝑖𝐿 and 𝑣𝐿 are sine waves with the same frequency. Lowercase letters such as i
and v indicate instantaneous values; capital letters such as I and V show dc or ac rms values.

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4.4.3. CAPACITANCE IN AC CIRCUITS

If an ac voltage v is applied across a circuit having only capacitance (Figure 4-16a), the resulting
ac current through the capacitance, 𝑖𝑐 , will lead the voltage across the capacitance, 𝑣𝑐 , by 90°

(Figure 4-16b and c).

Figure 4-16: Circuit with C only

(Quantities expressed as lowercase letters, 𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑐 , indicate instantaneous values.) Voltages v

and 𝑣𝑐 are the same because they are parallel. Both 𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑐 are sine waves with the same
frequency. In series circuits, the current 𝐼𝐶 is the horizontal phasor for reference (Fig. 14-13d) so
the voltage 𝑉𝐶 can be considered to lag 𝐼𝐶 by 90°.

4.4.4. SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

RL in Series

When a coil has series resistance (Figure 4-17a), the rms current I is limited by both 𝑋𝐿 and R. I
is the same in 𝑋𝐿 and R since they are in series. The voltage drop across R is VR = IR, and the
voltage drop across 𝑋𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿 . The current I through 𝑋𝐿 must lag 𝑉𝐿 𝑏𝑦 90° because this
is the phase angle between current through an inductance and its self-induced voltage (Figure
4-17b). The current I through R and its 𝐼𝑅 voltage drop are in phase so the phase angle is 0°
(Figure 4-17b).

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Figure 4-17: R and 𝑋𝐿 in series

The phase angle θ between 𝑉𝑇 and 𝑉𝑅 (Figure 4-18) is

𝑉𝐿
tan 𝜃 =
𝑉𝑅

Figure 4-18: Voltage-phasor triangle

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RL in Parallel

For parallel circuits with R and 𝑋𝐿 (Figure 4-19a), the same applied voltage 𝑉𝑇 is across R and
𝑋𝐿 since both are in parallel with 𝑉𝑇 . There is no phase difference between these voltages.
𝑉𝑇
Therefore, 𝑉𝑇 will be used as the reference phasor. The resistive branch current 𝐼𝑅 = is in
𝑅
𝑉𝑇
phase with 𝑉𝑇 . The inductive branch current 𝐼𝐿 = lags 𝑉𝑇 by 90◦ (Figure 4-19b) because the
𝑋𝐿

current in an inductance lags the voltage across it by 90◦. The phasor sum of 𝐼𝑅 and 𝐼𝐿 equals the
total line current 𝐼𝑇 (Figure 4-19c), or

𝐼𝑇 = √𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐿2

𝐼𝐿
tan 𝜃 = −
𝐼𝑅

Figure 4-19: R and 𝑋𝐿 in parallel

RC in Series

As with inductive circuits, the combination of resistance and capacitive reactance (Figure 4-20a)
is called impedance. In a series circuit containing R and 𝑋𝐶 , the same current I flow in 𝑋𝐶 and R.
The voltage drop across R is 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅, and the voltage drop across 𝑋𝐶 is 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶 . The voltage
across 𝑋𝐶 lags the current through 𝑋𝐶 by 90◦ (Figure 4-20b). The voltage across R is in phase
with I since resistance does not produce a phase shift (Figure 4-20b).

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Figure 4-20: R and 𝑋𝐶 in series

To find the total voltage 𝑉𝑇 , we add phasors 𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉𝐶 . Since they form a right triangle (Figure
4-21),

𝑉𝑇 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2

Figure 4-21: Voltage-phasor triangle

Note that the 𝐼𝑋𝐶 phasor is downward, exactly opposite from an 𝐼𝑋𝐿 phasor (see Figure 4-18),
because of the opposite phase angle.

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The phase angle θ between 𝑉𝑇 and 𝑉𝑅 (Figure 4-21) is expressed according to the following
equation:

𝑉𝐶
tan 𝜃 = −
𝑉𝑅

RC in Parallel

In the RC parallel circuit (Figure 4-22a), the voltage is the same across the source, R, and 𝑋𝐶
since they are all in parallel. Each branch has its individual current. The resistive branch current
𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇
𝐼𝑅 = is in phase with 𝑉𝑇 . The capacitive branch current 𝐼𝐶 = leads 𝑉𝑇 by 90◦ (Figure
𝑅 𝑋𝐶

4-22b). The phasor diagram has the source voltage 𝑉𝑇 as the reference phasor because it is the
same throughout the circuit. The total line current 𝐼𝑇 equals the phasor sum of 𝐼𝑅 and 𝐼𝐶 (Figure
4-22c).

Figure 4-22: 𝑋𝐶 and R in parallel

𝐼𝑇 = √𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐶2

𝐼𝐶
tan 𝜃 =
𝐼𝑅

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TOPIC 5. SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

5.1. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

Semiconductors conduct less than metal conductors but more than insulators. Some common
semiconductor materials are silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and carbon (C). Silicon is the most
widely used semiconductor material in the electronics industry. Almost all diodes, transistors,
and ICs manufactured today are made from silicon.

Intrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors in their purest form. An example would be a

semiconductor crystal with only silicon atoms. Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors
with other atoms mixed in. These other atoms are called impurity atoms. The process of adding
impurity atoms is called doping. Doping alters the characteristics of the semiconductor, mainly
its conductivity. The impurity atoms have either fewer than four valence electrons or more than
four valence electrons. At room temperature (about 25°𝐶), an intrinsic semiconductor acts more
like an insulator than a conductor. The conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor is greater than
that of an intrinsic semiconductor. The level of conductivity is dependent mainly on the number
of impurity atoms that have been added during the doping process.

5.2. ATOMIC STRUCTURE

An atom is the smallest particle of an element. Every atom has a nucleus. The nucleus is located

at the center of the atom. It contains positively charged particles called protons and uncharged

particles called neutrons. Negatively charged particles called electrons orbit around the nucleus.

Figure 5-1: Stucture of an atom

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The electrons orbit in concentric circles about the nucleus. Each orbit is called a shell. Electrons
in the valence shell can gain energy. If these electrons gain enough energy from an external
force, they can leave the atom and become free electrons, moving randomly from atom to atom.

Figure 5-2 shows the atomic structure of a silicon atom.

Figure 5-2: Atomic structure of a silicon atom

The atomic number of silicon is 14, meaning that there are 14 protons in its nucleus, balanced by
14 orbiting electrons. Notice that the first shell (K-shell) surrounding the nucleus has two
electrons, the second shell (L-shell) has eight electrons, and the third shell (M-shell) has four
electrons. The outermost ring of an atom is called the valence ring, and the electrons in this ring
are called valence electrons. All semiconductors have four valence electrons. The number of
valence electrons possessed by any atom determines its electrical conductivity. The number of
valence electrons in an atom also determines how it will combine with other atoms. The best
conductors have only one valence electron, whereas the best insulators have complete shells.

The simplified drawing of a silicon atom is shown in Figure 5-3.

Figure 5-3: Simplified drawing of a silicon atom.

The core represents the nucleus and inner electrons. The outer four electrons represent the
valence electrons of the silicon atom.

Forming a Crystal

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When silicon atoms are grouped together, something very interesting happens. Each silicon atom
shares its four valence electrons with other nearby atoms, thereby forming a solid crystalline
structure. Each atom of the six inner silicon atoms in Figure 5-4 has eight valence electrons as a
result of the electron sharing, which is the amount required for maximum electrical stability.

Figure 5-4: Bonding diagram of a silicon crystal.

Notice that only the core and valence electrons are shown for each atom. This sharing of valence
electrons is called covalent bonding. The covalent bonds between each silicon atom produce the
solid crystalline structure.

Thermally Generated Electron-Hole Pairs

All valence electrons of a silicon crystal at absolute zero (−273℃) remain locked in their
respective covalent bonds. This means that no free electrons will be floating around in the silicon
material. Above absolute zero, however, some valence electrons may gain enough energy from
heat, radiation, or other sources to escape from their parent atoms. When an electron leaves its
covalent bond, it becomes a free electron that can move freely in the material. This free electron
also produces a vacancy or hole in the covalent bond structure that it left. Thermal energy is the
main cause for the creation of an electron-hole pair, as shown in Figure 5-5.

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Figure 5-5: A free electron and a hole.

As the temperature increases, more thermally generated electron-hole pairs are created.

Note that a silicon semiconductor material has fewer thermally generated electron-hole pairs than
a germanium crystal at the same temperature. This implies that a silicon crystal is more stable
than a germanium crystal at higher temperatures. Its stability is the primary reason that silicon is
the number one semiconductor material used in manufacturing diodes, transistors, and integrated
circuits.

It is important to note that intrinsic semiconductor materials have only a few thermally generated
electron-hole pairs at room temperature and therefore are still relatively good insulators.

5.3. ELECTRONS IN CONDUCTORS AND SEMI-CONDUCTORS

Valence Electrons are the electrons in the outer most shell of an atom. The number of valence
electrons determines the stability both electrically and chemically for all atoms. The outer most
shell is full when it has maximum number of electrons.

Each shell corresponds to a certain energy band and is separated from adjacent shells by band
gaps (forbidden gap), in which no electrons can exist.

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When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the valence band within the
crystal. This vacancy is called a hole.

Some valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence band into the conduction band,
becoming free electrons/conduction electrons. When an electron jumps to the conduction band,
a vacancy is left in the valence band within the crystal. This vacancy is called a hole.

The free electrons in the conduction band are free to move and when a voltage is applied, their
movement causes current flow called electron current. Also, the holes left in the valence band
can be filled with neighbouring electrons causing a flow of electrons and hence a current flow
called hole current.

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Conduction in semiconductors is considered to be either the movement of free electrons in the

conduction band or the movement of holes in the valence band.

1. CONDUCTORS
• These are materials that allow current to pass through.
• They have 1-3 electrons in outermost shell.
• Have metallic bond
• Have free electrons.
• Have low resistance.
• The conduction band and valence band overlap and are very small.

• Resistance increases with increase in temperature.

The best conductor is gold followed by silver then copper, aluminium, zinc, etc.

2. INSULATORS
• These are materials that do not allow current to pass through.
• They have 5 to 8 electrons in outermost shell.
• They have a structure that has covalent bonding that results in no free electrons that
allow conduction of an electric current.
• Insulators have a very large energy gap between the conduction band and the valence
band.

Example of insulators include: paper, polythene, rubber, Perspex, dry air, PVC etc

3. SEMI-CONDUCTORS

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They are not good conductors since they have few free electrons. The number of free electrons
can be increased by;

i. Raising their temperatures by heating the semi-conductor.

ii. When a beam of light is shone on the semi-conductor.
iii. Addition of controlled amount of impurities into the semi-conductors.

5.4. FORMATION OF P AND N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

As mentioned earlier, doping is a process that involves adding impurity atoms to an intrinsic
semiconductor. Intrinsic semiconductors are of limited use in the field of electronics. Intrinsic
semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium are almost always doped with impurity
atoms to increase their conductivity. An extrinsic semiconductor material, then, is one that has
been doped with impurity atoms.

5.4.1. N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

A pentavalent atom is one that has five valence electrons. Some examples are antimony (Sb),
arsenic (As), and phosphorous (P). A silicon crystal doped with a large number of pentavalent
impurity atoms results in many free electrons in the material. This occurs because there is one
electron at the location of each pentavalent atom that is not used in the covalent bond structure.
This is illustrated in Figure 5-6. The free electron shown belongs to the arsenic atom, but since
the covalent bond is already complete with eight valence electrons, the electron is extra, or not
needed.

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Figure 5-6: Doping a silicon crystal with a pentavalent impurity

When millions of pentavalent impurity atoms are added to an intrinsic silicon crystal, there are
millions of free electrons that can float through the material. Since the electron is the basic
particle of negative charge, we call this an n-type semiconductor material. The net charge of the
n-type material is still neutral, however, since the total number of electrons is equal to the total
number of protons.

An n-type semiconductor also contains a few holes because thermal energy still creates a few
electron-hole pairs in the crystal. Since there are many more free electrons than holes in an n-
type semiconductor material, the electrons are called the majority current carriers and the holes
are called the minority current carriers.

5.4.2. P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

A trivalent atom is one that has only three valence electrons. Some examples are aluminium
(Al), boron (B), and gallium (Ga). A silicon crystal doped with a large number of trivalent
impurity atoms results in many holes, or vacancies, in the covalent bond structure of the material.
This happens because one more valence electron is needed at the location of each trivalent atom
in the crystal to obtain the maximum electrical stability with eight electrons, as shown in Figure
5-7.

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Figure 5-7: Doping a silicon crystal with a trivalent impurity

When millions of trivalent impurities are added to an intrinsic semiconductor material, millions
of holes are created throughout the material. Since a hole exhibits a positive charge, we call this
a p-type semiconductor material. The net charge of the p-type material is still neutral, however,
since the total number of electrons is equal to the total number of protons.

A p-type semiconductor also contains a few free electrons because thermal energy still produces
a few electron-hole pairs. Electrons are the minority carriers in p-type semiconductor material,
whereas holes are the majority current carriers.

5.5. OPERATION OF PNP AND NPN TRANSISTORS

A transistor has three doped regions, as shown in Figure 5-8. Figure 5-8a shows an npn
transistor, and Figure 5-8b shows a pnp transistor. Notice that for both types, the base is a narrow
region sandwiched between the larger collector and emitter regions.

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Figure 5-8: (a) npn transistor. (b) pnp transistor.

The emitter region of a transistor is heavily doped. Its job is to emit or inject current carriers into
the base. The base region is very thin and lightly doped. Most of the current carriers injected into
the base from the emitter do not flow out the base lead. Instead, most of the current carriers
injected into the base pass on to the collector. The collector region is moderately doped and is the
largest of all three regions. The collector region attracts the current carriers that are injected into
the thin and lightly doped base region. Incidentally, the collector region is the largest of all the
three regions because it must dissipate more heat than the emitter or base regions.

In npn transistors, the majority current carriers are free electrons in the emitter and collector,
whereas the majority current carriers are holes in the base. The opposite is true in a pnp transistor
where the majority current carriers are holes in the emitter and collector, and the majority current
carriers are free electrons in the base.

Figure 5-9 shows the depletion layers in an unbiased npn transistor.

Figure 5-9: Depletion layers in an npn transistor.

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The diffusion of electrons from both n regions into the p-type base causes a barrier potential, VB,
for both p-n junctions. The p-n junction at the left is the emitter-base junction; the p-n junction at
the right is the collector-base junction. For silicon, the barrier potential for both the emitter-base
(EB) and collector-base (CB) junctions equals approximately 0.7 V.

Notice in Figure 5-9 that the EB depletion layer is narrower than the CB depletion layer. The
reason for the different widths can be attributed to the doping level of the emitter and collector
regions.

Schematic Symbols

Figure 5-10 shows the schematic symbols for both the npn and pnp transistors.

Figure 5-10: Schematic symbols for transistors. (a) npn transistor. (b) pnp transistor.

Notice the arrow on the emitter lead for both types. For the npn transistor in Figure 5-10a, the
arrow on the emitter lead points outward, and in the pnp transistor of Figure 5-10b, the arrow on
the emitter lead points inward. The npn and pnp transistors are not different in terms of their
ability to amplify voltage, current, or power. Each type, however, does require different
polarities of operating voltages. For example, the collector-emitter voltage, VCE, of an npn
transistor must be positive, and the collector-emitter voltage, VCE, must be negative for the pnp
type.

In summary, it is important to note the following points about the construction of a transistor:

1. The emitter region is heavily doped. Its job is to emit or inject current carriers into the
base region. For npn transistors, the n-type emitter injects free electrons into the base. For
pnp transistors, the p-type emitter injects holes into the base.

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2. The base is very thin and lightly doped. Most of the current carriers injected into the base
region cross over into the collector side and do not flow out the base lead.
3. The collector region is moderately doped. It is also the largest region within the
transistor. Its function is to collect or attract current carriers injected into the base region.

USES OF TRANSISTORS

Transistors are used when it is necessary to amplify voltage, current, and power. With a small
signal applied to the transistor amplifier, the transistor and its associated circuitry can produce an
amplified version of the input signal.

For a transistor to function properly as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction must be forward-
biased, and the collector-base junction must be reverse-biased, as illustrated in Figure 5-11.

Figure 5-11: Proper biasing for an npn transistor.

Notice the common connection for the voltage sources at the base lead of the transistor. The
emitter-base supply voltage is designated VEE and the collector-base supply voltage is designated
VCC.

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TOPIC 6. COMPUTER MEMORIES

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. Memory plays an important role in saving and retrieving data. The
performance of the computer system depends upon the size of the memory.

6.1. MEMORY AND STORAGE

Computer memory / storage can be classified in three ways;

➢ primary,
➢ secondary and
➢ off-line.
1. Primary

Primary memory is the computer’s main memory, which is directly accessible by the CPU and
often much faster than secondary storage.

RAM will hold the loaded operating system, plus all running applications and files.

Examples of primary memory / storage:

• Random Access Memory (RAM) – solid state

• Read Only Memory (ROM) – solid state

• Cache memory

2. Secondary

Secondary storage is a non-volatile medium that holds data until it is deleted or overwritten.

Term: Non-Volatile: Storage / memory where data is not lost when power is removed.

It is sometimes referred to as external memory and auxiliary storage. Secondary storage is where
programs and data are kept on a long-term basis.

Examples of secondary memory / storage:

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• Hard Disk Drive (HDD) – magnetic storage

• Solid State Drive (SSD) – solid state

3. Off-line

Off-line refers to non-volatile storage that can be easily removed from the computer. This is
often used to transport data and keep backups for protection.

Examples of off-line memory / storage:

• CD, DVD, Blu-ray – optical storage

• USB Flash Drive – solid state

• Removable HDD / SSD

6.2. STORAGE DEVICES

Storage devices are the computer hardware used to remember/store data.

There are many types of storage devices, each with their own benefits and drawbacks.

Below are explanations about different storage devices.

1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

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Hard disk drives are non-volatile magnetic storage devices capable of remembering vast amounts
of data.

An electromagnet in the read/write head charges the disk’s surface with either a positive or
negative charge, this is how binary 1 or 0 is represented.

The read/write head is then capable of detecting the magnetic charges left on the disk’s surface,
this is how data is read.

The disk surface is divided into concentric circles (tracks) and sectors (wedges). Dividing the
surface in this way provides physical addresses to remember where data is saved.

A circuit board carefully co-ordinates the rotating disk and swinging actuator arm to allow the
read/write head to access any location very quickly.

Typical HDD capacities are measured in Terabytes (TB).

They can be installed inside a computer or purchased in a portable (external) format.

Typical applications for hard disk drives

• Desktop computers

• Laptop computers

• TV and satellite recorders

• Servers and mainframes

• Portable (external) drives are sometimes used to backup home computers or transfer
large files

Benefits of hard disk drives

• Capable of holding vast amounts of data at affordable prices

• Fast read and write speeds

• Reliable technology

• Relatively small in size

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Drawbacks of hard disk drives

• Due to the nature of its moving parts, they will eventually wear and break

• Although very fast, waiting for the moving parts means it will never perform as fast
as solid-state drives

• More fragile and less robust than a solid-state drive

• Higher power consumption than a SSD

• Some noise is created by the moving parts

2. Solid State Drive (SSD)

Solid state drives are non-volatile storage devices capable of holding large amounts of data.

They use NAND flash memories (millions of transistors wired in a series on a circuit board),
giving them the advantage of having no mechanical moving parts and therefore immediate
access to the data.

Solid state drives perform faster then traditional hard disk drives; however, they are significantly
more expensive.

This expense means that typical capacities are usually measured in Gigabytes (GB).

They can be installed inside a computer or purchased in a portable (external) format.

Until we reach a point where large capacity SSDs are affordable, a compromise is to run two
disk drives inside a computer. An SSD as the primary drive for your important programs

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and operating system, and a traditional HDD to store music, documents and pictures (which
don’t need the faster access times).

The lack of moving parts in an SSD makes it very robust and reliable, ideal for a portable device.

Typical applications for solid state drives

• Smartphones

• Tablet computers

• High-end laptops

• Two drive desktop solutions

• Portable drives are sometimes used in HD video cameras

Benefits of solid-state drives

• Extremely fast read/write speeds

• Small in physical size and very light, ideal for portable devices

• No moving parts to wear, fail or get damaged – ideal for making portable computers and
devices more reliable and durable

• Uses less power than a HDD, increasing battery life time

• Very quiet

• Generates less heat

Drawbacks of solid-state drives

• Expensive to buy (per GB)

• Limited in capacity due to the expense

• Limited amount of writes

3. Random Access Memory (RAM)

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RAM is a computer’s primary memory. It is a very fast solid-state storage medium that is
directly accessible by the CPU.

Any open programs or files on a computer are temporarily stored in RAM whilst being used.

Being volatile, any data stored in RAM will be lost when power is removed. This makes RAM
totally unsuitable for the long-term permanent storage of data – that is the role of an HDD or
SSD instead.

Data is copied from secondary storage (HDD, SSD) to RAM as and when it is needed. This is
because using an HDD as the primary memory would cause a computer to perform much slower
(an HDD or SSD is not directly accessible to the CPU, and isn’t as fast as RAM).

RAM is a relatively expensive storage device and typical capacities are measured in Gigabytes
(GB).

Computers operating with a capacity of RAM above the recommended minimum will benefit
from better performance and multitasking.

There are two types of RAM (SRAM and DRAM), each with their own advantages and
disadvantages.

Typical applications of RAM

• The fast and directly accessible temporary (working) memory needed by a computer

Benefits of RAM

• Directly accessible to the CPU, making processing data faster

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• Fast solid-state storage, making processing data faster

Drawbacks of RAM

• Relatively expensive memory

• Volatile – any data stored in RAM is lost when power is removed

Types of RAM

i. Static RAM (SRAM)

Data on SRAM does not require refreshing.

However, the technology is bulkier meaning less memory per chip.

• More expensive than DRAM

• Much faster than DRAM

• Consumes less power

• Commonly used in cache memory

ii. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

The most common type of RAM in use.

The data needs to be continually refreshed otherwise it fades away.

Continually refreshing the data takes time and reduces performance speeds.

• Cheaper than SRAM

• Commonly used in main memory

4. ROM

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ROM is a non-volatile memory chip whose contents cannot be altered.

It is often used to store the start up routines in a computer (e.g., the BIOS).

Typical applications for ROM

• Storing the computer’s start up routine

i. PROM: There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify
or erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in
PROM chip. Once the programmers are written it cannot be changed and remain intact
even if power is switched off. Therefore, programs or instructions written in PROM or
ROM cannot be erased or changed.

ii. EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which overcome
the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by
erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM exposing the
chip for some time ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed using a special
programming facility. When the EPROM is in use information can only be read.

5. Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as
a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program

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which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from
disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows:

i. Cache memory is faster than main memory.

ii. It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

iii. It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

iv. It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

i. Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.

6. Optical Storage Discs

CD, DVD and Blu-Ray drives are optical storage devices.

Binary data is stored as changes to the texture of the disc’s surface, sometimes thought of
as microscopic pits and bumps.

These ‘bumps’ are located on a continuous spiral track, starting at the centre of the disc.

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Whilst the disc is rotating at a constant speed, a laser is pointed at the spiral track of ‘bumps’.

The laser will reflect/bounce off the disc surface in different directions depending upon whether
a 1 or 0 has been read.

Disc capacities

In the pursuit of larger optical storage capacities, DVDs were created, followed by Blu-Ray.

CD DVD Blu-Ray

700 MB 4.7 GB 25 GB – 128 GB

Typical applications for optical media

• CD – Audio and small amounts of data

• DVD – Standard definition movies and data

• Blu-Ray – HD video and large amounts of data

i. DVD

Despite being the same physical size, a DVD can hold more data than a CD.

To achieve this, a more tightly packed spiral track is used to store the data on the disc.

To accurately access the smaller ‘bumps’, a finer red laser is used in a DVD drive than that
found in a standard CD drive.

To increase capacity further, DVDs are also capable of dual layering.

ii. Blu-Ray

Blu-Ray technology squashes even more data into the same size disc as a CD or DVD.

The spiral data tracks on a Blu-Ray disc are so small a special blue (violet) laser has to be used to
read the ‘bumps’.

Like a DVD, Blu-Ray discs are capable of storing data on multiple layers.

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iii. Recordable Optical Media

a) CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, Blu-Ray-ROM
Read only – the data is permanently written to the disc at the point of manufacture.
b) CD-R, DVD-R, BD-R
Recordable – blank discs that can be burnt (written to) once.
c) CD-RW, DVD-RW, BD-RE
Re-writable – blank discs that can be burnt (written to) over and over again (can be
erased and reused many times).
iv. DVD-RAM

DVD-RAM is an optical media storage device.

It differs from a traditional DVD in that data is stored in concentric tracks (like an HDD) which
allows read and write operations to be carried out at the same time.

This means, for example, that when used in a personal video recorder you can record one
television programme whilst watching a recording of another. This allows handy features such
as ‘time slip’ to be possible.

When used within a CCTV system you could review footage whilst still recording your cameras.

The capacity of DVD-RAM is 4.7 GB, or 9.4 GB for double-sided discs.

Typical applications for DVD-RAM

• Personal and digital video recorders

• High-end CCTV

Benefits of DVD-RAM

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• Read and write at the same time

• Can be rewritten to many more times than a traditional DVD-RW

• Has write-protect tabs to prevent accidental deletion when used in an optional cartridge

• Data is retained for an estimated 30 years. This long life is great for archiving data

• Reliable writing of discs because the verification done by the hardware, not by software

Drawbacks of DVD-RAM

• Disc speeds higher than 5x are less common

• Less compatibility than DVD-RW

v. Holographic

A storage device that records binary information in the form of holograms, which are produced
(as interference patterns) on photographic or photochromic media by means of laser beams, and
are read by means of low-power laser beams.

7. USB Flash Memory

Flash are non-volatile solid state storage devices which use NAND flash memories to store data
(millions of transistors).

USB refers to the USB connection that allows users to plug the device into the USB port of a
computer.

Other types of flash storage include the memory cards used in digital cameras.

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Flash memory comes in a variety of capacities to suit most budgets and requirements.

Typical applications for flash memory

• USB memory sticks – saving and transferring documents etc

• Memory cards in digital cameras

Benefits of flash memory

• Portable, small and lightweight

• Durability, flash has no moving parts to damage

• Range of capacities available

• Fast speeds, with no moving parts of boot up time

Drawbacks of flash memory

• Limited (but huge) number of write cycles possible

• Really high capacities are uncommon

• In relative terms, an expensive storage option compared to an HDD

8. Magnetic memories

i. Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe
computers where large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also you
can use tapes in the form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes is
inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic materials that store data permanently. It
can be 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 meters to 1200-meter-
long which is coated with magnetic material. The deck is connected to the central
processor and information is fed into or read from the tape through the processor.
It’s similar to cassette tape recorder.

ii. Magnetic Disk: You might have seen the gramophone record, which is circular
like a disk and coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in computer

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are made on the same principle. It rotates with very high speed inside the
computer drive. Data is stored on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are
most popular for direct access storage device. Each disk consists of a number of
invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information is recorded on tracks of a
disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The presence of a magnetic spot
represents one bit and its absence represents zero bit. The information stored in a
disk can be read many times without affecting the stored data. So the reading
operation is non-destructive. But if you want to write a new data, then the existing
data is erased from the disk and new data is recorded. For Example-Floppy Disk.

iii. Magnetic drums: A magnetic drum is a magnetic storage device used in many
early computers as the main working memory, similar to how modern computers
use random access memory (RAM).

iv. Magnetic core: Core memory, or more accurately magnetic core memory is a
random-access memory (RAM) system that was developed at MIT by Jay
Forrester in 1951. It was initially very expensive to fabricate but prices dropped as
the market developed.

6.3. DATA STORAGE CAPACITY

Data storage capacity is the measurement of how much data can be stored in a storage device.

Bits and bytes

Data storage capacities are measured in bytes, where each byte is actually a pattern of 8 bits.

1 byte = 8 bits (e.g., 10011011)

Each bit is represented by either a 1 or a 0 (on or off), also known as binary code.

1 byte can hold 1 character of data, e.g., “p” is 1 byte.

As technology improves, it is becoming cheaper to achieve higher data storage capacities.

Data storage capacities

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Name Bytes Context

1 kilobyte (1 KB) 𝟐𝟏𝟎 (𝑜𝑟 1 024) A few paragraphs of text

1 megabyte (1 MB) 𝟐𝟐𝟎 (𝑜𝑟 1 048 576) 4 books of text

1 gigabyte (1 GB) 𝟐𝟑𝟎 (𝑜𝑟 1 073 741 824) 4,400 books, or 256 MP3 audio files

1 terabyte (1 TB) 𝟐𝟒𝟎 (𝑜𝑟 1 099 511 627 776) 233 DVDs, or 260,000 MP3 audio files

40,000 Blu-ray discs, or

1 petabyte (1 PB) 𝟐𝟓𝟎 (𝑜𝑟 1 125 899 906 842 624)
268,400,000 MP3 audio files

Each unit of measurement is 1024 times bigger than the unit before it.

S.No. Unit & Description

1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes

2 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB

3 Gigabyte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB

4 Terabyte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB

5 Petabyte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

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TOPIC 7. NUMBER SYSTEMS

7.1. INTRODUCTION TO NUMBER SYSTEM

When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can
understand only numbers. A computer can understand the positional number system where there
are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on
the position they occupy in the number.

A numeral system (or system of numeration) is a writing system for expressing numbers; that
is, a mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set, using digits or other
symbols in a consistent manner.

The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −

➢ The digit
➢ The position of the digit in the number
➢ The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system)

7.1.1. DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the
successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands,
and so on.

Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number
1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position,
and 1 in the thousands position. Its value can be written as

(1 𝑥 1000) + (2 𝑥 100) + (3 𝑥 10) + (4 𝑥 1)

= (1 𝑥 103 ) + (2 𝑥 102 ) + (3 𝑥 101 ) + (4 𝑥 100 )

= 1000 + 200 + 30 + 4

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= 1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following number

systems which are frequently used in computers.

7.1.2. BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows: -

➢ Uses two digits, 0 and 1

➢ Also called as base 2 number system
➢ Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
➢ Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2x where
x represents the last position −1.

Example

Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent: -

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Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.

7.1.3. OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows: -

➢ Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7

➢ Also called as base 8 number system
➢ Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
➢ Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x where x
represents the last position −1

Example

Octal Number: 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent: -

Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

7.1.4. HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows: -

➢ Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

➢ Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F
= 15
➢ Also called as base 16 number system
➢ Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example,
160

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➢ Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example
16𝑥 where x represents the last position - 1

Example

Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent: -

Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

7.2. BASE CONVERSION

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to
another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the following: -

➢ Decimal to Other Base System

➢ Other Base System to Decimal
➢ Other Base System to Non-Decimal
➢ Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
➢ Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
➢ Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
➢ Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

7.2.1. DECIMAL TO OTHER BASE SYSTEM

Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.

Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the new
base number.

Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
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Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in
Step 3.

The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base
number.

Example

Decimal Number: 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent: -

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that
the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes
the Most Significant Digit (MSD).

Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.

7.2.2. OTHER BASE SYSTEM TO DECIMAL SYSTEM

Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of
the digit and the base of the number system).

Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding
columns.

Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.

Example

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Binary Number: 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent: –

Binary Number: 111012 = Decimal Number: 2910

7.2.3. OTHER BASE SYSTEM TO NON-DECIMAL SYSTEM

Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example

Octal Number: 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent: −

Step 1 - Convert to Decimal

Octal Number: 258 = Decimal Number: 2110

Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary

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Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number: 101012

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

7.2.4. SHORTCUT METHOD ─ BINARY TO OCTAL

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).

Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example

Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent: –

Binary Number: 101012 = Octal Number: 258

7.2.5. SHORTCUT METHOD ─ OCTAL TO BINARY

Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example
93

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Octal Number: 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent –

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

7.2.6. SHORTCUT METHOD ─ BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).

Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example

Binary Number: 101012

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent: –

Binary Number: 101012 = Hexadecimal Number: 1516

7.2.7. SHORTCUT METHOD - HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY

Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits may
be treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example

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Hexadecimal Number: 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent –

Hexadecimal Number: 1516 = Binary Number: 101012

7.3. BINARY ARITHMETIC

Binary arithmetic is essential part of all the digital computers and many other digital systems.
Arithmetic circuits form points of the CPU. Mathematical operations include;

Subtraction, multiplication, division and addition

7.3.1. BINARY ADDITION

It is a key for binary subtraction, multiplication, division. There are four rules of binary addition.

In fourth case, a binary addition is creating a sum of (1 + 1 = 10) i.e. 0 is written in the given
column and a carry of 1 over to the next column.

Example – Addition

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7.3.2. BINARY SUBTRACTION

Subtraction and Borrow, these two words will be used very frequently for the binary
subtraction. There are four rules of binary subtraction.

Example – Subtraction

7.3.3. BINARY MULTIPLICATION

Binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication. It is simpler than decimal

multiplication because only 0s and 1s are involved. There are four rules of binary multiplication.

Example – Multiplication

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7.3.4. BINARY DIVISION

Binary division is similar to decimal division. It is called as the long division procedure.

Example – Division

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TOPIC 8. BINARY CODES

8.1. INTRODUCTION TO BINARY CODES

Digital systems process only codes consisting of 0s and 1s (binary codes). That is due to the
bistable nature of digital electronic circuits. Several other, special binary codes have evolved
over the years to perform specific functions in digital equipment. All those codes use 0s and Is,
but their meanings may vary. In a digital system, electronic translators (called encoders and
decoders) are used for converting from code to code.

8.1.1. WEIGHTED BINARY CODES

Straight binary numbers are somewhat difficult for people to understand. For instance, try to
convert the binary number 10010110, to a decimal number. It turns out that 10010110, = 15010,
but it takes quite a lot of time and effort to make this conversion without a calculator.

The binary-coded decimal (BCD) code makes conversion to decimals much easier. Table 8-1
shows the 4-bit BCD code for the decimal digits 0-9.

Table 8-1: The 8421 BCD code

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Note that the BCD code is a weighted code. The most significant bit, has a weight of 8, and the
least significant bit has a weight of only 1. This code is more precisely known as the 8421 BCD
code. The 8421 part of the name gives the weighting of each place in the 4-bit code, there are
several other BCD codes that have other weights for the four place values. Because the 8421
BCD code is most popular, it is customary to refer to it simply as the BCD code.

Examples of other weighted BCD 4-bit codes are shown in Fig. 2-5.

Figure 8-1: Three weighted BCD codes

DECIMAL – BCD CONVERSION

Figure 8-2 shows the very simple techniques for converting decimal numbers to and fro BCD
(8421) numbers.

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Figure 8-2: Decimal - BCD conversion

BCD – BINARY CONVERSION

Consider converting a BCD number to its straight binary equivalent. Figure 2-3 shows the three-
step procedure.

Figure 8-3: BCD-to-binary conversion

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Translate the binary number 10001010.101 into its BCD (8421) equivalent. The procedure is
shown in Fig. 2-4. The binary number is first converted to its decimal equivalent. Each decimal
digit is then translated into its BCD equivalent.

Figure 8-4: Binary-to-BCD conversion

8.1.2. NON-WEIGHTED BINARY CODES

Some binary codes are non-weighted. Each bit therefore has no special weighting. Two such
Non-weighted codes are the excess-3 and Gray codes.

The excess-3 (XS3) code is related to the 8421 BCD code because of its binary-coded-decimal
nature. In other words, each 4-bit group in the XS3 code equals a specific decimal digit. Figure
2-6 shows the XS3 code along with its 8421 BCD and decimal equivalents. Note that the XS3
number is always 3 more than the 8421 BCD number.

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Figure 8-5: The excess-3 (XS3) code

EXCESS-3 CODE CONVERSIONS

Figure 8-6: XS3 conversions

The Gray code is another non-weighted binary code. The Gray code is not a BCD-type code.
Figure 2-8 compares the Gray code with equivalent binary and decimal numbers. Look carefully

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at the Gray code. Note that each increase in count (increment) is accompanied by only I bit
changing state.

Figure 8-7: The Gray code

This change of a single bit in the code group per increment characteristic is important in some
applications in digital electronics.

8.1.3. IMPORTANCE OF BINARY CODES

Following is the list of advantages that binary code offers.

➢ Binary codes are suitable for the computer applications.

➢ Binary codes are suitable for the digital communications.
➢ Binary codes make the analysis and designing of digital circuits easy.
➢ Since only 0 & 1 are being used, implementation becomes easy.

8.2. BCD ENCODING & ARITHMETIC

Unpacked BCD - Unpacked BCD representation contains only one decimal digit per byte. The
digit is stored in the least significant 4 bits; the most significant 4 bits are not relevant to the
value of the represented number.

Packed BCD - Packed BCD representation packs two decimal digits into a single byte.

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Invalid BCD Numbers, these binary numbers are not allowed in the BCD code: 1010, 1011,

1100, 1101, 1110, 1111

8.2.1. BCD ADDITION

Either packed or unpacked BCD numbers can be summed. BCD addition follows the same rules
as binary addition. However, if the addition produces a carry and/or creates an invalid BCD
number, an adjustment is required to correct the sum. The correction method is to add 6 to the
sum in any digit position that has caused an error.

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8.2.2. BCD SUBTRACTION

Either packed or unpacked BCD numbers can be subtracted. BCD subtraction follows the same
rules as binary subtraction. However, if the subtraction causes a borrow and/or creates an
invalid BCD number, an adjustment is required to correct the answer. The correction method is
to subtract 6 from the difference in any digit position that has caused an error.

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8.2.3. UNPACKED BCD MULTIPLICATION

Multiplication cannot be performed on packed BCD; the 4 most significant bits must be zeroed
for the adjustment to work. Multiply the two unpacked BCD numbers using the rules for binary
multiplication. To adjust the product divide it by decimal 10, then place the quotient in the most
significant byte and the remainder in the least significant byte (convert the binary answer to
unpacked BCD).

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8.2.4. UNPACKED BCD DIVISION

BCD division also cannot be performed on packed numbers. Before dividing an unpacked BCD
number, the division adjustment is made by converting the BCD numbers to binary. Adjust
the two-byte BCD number by multiplying the upper byte by decimal 10 and adding the product
to the lower byte. After the adjustment, divide the two binary numbers using the rules of binary
arithmetic. Finally, convert the binary quotient into an unpacked BCD number if necessary.

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TOPIC 9. LOGIC GATES & BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

9.1. INTRODUCTION

The logic gate is the basic building block in digital systems. Logic gates operate with binary
numbers. Gates are therefore referred to as binary logic gates. All voltages used with logic gates
will be either HIGH or LOW. A HIGH voltage will mean a binary 1. A LOW voltage will mean
a binary 0. Remember that logic gates are electronic circuits. These circuits will respond only to
HIGH voltages (called 1s) or LOW (ground) voltages (called 0s).

Boolean algebra is a form of symbolic logic that shows how logic gates operate. A Boolean
expression is a “shorthand” method of showing what is happening in a logic circuit.

All digital systems are constructed by using only three basic logic gates. These basic gates are
called the AND gate, the OR gate, and the NOT gate. This chapter deals with these very
important basic logic gates, or functions.

9.1.1. THE AND GATE

The AND gate is called the “all or nothing” gate. The schematic in Figure 9-1 shows the idea of
the AND gate. The lamp (Y) will light only when both input switches (A and B) are closed.

Figure 9-1: AND circuit using switches

The standard logic symbol for the AND gate is drawn in Figure 9-2.

Figure 9-2: AND-gate symbol

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This symbol shows the inputs as A and B. The output is shown as Y. This is the symbol for a 2-
input AND gate. The truth table for the 2-input AND gate is shown in Figure 9-3.

Figure 9-3: AND truth table

The inputs are shown as binary digits (bits). Note that only when both input A and input B are 1
will the output be 1. Binary 0 is defined as a LOW, or ground, voltage. Binary 1 is defined as a
HIGH voltage.

The Boolean expression for the AND circuit is;

𝑨 .𝑩 = 𝒀

Sometimes the dot ( . ) is left out of the Boolean expression. The Boolean expression for the 2-
input AND gate is then:

𝑨𝑩 = 𝒀

The Boolean expression reads A AND B equals the output Y.

The laws of Boolean algebra govern how AND gates operate. The formal laws for the AND
function are:

𝑨 .𝟎 = 𝟎

𝑨 .𝟏 = 𝑨

𝑨.𝑨 = 𝑨

̅ = 𝟎
𝑨 .𝑨

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The bar over the variable means not A, or the opposite of A.

9.1.2. THE OR GATE

The OR gate is called the “any or all” gate. The schematic in Figure 9-4 shows the idea of the
OR gate.

Figure 9-4: OR circuit using switches

The lamp (Y) will glow when either switch A or switch B is closed. The lamp will also glow
when both switches A and B are closed. The lamp (Y) will not glow when both switches (A and
B) are open.

The standard logic symbol for an OR gate is drawn in Figure 9-5. The shorthand Boolean
expression for this OR function is given as 𝑨 + 𝐵 = 𝒀. Note that the plus (+) symbol means
OR in Boolean algebra.

Figure 9-5: OR-gate symbol

The truth table for the 2-input OR gate is drawn in Figure 9-6.

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Figure 9-6: OR truth table

The laws of Boolean algebra govern how an OR gate will operate. The formal laws for the OR

function are:

𝑨 + 𝟎 = 𝑨

𝑨 + 𝟏 = 𝟏

𝑨 + 𝑨 = 𝑨

̅ = 𝟏
𝑨 + 𝑨

9.1.3. THE NOT GATE

A NOT gate is also called an inverter. A NOT gate, or inverter, is an unusual gate. The NOT
gate has only one input and one output. Figure 9-7 illustrates the logic symbol for the inverter or
NOT gate.

Figure 9-7: NOT-gate symbol

Figure 9-8 is the truth table for the NOT gate. The input is always changed to its opposite.

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Figure 9-8: NOT-gate truth table

This inverting is also called complementing or negating.

The Boolean expression for inverting is;

𝑨 = 𝐴̅

The AND, OR, and NOT gates are the most fundamental. Four other useful logic gates can be
made from these fundamental devices. The other gates are;

➢ NAND gate
➢ NOR gate
➢ exclusive-OR gate
➢ exclusive-NOR gate.

9.1.4. THE NAND GATE

An AND gate is connected to an inverter. Consider the logic diagram Figure 9-9

Figure 9-9: The NAND gate

Boolean expression for NAND gate is;

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 .𝐵 = 𝐴 . 𝐵

The standard logic symbol for the NAND gate is shown in Figure 9-10

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Figure 9-10: The NAND gate symbol

Note that the NAND symbol is an AND symbol with a small bubble at the output. The bubble is
sometimes called an invert bubble.

The truth table for the NAND gate is illustrated in the unshaded columns of Figure 9-11. The
AND-gate truth table is also given to show how each output is inverted to give the NAND
output.

Figure 9-11: The AND- and NAND-gate truth tables

The NAND function has traditionally been the universal gate in digital circuits. The NAND gate
is widely used in most digital systems. The unique output from the NAND gate is a LOW when
all inputs are HIGH.

9.1.5. THE NOR GATE

Consider the logic diagram in Figure 9-12. An inverter has been connected to the output of an
OR gate.

Figure 9-12: The NOR gate

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Boolean expression for NOR gate is;

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴+𝐵 =𝐴 +𝐵

The standard symbol for the NOR gate is illustrated in Figure 9-13

Figure 9-13: The NOR gate symbol

The truth table in Figure 9-14 details the operation of the NOR gate.

Figure 9-14: The OR- and NOR-gate truth tables

The unique output from the NOR gate is a HIGH when all inputs are LOW.

9.1.6. THE EXCLUSIVE-OR GATE

The exclusive-OR gate is referred to as the “any but not all” gate. The exclusive-OR term is
often shortened to read as XOR.

The standard logic symbol for the XOR gate is shown in Figure 9-15.

Figure 9-15: Standard logic symbol for the XOR gate

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A truth table for the XOR function is shown in Figure 9-16.

Figure 9-16: The exclusive-OR-gate truth table

Careful examination shows that this truth table is similar to the OR truth table except that, when
both inputs are 1, the XOR gate generates a 0.

9.1.7. THE EXCLUSIVE-NOR GATE

The output of an XOR gate is shown inverted in Figure 9-17. The output of the inverter on the
right side is called the exclusive-NOR (XNOR) function. The XOR gate produces the expression
𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵. When this is inverted, it forms the Boolean expression for the XNOR gate, ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵 = 𝑌.

Figure 9-17: The XNOR gate

The standard logic symbol for the XNOR gate is shown in the bottom diagram of Figure 9-18.
Note that the symbol is an XOR symbol with an invert bubble attached to the output.

Figure 9-18: The XNOR gate symbol

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The right-hand column of the truth table in Figure 9-19 details the operation of the XNOR gate.
Note that all outputs of the XNOR gate are the complements of the XOR-gate outputs.

Figure 9-19: The XOR- and XNOR-gate truth tables

9.2. MINIMIZATION OF LOGIC EXPRESSIONS

A logic function is completely defined when, for all combinations of input variables, the function
value is defined.

Let X (A, B, C) be a logic function with three variables, which is defined by a truth table.

𝑋(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = 𝐴̅ · 𝐵̅ · 𝐶̅ + 𝐴̅ · 𝐵 · 𝐶 + 𝐴 · ̅
𝐵 · 𝐶̅ + 𝐴 · 𝐵 · 𝐶̅ + 𝐴 · 𝐵 · 𝐶

Based on the truth table the function X may be written as the following sum of products:

𝑋(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = ∑𝑚(0, 3, 4, 6, 7)

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9.2.1. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Boolean algebra deals with algebraic expressions between Boolean variables. Boolean algebra is
a mathematical style dealing in logic. Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and simplify the digital
(logic) circuits. It uses only the binary numbers i.e., 0 and 1. It is also called as Binary
Algebra or logical Algebra. Boolean algebra was invented by George Boole in 1854.

Boolean Laws

There are six types of Boolean Laws.

1. Commutative law

Any binary operation which satisfies the following expression is referred to as commutative
operation.

Commutative law states that changing the sequence of the variables does not have any effect on
the output of a logic circuit.

2. Associative law

This law states that the order in which the logic operations are performed is irrelevant as their
effect is the same.

3. Distributive law

Distributive law states the following condition.

4. AND law

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These laws use the AND operation. Therefore, they are called as AND laws.

5. OR law

These laws use the OR operation. Therefore, they are called as OR laws.

6. INVERSION law

This law uses the NOT operation. The inversion law states that double inversion of a variable
results in the original variable itself.

DeMorgan’s Theorems

The theorems are useful in simplifying expressions in which a product or sum of variables is
complimented or inverted.

1. DeMorgan’s theorem – NOR

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ . 𝐵̅
2. DeMorgan’s theorem – NAND
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 . 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ + 𝐵̅

EXAMPLE

Simplify the expression 𝑍 = (𝐴’ + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐵)

= 𝐴𝐴’ + 𝐴’𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐵

= 0 + 𝐴’𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵

= 𝐵(𝐴’ + 𝐴 + 1)

= 𝐵(1 + 1)

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=𝐵

Simplify the expression and show minimum gate implementation

𝑦 = 𝐴𝐵𝐶’𝐷’ + 𝐴’𝐵𝐶’𝐷’ + 𝐵𝐶’𝐷

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 + 𝐴’ = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴. 1 = 𝐴

= 𝐵𝐶’𝐷’ (𝐴 + 𝐴’) + 𝐵𝐶’𝐷

= 𝐵𝐶’𝐷’. 1 + 𝐵𝐶’𝐷

= 𝐵𝐶’𝐷’ + 𝐵𝐶’𝐷 =

𝐵𝐶’ (𝐷 + 𝐷’)

= 𝐵𝐶’. 1

= 𝐵𝐶’

9.2.2. KARNAUGH MAPS

So far, we can see that applying Boolean algebra can be awkward in order to simplify
expressions. Apart from being laborious (and requiring the remembering all the laws) the method
can lead to solutions which, though they appear minimal, are not.

The Karnaugh map provides a simple and straight-forward method of minimising Boolean
expressions. With the Karnaugh map Boolean expressions having up to four and even six
variables can be simplified.

A Karnaugh map provides a pictorial method of grouping together expressions with common
factors and therefore eliminating unwanted variables. The Karnaugh map can also be described
as a special arrangement of a truth table.

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The diagram below illustrates the correspondence between the Karnaugh map and the truth table
for the general case of a two-variable problem.

The values inside the squares are copied from the output column of the truth table, therefore
there is one square in the map for every row in the truth table. Around the edge of the Karnaugh
map are the values of the two-input variable. A is along the top and B is down the left-hand side.
The diagram below explains this:

The values around the edge of the map can be thought of as coordinates. So as an example, the
square on the top right-hand corner of the map in the above diagram has coordinates 𝐴 = 1 and
𝐵 = 0. This square corresponds to the row in the truth table where 𝐴 = 1 and 𝐵 = 0 and 𝐹 = 1.
Note that the value in the F column represents a particular function to which the Karnaugh map
corresponds.

Example 1:

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Consider the following map. The function plotted is: 𝑍 = 𝑓(𝐴, 𝐵) = 𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵

• Note that values of the input variables form the rows and columns. That is the logic
values of the variables A and B (with one denoting true form and zero denoting false
form) form the head of the rows and columns respectively.

• Bear in mind that the above map is a one-dimensional type which can be used to simplify
an expression in two variables.

• There is a two-dimensional map that can be used for up to four variables, and a three-
dimensional map for up to six variables.

Using algebraic simplification,

𝑍 = 𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵

𝑍 = 𝐴( + 𝐵)

𝑍 = 𝐴

Example 2:

Consider the expression Z = f(A,B) = +A + B plotted on the Karnaugh map:

Pairs of 1's are grouped as shown above, and the simplified answer is obtained by using the

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following steps:

Note that two groups can be formed for the example given above, bearing in mind that the largest
rectangular clusters that can be made consist of two 1s. Notice that a 1 can belong to more than
one group.
The first group labelled I, consists of two 1s which correspond to A = 0, B = 0 and A = 1, B = 0.
Put in another way, all squares in this example that correspond to the area of the map where B =
0 contains 1s, independent of the value of A. So, when B = 0 the output is 1. The expression of
the output will contain the term

For group labelled II corresponds to the area of the map where A = 0. The group can therefore be
defined as . This implies that when A = 0 the output is 1. The output is therefore 1 whenever B
= 0 and A = 0
Hence the simplified answer is Z = +

Karnaugh Maps - Rules of Simplification

The Karnaugh map uses the following rules for the simplification of expressions
by grouping together adjacent cells containing ones

• Groups may not include any cell containing a zero

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• Groups may be horizontal or vertical, but not diagonal.

• Groups must contain 1, 2, 4, 8, or in general 2n cells.

That is if n = 1, a group will contain two 1's since 21 = 2.
If n = 2, a group will contain four 1's since 22 = 4.

• Each group should be as large as possible.

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• Each cell containing a one must be in at least one group.

• Groups may overlap.

• Groups may wrap around the table. The leftmost cell in a row may be grouped with
the rightmost cell and the top cell in a column may be grouped with the bottom cell.

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• There should be as few groups as possible, as long as this does not contradict any of
the previous rules.

Summmary:

1. No zeros allowed.

2. No diagonals.

3. Only power of 2 number of cells in each group.

4. Groups should be as large as possible.

5. Every one must be in at least one group.

6. Overlapping allowed.

7. Wrap around allowed.

8. Fewest number of groups possible.

Problems

Minimise the following problems using the Karnaugh maps method.

1. 𝑍 = 𝑓(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = + 𝐵 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
2. 𝑍 = 𝑓(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = 𝐵 + 𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴

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Answers

1. Z = f(A,B,C) = + B + AB + AC

By using the rules of simplification and ringing of adjacent cells in order to make as many
variables redundant, the minimised result obtained is B + AC+

2. Z = f(A,B,C) = B + B + BC + A

By using the rules of simplification and ringing of adjacent cells in order to make as many
variables redundant, the minimised result obtained is B + A

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TOPIC 10. EMERGING TRENDS

10.1. EMERGING TRENDS

The era of electronics began with the invention of the transistor in 1947 and silicon-based
semiconductor technology. Seven decades later, we are surrounded by electronic devices and,
much as we try to deny it, we rely on them in our everyday lives.

The performance of silicon-based devices has improved rapidly in the past few decades, mostly
due to novel processing and patterning technologies, while nanotechnology has allowed for
miniaturization and cost reduction.

For many years’ silicon remained the only option in electronics. But recent developments in
materials-engineering and nanotechnology have introduced new pathways for electronics.
While traditional silicon electronics will remain the main focus, alternative trends are emerging.
These include:

1. 2-D electronics

Interest in the field started with the discovery of graphene, a structural variant of carbon. Carbon
atoms in graphene form a hexagonal two-dimensional lattice, and this atom-thick layer has
attracted attention due to its high electrical and thermal conductivity, mechanical flexibility and
very high tensile strength. Graphene is the strongest material ever tested.

In 2010, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences decided to award the Nobel Prize in Physics to
Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov for their “groundbreaking experiments” in graphene
research.

Graphnene may have started this 2D revolution in electronics, but silicene, phosphorene and
stanene, atom-thick allotropes of silicon, phosphorus and tin, respectively, have a similar
honeycomb structure with different properties, resulting in different applications.

All four have the potential to change electronics as we know it, allowing for miniaturization,
higher performance and cost reduction. Several companies around the globe, including Samsung
and Apple, are developing applications based on graphene.

2. Organic electronics

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The development of conducting polymers and their applications resulted in another Nobel prize
in 2000, this time in chemistry. Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid and Hideki Shirakawa
proved that plastic can conduct electricity.

Unlike conventional inorganic conductors and semiconductors, organic electronic materials are
constructed from organic (carbon-based) molecules or polymers using chemical synthesis.
Organic electronics is not limited to conducting polymers, but includes other organic materials
that might be of use in electronics. These include a variety of dyes, organic charge-transfer
complexes, and many other organic molecules.

In terms of performance and industrial development, organic molecules and polymers cannot yet
compete with their inorganic counterparts. However, organic electronics have some advantages
over conventional electronic materials. Low material and production costs, mechanical
flexibility, adaptability of synthesis processes and biocompatibility make organic electronics a
desirable choice for certain applications.

Commercially available high-tech products relying on organic semiconductors, such as curved

television screens, displays for smartphones, coloured light sources and portable solar cells,
demonstrate the industrial maturity of organic electronics. In fact, several high-tech companies,
including LG Electronics and Samsung, have invested in cheap and high-performance organic-
electronic devices. It is expected that the organic electronics market will grow rapidly in the
coming years.

3. Memristors

In 1971 Leon Chua reasoned from symmetry arguments that there should be a fourth
fundamental electronic circuit-board element (in addition to the resistor, capacitor and inductor)
which he called memristor, a portmanteau of the word’s memory and resistor. Although Chua
showed that memristors have many interesting and valuable properties, it wasn’t until 2007 that a
group of researchers from Hewlett Packard Labs found that the memristance effect can be
present in nanoscale systems under certain conditions. Many researchers believe that memristors
could end electronics as we know it and begin a new era of “ionics”.

While commonly available transistor functions use a flow of electrons, the memristor couples the
electrons with ions, or electrically charged atoms. In transistors, once the flow of electrons is

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interrupted (for example by switching off the power) all information is lost. Memristors
“memorize” and store information about the amount of charge that has flowed through them,
even when the power is off.

The discovery of memristors paves the way to better information storage, making novel memory
devices faster, safer and more efficient. There will be no information loss, even if the power is
off. Memristor-based circuits will allow us to switch computers on and off instantly, and start
work straight away.

For the past several years, Hewlett Packard has been working on a new type of computer based
on memristor technology. HP plans to launch the product by 2020.

4. Spintronics

Spintronics, a portmanteau word meaning “spin transport electronics”, is the use of a

fundamental property of particles known as “electron spin” for information processing. Electron
spin can be detected as a magnetic field with one of two orientations: up and down. This
provides an additional two binary states to the conventional low and high logic values, which are
represented by simple currents. Carrying information in both the charge and spin of an electron
potentially offers devices with a greater diversity of functionality.

So far, spintronic technology has been tested in information-storage devices, such as hard drives
and spin-based transistors. Spintronics technology also shows promise for digital electronics in
general. The ability to manipulate four, rather than only two, defined logic states may result in
greater information-processing power, higher data transfer speed, and higher information-storage
capacity.

It is expected that spin transport electronic devices will be smaller, more versatile and more
robust compared with their silicon counterparts. So far this technology is in the early
development stage and, irrespective of intense research, we have to wait a couple of years to see
the first commercial spin-based electronic chip.

5. Molecular electronics

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The ultimate goal of electrical circuits is miniaturization. Also known as single molecule
electronics, this is a branch of nanotechnology that uses single molecules or collections of single
molecules as electronic building blocks.

Molecular electronics and the organic electronics described above have a lot in common, and
these two fields overlap each other in some aspects. To clarify, organic electronics refers to bulk
applications, while molecular-scale electronics refers to nano-scale, single-molecule
applications.

Conventional electronics are traditionally made from bulk materials. However, the trend of
miniaturization in electronics has forced the feature sizes of the electronic components to shrink
accordingly. In single-molecule electronics, the bulk material is replaced by single molecules.
The smaller size of the electronic components decreases power consumption while increasing the
sensitivity (and sometimes performance) of the device. Another advantage of some molecular
systems is their tendency to self-assemble into functional blocks. Self-assembly is a phenomenon
in which the components of a system come together spontaneously, due to an interaction or
environmental factors, to form a larger functional unit.

Several molecular electronic solutions have been developed, including molecular wires, single-
molecule transistors and rectifiers. However, molecular electronics is still in the early research
phase, and none of these devices has left the laboratory.

10.2. CHALLENGES OF EMERGING TRENDS

Here’s a quick glance at some of the biggest existing and emerging challenges being faced in the
electronics manufacturing industry.

1. Meeting the Demand for Smart Electronic Devices

The demand for smart devices is growing at an alarming rate. Smartphones have been around for
quite some time and smart TVs are quickly becoming an entertainment standard, but consumers
are now wanting everything “smart.”

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Researchers and developers are currently looking for new innovations to meet those needs, but in
looking for more electronics to make “smart,” they’re encountering a new challenge in consumer
demand- The miniaturization of consumer electronics.

According to assemblymag.com, electronics assembly is the hardest hit area for miniaturization.
Small electronic devices like smartwatches, cellphones, remotes, and other fitness devices all
require assembly of minuscule parts. In order for those minuscule parts to be put together, it’s
going to require micro machines small enough to assemble the smart devices through
microdispensing of adhesives… that’s where the challenges lie.

There are only a select few manufacturing companies that offer micro dispensing technologies,
but these technologies are critical to the survival of the electronics manufacturing industry.
Without the small and precise amounts of fluids (adhesives and silicones), consumers wouldn’t
know how to pick the right size TV or have a watch to answer phone calls and track their heart
rate, simply because there wouldn’t be anything holding these devices together to be able to use.

2. Short Product Lifecycles

Meeting the demand of consumer needs is already a challenge but to meet the needs of consumer
demands when their needs change as often as the weather, that presents a whole new world of
challenges in the aspect of short product life cycles.

In the world of consumerism, there is this thing called “trends,” meaning a particular product
could be so great that it flies off the shelves as soon as it hits the market but then a few weeks
later, nobody is interested in that product anymore. Because these trends come and go, it can
cause fluctuations in production.

It can be somewhat hard to tell “what’s hot and what’s not” and that reason alone is why EMS
companies and manufacturers need to have New Product Introduction (NPI) processes in place.
Closed-loop communication between sales, engineering, and manufacturing departments are the
best and most accurate way to hit targets and meet production goals.

3. Eco-Accommodating Procedures

As more and more people are educated on environmental safety, this same consideration for the
environment is expected from businesses too. Environmental change insights have caused

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businesses to look into more eco-friendly assembling solutions. Things like carbon top and
carbon exchanging are being investigated as a solution in green electronics manufacturing.

4. Demand for Energy-Efficient Products

In addition to going green, electronics manufacturing is also feeling the pressure from consumers
to develop products that don’t consume as much energy. The surge of interest in solar energy and
energy reduction is nothing new but as more consumers and businesses discover the cost-
effective benefits from it, the demand is increasing.

The challenge is that electronics manufacturers not only have to adopt a green manufacturing
process but they also have to do this while finding innovative ways to develop products that
won’t cost them too much to create nor will it cost the consumer too much to buy due to energy-
efficiency demands.

10.3. COPING WITH EMERGING TRENDS

These challenges may seem hard to overcome, and most of them are, but some of these
challenges have solutions, it’s just that the implementation process takes time, and it takes more
innovations to get there.

Technological advancements don’t just happen overnight, even though some of today’s
advancements seem that way. It takes years and sometimes decades to perfect some of the
world’s biggest challenges. But that’s why some of the world’s most brilliant minds are in the
electronics manufacturing industry today.

It may not happen next week or 10 years from now, but you can rest assured in knowing that
these challenges will have innovative solutions.

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