What is adaptation (limited meaning) and what is compensation?

Adapt – Functional and structural changes of organism due to changed demand of activities.
Compensation – Is an adaptive process, when ordinary or like ordinary function of organ and organ
system is regained after its damage. (Can be reversible in some degree)

What are the phases (stages) of adaptive – compensatory processes?

Initial or emergency phase (Preparatory stage)
consolidation phase (adaption reaction takes place)
exhaustion or decompensation phase (cell no longer have sources for normal function)

What are the structural levels of realization of adaptive-compensatory processes? Indicate the main
morphological expressions of adaptative and compensatory reactions.
Shifts of molecular level – synthesis of biopolymers and consumption of energy.
Shifts of ultrastructural level – increase of size and quantity of cellular organelles.
Cells – (quantity and cells size reacting to change of demands of the environment) (muscle cells and
neural cells don’t undergo mitosis, so they can’t change their quantity)
Tissues – (Size change and sometimes even the quantity)
Organs – (only size can change)

What are the types of regeneration?

physiological regeneration which is a normal/constant reproduction, the tissues can replace the
damaged components and return to normal state. (Not in response to injury)
pathological regeneration – Reproduction of new structures in response to injury

Indicate some examples of physiological regeneration and levels.

Cellular regeneration: epidermic, gastro mucosa haemopoietic and C.T.
Intracellular regeneration: Myocardium cells, brain cells
Mix intracellular and cellular reg: Liver, kidneys, pancreas

What is restitution and substitution? Present some examples.

Restitution: defects are replaced with tissues identical to the damaged ones. E.g.: C.T, Bone, epidermis,
Mucosa
Substitution: defects are replaced with immature C.T, that grows and forms fibrosis or scar.

What is metaplasia? What is the difference between metaplasia and substitution?

Metaplasia is the conversion from one type of normal adult cell to another type of normal adult cell.
E.g., squamous epithelium cells convert into Pseudostratified epithelium cells. (It can be revers ible) that
is because we can replace cells that doesn’t withstand the harsh environment with ones that can
withstand.

Metaplasia is replacement of cells to adapt to an environment, while substitution is replacement of

damaged cells that replace them with a C.T.

Which tissues do typically regenerate by cellular manner and which ones do regenerate by
intracellular manner?
Cellular regeneration: epidermic, gastro mucosa haemopoietic and C.T.
Intracellular regeneration: Myocardium cells, brain cells
How does the mesenchymal origin tissues (connective, bone, cartilage, muscular, hemopoietic) blood
vessels, liver, epithelium, nervous tissue regenerate?

Covering epithelium – cellular regeneration due to the frequent division of the basal layer cells.
Replacement by identical cells (restitution)

Glandular organs – regeneration depends on the type of tissue damage. Minor injuries are restored by
proliferation of new cells – (restitution) Areas with major injuries are replaced by CT – substitution (scar
formation)

Regeneration of blood vessels – Capillaries are regenerated by sprouting new capillaries (branching) or
by forming new capillaries on site. Larger blood vessels (arterioles, venules, veins, and arteries) cannot
be regenerated – if damaged they’re replaced by artificial prosthesis.

Regeneration of connective tissue – Granulation tissue is new (immature) connective tissue that forms
on the surfaces of a wound during the healing process. Typically grows from the base of a wound and
can fill wounds of almost any size. Characterized by fibroblasts, lots of capillaries, anti-inflammatory cells
(plasma cells, lymphocytes, etc.)

Regeneration of bone tissue – Callus - the bony healing tissue which forms around the ends of broken
bone. (Restitution)
Stages:
1. Primary/fibrocartilaginous callus formation
2. Ossification – bony callus formation
3. Bone remodelling

Pseudoarthrosis – formed by pieces of a broken bone that are not positioned properly, bone fracture
that has no chance of mending without intervention.

Regeneration of cartilage tissue – Minor defects are replaced by proliferating chondroblasts (from
perichondrium) that later mature into chondrocytes that surrounded by cartilage matrix – restitution.
Larger defects are replaced by scars - substitution

Regeneration of blood – Blood is regenerated by production of blood elements in the red bone marrow
(mainly in flat bones) Can also be done in yellow bone marrow – myeloid metaplasia. Extramedullary
hemopoiesis - haematopoiesis occurring outside of the bone marrow, for example in the liver or
kidneys, especially in children.

Regeneration of muscle tissue – Smooth muscle cells can be produced by connective tissue cells that
undergo metaplastic transformation. Larger defects of smooth musclesscar or substitution. Defects in
skeletal and cardiac musclesscar and substitution, nearby cells will undergo hypertrophy to restore
loss contractility.

Regeneration of nervous tissue – Nerves cannot be regenerated because they can’t proliferate. Impaired
function is compensated by gliosis - proliferation or hypertrophy of several different types of glial cells

Regeneration of peripheral nerves – regeneration of axon injury. The distal part is removed by immune
cells  neuron cellular body initiate proliferates of axon from the proximal end, and sheath cells are
regenerated as well, connection is reestablished. (The body if it dies, it can’t repair itself)
Why is the prolonged regeneration so dangerous?
When a structure undergoes a prolonged regeneration they will wear out and lose there function will
lead to the organisms death.

What does organization mean in the context of tissue regeneration?

When regeneration is not possible, so the necrotic cells are replaced with collagen.

What are the patterns of the wound healing and what are these patterns determined by?
First intention healing – for example surgical wound, sterile, healing involves small amounts of
connective tissue, defined bordersFine scar
Second intention healing – caused by any other trauma (intentional or not), large area of defect,
irregular borders, infectious agents, anti-inflammatory cells, not sterile, irregular healingscar.

What is the origin of term "granulation tissue"? What are its main components?
New (immature) connective tissue that forms on the surfaces of a wound during the healing process.
Typically grows from the base of a wound and can fill wounds of almost any size.
Characterized by fibroblasts, lots of capillaries, anti-inflammatory cells (plasma cells, lymphocytes, etc.)

Explain what hypertrophy and hyperplasia is.

Hypertrophy - an increase in the size of the organism’s structures (cells, organelles) which results in an
increase in the size of the organ.
Hyperplasia - An increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue. These cells appear normal under a
microscope. They are not cancer but may become cancer.

What is vicarious hypertrophy?

Enlargement of an organ following failure of another organ because of a functional relationship between
them.

What are the most common causes of compensatory hypertrophy of the left and right cardiac
ventricle?
Right ventricular hypertrophy is usually caused by a problem in your lungs. You can also have left
ventricular hypertrophy, but this is usually due to increased blood pressure or a problem with the aortic
valve in your heart.

What changes are evident in cardiomyocytes by electron microscopy in cases of heart hypertrophy?
No hypoplasia
Only cellular and intra cellular hypertrophy

What is atrophy?
Shrinkage in the size of the cells  shrinkage of organ tissue

How is atrophy classified? What is inanition? How is exhaustion of body in cases of advanced cancer
called? Indicate and describe the causes of local atrophy.
Physiological atrophy – inactive organs or organs with loss of function (because of age)  atrophy

Pathological atrophy – Caused by a damaged factor like pathological process, disease, injury.
It can be classified into general or local.
General atrophy – Effect the whole body, body weight decreases, first to be affected is fat tissue, then
visceral organs, and finally, all organs decrease in size which may lead to severe complications and even
death. Usually because of nutrients not being absorbed because of chronic GI tract, chronic infections
etc.

Inanition – When organs loss half of its weight of sudden diseases

Cachexia – exhaustion of the patient that causes extreme weight loss and muscle wasting due to a
symptom of many chronic conditions such as cancer.

Local atrophy – Is only affecting one specific organ/tissue/area not whole body.
Local atrophy when we have weakened function/activity e.g., limp muscle atrophy that occurs to
patients that are forced to be n a lying position for a long time. Decreased in blood supply because of
narrowing of lumen supplying blood vessels, increase in pressure, and impaired innervation (limited
mobilization – usually paralyzed). C.T replacing irreversibly injured functional tissue elementsfibrosis

How is age-related physiological atrophy of organs called?

What is hydronephrosis, hydrocephaly, and hydrosalpinx?

Increased in CSF  enlarged ventricles  nearby brain tissue atrophy  Hydrocephaly
Hydronephrosis is the swelling of a kidney due to a build-up of urine. It happens when urine cannot
drain out from the kidney to the bladder from a blockage or obstruction.Nearby kidney structures get
atrophied

What is pulmonary emphysema?

Emphysema is a chronic lung condition that causes shortness of breath. In people with emphysema, the
air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) are damaged. (The walls are damaged  the air sacs lose their shape)

What is hypoplasia?
Hypoplasia refers to a lack of cells in an organ or tissue (Congenital disorders)  So less quantity of cells
then average  Hypoplasia is the incomplete development or underdevelopment of an organ or tissue.

Atrophy VS necrotic

Atrophy gradually lose blood

Necrotic suddenly lose blood

Budding preexisting capillaries rise  branches

Autochtonic  proliferation no previews capillaries