CSE 306

UNIT 4
LECTURE-25
Forwarding of IP packets and IP Header
Prepared By: Dr. Krishan kumar, Professor, LPU

LPU
Unit IV

NETWORK LAYER:
IP Addressing: Network layer design issue,
Network layer services, Network layer
performance, IP Addressing Both Classfull and
Classless,
Subnetting and Supernetting, Subnetting
examples, Forwarding of IP packets, IP Header,
IPv6 addressing
 keywords
• Packet
• Packet Forwarding
• Interface
• data Segments
• Header
• IP datagram
• Encapsulation
• IHL
• TTL
• Fragementation
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 3
 INTRODUCTION

The Internet Protocol (IP) is the transmission

mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols at the network
layer.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4

 Packet Forwarding
• The process of packet forwarding simply implies the
forwarding of incoming packets to their intended
destination.
• Internet is made up of generally two terms-
Interconnection and Network. It is a connection to a large
collection of networks.

• A packet that is to be forwarded may be associated with

the same network as the source host or may belong to a
destination host in a different network.
• It depends on the destination how much a packet may
need to travel before arriving at its destination.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 5

•The router is responsible for the process of
packet forwarding.
•Router accepts the packet from the origin
host or another router in the packet’s path
and places it on the route leading to the
target host.
•The routing table is maintained by the
router which is used for deciding the
packet forwarding.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 6
For Example

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 7

 Packet Forwarding in Router

•Routers are used on the network for

forwarding a packet from the local
network to the remote network.
• Process of routing involves the packet
forwarding from an entry interface out to
an exit interface.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 8

 Company Placement Interview Question

• The term that is used to place packet in its route to its

destination is called __________

a) Delayed
b) Urgent
c) Forwarding
d) Delivering

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 9

 Answer

Answer:c

Forwarding is done by the nodes in the path from

source to destination, that are not the intended
destination for the packet in order to pass the packet to
the next node in the path. The destination machine
does not forward the packet to any other node.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 10

 WORKING

•The router takes the arriving packet from an

entry interface and then forwards that packet to
another interface.
•The router needs to select the best possible
interface for the packet to reach the intended
destination as there exist multiple interfaces in
the router.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 11

 Working
• The forwarding decision is made by the router based on
routing table entries. The entries in the routing table comprise
destination networks and exit interfaces to which the packet
is to be forwarded.
• The selection of exit interface relies on- firstly, the interface
must lead to the target network to which the packet is
intended to send, and secondly, it must be the best possible
path leading to the destination network.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 12

• The forwarding decision is made by the router based on
routing table entries.

• Entries in the routing table comprise destination

networks and exit interfaces to which the packet is to be
forwarded.

• The selection of exit interface relies on- firstly, the

interface must lead to the target network to which the
packet is intended to send, and secondly, it must be the
best possible path leading to the destination network.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 13

 Company Placement Interview Question

• A second technique to reduce routing

table and simplify searching process is
called _________
a) Network-Specific Method
b) Network-Specific Motion
c) Network-Specific Maintaining
d) Network-Specific Membership
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 14
 Answer

Answer:A
In the network specific forwarding method,
there is only one record, the destination of
the packet, in the routing table and not the
other hosts of the network. The other two
forwarding methods are the default method
and the next-hop method.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 15
 Company Placement Interview Question

•Next-Hop Method is used to reduce contents

of a _________

a) Revolving table
b) Rotating Table
c) Routing Table
d) Re-allocate table

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 16

 Answer

Answer:c
In the next-hop forwarding method, the
routing table of each router in the path
contains the address of only the next hop in
the path of packet.
This method is suitable for short distances
only.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 17
COMPNAY PLACEMENT INTERVIEW
Question

•Several techniques can make size of

routing table manageable and also handle
issues such as __________
a) Maturity
b) Error reporting
c) Tunneling
d) Security
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 18
 Answer

Answer:d
The size of the routing table in the technique
must be manageable for the network nodes i.e. it
must not be too big.
Security of the forwarding packet is the highest
priority for a technique and must be high enough
so that only authorized senders and receivers can
access the packet’s content.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 19
Company Placement Interview Question

•In Unicast routing, if instability is between

three nodes, stability cannot be ________
a) Stable
b) Reversed
c) Guaranteed
d) Forward

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 20

 Answer

Answer:c
In Unicast routing, there is only sender and
one receiver. So, if there is instability
between three nodes, in which one is
sender, one is receiver and one is the router
in the path, there is no other path available
for the packet and the stability of the
network is not guaranteed.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 21
 AUDIO/VIDEO LINK

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P
VskUP-62Ik

HOW PACKET FLOW IN NETWORK

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 22

Questions/Answers

Any Doubt ?

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 23

Figure Position of IP in TCP/IP protocol suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 24

• Internet Protocol being a layer-3 protocol (OSI) takes data
Segments from layer-4 (Transport) and divides it into packets.
• IP packet encapsulates data unit received from above layer and
add to its own header information.

• The encapsulated data is referred to as IP Payload.

• IP header contains all the necessary information to deliver
the packet at the other end.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 25

COMPANY PLACEMENT INTERVIEW QUESTION

LSP stands for __________

a) Link Stable Packet
b) Link State Packet
c) Link State Protocol
d) Link State Path
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 26
 Answer:b
A Link State Packet is a packet created by a
router that lists its neighboring nodes and
routers in link state routing protocol.
It is shared with other routers to find the
shortest path from a source to the
destination.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 27
 Header

• The header is 20 to 60 bytes in

length and contains information
essential to routing and delivery.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 28

Figure IP datagram

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 29

•Version − Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g.
IPv4).

•IHL − Internet Header Length; Length of entire IP

header.

•DSCP − Differentiated Services Code Point; this is

Type of Service.

•ECN − Explicit Congestion Notification; It carries

information about the congestion seen in the route.

•Total Length − Length of entire IP Packet (including

IP header and IP Payload).
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 30
• Identification−
If IP packet is fragmented during the
transmission, all the fragments contain same
identification number.
To identify original IP packet they belong to.
• Flags−
As required by the network resources, if IP
Packet is too large to handle, these ‘flags’ tells if
they can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit flag,
the MSB is always set to ‘0’.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 31
•Fragment Offset −
This offset tells the exact position of the
fragment in the original IP Packet.
•Time to Live −
To avoid looping in the network, every packet is
sent with some TTL value set, which tells the
network how many routers (hops) this packet
can cross.
At each hop, its value is decremented by one
and when the value reaches zero, the packet is
discarded. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 32
• Protocol−Tells the Network layer at the
destination host, to which Protocol this
packet belongs to, i.e. the next level
Protocol.
For Example- Protocol number of ICMP is
1, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17.
• Header Checksum−This field is used to
keep checksum value of entire header
which is then used to check if the packet
is received error-free.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 33
•Source Address− 32-bit address of the Sender (or
source) of the packet.

•Destination Address− 32-bit address of the Receiver

(or destination) of the packet.

•Options− This is optional field, which is used if the

value of IHL is greater than 5. These options may
contain values for options such as Security, Record
Route, Time Stamp, etc.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 34

Figure Service type or differentiated services

20.35
 Table Types of service

20.36
Questions/Answers

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 37

PROBLEM/SOLUTION

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 38

Example 1
An IP packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as shown:

The receiver discards the packet. Why?

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 39

Example 2
An IP packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as shown:

The receiver discards the packet. Why?

Solution
There is an error in this packet. The 4 left-most bits (0100) show
the version, which is correct. The next 4 bits (0010) show the
wrong header length (2 × 4 = 8).
The minimum number of bytes in the header must be 20. The
packet has been corrupted in transmission.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 40

 Where use of this knowledge?

Carrier point of view

Highest Paying Jobs in Computer Networking

•Network Architect.
•Network Security Manager.
•Network and Computer Systems Administrators.
•Wireless Network Engineer.
•System Engineer.
•Database Administrator.
•Network Programmer.
•Network Service Technician.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 41
Example 3

In an IP packet, the value of HLEN is 1000 in binary.

How many bytes of options are being carried by this packet?

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 42

Question/Answers

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 43

 FRAGMENTATION

• A datagram can travel through different networks.

Each router de-capsulates the IP datagram from the
frame it receives, processes it, and then
encapsulates it in another frame.

• The format and size of the received frame depend

on the protocol used by the physical network
through which the frame has just traveled.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 44

The format and size of the sent frame depend on
the protocol used by the physical network
through which the frame is going to travel.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 45

 Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU)
 Fields Related to Fragmentation

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 46

 Figure MTU

IPdatagram

MTU
Header Maximumlength ofdata thatcanbeencapsulatedin aframe Trailer
Frame
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 47
 Table MTUs for some networks

20.48
• HYPER channel was a local area networking system for
mainframe computers, especially supercomputers,
introduced by Network Systems Corporation in the 1970s.

• It ran at the then-fast speed of 50 mbits/second,

performance that would not be matched by commodity
hardware until the introduction of Fast Ethernet in 1995.

• HYPER channel ran over very thick coax cable or fibre

optic extensions and required adaptor hardware the size of a
minicomputer.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 49

• X. 25 is a protocol suite defined by ITU-T for
packet switched communications over WAN (Wide
Area Network).
• It was originally designed for use in the 1970s and
became very popular in 1980s.
• Presently, it is used for networks for ATMs and
credit card verification.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 50

• FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is a network
standard that uses fiber optic connections in a local area
network (LAN) that can extend in range up to 200
kilometers (124 miles).
• The FDDI protocol is based on the token ring protocol. A
FDDI LAN can support thousands of users

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 51

• Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a TCP/IP protocol
that is used to connect one computer system to
another.
• Computers use PPP to communicate over the
telephone network or the Internet.
• A PPP connection exists when two systems
physically connect through a telephone line. You
can use PPP to connect one system to another.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 52

Note

Only data is fragmented.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 53

Figure Flags field

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 54

 DF =1 No frag.
Df=0 datamust be fragmented

mf=1 datagram is not last fragment

mf=0 last fragmnt
Figure Fragmentation Example
Offset = 0000/8 = 0

0000 1399

Offset = 1400/8 = 175

1400 2799
Offset = 2800/8 = 350
2800 3999
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 56
Questions/Answers

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 57

PROBLEM AND SOLUTION

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 58

Question/Answer

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 59

THANKS

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 60

NEXT LECTURE

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 61

 CSE 306
UNIT 4
Lecture-
IPV6 Address
Prepared By: Dr. Krishan kumar, Professor, LPU

LPU
 keywords
•IPV6
•Interface Identifier
•Anycast address
•Payload
•IPV6 header
•Extension Header

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 63

 IPv6 - Address Types & Formats

Address Structure
• An IPv6 address is made of 128 bits
divided into eight 16-bits blocks.
• Each block is then converted into 4-
digit Hexadecimal numbers
separated by colon symbols.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 64
For Example
Here128 bit IPv6 address represented in binary format and
divided into eight 16-bits blocks:
0010000000000001 0000000000000000 0011001000111000
1101111111100001 0000000001100011 0000000000000000
0000000000000000 1111111011111011
Each block is then converted into Hexadecimal and separated
by ‘:’ symbol:
2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB
Even after converting into Hexadecimal format, IPv6 address
remains long.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 65

IPv6 provides some rules to shorten the address.
The rules are as follows:

Rule.1: Discard leading Zero(es):

In Block 5, 0063, the leading two 0s

can be omitted, such as (5th block):
2001:0000:3238:DFE1:63:0000:0000:FEFB

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 66

Rule.2:
If two of more blocks contain consecutive
zeroes, omit them all and replace with double
colon sign ::, such as (6th and 7th block):
2001:0000:3238:DFE1:63::FEFB

Consecutive blocks of zeroes can be replaced

only once by :: so if there are still blocks of
zeroes in the address, they can be shrunk down
to a single zero, such as (2nd block):
2001:0:3238:DFE1:63::FEFB
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 67
Questions/Answers

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 68

Interface ID
• IPv6 has three different types of Unicast Address scheme. The
second half of the address (last 64 bits) is always used for Interface
ID.
• The MAC address of a system is composed of 48-bits and
represented in Hexadecimal. MAC addresses are considered to be
uniquely assigned worldwide.
• Interface ID takes advantage of this uniqueness of MAC addresses.
• A host can auto-configure its Interface ID by using IEEE’s Extended
Unique Identifier (EUI-64) format.
• First, a host divides its own MAC address into two 24-bits halves.
Then 16-bit Hex value 0xFFFE is sandwiched into those two halves
of MAC address, resulting in EUI-64 Interface ID.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 69

STRUCTURE
 Address
Unicast, Multicast and Unicast address
• Unicast transmission/stream sends IP packets to a single
recipient on a network.
• Multicast transmission sends IP packets to a group of
hosts on a network.
• Anycast is a network addressing and routing method in
which incoming requests can be routed to a variety of
different locations or “nodes.”
• Anycast routing, is an IP network addressing
scheme that allows multiple servers to share the
same IP address, allowing for multiple physical
destination servers to be logically identified by a
single IP address. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 71
 Scope of IPv6 Unicast Addresses:

• The scope of Link-local address is limited to the segment.

• Unique Local Address are locally global, but are not routed over
the Internet, limiting their scope to an organization’s boundary.
• Global Unicast addresses are globally unique and recognizable.
They shall make the essence of Internet v2 addressing.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 72
Global Unicast Address
This address type is equivalent to IPv4’s public address.
Global Unicast addresses in IPv6 are globally identifiable and
uniquely addressable.

Global Routing Prefix:

The most significant 48-bits are designated as Global Routing
Prefix which is assigned to specific autonomous system.
The three most significant bits of Global Routing Prefix is
always set to 001. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 73
 Link-Local Address
Auto-configured IPv6 address is known as Link-Local
address. This address always starts with FE80. The first 16
bits of link-local address is always set to 1111 1110 1000 0000
(FE80). The next 48-bits are set to 0, thus:

Link-local addresses are used for communication

among IPv6 hosts on a link (broadcast segment) only.
These addresses are not routable, so a Router never
forwards these addresses outside the link.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 74
 Unique-Local Address
This type of IPv6 address is globally unique, but it should be
used in local communication. The second half of this address
contain Interface ID and the first half is divided among Prefix,
Local Bit, Global ID and Subnet ID.

Prefix is always set to 1111 110. L bit, is set to 1 if the address is locally
assigned. So far, the meaning of L bit to 0 is not defined.
Therefore, Unique Local IPv6 address always starts with ‘FD’.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 75
• The wonder of IPv6 lies in its header. An IPv6
address is 4 times larger than IPv4, but surprisingly,
the header of an IPv6 address is only 2 times larger
than that of IPv4.
• IPv6 headers have one Fixed Header and zero or
more Optional (Extension) Headers. All the
necessary information that is essential for a router is
kept in the Fixed Header.
• The Extension Header contains optional
information that helps routers to understand how to
handle a packet/flow.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 76
Figure 19.14 IPv6 address in binary and hexadecimal colon notation

19.77
Figure 19.15 Abbreviated IPv6 addresses

19.78
QUESTIONS/Answers

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 79

COMPANY PLACEMENT INTERVIEW
Questions
IPv6 does not use _________ type of
address.
a) broadcast
b) multicast
c) anycast
d) unicast
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 80
Answer: A
Explanation: There is no concept of broadcast address
in IPv6.
Instead, there is an anycast address in IPv6 which
allows sending messages to a group of devices but not
all devices in a network.
Anycast address is not standardized in IPv4.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 81

QWhich among the following features
is present in IPv6 but not in IPv4?
a) Fragmentation
b) Header checksum
c) Options
d) Anycast address

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 82

Answer
d) Anycast address

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 83

Q-IPv6 supports both ___________ auto
configuration mode of its host devices.
A. stateful
B. stateless
C. stateful and stateless
D. None of the above

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 84

Answer
Ans : C

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 85

Question

The header length of an IPv6 datagram

is ___________
a) 10bytes
b) 25bytes
c) 30bytes
d) 40bytes

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 86

Answer: d

Explanation: IPv6 datagram has fixed header length of

40bytes, which results in faster processing of the
datagram.
There is one fixed header and optional headers which
may or may not exist.
The fixed header contains the mandatory essential
information about the packet while the optional headers
contain the optional “not that necessary” information.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 87
Question-
How an IPv6 Link-Local Address is Generated in network

A After a global IPv6 unicast address is configured on the

interface, an IPv6 link-local address is automatically generated.
B After a linklocal IPv6 address is configured on the interface, an
IPv6 link-local address is automatically generated.

C An IPv6 link-local address is automatically generated.

D None above

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 88

Answer A
After the ipv6 address auto link-local
command is run on the interface, an
IPv6 link-local address is automatically
generated.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 89

• IPv6 fixed header is 40 bytes long and contains the
following information.

Figure 27.1 IPv6 datagram

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 90

Figure Format of the base header

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 91

 Field & Description
1 Version (4-bits): It represents the version of Internet
Protocol, i.e. 0110.
2 Traffic Class (8-bits): These 8 bits are divided into
two parts. The most significant 6 bits are used for Type
of Service by Router , Known what services should be
provided to this packet. The least significant 2 bits are
used for Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN).
3 Flow Label (20-bits): This label is used to maintain
the sequential flow of the packets belonging to a
communication.
This field helps avoid re-ordering of data packets.
It is designed for streaming/real-time media.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 92
• 4 Payload Length (16-bits): This field is used
to tell the routers how much information a
particular packet contains in its payload.

• Payload is composed of Extension Headers

and Upper Layer data. With 16 bits, up to
65535 bytes can be indicated;

• if the Extension Headers contain Hop-by-

Hop Extension Header, then the payload may
exceed 65535 bytes and this field is set to 0.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 93
5 Next Header (8-bits):
The next header field identifies the next header in the
packet, either an upper layer protocol (such as TCP or UDP)
or an extension header (such as fragmentation header or
routing header).
6 Hop Limit (8-bits):
This field is used to stop packet to loop in the network
infinitely. This is same as TTL in IPv4. The value of Hop
Limit field is decremented by 1 as it passes a link (router/hop).
When the field reaches 0 the packet is discarded.
7 Source Address (128-bits): This field indicates the address of
originator of the packet.

8 Destination Address (128-bits): This field provides the

address of intended recipient of the packet.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 94
 Extension Headers
• When Extension Headers are used, IPv6 Fixed
Header’s Next Header field points to the first
Extension Header.
• If there is one more Extension Header, then the first
Extension Header’s ‘Next-Header’ field points to the
second one, and so on. The last Extension Header’s
‘Next-Header’ field points to the Upper Layer
Header. Thus, all the headers points to the next one
in a linked list manner.
• If the Next Header field contains the value 59, it
indicates that there are no headers after this header,
not even Upper Layer Header.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 95
Extension Headers must be supported as per RFC 2460:

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 96

 The sequence of Extension Headers should be:

These headers:
1. should be processed by First and subsequent destinations.
2. should be processed by Final Destination.
Extension Headers are arranged one after another in a linked list
manner, as depicted in the following diagram:

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 97

IPv6 extension headers contains supplementary information used by network
devices (such as routers, switches, and endpoint hosts) to decide how to
direct or process an IPv6 packet.
IPv6 headers have one Fixed Header and zero or more Optional (Extension) Headers. All
the necessary information that is essential for a router is kept in the Fixed Header. The
Extension Header contains optional information that helps routers to understand how
to handle a packet/flow.

Figure Extension header format

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 98

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 99
 COMPANY PLACEMENT INTERVIEW QUESTION

Which of the following is true when describing a multicast address?

A.Packets addressed to a unicast address are delivered to a single

interface.
B.Packets are delivered to all interfaces identified by the address. This is
also called a one-to-many address.
C.Identifies multiple interfaces and is only delivered to one address. This
address can also be called one-to-one-of-many.
D.These addresses are meant for nonrouting purposes, but they are
almost globally unique so it is unlikely they will have an address overlap.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 100

Answer: B
Explanation:

Packets addressed to a multicast address are

delivered to all interfaces identified by the
multicast address, the same as in IPv4.
It is also called a one-to-many address.
We can always tell a multicast address in IPv6
because multicast addresses always start with
FF.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 101
Q in ipv6 Header, traffic class filed is similar to which
field in ipv4
A FRAGEMENTATION FIEL
B FASTSWITCHING FIELD
C TOS FIELD
D OPTION FIELD

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 102

Answer: C

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 103

IPv6 does not use _________ type of
address.
a) broadcast
b) multicast
c) anycast
d) unicast

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 104

Answer: a
Explanation: There is no concept of
broadcast address in IPv6. Instead, there is
an anycast address in IPv6 which allows
sending messages to a group of devices but
not all devices in a network. Anycast
address is not standardized in IPv4.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 105

Table Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6 packet headers

20.106
Note -IPv6 is fixed-sized, padding is not necessary. A new field in IPv6 that is used for
identifying that a packet is part of a sequence and has to be handled the same way as
the entire traffic flow.
Table Comparison between IPv4 options and IPv6 extension
headers

20.107
 Transition from IPv4 to IPv6

Transition
 Dual-stack

•When switching from IPv4 to IPv6, this is one of the

simplest ways to utilize. Install any router with both
IPv4 and IP6 address on its interfaces, and then point
the network to the appropriate IP scheme.
•A dual-stack router can communicate with both IPv6
and IPv4 networks at the same time.
•It provides a framework for hosts to connect to a
server without having to change their IP versions.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 109

Figure Dual stack
 Tunneling
•IPv6 Tunneling is a mechanism for encapsulating
IPv4 and IPv6 packets within a site-to-site IPv6
VPN. It is used to form a virtual point-to-point
link between two IPv6 nodes. IPv6 Tunnels are
stateless and have no knowledge of the
configuration or even existence of the remote
tunnel endpoint.
•A data packet is encased in a common interface that
allows it to be interchanged, making it easier to
transfer it from its source to its destination.
•The data is then de-capsulated and retransmitted.
•For IPv6, there are several tunneling concepts.
. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 111
 Type-Tunneling
Manual IPv6 Tunnels
• The IPv6 tunnel is produced manually and then configured in a pair of
routers that works for both IPv4 and IPv6.
• Any incoming data destined for networks on the other side of the tunnel
is encapsulated in a mutual interface on the origin router and tunneled
through the IPv4 system.
Generic Routing Encapsulation IPv6 Tunnels
• this technology was created particularly for IPv6 tunneling. Its setup
and operation are quite similar to that of manual tunnels.
• Not only can the system function with IPv4, but it can also work with a
wide range of other network protocols.
• IPv6 to IPv4 and vice versa are tunneled using a generic routing
encapsulation tunnel
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 112
 Figure 20.20 Tunneling
strategy

20.5
0
 Translation
•This approach is distinct from the previously
described transition strategies.
•It allows you to convert IPv4 data to IPv6 data
and vice versa.
•Instead of being encapsulated in a single
convertible interface, traffic is translated to the
target type, whether IPv4 or IPv6. In IPv6
networks, there are two translation techniques.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 114

 Type
Network Access Translation
•The ability to dynamically configure an IPv4 address
to an IPv6 address, and vice versa, is provided via
network access translation.
NAT64
•As an update to the network access translation
protocol, this system is generally recognized. It has a
stateful deployment option that allows you to keep
track of your bindings.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 115

 COMPANY PLACEMENT INTERVIEW Question

•Suppose two IPv6 nodes want to interoperate using

IPv6 datagrams, but they are connected to each
other by intervening IPv4 routers. The best solution
here is ________
a) Use dual-stack approach
b) Tunneling
c) No solution
d) Replace the system

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 117

 ANSWER

•b
The IPv4 routers can form a tunnel
Explanation:

in which at the sender’s side, the IPv6

datagram is encapsulated in to IPv4, and
at the receiver’s side of the tunnel, the
IPv4 packet is stripped and the IPv6 packet
is sent to the receiver.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 118

Question

•Dual-stack approach refers to

_________
a) implementing Ipv4 with 2 stacks
b) implementing Ipv6 with 2 stacks
c) node has both IPv4 and IPv6 support
d) implementing a MAC address with 2
stacks

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 119

 ANSWER

•c
Dual-stack is one of the approaches
Explanation:
used to support IPv6 in already existing
systems. ISPs are using it as a method to
transfer from IPv4 to IPv6 completely
eventually due to the lower number of possible
available addresses in IPv4.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 120

Questions/Answers

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 121

THANKS

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 122