FIFTH

EDITION

This book, Number 5 in the series of 14, entitled Aircraft

General Knowledge Part 4 - Instrumentation,
comprehensively covers the JAA/EASA ATPL syllabus and
Learning Objectives for this subject and also includes
specimen revision and test questions and answers.

It deals with Flight Instruments, Warning and Recording

Equipment and Automatic Flight Control Systems. Each of
these sections aims to pass on, in a flowing, easily-read
style, all the theory the student pilot will need to
understand the instrumentation of any aircraft in which he
or she may fly.

For further information about all

our products, contact us at:
OAAmedia, Oxford Aviation Academy,
Oxford Airport, Kidlington, Oxford,
OX5 1QX, England.
Tel: +44 (0)1865 844290
Fax: +44 (0)1865 840376
Email: [email protected]
Introduction INSTRUMENTATION AND ELECTRONICS

© Oxford Aviation Academy (UK) Limited 2009

All Rights Reserved

This text book is to be used only for the purpose of private study by individuals and may not be reproduced
in any form or medium, copied, stored in a retrieval system, lent, hired, rented, transmitted or adapted in
whole or in part without the prior written consent of Oxford Aviation Academy.

Copyright in all documents and materials bound within these covers or attached hereto, excluding that material
which is reproduced by the kind permission of third parties and acknowledged as such, belongs exclusively to
Oxford Aviation Academy.

Certain copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the International Civil Aviation Organisation,
the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority and the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).

This text book has been written and published as a reference work to assist students enrolled on an approved
EASA Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) course to prepare themselves for the EASA ATPL theoretical
knowledge examinations. Nothing in the content of this book is to be interpreted as constituting instruction
or advice relating to practical flying.

Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information contained within this book, neither
Oxford Aviation Academy nor the distributor gives any warranty as to its accuracy or otherwise. Students
preparing for the EASA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard this book as a substitute
for the EASA ATPL theoretical knowledge training syllabus published in the current edition of ‘JAR-FCL 1
Flight Crew Licensing (Aeroplanes)’ (the Syllabus). The Syllabus constitutes the sole authoritative definition
of the subject matter to be studied in an EASA ATPL theoretical knowledge training programme. No student
should prepare for, or is currently entitled to enter himself/herself for the EASA ATPL theoretical knowledge
examinations without first being enrolled in a training school which has been granted approval by an EASA
authorised national aviation authority to deliver EASA ATPL training.

Oxford Aviation Academy excludes all liability for any loss or damage incurred or suffered as a result of any
reliance on all or part of this book except for any liability for death or personal injury resulting from Oxford
Aviation Academy’s negligence or any other liability which may not legally be excluded.

Cover Photograph: Embraer ERJ - 145 cockpit

Photographed by Derek Pedley, for www.airteamimages.com

This edition distributed by Transair (UK) Ltd, Shoreham, England: 2009

Printed in Singapore by KHL Printing Co. Pte Ltd

ii

Aviation ebooks Company

INSTRUMENTATION AND ELECTRONICS Introduction

Textbook Series

Book Title Subject

1 010 Air Law

2 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 1 Airframes & Systems

Fuselage, Wings & Stabilising Surfaces

Landing Gear
Flight Controls
Hydraulics
Air Systems & Air Conditioning
Anti-icing & De-icing
Fuel Systems
Emergency Equipment

3 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 2 Electrics – Electronics

Direct Current
Alternating Current
Basic Radio Propagation.

4 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 3 Powerplant

Piston Engines
Gas Turbines

5 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 4 Instrumentation

Flight Instruments
Warning & Recording
Automatic Flight Control
Power Plant & System Monitoring Instruments

6 030 Flight Performance & Planning 1 Mass & Balance

Performance

7 030 Flight Performance & Planning 2 Flight Planning & Monitoring

8 040 Human Performance & Limitations

9 050 Meteorology

10 060 Navigation 1 General Navigation

11 060 Navigation 2 Radio Navigation

12 070 Operational Procedures

13 080 Principles of Flight

14 090 Communications VFR Communications

IFR Communications

iii

Aviation ebooks Company

Introduction INSTRUMENTATION AND ELECTRONICS

Contents
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
1. CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. AIR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3. PITOT AND STATIC PRESSURE SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4. THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5. THE PRESSURE ALTIMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6. THE VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7. THE MACHMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
8. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9. THE DIRECT INDICATING COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10. GYROSCOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
11. DIRECTIONAL GYRO INDICATOR (DGI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
12. THE ARTIFICIAL HORIZON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
13. THE TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
14. THE TURN CO-ORDINATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
15. AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
16. REMOTE INDICATING MAGNETIC COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
17. INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
18. INS OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
19. INS ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
20. INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
21. AIR DATA COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
22. RADIO ALTIMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
23. FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
24. ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INFORMATION SYSTEM (EFIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
25. HEAD-UP DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
26. BASIC COMPUTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
27. COMMUNICATIONS AND THE FUTURE AIR NAVIGATION SYSTEMS . . . . 389

AUTOMATIC FLIGHT AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

28. FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
29. AUTOPILOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
30. AUTOLAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
31. AUTOTHROTTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
32. YAW DAMPERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
33. CONTROL LAWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
34. REVISION QUESTIONS - AFCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

iv

Aviation ebooks Company

INSTRUMENTATION AND ELECTRONICS Introduction

WARNING AND RECORDING SYSTEMS

35. FLIGHT WARNING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
36. AERODYNAMIC WARNINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
37. GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM (GPWS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
38. AIRBORNE COLLISION AND AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (ACAS) . . . . . . . . . . 553
39. FLIGHT DATA RECORDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
40. COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

POWERPLANT & SYSTEMS MONITORING INSTRUMENTATION

41. ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
42. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617

REVISION QUESTIONS
43. REVISION QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643

Aviation ebooks Company

Introduction INSTRUMENTATION AND ELECTRONICS

vi

Aviation ebooks Company

Characteristics and General Definitions Chapter 1

CHAPTER ONE

CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL DEFINITIONS

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
MEASURING RANGE VERSUS ACCURACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
ERGONOMY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
INSTRUMENT INDICATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
ACCURACY AND RELIABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 1 Characteristics and General Definitions

Aviation ebooks Company

Characteristics and General Definitions Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Pilots receive information about the state of their aircraft and its speed, altitude, position and
attitude through instruments and displays. These can vary from the simplest of dials and
pointers to modern electronic displays (the so-called ‘glass cockpits’), depending on the vintage
and the complexity of the aircraft, and a simple dial can seem very different in appearance
and sophistication from a modern cathode ray tube or liquid crystal screen. However, certain
problems of range, resolution, accuracy and reliability are general characteristics of all
instrumentation systems.

MEASURING RANGE VERSUS ACCURACY

It is often necessary to show a large operating range, yet still indicate with accuracy over the
whole range. For instance, an airliner might be limited to a maximum permitted airspeed of
350 knots, so perhaps the instrument would be designed to display up to, say, 380 or 400 knots.
However, certain speeds are critical to flight safety and need to be read with extreme accuracy
– ideally to the nearest knot. If we put the whole range on a single revolution of the instrument
the division representing one knot will be very small and will be difficult to read accurately.

Circular Scale (Linear).

A simple indicator showing the change of value of the parameter to be measured over a range
of 0 to 30 units is shown in Figure 1.1 (Linear). The accuracy with which these values need to
be measured will govern the spacing of the graduation.

Circular Scale (Non-Linear).

Some instruments are required to show changes of parameters more accurately at certain parts
of the scale. The example in Figure 1.1 (Non-Linear) shows a rate of climb indicator where low
rates of climb are more easily read than high rates. This is a logarithmic scale.

Linear Non-Linear

Figure 1.1 Circular Scales

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 1 Characteristics and General Definitions

High Range Long Scale Displays.

Where the instrument needs to show changes over a high

range of values and these changes need to be read with a
fair degree of accuracy, 360° of movement of the pointer
may not be sufficient. The pointer may make more than
one revolution to cover the required range, as on the air
speed indicator shown in Figure 1.2, though this type of
display may lead to some confusion.

Figure 1.2
Single Pointer Air Speed Indicator

A less confusing display uses two concentric pointers

moving over two separate scales, as shown on the
revolution counter.

Figure 1.3
A Revolution Counter

Another solution is to have a pointer moving over a fixed

scale (tens of knots) with a moving scale indicating larger
units (hundreds of knots).

Figure 1.4
An Air Speed Indicator

Aviation ebooks Company

Characteristics and General Definitions Chapter 1

A further solution, shown in Figure 1.5, is to display

information in a similar fashion to a clock, with pointers
showing hours, minutes and seconds. This system is used
on many altimeters. The long pointer will cover 1000 feet
in one revolution, so each division of the scale represents
100 feet. The middle pointer will cover 10,000 feet per
revolution, each division marking 1000 feet and the smallest
pointer (sometimes in the form of a ‘bug’ on the outside of
the scale) will cover 100,000 feet, each division representing
10,000 feet.

Figure 1.5
A Three Pointer Altimeter

ERGONOMY

Ergonomy (also known as human engineering) is defined as the science of relationships

between people and machines. An ergonomic device interacts smoothly with peoples’ bodies
and actions. In an aviation context this can mean designing the shape and position of controls,
levers and knobs so that are easily controlled and unlikely to lead to an incorrect selection.
For instruments or instrument systems it means designing instruments that are unlikely to
be misread and locating them in a layout that facilitates easy and correct interpretation of the
information displayed. Standard layouts came to be adopted.

Location.
The ‘flying’ instruments which covered the handling of the aircraft were arranged in the layout
of the ‘basic six’. Other instruments tended to be scattered around the cockpit in positions most
convenient to the designer and manufacturer, seldom to suit the needs of the pilot.

Figure 1.6 The ‘Basic Six’ Instrument Layout.

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 1 Characteristics and General Definitions

Since the introduction of the ‘basic six’ developments in aircraft instruments and operations
led to the introduction of the ‘basic T’.

Figure 1.7 The ‘Basic T’ Instrument Layout.

Figure 1.8 The Basic Instrument Panel of a Piper PA 34 Seneca

Aviation ebooks Company

Characteristics and General Definitions Chapter 1

Historically, instruments have been located on instrument panels (Figure 1.8), though this
is now changing with modern electronic displays. Compare Figures 1.8 with the Boeing 737
layout below.

Figure 1.9 Boeing 737 Instrument Panel

With modern electronic systems, although the displays have to be on the flight deck where the
crew can see and operate them, the computing units and power units are located remotely in
some other part of the aircraft, usually in a separate compartment called the Avionics Bay or
the Electrics and Electronics (E&E) Bay.

Readability
A readable instrument should be designed with an eye reference point in mind. This is the
anticipated position that the pilot’s eye will occupy when viewing the instrument under normal
conditions. If the instrument has a design where there is a reference mark or index (on compasses,
often called a lubber-line) with a scale behind it, it is important that the eye, the index and the
scale are all in line. Otherwise, there is an error known as parallax, which is simply caused
by viewing the instrument from slightly to one side instead of from the front. Direct reading
(standby) compasses are particularly prone to parallax error, because there is usually only one
of them to be shared by two pilots and in a side-by-side cockpit, it is often placed in the middle
so that both pilots are viewing it from their respective sides and not from in front.

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 1 Characteristics and General Definitions

Presentations can be in analogue or digital form. Analogue is, typically, a pointer on a dial
whereas digital is a row of numbers. Look at the 2 types of altimeter display at Figures 1.10
and 1.11.

Figure1.10 Figure 1.11

An analogue altimeter A digital altimeter

With the 3-pointer analogue system, the altitude information (24,020 feet) is harder to absorb
at a single glance than with the digital display. The digital numbers are much easier to read.
However, we note that one pointer still remains in the design of the mainly-digital presentation.
This is because the human eye and brain cannot easily interpret rate information from moving
numbers and, whilst the altimeter is primarily designed to show altitude, with a separate
instrument (the vertical speed indicator) to show rate of change of altitude, nevertheless, pilots
pick up a lot of secondary information about vertical rate from the angular rate of the altimeter
pointer.

It is possible to characterise some displays, particularly those showing attitude, as inside-out or

outside-in. This refers to the point of view of the observer. Attitude displays normally consist
of an aircraft symbol and a horizon symbol (see Figure 1.12). The normal presentation is
inside-out – in other words, the aircraft symbol stays fixed and the horizon rolls and moves up
and down to keep it parallel with the real horizon. This is the view you would see from inside
the aircraft (moving horizon).

Outside-in (Unusual) In-side out (Normal)

Figure 1.12 Attitude presentation

Aviation ebooks Company

Characteristics and General Definitions Chapter 1

An outside-in presentation would maintain the horizon level and roll the aircraft symbol (moving
aircraft). These are less common, but some exist. These tend to be preferred by inexperienced
pilots, but experienced pilots prefer the moving-horizon type and find it more natural to use.

Coloured Arcs
A standardized system of colour coding for operating ranges for conventional non-electronic
instrument is widely used. These are:

Green: Normal operating range

Yellow or Amber: Cautionary range
Red: Warning, or unsafe operating range

Figure 1.13 is an example of the gauges, fitted to a Piper Warrior, showing the colour coding.

Figure 1.13 Red, yellow and green operating ranges.

For more complex instruments, usually electronic displays, JAR-25 sets out the following colour
standardization.

White: Present status

Blue: Temporary situation

Green: Normal operating range

Yellow or Amber: Cautionary range

Red: Warning, or unsafe operating range

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 1 Characteristics and General Definitions

Figure 1.14 Electronic Primary Flight Display - Boeing 737

INSTRUMENT INDICATORS

Instrument indicators can be mechanical, electrical or, in more modern systems, electronic.

Mechanical. Mechanical systems are those based on gears, levers and connecting rods which
provide the indication by moving a pointer on a dial. Most traditional instruments such as the
altimeter or airspeed indicator on a typical light training aircraft are of this type. Look at the
analogue altimeter at Figure 1.10.

Electrical. Electrical indicators can be of the moving-coil type, the ratiometer type or be
synchro or servo driven. In both the moving-coil and ratiometer the signal being transmitted
is in the form of an electrical current and the indicator is actually a voltmeter, but instead of
being calibrated in volts the scale shows the quantity being measured. An example is an air
temperature gauge, where the sensor actually measures temperature by measuring changing
electrical resistance, then passes the information as a voltage. The meter is then deflected by an
amount proportional to the voltage, but the scale (which is really measuring volts) is calibrated
in degrees Celsius. Both types operate on the principle of passing a DC voltage through a coil,
thereby turning it into an electromagnet. The coil is situated in a magnetic field and so when it
becomes an electromagnet it is magnetically deflected in a turning motion.

10

Aviation ebooks Company

Characteristics and General Definitions Chapter 1

POINTER SCALE

SOFT IRON
CONCENTRATOR

PERMANENT
MAGNET

MOVING COIL ON PHOSPHOR BRONZE

ALUMINIUM FORMER CONTROL SPRING

Figure 1.15 Moving Coil Meter

Synchro and servodriven indicators operate as described in the section on signal transmission.
The indicator dial is the receiver element of a torque synchro transmitter (selsyn unit) or the
servo driver of a synchro-servo system. These types of indicator are particularly good for
displaying angular information (compass heading, or radar scanner direction)

Electronic. The most popular electronic displays are 7-segment displays, 5 x 7 displays, cathode
ray tubes and liquid crystal displays.

Segmented Light Emitting Diode (LED) displays. The most popular form of display is the
seven-segmented display shown. Each of the seven segments is an individual light-emitting
diode. These glow (usually red or green) and can be seen in the dark or in low light conditions.
By illuminating a combination of the segments it is possible to illuminate the decimal digits. A
limited range of alphabetical characters can be obtained, as shown at Figure 1.16 below.

Figure 1.16 Seven-segment LED display

11

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 1 Characteristics and General Definitions

Dot array LED displays. Using a group of individual LEDs in a rectangular dot array or dot
matrix, it is possible to display the full range of alphanumeric characters together with a wide
range of mathematical characters. One of the most popular types is the 5 x 7 dot matrix display,
which uses an array of 35 LEDs arranged in 5 columns and 7 rows.

Alternative dot arrays, such as a 4 x7 display, are available but have less versatility than the 5
x 7 display.

● ● ●
● ●
● ●
● ●
● ●
● ●
● ● ●

Figure 1.17 5 x 7 LED Dot Arrays

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Displays. A CRT is a vacuum valve in which a beam of electrons
is made to produce a spot of light on a screen at one end. The position on the screen and the
brightness of the spot can be changed almost instantaneously. The basic construction of a CRT
is shown in Figure 1.18. The beam of electrons produced by the electron gun is focused onto the
fluorescent screen and maybe deflected to any position on the screen by the deflection device.
If the spot of light is made to travel across the same path on the screen many times a second, a
visible trace will appear.

CRT’s are classified into three types, depending on which method is used for focusing and
beam deflection. These are:

 Electrostatic CRT, which has electrostatic focusing and deflection.

 Electromagnetic CRT, which has electromagnetic focusing and deflection.

 Combined CRT, which has electrostatic focusing and electromagnetic

deflection

Figure 1.18 Cathode Ray Tube

12

Aviation ebooks Company

Characteristics and General Definitions Chapter 1

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD). Liquid crystals are materials which are liquid at room
temperature and have a molecular structure which is thread-like in nature. The liquid crystals
used in electronic displays are known as nematic liquid crystals. The application of an electrical
voltage across a very thin film (typically 10 micrometre thick) of liquid crystal causes the
optical properties of the crystals to alter. The LCD itself does not produce any illumination, and
depends entirely on illumination falling on it from an external source for its visual effect.

Figure 1.19 Liquid Crystal Display

ACCURACY AND RELIABILITY

No instrument can be perfectly accurate because of basic characteristics of design and

manufacturing. Accuracy will vary with the design and sophistication of the instrument, which
will be very dependent on the cost. Over-engineering adds expense, and most instruments are
designed to be as accurate as is necessary for their purpose but at as low a cost as possible.
Error is expressed as a tolerance which is the limit within which the instrument has been
designed to be accurate. For instance, an altimeter may be quoted as having a specified
accuracy of ± 30 feet at sea level. A tolerance can be quoted either as an absolute error or a
relative error.

An absolute error gives the range of possible values in terms of the unit of measurement. For
instance, an altitude measurement might be quoted as having a tolerance (absolute error) of
40000 feet ± 100 feet.

However, absolute errors do not give an indication of the importance of the error. It is therefore
preferable sometimes to give a relative error. Relative Error is defined as follows:

Relative Error = Absolute Error

Measured Value

For instance, if a Radio Altimeter is quoted as having a possible error as 1000 feet ± 30 feet the
relative error is ± 0.03. However, in aviation it is more normal to quote it as a percentage, ie as
± 3% of the measured value

Errors can also be classified as systematic or random. Systematic errors are those caused
by errors in the measurement system or by incorrect procedures. For instance, a Radio
Altimeter has a correction factor built into it to allow for the difference between the height of
the antennae (usually in the under surface of the wings) and the height of the datum which
is required to be measured (the height of the lower wheel bogey when the oleo legs are not
compressed by weight – ie, the point of first impact with the ground). If this height difference
is set up incorrectly, then the measurement made will always be in error by a fixed amount –
the systematic error – in addition to any random errors.

13

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 1 Characteristics and General Definitions

Random errors are those which can vary. The mechanical wander rate of gyroscope is a good
example. Some gyro wander is caused by imperfections in manufacture – bearing friction
and unbalanced mass, for instance. This will cause the gyro to wander away from its fixed
orientation but the direction and rate of the error will be unpredictable.

Instrument error is the generic term for these errors. It is defined as the combined accuracy
and precision of a measuring instrument, or the difference between the actual value and
the value indicated by the instrument. Instrument error is that error which is attributable
to instrument only, not the errors in the inputs into it. Therefore an airspeed indicator, for
instance, may be in error because the pressure entering into it has been adversely affected
by the turbulence round the sensor probe, but that is not instrument error. Instrument
error is that part which occurs when the right input goes in but the instrument indicates it
incorrectly. Instrument error can either be designed out of a system by opting to pay for a
better quality instrument or it can be allowed for by calibrating the instrument against a test
set and correcting the instrument reading in subsequent use.

We may also be interested is assessing the reliability of an instrument, particularly if it is

complex, with many places for failure to occur, such as an electronic display. Reliability is
defined as the probability of an item performing as specified under stated conditions for a
stated period of time. The most common measures of reliability are:

Failure Rate: Failure Rate is defined as the number of failures per unit time (usually hours of
use rather than calendar time). For this definition and the next one to work, we need to agree
on what constitutes a failure.

Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF). Mean Time Between Failure is defined as the mean
value of the length of time between consecutive failures for a given item. It is computed as
follows:

MTBF = Total Cumulative Observed Time

Total Number of Failures

Mean Time Between Outages (MTBO). The difference between a ‘failure’ and an ‘outage’
is that failure refers to a single equipment whereas ‘outage’ refers to a system – i.e. to linked
items. An ‘outage’ means that the system as a whole, for whatever reason, is not performing
as specified. The components of the system and the specified level of performance have to be
defined and agreed before a definition of an outage becomes meaningful. Whether MTBO is
greater or less than MTBF will be different depending on the flow logic of the system. The
2 items may duplicate a task and the system can work with just one of them (a redundant
system) or the system may need both items to work at all. In the first case a single failure will
not result in an outage and so there will be fewer outages than failures. In the second case,
the result of either Item A or Item B failing will result in an outage, so there will more outages
than failures.

14

Aviation ebooks Company

Characteristics and General Definitions Chapter 1

SIGNAL TRANSMISSION

Signals are transmitted from the sensor where they are measured to the instrument where they
are displayed by a variety of signals transmission techniques:

Mechanical. Early systems had mechanical feedback to an indicator on the flight deck to show
the position of a valve, flap or control surface. However, these systems have been largely
replaced by remote transmission systems on modern aircraft.

Pneumatic. Pneumatic pressure is air pressure conveyed in a tube or pipe. Airspeed and altitude
instruments use pneumatic transmission from the pitot or static probe/vent to the instrument.

Hydraulic. Hydraulic pressure is liquid pressure conveyed in a tube or pipe. Older versions of
oil pressure gauges receive direct oil pressure down a pipe into the back of the indicator.

Electric or Electronic. Older systems used DC transmission, known as desynn indicators.

Modern aircraft use an AC transmission system, known as synchro transmission. A torque
synchro system transmits angular position and is suitable for indicators whilst a synchro-servo
system can be used to drive a heavy load to a particular angular position. Both systems use the
principle of the selsyn, which uses components called stators and rotors.

The A.C. systems are collectively called Synchros, and work on the principle of a variable
transformer. The A.C. voltage used is 26 volt. In the illustration below (Figure 1.20), as the input
shaft is rotated, the induced signal in the secondary winding can be varied in two ways.

 The magnitude of the induced signal will vary in direct relationship to the
angle between the primary and secondary windings.

 The phasing of the induced signal will vary twice for one complete rotation of
the primary winding.

We have one rotor coil (primary), and three stator coils to produce the output (secondaries).

Figure 1.20 AC Synchro System

15

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 1 Characteristics and General Definitions

The Torque Synchro System. In the torque synchro system, the transmitter consist of three
secondary coils positioned at 120° to each other and a fourth primary coil placed within them.
An A.C. current is passed through the primary coil which produces an alternating magnetic
field. This alternating magnetic field causes an EMF to be induced in the three secondary coils.
The value of the EMF induced in any one of the secondary coil is dependant upon its relative
position to the primary coil.

The receiver also consists of three secondary coils positioned at 120° to each other and a fourth
primary coil placed within them. The receiver secondary coils are in series with the secondary
coils of the transmitter. This closed circuit causes a current to flow through the coils.

The value of the current is proportional to the value of the induced EMF in the associated
transmitter secondary coil. The three magnetic fields produced by the secondary coils combine
to produce a resultant field. The receiver primary coil is in series with the transmitter primary
coil. This causes the receiver primary coil to align itself in the resultant magnetic field produced
by the receiver secondary coils and thus remotely reproduce the position of the input.

The Synchro-Servo System. The synchro-servo system is similar to the torque synchro in
that the stators are connected so that the direction of field in the transmitter stators will be
reproduced in the receiver stators. However, the sole role of the transmitter rotor is simply to
produce the transmitter stator field. It is not connected to the receiver rotor. The transmitter
stator field is reproduced in the receiver stator. The receiver rotor detects the receiver stator
field and if the rotor coil is not at exactly right angles to the stator field, some signal is induced
in the receiver rotor. This is passed to an amplifier, which turns a load, which is connected
to the receiver rotor. The rotor will continue to turn until no signal is induced in itself. This
will occur when it is at 90° to the field, and therefore, at precisely 90° to the transmitter rotor.
This means that the receiver shaft is now 90° removed from the transmitter shaft, but this is no
problem, since the indicator card on the receiver will also be mounted 90° out to make it read
the same as the transmitter angle.

Figure 1.21 Synchro-Servo System

The advantage of the synchro-servo system over the torque synchro system is that it can be used
to drive a heavy load. It is, for example, used in Gyro-Magnetic compass to align a gyro with a
magnetically detected signal. A simple torque synchro would not have the power.

16

Aviation ebooks Company

Characteristics and General Definitions Chapter 1

Digital. Digital systems use data buses to convey large amounts of information without
dedicated one-to-one wires. For compatibility, these must be designed to common specifications.
Aeronautical Radio Incorporated (ARINC) is a corporation made up of scheduled airlines,
transport companies, aircraft manufacturers and foreign flag airlines. One primary activity of
ARINC is to produce specifications and reports for the purpose of:

Indicating to manufacturers the group opinion concerning requirements

of new equipments

Channeling new equipments designs in a direction which will result

in maximum standardisation

Figure 1.15 shows the integrated avionics fitted to a Boeing 737/300. All the individual systems
adhere to ARINC specifications. The Autopilot/Flight Director is manufactured by Sperry,
the FMS and Autothrottle by Smiths UK and the IRS by Honeywell. All the four systems are
compatible with each other and communicate via the data bus system.

Data Buses. The availability of reliable digital semiconductor technology has enabled the
inter-communication task between different equipments to be significantly improved.
Previously, large amounts of aircraft wiring were required to connect each signal with all the
other equipments. As systems became more complex and more integrated so this problem was
aggravated. Digital data transmission techniques use links which send streams of digital data
between equipments. These data links may only comprise two or four wires and therefore the
inter-connecting wiring is very much reduced. Recognition of the advantages offered by digital
data transmissions has led to common standards being agreed. Examples of these standards are
ARINC 429 and ARINC 629.

Control Surface Display and Control Units

Figure 1.22 Boeing 747-300 Integrated Flight Control System

17

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 1 Characteristics and General Definitions

18

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Temperature Measurement Chapter 2

CHAPTER TWO

AIR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Contents

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
AIR TEMPERATURE THERMOMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
PRINCIPLE OF WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE PROBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
HEATING ERROR – THE EFFECTS OF COMPRESSION
AND KINETIC HEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
RAM RISE – APPLICATION OF RECOVERY FACTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
CORRECTION OF TAT/RAT TO SAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
RAPID FORMULA FOR USE IN THE AIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
CRP5 OR SIMILAR NAVIGATION COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
ACCURATE FORMULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
THE ABSOLUTE, OR KELVIN, TEMPERATURE SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
EXAMPLE OF CORRECTION FROM TAT TO SAT USING
ACCURATE FORMULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
DATA TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
AIR DATA COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
BOEING 737 TEMPERATURE CORRECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
FAHRENHEIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

19

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 2 Air Temperature Measurement

20

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Temperature Measurement Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION

Why does a pilot need to know the temperature of the air in which he is flying? There are
several reasons:

Avoidance of icing conditions

Because temperature affects air density, which, in turn, affects:

Engine power and aircraft performance

Measurement of speed

Measurement of altitude

Avoidance of Icing Conditions

The formation of ice on aircraft, particularly in cloud, can be very rapid. Icing can be very
dangerous, because the following can occur:

Loss of lift (ice will distort the aerofoil shape)

Increase in drag (ice will distort the aerofoil shape)

Increase in mass (can be as much as ten tons with thick icing on large aircraft)

Freezing of control surfaces so that they cannot be moved

Loss of engine power or total engine failure due to intake or carburettor icing

Chunks of ice flying off the propellors and hitting the side of the fuselage

Many forms of weather are unpleasant or uncomfortable (turbulence, lightning, etc) but ice
is particularly dangerous. There are two ways to minimise the risk. One is to avoid flying in
cloud. The other is to climb or descend in order to avoid the temperature bands particularly
associated with icing. These will vary from aircraft type to aircraft type but will be known for
each particular type.

Engine Power and Aircraft Performance

To see why air temperature affects engine power, consider how any aviation engine (jet or piston)
works. Air is drawn in through the intake and burnt in a cylinder or a combustion chamber
where its volume is greatly expanded. This is partly caused by the addition of combustion
products (ie, fuel), but mainly caused by a large temperature rise. In order to achieve correct
combustion, the fuel/air ratio has to be carefully controlled. If the air is dense, more fuel will be
provided and more power will be available. However, if the air is less dense, less fuel will be
provided, in order to maintain the correct mix. Therefore less power will be produced. This can
have a considerable effect, particularly on take-off performance. Pilots therefore need to be able
to measure air temperature in order to calculate engine power and performance.

21

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 2 Air Temperature Measurement

Measurement of Speed
We cannot measure airspeed directly, so we measure air pressure. However, pressure is
dependent on both relative speed and air density. Air temperature affects air density and
therefore affects the calculation of airspeed.

Measurement of Altitude
The rate of pressure change with altitude varies with temperature. Altimeter indication can be
in error unless corrected for temperature differences from normal. This can have serious safety
implications when flying near high ground in cloud.

AIR TEMPERATURE THERMOMETERS

Air temperature thermometers can be divided into 2 basic types:

 Direct Reading. These work on the principle of differential coefficients of expansion with
temperature. Invar is a nickel steel alloy notable for its uniquely low coefficient of thermal
expansion. A bimetallic strip is constructed consisting of invar and brass bonded together as
shown in Fig 2.1.

When this strip is heated, the brass, having a higher coefficient of expansion than the invar, will
expand more than the invar so that the strip curls as shown. How much the strip curls depends
on the temperature rise to which the strip is subjected.

Fig 2.1 A Bi-metallic Strip

The strip is drawn out into a helix, to give greater pointer movement for a given temperature
rise, and is incorporated into an instrument with a dial as shown in Fig 2.2.

22

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Temperature Measurement Chapter 2

Fig 2.2 A Bi-metallic Helix Thermometer

The thermometer is mounted on the windscreen or fuselage with the tube protruding out into
the air stream and the dial visible to the pilot, as shown in Fig 2.3.

Fig 2.3 Thermometer placement on a PA28 Warrior

 Remote Reading. However, the direct reading thermometer is not a workable solution for a
larger aircraft. Firstly, a device that penetrates the windscreens would weaken the structure to
an unacceptable extent at the pressures associated with higher speeds. Secondly, it is desirable to
have the temperature information in an electrical form so that it can be fed to other instruments
and systems.

Remote temperature gauges work on the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge.

23

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 2 Air Temperature Measurement

PRINCIPLE OF WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE

Wheatstone’s bridge, in its original form, is a piece of laboratory equipment used to measure an
unknown electrical resistance. In Fig 2.4, R1 and R2 are resistors of known value, R3 is a variable
resistance (known as a rheostat) and Rx is the unknown resistance. A DC voltage is applied
between points A and D. The operator then adjusts R3 until the voltmeter reads no voltage
between points B and C. This occurs when the ratio R3 / Rx is the same as the ratio R1 / R2. From
this, Rx can be calculated.

Fig 2.4 Wheatstone Bridge

The principle is slightly different when used as an aircraft air temperature gauge. R1, R2, and
R3 are fixed. Rx is exposed to the outside air. As the temperature changes, the resistance of Rx
changes. This causes an imbalance in the resistances and current flows from B to C. The voltage
between B and C is dependent on air temperature.

TOTAL AIR TEMPERATURE PROBE

Figs 2.5 and 2.6 show typical air temperature probes.

The probe is in the form of a small strut and air intake made of nickel-plated beryllium copper,
which provides good thermal conductivity and strength. It is fixed to the fuselage at a point
which keeps it away from the aircraft’s boundary layer.

24

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Temperature Measurement Chapter 2

Fig 2.5 A Total Temperature Probe

As the air flows through the tube, separation of water particles is achieved by causing the airflow
to turn through a right angle before passing round the sensing element.

The bleed holes in the intake casing permit boundary air to be drawn off because of the higher
pressure inside the intake.

A resistance wire made of pure platinum is

used as the sensor. It has a very high thermal
conductivity and a rapid response to change.

An inbuilt heating element prevents the

formation of ice. It is self-compensating – as the
temperature rises, so does the heater resistance,
reducing the heater current.

The heater can have a small effect on the

temperature readings. However, this
introduces an error of less than 1ºC, which is not
significant.
Fig 2.6 A Total Temperature Probe

It is also necessary to measure air temperature on the ground. Modern aircraft do not use full
power for take-off in order to avoid unnecessary thermal stress to the engines. The take-off is
carried out using the minimum power necessary to ensure safety, but no more. Runway length,
weight, altitude and temperature are taken into consideration in the calculation of the required
power and it is perfectly normal to carry out a take-off at, say, 93% power.

In order to measure air temperature on the ground an air to air ejector (aspirator) is used, as
shown in Fig 2.7. Bleed air from either an APU or a running engine creates a negative differential
pressure within the casing so that outside air is drawn through it even when the aircraft is
stationary in order to prevent the temperature of stagnant, heat-soaked air from within the
casing being measured.

25

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 2 Air Temperature Measurement

Fig 2.7 Aspirated TAT Probe – Suction effect from positive compressor air pressure

In the above diagram, the engine bleed air is positive pressure from one of the engine compressor
stages. Although it is blowing, not sucking, the flow is arranged such that the rearward
movement of the engine bleed air creates a suction effect past the sensing element.

ERRORS

Air temperature gauges are subject to the following errors:

 Instrument error – imperfections in manufacture

 Environmental errors - solar heating of the probe

(overcome by shielding in the strut)

Ice accretion on the probe

(overcome by use of the heater)

 Heating error - adiabatic (compression) and kinetic

(friction) heating

Of these, by far the greatest is heating error – the effects of compression and kinetic heat.

26

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Temperature Measurement Chapter 2

HEATING ERROR – THE EFFECTS OF COMPRESSION AND KINETIC HEAT

Fig 2.8 The effect of speed on measured temperature

As aircraft speed increases, the measured temperature exceeds that of the still air. This is caused
by a combination of kinetic (friction) and adiabatic (compression) heating.

 Kinetic heating. Kinetic heating is the main contributor to the temperature rise effect in the
Direct Reading thermometer. As the speed increases, more and more molecules of air per
second impact against the flat plate at the front of the probe. This causes a temperature rise due
to friction.

 Adiabatic heating. Adiabatic heating is the main contributor to the temperature rise effect in
the Remote Reading (or Total Head) thermometer. It is caused by a conversion of energy, not a
direct application of heat. For example, boiling a kettle is a direct application of heat, whereas
pumping a bicycle pump causes a rise in temperature without any input of heat because pressure
energy is converted into temperature energy. In the Remote Reading temperature probe, the
outside airflow which may be several hundred knots is brought virtually to rest in the platinum
measurement chamber very rapidly. The energy of the moving air is released in the form of a
temperature rise.

There is a known relationship between the relative speed and the temperature rise. The laws of
thermodynamics are such that the combination of kinetic and adiabatic heating will always add
up to a figure known as the Total Ram Rise.

Unfortunately, any measurement process always has leaks and inefficiencies, so we do not
measure the full ram rise. The amount of ram rise actually sensed is called the Measured Ram
Rise. If we could measure the Total Ram Rise, we would measure the Total Air Temperature.
However, in practice, what we measure is the Ram Air Temperature, which is lower.

 Static Air Temperature (SAT). Sometimes written as Ts. SAT is the temperature of the
undisturbed air through which the aircraft is about to fly.

27

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 2 Air Temperature Measurement

 Total Air Temperature (TAT). Sometimes written as Tt. TAT is the maximum temperature
attainable by the air when brought to rest adiabatically.

 Ram Air Temperature (RAT). The RAT is the measured air temperature.

 Ram Rise. Ram rise is the difference between the SAT and the TAT (Total Ram Rise) or the
difference between the SAT and the RAT (Measured Ram Rise).

 Recovery Factor. The percentage of the Ram Rise sensed and recovered by a TAT probe is
called the Recovery Factor (usual symbol is Kr ).

RAM RISE – APPLICATION OF RECOVERY FACTOR

Assume an aircraft experiencing a SAT of -60ºC at a speed where the (theoretical) Total Ram
Rise would be 30ºC. Assume a Recovery Factor of 0.9.

SAT = -60°C

Total Ram Rise = +30°C

(Theeoretical) Total Air Temperature = -30°C

Recovery Factor = 0.9

Measured Ram Rise (+30 x 0.9) = +27°C

Ram Air Temperature = -33°C

The gauges would actually indicate the Ram Air Temperature of -33°C. A correction factor of
-27°C would be applied by one of several methods to give SAT.

Theoretically, uncorrected air temperature gauges give RAT, not TAT. However, in many
aircraft, the gauges are incorrectly labelled ‘TAT’.

SAT is sometimes called COAT (Corrected Outside Air Temperature)

TAT is sometimes called IOAT (Indicated Outside Air Temperature)

OAT on its own is usually taken to mean SAT.

SUMMARY

TAT = SAT + Ram Rise

IOAT = COAT + Ram Rise

(or OAT)

28

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Temperature Measurement Chapter 2

CORRECTION OF TAT/RAT TO SAT

The indicated RAT can be converted to SAT by the following methods:

 Rapid formula for use in the air

 CRP5 or similar Navigation Computer

 Accurate formula

 Data Tables

 Air Data Computer

RAPID FORMULA FOR USE IN THE AIR

This formula is a good simple approximation:

2
 v 
Ram Rise =  
 100 
where v = TAS in knots.

So, if TAS is 200 knots the ram rise is 4°C, if TAS is 300 knots the ram rise is 9°C, if TAS is 400
knots the ram rise is 16°C, and so on.

This formula should not be used in JAA exams because it is not quite as accurate as the CRP5
solution, but it is good enough for practical use in the air when a quick solution is required and
it is not convenient to find a Nav Computer or look up tables.

CRP5 OR SIMILAR NAVIGATION COMPUTER

On the slide rule face of the Navigation Computer there is a blue scale

Fig 2.9 Use of the blue scale for ram rise on the CRP-5

The outer side is TAS and the inner is Ram Rise. In the above example a TAS of 400 knots gives
a Ram Rise of 17°C.

29

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 2 Air Temperature Measurement

ACCURATE FORMULA
TAT
The accurate formula is: SAT =
1 + 0.2KrM²
where M = Mach Number

However, the formula assumes that temperature is quoted in degrees Absolute (°A), or Kelvins
(K).

THE ABSOLUTE, OR KELVIN, TEMPERATURE SCALE

When Celsius designed his temperature scale, he chose the boiling point of water as 100°C and
the freezing point of water as 0°C. This seemed reasonable, given the state of physics at the
time. However, the problem with the normal Celsius temperature scale is that it changes sign
at 0°C (the freezing point of water). Numbers above zero are positive whilst numbers below
are negative. But to measure the relative levels of hotness in objects in a meaningful way, we
should start from a baseline of absolute zero – no heat at all.

This occurs at -273°C on the Celsius scale. So -273°C is 0°A or 0 K on the Kelvin scale. One
Kelvin, or one degree Absolute, is the same amount of temperature change as one degree
Celsius. Therefore the freezing point of water occurs at 273 K, the boiling point of water at 373
K, and so on.

EXAMPLE OF CORRECTION FROM TAT TO SAT USING ACCURATE FORMULA

Assume the following:

Indicated TAT (actually RAT) = -20°C

Mach No = M 0.73 (typical cruise speed for a B737 in Long Range Cruise)

Recovery Factor = 0.98 (which is a typical value for a modern TAT probe)

Kr is determined by flight testing and is published in the operating instructions for the aircraft.

A TAT of -20ºC is 253 K. Substituting into our formula:

TAT
SAT =
1 + 0.2KrM²

253
SAT =
1 + (0.2 x 0.98 x 0.73²)
SAT = 253/ (1 + 0.1044)

SAT = 253/ 1.1044 = 229 K

229 K is -44°C on the Celsius scale.

30

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Temperature Measurement Chapter 2

Fig 2.10 Relationship between Celsius and Kelvin – TAT / SAT

This calculation, including Fig 2.10, is shown above. However, pilots do not perform these
mathematical calculations in flight. In older aircraft the information is produced in the form
of a table, as in Fig 2.11. In more modern aircraft, the solution is calculated by an Air Data
Computer.

DATA TABLES

Fig 2.11 is a TAT to SAT conversion table for a Boeing 737. You will see that if you enter with a
TAT of -20°C and go along to the M .73 column, the SAT is -44°C – the same answer that we got
from our full calculation.

AIR DATA COMPUTER

Any large airliner less than 20 years old or thereabouts will have an Air Data Computer. This
takes inputs of pitot, static, angle of attack and TAT and processes them to calculate airspeeds,
altitude, Mach Number, TAT and SAT. The SAT is therefore automatically computed.

31

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 2 Air Temperature Measurement

BOEING 737 TEMPERATURE CORRECTIONS

The table for converting indicated temperature to SAT for the Boeing 737 would be found in the
aircraft flight manual.

Fig 2.11 Boeing 737 corrections from TAT to SAT

32

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Temperature Measurement Chapter 2

FAHRENHEIT

The majority of the aviation world uses Centigrade, or Celsius, as a temperature scale but
Fahrenheit is still widely used in the USA. There are 9° of Fahrenheit temperature rise to
5°of the equivalent Celsius rise and zero on the Celsius scale is +32°F on the Fahrenheit scale.
There are formulae for conversion but, for simplicity in the JAA studies, use the temperature
conversion scale on the CRP5.

Fig 2.11 – Centigrade / Fahrenheit conversion Scale on CRP-5

33

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 2 Air Temperature Measurement

QUESTIONS

1. Converted into degrees Celsius, -40ºF is:

a. -56.5ºC
b. -40ºC
c. -20ºC
d. -108ºC

2. The difference between static air temperature and total air temperature is known as:

a. corrected outside air temperature

b. the total ram rise
c. the recovery factor
d. hot ramp radiation

3. A direct reading aircraft thermometer usually consists of a bimetallic helix protruding into the
airstream. Movement of the pointer over the temperature scale will depend upon:

a. difference in electrical resistance of the two metals

b. increase in pressure as airspeed increases
c. increase in adiabatic cooling as airspeed increases
d. different coefficients of expansion of the two metals

4. A remote reading thermometer depends on ………. to indicate changes in temperature:

a. change of electrical resistance of the two metals

b. change of electrical resistance with temperature
c. change of electrical resistance with pressure
d. change of electrical capacitance with temperature

5. Aircraft air temperature thermometers are shielded to protect them from:

a. radiation
b. accidental physical damage on the ground or hailstones in flight
c. airframe icing
d. kinetic heating

6. At a true airspeed of 500 knots, what is the ram rise?

a. 50ºC
b. 25ºC
c. 5ºC
d. 16ºC

7. An air temperature probe may be aspirated in order to:

a. prevent icing
b. measure air temperature on the ground
c. compensate for moisture level at the ramp position
d. reduce the effects of solar radiation

34

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Temperature Measurement Chapter 2

8. Total Air Temperature is:

a. the maximum temperature attainable by the air when brought to rest adiabatically
b. the temperature indicated on the air temperature thermometer plus the ram rise
c. the static air temperature minus the recovery factor
d. the recovery factor plus the ram rise

9. An aircraft is flying at Mach No 0.36. The TAT reads -5ºC. The recovery factor is 0.84. What is
the SAT?

a. -21ºC
b. -11ºC
c. -1ºC
d. -31ºC

10. Which of these formulae gives the total temperature (Tt) from the static temperature (Ts):

a. Tt = Ts(1 + 0.2 M2)

b. Tt = Ts(1 + 0.2 Kr M2)
c. Tt = Ts / (1 + 0.2 Kr M2)
d. Tt = Ts(1 - 0.2 M2)

35

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 2 Air Temperature Measurement

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS

1. b

2. b

3. d

4. b

5. a

6. b

7. b

8. a

9. b

10. b

36

Aviation ebooks Company

Pitot and Static Sources Chapter 3

CHAPTER THREE

PITOT AND STATIC PRESSURE SOURCES

Contents

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
PITOT/STATIC HEADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
REQUIREMENTS OF A PITOT TUBE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
REQUIREMENTS OF A STATIC SOURCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
POSITION ERROR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
ADVANTAGES OF THE STATIC VENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
HIGH SPEED PROBES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
MANOEUVRE-INDUCED ERROR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
FULL PITOT/STATIC SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
PITOT COVERS AND STATIC VENT PLUGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
PITOT AND STATIC HEATERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
PRE FLIGHT CHECKS OF THE PITOT/STATIC SYSTEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

37

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 3 Pitot and Static Sources

38

Aviation ebooks Company

Pitot and Static Sources Chapter 3

INTRODUCTION

An aircraft at rest on the ground in still air is subject to normal atmospheric pressure, which
bears equally on all parts of the aircraft. This ambient pressure is known as static pressure.
An aircraft in flight, whilst still subject to the static pressure at its flight level, experiences
an additional pressure on the leading edges due to the resistance of the air to the aircraft’s
movement.

This additional pressure is dynamic pressure, and its value depends on the speed of the aircraft
through the air and on the density of the air. The leading edges, therefore, encounter a total
pressure consisting of static plus dynamic pressures. This total pressure is also known as pitot
pressure.

It is not possible to isolate dynamic pressure by direct measurement because it cannot be

separated from the associated static pressure. The instruments which require dynamic pressure
therefore measure total (pitot) pressure and also static pressure and then subtract static from
pitot within the instrument to derive dynamic pressure.

PITOT (TOTAL) = STATIC + DYNAMIC

However, if we subtract static:

PITOT (TOTAL) = STATIC + DYNAMIC

STATIC = STATIC _­_

­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­__________________________________________________________
PITOT – STATIC = DYNAMIC

The following instruments require inputs of static and pitot:

Static Only Pitot and Static

Altimeter Air Speed Indicator (ASI)
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) Machmeter

Inside an aircraft, pressure and temperature are seldom the same as outside the aircraft so
pitot and static pressures must be sensed by devices mounted on the outside of the aircraft.

PITOT/STATIC HEADS

An open-ended tube parallel to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft is used to sense the total
pressure (static plus dynamic). This device is a ‘pitot tube’ mounted in a ‘pitot head’.

The open end of the tube faces into the moving airstream, the other end leading to the airspeed
capsules in the ASI and machmeter.

The moving airstream is thus brought to rest in the tube, so generating the extra (dynamic)
pressure which together with the static pressure already in the tube provides the required total
(pitot) pressure.

39

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 3 Pitot and Static Sources

A ‘static head’ consists of a tube with its forward

end sealed but with holes or slots cut in the
sides. These slots do not face into the airflow
and therefore, in theory, they sense only the
static pressure. In fact, of course, there will be a
suction effect and the sensed static pressure will
be slightly lower when the aircraft is moving.
This pressure supplies the static ‘line’ to the
pressure instruments. A pressure sensing system
consisting of separate pitot and static heads is
shown in Figure 3.1.

The static and pitot sources may be combined in

one ‘pressure head’, the static tube surrounding
Figure 3.1. Pitot and Static Heads. the pitot tube, with separate pressure lines
leading to the pressure instruments. Figure 3.2
illustrates an example of this type.

REQUIREMENTS OF A PITOT TUBE

The pitot tube must be positioned outside the boundary layer, so it usually consists of a head
on a strut if mounted on the side of the fuselage, or it can be a tube placed on the nose, ahead of
the fuselage. The opening must be designed to be parallel to the airflow in the normal flight
attitude.

The air can either be brought to rest in the pitot probe against a stagnation wall, which is simply
a pressure-measuring flat surface, and then transmitted up the pitot pipelines to the ASI and
Machmeter. Alternative, the pitot pressure can be passed directly up into the pitot pipelines to
the instruments, which is more usual in elementary aircraft.

Measurement of dynamic pressure is essential to safe flight. At too low a speed, the aircraft will
stall. At too high a speed it will be overstressed. The ASI is critical to flight safety and so it cannot
be allowed to block because of ice. An electric anti - icing heater coil is usually incorporated.
Any errors due to the heating effect may be reduced by design and calibration. However, if
water is drained, ice should not be able to form. Drain holes are therefore provided. These
will, of course, cause some loss of pressure, but this can be suitably calibrated and allowed for
in the design.

40

Aviation ebooks Company

Pitot and Static Sources Chapter 3

REQUIREMENTS OF A STATIC SOURCE

The static source, whether a simple hole or a combined probe, should have its opening at right
angles to the airflow, so that only static pressure is sensed, with no component of dynamic
pressure. Some static sensors, especially those in the combined pitot/static probe may be fitted
with electric heating.

Figure 3.2. A Combined Pitot/Static Figure 3.3. How Turbulence Affects

Pressure Head. the Value of Static Pressure

POSITION ERROR

As previously stated, if the aircraft has forward motion, the static pressure sensed will be
slightly lower than if the aircraft is stationary, due to suction. As the speed increases, due to
turbulent airflow in the region of the pitot/static heads, this error becomes greater. Turbulence
will also affect the pitot reading. The error involved is called Position Error (or alternatively
‘pressure’ error). At large angles of attack (which are usually associated with lower airspeeds)
the pressure head is inclined at an angle to the airstream so that position error is usually greater.
Flight manuals may list different values of position error for different flap settings.

Position error depends mainly on the positioning of the pressure head, the airspeed, and the
aircraft attitude. Turbulence produced in the airstream by the pressure head itself affects
the value of static pressure sensed rather than the pitot pressure because the turbulence is
downstream of the pitot opening. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 3.3.

Because of this, the Static Vent, was introduced

as a source of static pressure instead of the static
head, pitot pressure then being sensed by a
simple pitot head. A static vent separated from
the pitot head is shown in Figure 3.4.

There is usually some place on the airframe,

usually on the side of the fuselage, where true
(or nearly true) static pressure is obtained over
the whole speed range of the aircraft. A flat
metal plate is fitted at this position, the static line
from the pressure instruments terminating at a
small circular hole - the static vent - in this plate.
A similar vent is positioned on the opposite side
Figure 3.4. A Static Vent. of the fuselage and the two are interconnected

41

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 3 Pitot and Static Sources

for transmission of static pressure to the instruments so that errors produced by yawing
are largely eliminated.

ADVANTAGES OF THE STATIC VENT

• The airflow in the region of the vents is less turbulent and the static pressure measured is
more accurate.

• Errors produced when side slipping or yawing are reduced.

• Duplication of vents either side of fuselage reduces blockage errors.

HIGH SPEED PROBES

The shock waves associated with flight at high

mach numbers can produce significant errors
in pressure sensed by a static vent. Modern
high speed aircraft may accordingly be fitted
with a more sophisticated combined pitot/static
pressure head in order to keep position error
within acceptable limits. The choice of location
for a probe, or vent, is dependant upon the
Fig 3.5 A High Speed Pitot/Static Probe aerodynamics of the aircraft. Typical locations
are: ahead of a wing tip, under a wing, ahead of
the vertical stabiliser tip, at the side of the fuselage nose section, and ahead of the fuselage nose
section.

MANOEUVRE-INDUCED ERROR

Manoeuvre-induced errors are caused by short-term fluctuations of pressure at the static vents
and delays in the associated pipelines transmitting pressure changes to the instruments.

Even servo-altimeters and Air Data Computer systems suffer from this type of error as they
utilise the same static vents as the simple pressure instruments. Change in angle of attack, and
turbulence due to lowering (or raising ) flaps and landing gear are the prime causes of the error-
producing changes in airflow over the static vents.

Most commonly, manoeuvre-induced error appears as a marked lag in pressure instrument

indications.

The errors are usually more significant during changes of pitch attitude than during yawing
or rolling movements so that the worst effects are at the start of the climb or descent and on
levelling out.

Overshooting (referred to as go-around) and flight in rough air are particularly vulnerable.

The errors are unpredictable both in size and in sense so that pressure instruments cannot be
relied upon to indicate accurate instantaneous values or accurate rates of change.

42

Aviation ebooks Company

Pitot and Static Sources Chapter 3

This particularly applies to vertical speed indicators. In-flight manoeuvres should therefore
be carried out using gyroscopic instruments as the primary reference. A manoeuvre-induced
error may be present for some time after movement of the control surfaces has ceased, values
of three seconds at low altitude increasing to 10 seconds at 30,000 feet (longer for VSIs) being
quite common.

FULL PITOT/STATIC SYSTEM

The transmission from the probes to the instruments usually takes the form of pipelines in
elementary and older systems, but in modern aircraft it is usually carried by electrical wires.
Both pitot and static pipelines will have in-built water traps. Modern systems often have
electronic pressure transducers at the pitot and static sources with built-in error correction.
The measurement is analogue but analogue/digital interface units (A/D IFUs) convert it into
digital form for onward use. This may be to stand-alone pressure instruments but, more usually
in modern aircraft, it is to a device known as the air data computer. If it is in digital form, data
digital buses may be used for transmission instead of wires.

Pitot systems are not usually cross-coupled. The left pitot source goes to the left pitot instruments
and the right pitot source goes to the right pitot instruments. Modern flight instrumentation
systems may compare the outputs and give a warning in the event of a discrepancy in excess
of, say, 5 knots, but they do not cross-feed pitot pressure.

Static systems, however, are almost invariably cross-coupled. Both the left and the right static
system will have its own static vent on each side of the fuselage. Each static system will take an
input from its own left and right static vents and the mixed static pressure for that system will
pass up to the static instruments for that side. Large aircraft will also have a standby pair of
static vents (left and right) for the standby ASI and altimeter. (It is not normal to have a standby
VSI or Machmeter). Cross-coupling the left and right vents on these systems reduces error
caused by yawing and side-slipping.

For light aircraft, an alternate static source is normally provided in the event of the static head/
vents becoming blocked. The selector switch will be in the cabin.

The alternate static source may be to the outside of the aircraft or from inside the cabin (in
unpressurised aircraft only).

The alternate static pressure will be less accurate than the primary (blocked) static vent/head,
since that would have been in the optimum position. The alternate static pressure sensed is
likely to be lower than ambient due to aerodynamic suction. This is generally true whether the
alternate source is external or from within an unpressurised cabin. Instruments using static
are calibrated to take account of the pressure (position) error at their normal supply so, when
alternate (standby) pressure systems are used, correction values for the instruments concerned
may be found in the Operating Data Manual for the aircraft.

PITOT COVERS AND STATIC VENT PLUGS

Pitot and static openings are highly sensitive. Any dirt, dust and sand in them can distort their
measurements, often drastically. Also, as they tend to be warmer at night than the rest of the
aircraft, insects can be attracted to them as resting places. It is therefore necessary to cover them
when the aircraft is not in use.

Pitot covers are canvas or rubber closed tubes which fit over the outside of the pitot probe.

43

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 3 Pitot and Static Sources

Static plugs are usually made of rubber and are shaped like small corks. It is clearly essential
that they not are left in place in flight, therefore removing them is included in the pre-flight
external checks. They normally have a very conspicuous streamer or ribbon up to a metre long
attached to them to ensure that they are not overlooked.

PITOT AND STATIC HEATERS

All aircraft have pitot heaters and, on combined
pitot/static probes, the static opening will
consequentially receive some heating. Airliners
also have static heaters to reduce the risk of icing.
Modern systems have an alert warning if the
heaters are not switched on in flight.

It is essential to test the operation of the pitot

heater prior to flight. This can be done by
switching it on for about 30 seconds and carefully
feeling the pitot probe to check that it has got
warm. On other aircraft it may be possible to
check that on switching on there is a rise in the
ammeter current, or that the magnetic compass
is deflected. It should then be switched off again
so that it does not burn out. Make sure that the
pitot covers and static plugs are removed before
turning the heaters on to check them or you may
Figure 3.6. Emergency Static Source.
burn or melt them!

It is normally part of the pre-take-off checks to ensure that heaters switched on again and part
of the after-landing checks to switch them off.

PRE FLIGHT CHECKS OF THE PITOT/STATIC SYSTEM.

• All covers and plugs removed and stowed.

• All tubes, holes, slots free of obstructions

• Pitot head heater operating.

44

Aviation ebooks Company

Pitot and Static Sources Chapter 4

QUESTIONS

1. A pitot head is used to measure:

a. dynamic minus static pressure.

b. static plus dynamic pressure.
c. static pressure.
d. dynamic pressure.

2. A static vent is used to measure:

a. dynamic pressure minus static pressure.

b. dynamic pressure plus static pressure.
c. atmospheric pressure.
d. dynamic pressure.

3. A pressure head is subject to the following errors:

a. position, manoeuvre-induced, temperature.

b. position, manoeuvre-induced.
c. position, manoeuvre-induced, density.
d. position, manoeuvre-induced, instrument.

4. A pitot tube covered by ice which blocks the ram air inlet will affect the following
instruments(s):

a. airspeed indicator
b. altimeter only
c. vertical speed indicator only
d. airspeed indicator, altimeter and vertical speed indicator

5. Given:
Pt = total pressure
Ps = static pressure
Dynamic pressure is:

a. Pt – Ps
b. (Pt – Ps) / Pt
c. (Pt – Ps) / Ps
d. Pt / Ps

6. Given:
Pt = total pressure
Ps = static pressure
Pd = dynamic pressure

a. Pt = Pd + Ps
b. Pd = Pt + Ps
c. Ps = Pt + Pd
d. Pd = Pt / Ps

45

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 3 Pitot and Static Sources

7. Manoeuvre induced error:

a. is caused by transient pressure changes at static vents.

b. is likely to be greatest when yawing after engine failure.
c. is combined with instrument and position error on a correction card.
d. lasts for only a short time at high altitude.

8. Position error:

a. may be reduced by the fitting of static vents.

b. will usually decrease with an increase in altitude.
c. will depend solely on the attitude of the aircraft.
d. will usually decrease as the aircraft approaches the speed of sound.

9. Pressure heads supply data to the following instruments:

a. air data computers, compasses, altimeters, and ASI’s.

b. standby instruments only, when air data computers fitted.
c. altimeters, ASI’s, VSI’s, machmeters, air data computers.
d. all the above plus air driven gyros.

10. Fitting static vents to both sides of the aircraft fuselage will:

a. reduce the position error.

b. balance out errors caused by side slipping or yawing.
c. require a calibration card for each static vent.
d. enable a greater number of instruments to be fitted.

11. Which of the following instruments require inputs of both pitot and static pressure:

a. airspeed indicator, machmeter and vertical speed indicator.

b. airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator, altimeter.
c. airspeed indicator only.
d. airspeed indicator and machmeter.

12. Where an alternate static source is fitted, use of this source usually leads to:

a. a temporary increase in lag error.

b. a lower pressure error than with normal sources.
c. an increase in position error.
d. no change in position error

46

Aviation ebooks Company

Pitot and Static Sources Chapter 4

47

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 3 Pitot and Static Sources

ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS

1. b

2. c

3. d

4. a

5. a

6. a

7. a

8. a

9. c

10. b

11. d

12. c

48

Aviation ebooks Company

Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Chapter 4

CHAPTER FOUR

THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR

Contents

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
CONSTRUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
CALIBRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
A.S.I. DEFINITIONS AND ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Equivalent Air Speed (EAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
AIRSPEED INDICATOR ERRORS - APPLICATION OF CORRECTIONS . . . . . . . . 57
AIRSPEED INDICATOR ERRORS - APPLICATION OF CORRECTIONS . . . . . . . . 58
ASI COLOUR CODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
PITOT AND STATIC BLOCKAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
PITOT AND STATIC LEAKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
SERVICEABILITY CHECKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

49

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 4 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

50

Aviation ebooks Company

Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Chapter 4

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

An aircraft on the ground in still air is subject only to atmospheric (static) pressure (S).
However, in flight, the leading edges of an aircraft are subject to an additional (dynamic)
pressure. This results in a total (pitot) pressure (P) on the leading edges of dynamic pressure
plus static pressure.

Pitot = Dynamic + Static

The pitot head senses pitot pressure and the static/vent senses static pressure. These two
pressures are fed to the airspeed indicator, a differential pressure gauge, which measures
their difference (the dynamic pressure). Dynamic pressure is related to airspeed, because:-

Dynamic Pressure = ½ ρV2

where V is true airspeed (TAS) and ρ is the density of the surrounding air.

The ASI measures airspeed by measuring dynamic pressure, displaying the result (usually in
knots) on a suitably calibrated scale. (1 knot is 1 nautical mile per hour).

CONSTRUCTION.

It is therefore necessary to construct a device in which static pressure is subtracted from pitot
(total) pressure in order to isolate dynamic pressure. Dynamic pressure cannot be directly
measured; it must be established from the difference between pitot and static pressure.

Static pressure is fed into a hermetically-sealed instrument case, the pitot pressure being
piped to a thin metal capsule capable of expansion and contraction. The layout is shown in
Figure 4.1.
Static pressure is present on both the
inside and the outside of the metal walls of
the capsule and so cancels. Therefore the
pressure differential between the inside and
outside of the capsule is (Dy + S) - S which
is Dynamic. Expansion or contraction on
the capsule will therefore be proportional
to the changes in dynamic pressure
produced by changes of airspeed.

The capsule movements are transmitted by

a temperature-compensated magnifying
linkage to the pointer indicating airspeed
on the face of the ASI.

Figure 4.2. A Functional Diagram of an Air

Figure 4.1 A Functional ASI
Speed Indicator.

CALIBRATION

However, dynamic pressure depends not only on the speed of the aircraft but also on the air
density.

51

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 4 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

This density varies with temperature and pressure and therefore with altitude. The ASI is
calibrated to read true airspeed for the air density of 1225 grammes per cubic metre which
would be produced by the ISA MSL pressure of 1013.25 mb and temperature + 15°C (dry air
conditions). No allowance is made in the calibration for the change in density which occurs
with change of altitude.

It follows that even if there were no other errors, the ASI could only indicate TAS when ISA
MSL air density existed at the flight level, that is to say when the aircraft was flying in air
having a density of 1225 grammes per cubic metre. This density value can only be found at or
close to sea level (depending on how much the actual conditions deviate from standard).

A.S.I. DEFINITIONS AND ERRORS

Indicated Air Speed (IAS). The reading on the ASI dial, as seen by the pilot, before any
corrections or compensations, is known as the Indicated Air Speed.

Instrument Error. Manufacturing imperfections and usage result in small errors which are
determined on the ground under laboratory conditions by reference to a datum instrument.

A correction card can be produced for the speed range of the instrument.

Position Error. Alternatively known as ‘pressure’ error, this arises mainly from the sensing of
incorrect static pressure, and is described more fully in the section entitled Pressure Heads.

Position errors throughout the speed range are determined by the aircraft manufacturer
during the test flying programme for a particular aircraft type.

It is not unusual to compile a joint correction card for position and instrument errors and
place it in the aircraft near the ASI concerned.

Manoeuvre-Induced Errors. These are associated chiefly with manoeuvres involving change
in angle of attack, giving transient errors and a lag in the indication of changes in airspeed.

Calibrated Air Speed (CAS). The pilot corrects the IAS for Instrument and Position Error
from the correction card to give Calibrated Air Speed (CAS). For instance, for a combined
correction of +2, if the pilot wants a speed of 100 knots CAS, he flies at 98 knots IAS. Calibrated
Air speed is also known in some older publications (and on the Pooley CRP-5 Navigation
Computer) as Rectified Air Speed (RAS). However, this term is no longer in general use.

CAS is IAS corrected for Instrument and Position (Pressure) Error.

Aircraft stress and stall limits are determined by Dynamic Pressure, not speed. There are
quoted limiting ‘speeds’ to avoid overstress or control problems with the aircraft as a whole,
and also to avoid overstress of various services such as flaps and undercarriage. In addition,
there are also stall ‘speeds’ for various configurations. These are functions of Dynamic
Pressure. As pressures, they could be quoted in Bars, PSI or Pascals. They are not speeds.
However, because the ASI is calibrated in ‘knots’ (even though this is only a true speed for
a specific air density), Dynamic Pressure is measured in knots of CAS. CAS will be equally
valid as a measure of stall or stress limits whatever the aircraft’s true air speed or altitude
and whatever the air density. The output of Simple ASIs is therefore in IAS and that of Air
Data Computers is IAS or, in those with a computed correction for Instrument and Pressure
Error, it is CAS. This is in order to allow pilots to be able to fly their aircraft safely without
overstressing or stalling them. (Air Data Computers calculate and indicate speed, altitude,
temperature and other air parameters).

52

Aviation ebooks Company

Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Chapter 4

However, pilots also need to know their TAS for navigation.

Density Error. Unless the air round the aircraft is at the calibration density of 1225 grammes
per cubic metre, which can only occur near sea level, the ASI cannot correctly indicate TAS.
Dynamic pressure is proportional to density, and so at altitude, where density is less, the
dynamic pressure generated by a given TAS will be less than for the same TAS in flight at sea
level. ASI capsule expansion will therefore be proportionately less and the speed indicated
will be less than the true speed.

Summarising, the ASI under-reads the true speed at altitude as density is less that 1225
grammes/cu metre, this discrepancy being called ‘density error’. If the density is greater than
ISA at MSL, the ASI will over read the true speed.

There is no single instrument that gives a direct reading of density. Density has to be calculated
using the interaction of pressure and temperature. However, pressure is a function of altitude.
By combining altitude and temperature information, the density correction is derived by the
navigational computer. The major factor in the density calculation is the pressure value.

This computation allows for the height of the aircraft above the calibration 1013.25 mb pressure
level (which should be set on the altimeter subscale) and also for temperature deviation from
standard conditions.

Take the following example:

CAS = 100 knots 20,000 feet SAT = -25°C (SAT is sometimes called Corrected
Outside Air Temperature or COAT)

On the Navigation Computer, we

have the 4 windows marked AIR
SPEED, COMP CORR, ALTITUDE
and DENSITY ALTITUDE.

Figure6.3
Figure 4.2 CRP-5
CRP-5 Windows
Windows

53

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 4 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

In the AIR SPEED window, align 20,000 feet

(shown as 20)
against -25°C.

This has altered the position of the inner scale

relative to the outer scale. You have aligned
them up in the ratio CAS (inner scale) to TAS
(outer scale).

Figure4.3
Figure 6.4Align
Align FL200
20,000 feetwith
with-25°C
-25°C

Now, with CAS on the inner scale against

TAS on the outer scale, find 100 knots CAS
(shown as 10) on the inner scale and read off
136 knots TAS on the outer scale.

Figure 4.4 CAS (inner scale) against

TAS (outer scale)
Figure 6.6 Set 18,000 ft against -30°C
Compressibility Error. Air is compressible and the pressure produced in the pitot tube is
higher than it would be for an ideal incompressible fluid, for which the dynamic pressure is
½ρV2.

The ASI is calibrated to allow for this complex compressible flow formula assuming a density
of 1225 gm/cu metre. If the density is any lower, the standard correction for compressibility
will be in error.

Because of this, the instrument will over-read, IAS and CAS will be too high, and a subtractive
compressibility correction will have to be applied

The correction, which exceeds 20 knots if TAS is near the speed of sound, can be obtained
from graphs or tables, or it can be applied by high speed navigation computers.

If the TAS is less than 300 knots the error is small enough to be ignored in the calculation of
TAS from IAS.

54

Aviation ebooks Company

Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Chapter 4

Example: Flight Level 350, COAT = -47°C, CAS = 280 knots. What is TAS?

Start by calculating TAS from CAS in the

usual way.

In the AIR SPEED window, set FL 350

against -47°C.

Figure6.8
Figure 4.5 FL370
FL370 against
against-47°C
-47°C

Find 280 knots CAS on the inner scale.

Now read off the value on the outer scale

(500 knots TAS).

This is more than 300 knots TAS. So how

do we correct for compressibility?

Under the COMP CORR window you will

see the equation here:

TAS - 3 DIV
100 Figure 4.6 280 KCAS against 500 KTAS
Figure 6.9 280 KCAS against 500 KTAS
Divide the initial TAS (500 in this case) by 100
and subtract 3.

500 - 3 = 2.0
100

Now, in the COMP CORR window, move the arrow 2 divisions to the left.

55

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 4 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

From here:

Figure
Figure 4.7 The
6.10 TheCOMP
COMPCORR
CORRWindow
Window
To here:

This has moved the inner scale to the left,

altering the relationship of CAS to TAS,
correcting it for compressibility.

Now read off the new value of TAS on

the outer scale corresponding to 280
knots CAS on the inner scale.

This gives a revised TAS of 480 knots.

Figure6.11
Figure 4.8 Index
Indexmoved
movedto to
thethe
leftleft

Figure 4.9 TAS

Figure 6.12 TAScorrected
correctedfor
forcompressibility
compressibility

56

Aviation ebooks Company

Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Chapter 4

Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)

Whenever Density Error is present, Compressibility Error exists. It is possible to correct CAS
just for Compressibility Error without correcting for Density Error. The resultant dynamic
pressure is the called Equivalent Air Speed (EAS).

Equivalent Air Speed is CAS corrected for Compressibility Error only.

EAS is the most accurate value of dynamic pressure. It has been corrected for Instrument,
Pressure and Compressibility error, all of which are forms of measurement error. EAS is the
most accurate measure of the dynamic pressure over the wing. In practice the difference
between EAS and CAS is not great unless altitude becomes significant. However, at high
elevation airports, particularly with high-performance airliners which may have high take-off
and landing speeds, CAS (and therefore IAS) is higher for the same EAS.

At constant weight, regardless of altitude, an aircraft always lifts off at a constant EAS.

AIRSPEED INDICATOR ERRORS - APPLICATION OF CORRECTIONS

Fig 4.10 is a breakdown of the corrections to the airspeed indicator (ASI) and the order in
which they are applied.

What you see on the instrument is called Indicated Air Speed (IAS). Instrument Error and
Pressure (or Position) Error are then applied to give Calibrated Air Speed (CAS). This is the
more modern and generally accepted term, but many documents use the older term Rectified
Air Speed (RAS). The corrections are applied by use of a correction card usually stuck beside
the instrument.

In practice, we do not have separate cards for the Instrument Error and the Pressure Error. It
is simpler to combine both corrections onto a single card. IAS is therefore corrected for both
Instrument and Pressure Error by the correction card, to give CAS.

Strictly speaking, CAS is then corrected for compressibility error to give Equivalent Air
Speed (EAS), to allow for the fact that the density of air is rarely precisely 1225 grams per
cubic metre, which is the value for which the ASI is calibrated. (The ISA atmosphere at Mean
Sea Level). In practice, as an airline pilot, you are unlikely to deal with EAS and it is rarely
encountered outside scientific and test flying. The ASI is already calibrated to allow for
compressibility at ISA at MSL and, under those conditions, no compressibility correction
is necessary. Compressibility correction is small at True Air Speeds (TAS) lower than 300
knots and no correction is considered necessary.

You will therefore always calculate the Density Error Correction first to give True Air Speed
(TAS). If the TAS you find is 300 knots or less, no further correction is necessary. If the TAS is
greater than 300 knots, Compressibility Error correction must be applied.

57

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 4 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

AIRSPEED INDICATOR ERRORS - APPLICATION OF CORRECTIONS

Figure 4.10 Sequence of ASI Error Correction

58

Aviation ebooks Company

Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Chapter 4

ASI COLOUR CODING

Some ASI’s incorporate coloured markings on the dial - these ‘range markings’ consist of
coloured arcs and radial lines.

Figure 4.11 Coloured ARCS on ASI

The White Arc denotes the flap operating range, from stall at maximum AUW in the landing
configuration (full flap, landing gear down, wings level, power-off) up to VFE (maximum
flaps extended speed).

The Green Arc denotes the normal operating speed range, from stall speed at maximum all-
up weight (flaps up, wings level) up to VNO ( ‘normal operating limit speed’ or ‘maximum
structural cruising speed’ ) which should not be exceeded except in smooth air. Operations at
IASs in the green arc should be safe in all conditions, including turbulence.

The Yellow Arc denotes the caution range, which extends from VNO (normal operating limit
speed) up to VNE (the never exceed speed). The aircraft should be operated at IASs in the
caution range only in smooth air.

A Red Radial Line denotes VNE, the never exceed speed.

59

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 4 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

Optionally for piston engined light twins:

A blue radial line denotes the best rate of climb speed for one engine out, maximum weight,
at mean sea level (VYSE)).

A red radial line denotes the minimum airborne asymmetric control speed at maximum
weight (VMCA).

Limiting Speeds

Some are usually shown on the ASI

Vso = The stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration.

Vs1 = The stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in a specified configuration.

VFE = The maximum Flap Extension speed

VNO = The maximum normal operating limit speed.

VNE = The Never Exceed speed

VYSE = best rate of climb speed for one engine out, maximum weight, at mean sea level
(2-engined aircraft)

VMCA = minimum airborne asymmetric control speed at maximum weight

The following are also important, but are not shown on the ASI

VLO = The maximum Landing Gear Operation speed (up or down).

VLE = The maximum speed Landing Gear Extended speed

ASI ACCURACY TOLERANCE - (JAR 25) - + 3% or 5 Kts whichever is the greater.

PITOT AND STATIC BLOCKAGES

Pitot Head. If the pitot head becomes blocked, the ASI reading will, in general, remain
unchanged.

In level cruise, a blockage (probably ice, but possibly insects) will lock in the previous pitot
pressure and any change in actual airspeed will not be registered.

If altitude is changed with a blocked pitot head and clear static source, the IAS will decrease
during a descent because the pressure locked inside the capsule remains constant while the
static pressure of the air surrounding the capsule increases. Therefore (pitot – static) results in
an under-reading. Conversely the IAS increases during a climb with blocked head.

With a blocked pitot source, the ASI under-reads in a decent.

Static Head. A static head is more exposed to icing conditions and is therefore more likely to
become obstructed than is a static vent.

A blocked static source during descent will mean that the ‘old’ (higher altitude) static pressure
surrounding the capsule will be lower than it should be, so that if the pitot supply is normal

60

Aviation ebooks Company

Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Chapter 4

the ASI will over-read. This could be dangerous in that the aircraft is nearer the stall than the
ASI is indicating.

Note that a climb with blocked static source and normal pitot air will result in the ASI under-
reading.

With a blocked static source, the ASI over-reads in a decent.

If the alternative static source is selected an error may occur. This error will be due to position
error. Any dynamic, or turbulence, effects would usually result in a higher static pressure and
thus produce an under-reading. This error is known and would be documented in the Flight
Manual.

Blockages – Summary. A useful mnemonic for examinations is PUDSOD, which stands for
‘Pitot blocked – under-reads in descent : Static blocked – over-reads in descent.’ Examiners
sometimes set questions in which, with a pitot blockage ‘the ASI acts in the same sense as an
altimeter’ ie, the indicated speed reduces as the altitude reduces. Conversely, with a static
blockage ‘the ASI acts in the opposite sense to an altimeter’ ie, the indicated speed increases as
the altitude reduces.

PITOT AND STATIC LEAKS

Pitot Leaks. A leak in the pitot tube causes the ASI to under-read because of the loss of
dynamic pressure.

Static Leaks. Static Leaks can occur either inside or outside the pressure cabin. A leak in
the static tube where the outside pressure is lower than static, which occurs with almost all
unpressurised aircraft, will cause the ASI to over-read, but probably not significantly. With a
pressurized cabin, if the leak occurs within the pressure compartment, the cabin altitude will
be incorrectly sensed as static pressure, usually rendering the ASI useless.

SERVICEABILITY CHECKS

The following checks of the ASI and pressure supply system should be made before flight:-

 Pressure head cover(s) and static vent plug(s) removed and stowed aboard the aircraft.

 Pitot tube(s), holes/slots in static head(s) and/or static vent(s) should be checked free from
obvious obstructions such as insects.

 Pitot head heater operative (if fitted).

 Dial glass clean and undamaged.

 The instrument should indicate airspeed in the correct sense shortly after starting the take-off
run.

61

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 4 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

QUESTIONS

1. A leak in the pitot total pressure line of a non-pressurized aircraft to an airspeed indicator
would cause it to:

a. over-read in a climb and under-read in a descent

b. over-read
c. under-read in a climb and over-read in a descent
d. under-read

2. A pitot blockage of both the ram air input and the drain hole with the static port open causes
the airspeed indicator to:

a. read a little low

b. read a little high
c. react like an altimeter
d. freeze at zero

3. If the static line to the ASI becomes blocked during a long descent, a dangerous situation
could arise due to the ASI:

a. overreading, this indicated speed falsely showing the aircraft to be further from the
stalling speed than it actually is.
b. underreading, this indicated speed falsely showing the aircraft to be closer to the
stalling speed than it actually is.
c. underreading, this indicated speed possibly leading to the operation of flaps and/or
landing gear at speeds in excess of safety speeds.
d. overreading, this indicated speed possibly leading to the operation of flaps and/or
landing gear at speeds in excess of safety speeds.

4. An aircraft maintaining a constant CAS and altitude is flying from a cold airmass into warmer
air. The effect of the change of temperature on the speed will be:

a. CAS will decrease.

b. EAS will increase.
c. TAS will increase.
d. TAS will decrease.

5. The airspeed indicator is calibrated to:

a. conditions of the International Standard Atmosphere.

b. conditions of the International Standard Atmosphere at MSL.
c. an air density of 1013.25 gms/m3.
d. indicate correctly in any atmosphere.

6. Dynamic pressure is equal to:

a. ½ ρv 2
b. ½ vρ2
c. (½ ρv)2
d. ½ ( ρv)2

62

Aviation ebooks Company

Airspeed Indicator (ASI) Chapter 4

7. Excluding blockages, the full list of errors of the ASI is:

a. instrument error, position error, density error, manoeuvre induced error.

b. instrument error, position error, temperature error, compressibility error, manoeuvre
induced error.
c. instrument error, position error, barometric error, temperature error, lag, manoeuvre
induced error.
d. instrument error, position error, density error, compressibility error, manoeuvre
induced error.

8. Some ASIs have coloured arcs and lines marked on their dials. A yellow arc and a white arc
indicate:

a. cautionary range and normal operating range.

b. flap operating speed range and normal operating range.
c. cautionary range and flap operating speed range.
d. flap operating speed range and cautionary range.

9. If the static line to the ASI becomes blocked during a climb, the ASI reading will:

a. increase, no matter what the actual airspeed is.

b. progressively under indicate the value of airspeed.
c. progressively over indicate the value of airspeed.
d. stick at the airspeed showing at the moment of blockage.

10. Complete the following table:

Pressure
CAS SAT(ºC) TAS
Altitude
140 10000 -10
175 8000 +5
220 15000 -22
300 30000 -40
180 12500 -25
165 9000 +7
163 11000 +10
295 31000 -53
160 12000 -10
260 35000 -45

63

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 4 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

ANSWERS

1. d

2. c

3. a

4. c

5. b

6. a

7. d

8. c

9. b

10.
Pressure
CAS SAT(ºC) TAS
Altitude
162
140 10,000 -10
200
175 8,000 +5
273
220 15,000 -22
472
300 30,000 -40
212
180 12,500 -25
193
165 9,000 +7
199
163 11,000 +10
460
295 31,000 -53
192
160 12,000 -10
450
260 35,000 -45

64

Aviation ebooks Company

Pressure Altimeter Chapter 5

CHAPTER FIVE

THE PRESSURE ALTIMETER

Contents
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
CALIBRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
SIMPLE ALTIMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
SENSITIVE ALTIMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
READING ACCURACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
EXAMPLES OF ALTIMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
SERVO-ASSISTED ALTIMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
ALTIMETER ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
BLOCKAGES AND LEAKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
SOME DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
TEMPERATURE ERROR CORRECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
MORE DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
DENSITY ALTITUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
PRE-FLIGHT ALTIMETER CHECKS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

65

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 5 Pressure Altimeter

66

Aviation ebooks Company

Pressure Altimeter Chapter 5

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The pressure altimeter is a simple, reliable, pressure gauge calibrated to indicate height. The
pressure at a point depends on the weight of the column of air which extends vertically upwards
from the point to the outer limit of the atmosphere.

The higher an aircraft is flying, the shorter is the column of air above it and consequently the
lower is the atmospheric pressure at the aircraft.

In other words, the greater the height, the lower the pressure, and by measuring the pressure
the altimeter measures height.

Unfortunately, the relationship between pressure and height is not a linear one, so that calibration
of the altimeter scale is not a simple matter.

The situation is further complicated by high and low pressure weather systems which produce
pressure differences in the horizontal plane. Furthermore, the temperature of the air at the
surface and the temperature lapse rate in the air above vary considerably; this affects pressure.

The theory of the atmosphere is explained fully in book 9 - Meteorology.

CALIBRATION

With all these variables it becomes necessary to assume certain average or ‘standard’ conditions,
base the calibration formulae on these, and then apply corrections appropriate to the deviations
from standard conditions which occur with position and time.

The conditions used for calibration are usually those assumed for the:

International Standard Atmosphere

ISA

The relevant assumptions are:

At mean Sea Level

Pressure 1013.25 millibars Temperature +15°C Density 1225gm/m3

From MSL up to 11 km (36,090 feet)
Temperature falling at 6.5°C per km (1.98°C/1000 feet)

From 11 km to 20 km (65,617 feet)

A constant temperature of - 56.5°C

From 20 km to 32 km (104, 987 feet)

Temperature rising at 1°C per km (0.3°/1000 feet).

With these assumptions, the pressure corresponding to any given level in the ISA can be
calculated from the calibration formulae.

Graphs or tables can be produced showing height in terms of pressure under standard conditions.
These tables can be used for the manufacturer’s calibration of the altimeter scale.

67

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 5 Pressure Altimeter

Basically, the laboratory calibration consists of applying a series of pressures to the altimeter
and checking that the instrument indicates the respective levels which correspond to these
pressures in the ISA.

Any discrepancies, if within certain agreed tolerances, would be listed over the operating height
ranges as instrument errors. (The calibration is carried out with increasing and decreasing
readings so that the amount of lag at calibration conditions can be determined).

Note: 1 The Pressure Altimeter is calibrated to give a Linear Presentation of the Non-linear Atmospheric
distribution. This is achieved by the use of a variable magnification lever system and the dynamic design
of the capsules.

Note 2: Temperature compensation is achieved by the use of a bi-metal compensator connected in the
lever/linkage system.

Note 3: 1013.25 mb/hPa = 29.92”Hg = 14.7 psi

SIMPLE ALTIMETER

A = STATIC PRESSURE
D
B = CAPSULE

C = LEAF SPRING
C
D = MECHANICAL LINKAGE

E E = SETTING KNOB
B

A
Figure 5.1 Simple Altimeter
Static pressure is fed into the case of the instrument from the static source. As height increases,
static pressure decreases and the capsule expands under the control of a leaf spring. A
mechanical linkage magnifies the capsule expansion and converts it to a rotational movement
of a single pointer over the height scale. The linkage incorporates a temperature-compensating
device to minimise errors caused by expansion and contraction of the linkage and changes in
spring tension due to fluctuations in the temperature of the mechanism.

Figure 5.1. shows the basic linkage, but the actual arrangements are much more complex.

The simple altimeter has a setting knob which is geared to the pointer. With this knob the
pointer can be set to read zero with the aircraft on the ground so that when airborne the
altimeter indicates approximate height above aerodrome level. Alternatively the pointer can
be set (before flight) to the aerodrome elevation so that when airborne the instrument shows
approximate height above mean sea level.

68

Aviation ebooks Company

Pressure Altimeter Chapter 5

SENSITIVE ALTIMETER

TEMPERATURE COMPENSATED 'D' SPRING POINTERS

A SUITABLE
CAPSULES
LINKAGE OF
GEARS AND
LEVERS
The Single Pointer Single
Altimeter was not accurate
enough, and was developed
SUB into the Sensitive Altimeter
SCALE illustrated in Figure 5.2.

SUB-SCALE
SETTING KNOB
STATIC

Figure 5.2 Sensitive Altimeter

Figure 5.2. A Schematic Diagram of a Sensitive
Altimeter.
The principle of operation is similar to that of the simple altimeter but there are the following
refinements:-

 A bank of two or three capsules gives the increased movement necessary to

drive three pointers. These are geared 100:10:1, the smallest indicating 100,000
feet per revolution, the next 10,000 feet per revolution and the largest 1,000 feet
per revolution.

 Jewelled bearings are fitted, reducing friction and the associated lag in
indications.

Note: Some altimeter systems employ “Knocking / Vibrating” devices to help overcome initial inertia
of the internal gear train when transmitting movement from the capsules to the pointers.

 A variable datum mechanism is built in. This, with the aid of a setting knob,
enables the instrument to be set to indicate height above any desired pressure
datum.

The variable datum mechanism is used as follows:-

The pilot turns the knob until the desired pressure level (say, 1005 mb. appears on a pressure
sub-scale on the face of the instrument.

As he turns the knob, the height pointers rotate until, when the procedure is completed with
the sub-scale showing the desired 1005, the altimeter indicates the aircraft's height above this
pressure level.

If for instance the aerodrome level pressure happened to be 1005 mb, the altimeter would be
reading height above the aerodrome (and the pilot would have set a ‘QFE’ of 1005 on the sub-
scale). Further details of the procedural uses of the pressure sub-scale are given later in this
chapter. The sub-scale setting only changes when the pilot turns the knob. A change in altitude
or surface pressure has no direct effect on the reading of the sub-scale. As the pilot alters the
sub-scale setting, the altimeter pointers move, but the design of the mechanism is such that
the reverse does not apply (for example, during a climb, the pointers rotate but the sub-scale
setting remains unchanged). British altimeters have a sub-scale setting range between 800 to
1050 millibars.

69

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 5 Pressure Altimeter

READING ACCURACY

The simple altimeter is not sensitive, recording

perhaps 20,000ft for each revolution of its single
0 pointer. The three-pointer instrument gives a
9 much more sensitive indication of height and
change of height but suffers from the severe
8 2 disadvantage that it can be easily misread.

It is not difficult for the pilot to make a reading

7 3 error of 10,000ft, particularly during a rapid
descent under difficult conditions with a high
flight-deck work-load.
6 4
5 Accidents have occurred as a result of such
misreading. Various modifications to the
pointers and warning systems have been tried
with the object of preventing this error, including
a striped warning sector which appears as the
Figure 5.3. A Three Pointer aircraft descends through the 16,000 foot level.
Figure 5.3 Three Pointer Altimeter
Indicating 24,020 feet.
Indicating 24,020 ft

The greatest advance has been the introduction of

the counter-pointer altimeter, illustrated in Figure
5.4., which gives a much more positive indication
than the three-pointer dial drawn in Figure 5.3.
2 4 0 20
With further reference to Figure 5.4., it will be
realised that though the digital counters give an
unambiguous indication of the aircraft’s height,
they give a relatively poor display of the rate of
change of height.
1013 For this reason the instrument also has a single
pointer which makes one revolution per 1000
feet, giving the clear indication of change of
height which is extremely important to the pilot,
particularly on the final approach in instrument
Figure 5.4. A Counter Pointer conditions.
Figure 5.4 Counter / Pointer Altimeter
Altimeter.

70

Aviation ebooks Company

Pressure Altimeter Chapter 5

EXAMPLES OF ALTIMETERS

A Sensitive Altimeter Reading 260ft

Altimeter Reading
12,8500 ft or
3,917 m

Electronic Display fitted to a Boeing 737

Fig 5.5 Altimeter Types

71

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 5 Pressure Altimeter

SERVO-ASSISTED ALTIMETERS

Though at least one counter-pointer altimeter driven directly by pressure capsules has been
produced, most instruments of the type are servo-assisted. This servo-assistance not only
gives the altimeter an increased operating range but also improves the instrument accuracy,
particularly at high levels.

At high altitude the change in pressure corresponding to a given change in height is much
smaller than at low altitude.

This means that for a given height change, capsule movement at high altitude is relatively
small, and frictional resistance in the linkage of an unassisted altimeter causes correspondingly
greater errors and more lag. With servo-assistance, the requisite power is available to overcome
the frictional resistance with consequently enhanced instrument accuracy.

The principle of the servo-altimeter is that the small movements of the capsules are detected by
a very sensitive electro-magnetic pick-off. This produces an electric current which is amplified
and used to drive a motor which rotates the counters and pointer.

CAPSULES
AMP
A

A.C.
EXCITER
CURRENT
SERVO
MOTOR
AND B
GEARBOX

WORM DRIVE
MECHANISM

INDICATORS CAM
MECHANISM STATIC

Figure 5.5. A Schematic Diagram of a Servo-Assisted Altimeter.

Figure 5.6 Servo Assisted Altimeter Schematic

AC is fed to the middle leg of the E bar, setting up alternating magnetic fields in the outer legs
‘A’ and ‘B’.

The coils on these two legs are wound 180° out of phase. The exciter therefore induces a current
in each leg, but since these are 180° out of phase and of equal strength , they cancel each other
out when the I bar is equidistant from the legs of the E bar (that is when no pressure change acts
on the capsules).

72

Aviation ebooks Company

Pressure Altimeter Chapter 5

With a change of pressure the capsules expand or contract, moving the I bar on its pivot, closing
the gap between the I Bar and E Bar at one end and opening it at the other.

This causes an imbalance of magnetic fields and therefore of the currents induced in the ‘A’
and ‘B’ coils . The imbalance causes an error signal which is passed to the amplifier, where it is
amplified and rectified, and thence to the servo motor.

The servo motor drives the counter-pointer system of the altimeter and at the same time, via a
cam drive, re-aligns the E Bar with the I Bar.

Once re-aligned, the error signal ceases and the altimeter indicates the correct height.
In this system the only work required of the capsules is to move the I Bar, eliminating the effects
of friction and manufacturing imperfections in the gearing of a conventional altimeter.

This type of altimeter is sensitive to very small pressure changes and therefore more accurate
than the sensitive altimeter, particularly at high altitudes where pressure changes (per unit
height increment) are very small. The lag experienced in other types of altimeter with rapid
changes of height is greatly reduced.

The normal instrument error is approximately equivalent to the effect of 1 mb change of pressure
(about 30 ft at msl, 50 ft at 20,000 ft, or 100 ft at 40,000 ft).

The tolerance at MSL (JAR - 25) is + 30ft per 100 kts CAS

A further development in the indication of vertical position comes with the Air Data Computer
(ADC) installed in many transport aircraft.

The ADC provides (among other things) an electrical output proportional to static pressure
which can be used to drive a counter-pointer altimeter, the previously required altimeter
pressure capsules being dispensed with, unless a standby capability is required.

TOLERANCES

These values are for example only, and do not have to be learnt.

Typical Simple Altimeter (range zero to 35,000 feet)

Height (feet) 0 35,000

Tolerance (feet) +100 + 1,000

Typical Sensitive Altimeter (range zero to 80,000 feet)

Height (feet) 0 40,000 80,000

Tolerance (feet) +70 + 600 + 1,500

Typical Servo Altimeter (range zero to 100,000 feet)

Height (feet) 0 40,000 60,000 100,000

Tolerance (feet) +30 + 100 + 300 + 4,000

73

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 5 Pressure Altimeter

ALTIMETER ERRORS

The errors which affect altimeters are many and the extent of some of them varies with altimeter
type. Much effort is expended on improving instrument accuracy, and the permissible tolerances
of modern altimeters are smaller than with earlier types.

There are other errors caused by deviation of the actual atmosphere from standard conditions,
and also the difficulty in sensing correctly the outside air pressure. A list of the main errors
follows.

Time Lag
With many types of altimeter the response to change of height is not instantaneous. This causes
the altimeter to under-read in a climb and over-read in a descent. The lag is most noticeable
when the change in altitude is rapid and prolonged. In the laboratory calibration of the sensitive
altimeter, the lag between increasing readings and decreasing readings should not exceed 150
feet. With servo-assisted altimeters there is said to be no appreciable lag unless the rate of
change of height exceeds 10,000 feet per minute. This is because the servo-altimeter does not
suffer from the linkage friction which causes a much larger error in the sensitive altimeter.

Instrument Error
Manufacturing imperfections, including friction in the linkage, cause errors throughout the
operating range. The errors are kept as small as possible by adjustments within the instrument,
and the calibration procedure ensures that they are within permitted tolerances. Residual errors
may be listed on a correction card.

Note: With the sensitive altimeter the error increases with altitude, which also explains why the decrease
of accuracy with altitude is less serious with the servo-altimeter.

Position (or Pressure) Error

This is largely due to the inability to sense the true static pressure outside the aircraft, as
described in the chapter on Pressure Heads. The error is usually small but increases at high mach
numbers (and, consequently, at high altitudes usually associated with high mach numbers).
Altimeters driven by an Air Data Computer (ADC) may have their accuracy improved by the
ADC automatically correcting its static output signal for position error.

Manoeuvre-Induced Error
This is caused by transient fluctuations of pressure at the static vent during change of, mainly,
pitch attitude and delays in the transmission of pressure changes due to viscous and acoustic
effects in the static pipeline. This is discussed more fully in Chapter 2 dealing with Pressure
Heads.

Barometric Error
Providing the altimeter has a pressure sub-scale, and the local QNH is set on it, the altimeter
will indicate height AMSL (though still subject to the other errors). If the local surface pressure
has changed since the QNH value was set, a ‘barometric’ error of roughly 30 feet per millibar
will result. If pressure has fallen the altimeter over-reads.

Example Problem
Exam questions sometimes include the term ‘height involved’. This complicates matters. Think
carefully when answering.

An aircraft flies from ‘A’ to ‘B’ at a constant indicated altitude of 10,000 feet with the QNH ‘A’
of 1025 mb set on the sub-scale THROUGHOUT THE FLIGHT. On arrival overhead ‘B’, where
the QNH is 995 mb, what will be the true altitude (assuming that there are no other errors, and
assuming that 1 mb corresponds to 30 feet)?

74

Aviation ebooks Company

Pressure Altimeter Chapter 5

AIRCRAFT
OVERHEAD
POSITION AIRCRAFT
'A' OVERHEAD
POSITION
'B'

QNH 'A' QNH 'B'

1025 mb MSL 995 mb

30 mb = 900'

1025 mb LEVEL

FigureFigure 5.7 Datum

5.8. Datum Diagram
Diagram.
Solution
The altimeter indicates the height above the 1025 mb pressure datum set on the sub-scale. At
‘A’, 1025 mb is the MSL pressure so the aircraft is actually 10,000 feet above MSL. When it gets
to ‘B’ where MSL pressure is 995 mb, the 1025 mb level will be below sea level, remembering
that pressure decreases as height increases. The amount involved is 1025 - 995 = 30 mb, or 30 X
30 = 900 feet. The altimeter is now indicating 10,000 feet above a datum which is 900 feet below
MSL. The true altitude (actual height AMSL) of the aircraft must therefore be 10,000 - 900 =
9,100 feet. The altimeter indicates 10,000 feet but the true altitude is 9100 feet. The instrument
is over-reading, and the aircraft is closer to the surface than is indicated. This is a potentially
dangerous situation, occurring in flight from HIGH TO LOW pressure causing the altimeter to
read HIGH. A datum diagram such as that shown in Figure 5.8 helps to sort out this type of
problem.
Remember:

Pressure always decreases as altitude increases.

The altimeter indicates height above the datum set on the sub-scale.

Temperature Error.
Even with no other errors at all, the pressure altimeter will not indicate true altitude (height
AMSL) unless the surface temperature and lapse rate of the column of air are those assumed in
the calibration.

When flying in colder air (with an air density greater than ISA at that altitude), the altimeter
will over-read.

Where the temperature at cruising level deviates from standard, an approximate correction
can be made with most navigational computers. The correction can only be approximate since
temperatures in the rest of the column of air are not known. The correction is considered too
inaccurate to be worth making at heights above 25,000 feet.

Example Problem
The indicated altitude is 10,000 feet with local QNH set and a COAT (corrected outside air
temperature) of -25°C. Will the true altitude be more or less than the indicated value?

75

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 5 Pressure Altimeter

Solution
The ISA temperature at 10,000 feet would be about -5°C, so the aircraft is flying in colder-than-
standard conditions (ISA minus 20°). Pressure decreases more rapidly in cold than in warm
air. Therefore, assuming a constant surface pressure, the pressure at a given true altitude in the
cold air will be less than at the same altitude in ‘standard’ air. The altimeter in the cold air will
interpret this lower pressure as a higher altitude and will therefore over-read the true altitude.
Using the computer set indicated altitude, 10,000 feet, against a COAT of -25°C in the Altitude
window. Read off the true altitude, about 9,250 feet, on the outer scale against 10,000 feet on
the inner scale. (An approximation of 4 feet per 1°C away from ISA per 1000 feet above sea
level, may be used as a rough guide). Students should use the mathematical method for exam
purposes.

Thus, in flight from HIGH TO LOW TEMPERATURE the altimeter would read HIGH. This is
potentially unsafe, and is comparable to the case of barometric error illustrated in the previous
worked example where with flight from HIGH TO LOW PRESSURE the altimeter also reads
HIGH.

Standard Setting
When 1013.25 mb is set on the sub-scale, the altimeter reading is called ‘pressure altitude’
or ‘pressure height’, which when stated in hundreds of feet at one of the specified intervals
(mentioned earlier in the definition of flight levels) gives the aircraft’s flight level. Thus with
1013.25 set, the altimeter indicates height above the 1013.25 datum (subject to the usual errors).
This setting is used in the UK above the transition altitude/level.

Regional QNH
More correctly called ‘lowest forecast QNH’, this setting, provided by the Met. Office, is used to
ensure safe terrain clearance. It is the value below which QNH is forecast not to fall in a given
period and area.

The value should be lower than the actual QNH anywhere in the area, and if set on the sub-
scale, regional QNH will cause the altimeter to under-read (so erring on the safe side - the
altimeter showing aircraft to be lower than it actually is).

BLOCKAGES AND LEAKS

If the static source becomes blocked, the altimeter

will not register any change in height - the height at
which the blockage occurred will still be indicated
regardless of any climb or descent. On many aircraft,
an alternative source of static pressure will be available
(see Page 22)

Should the static line fracture in a pressurised aircraft,

the altimeter will show the (lower) cabin altitude rather
than aircraft altitude

A fracture in the static line within an unpressurised

aircraft will normally result in the altimeter over-
reading, due to the pressure in the cabin being lower
than ambient due to aerodynamic suction. See Chapter
2 Emergency Static Source.

If the aircraft is CLIMBING then the altimeter will

UNDER READ.
Figure 5.8 Static Feed Blocked

76

Aviation ebooks Company

Pressure Altimeter Chapter 5

If the aircraft is DECSCENDING then the altimeter will OVER READ.

The amount of the error will increase as the aircraft moves away from the height at which the
blockage occured.

SOME DEFINITIONS

The pilot should be familiar with the following definitions.

Height
The vertical distance of a level, point or object considered as a point, measured from a specified
datum. (Normally associated with QFE and height above aerodrome level).
or
The vertical dimension (size) of an object.

Altitude
The vertical distance of a level, point or object considered as a point, measured from MSL.
(Normally associated with QNH).

Cruising Level
This is a generic term describing vertical position for a significant portion of the flight and can
be a height, altitude, or flight level depending on the altimeter setting procedure in force.

FL44 4000’ 3730’

SPS QNH QFE

1013 1000 990

PRESSURE ALTITUDE ZERO

ALTITUDE 270

HEIGHT QFE QNH

FLIGHT 990 1000
LEVEL QFE = 990 mb
IF ELEVATION = 270 ft
THEN 270/27 = 10 mb
ELEVATION

SEA LEVEL MSL QNH = 990 + 10 = 1000 mb

1013mb/hPa
Figure 5.9 Terminology

77

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 5 Pressure Altimeter

Flight Levels
Surfaces of constant pressure related to the standard pressure datum and separated by specified
pressure intervals. In the UK these correspond to 500 foot intervals between transition level and
FL 245 while from FL 250 they correspond to 1,000 foot intervals. A flight level is expressed
as the number of hundreds of feet which would be indicated at the level concerned by an ISA-
calibrated altimeter set to 1013.25 mb (29.92 inches). For example, with 1013.25 set and 25 000
feet indicated, the flight level would be 250, (abbreviated to FL 250). With 4,500 feet indicated
it would be FL 45.

Absolute Altitude
Alternatively known as Absolute Height, meaning the height of the aircraft above the surface
immediately below. Used more often in connection with radio or radar altimeters than with
pressure altimeters. It should be remembered that the altimeter indicates height above the
pressure level set on the sub-scale. The four settings are:-

QFE
This is aerodrome level pressure, which when set on the sub-scale, will cause the altimeter of
an aircraft on the ground to read zero, assuming there is no instrument error. In flight, with
QFE set, the altimeter will indicate height above the aerodrome QFE reference datum, provided
ISA conditions exist between aerodrome level and the aircraft and there are no other altimeter
errors. In practice, QFE is used mainly for circuit-flying and gives a good indication of height
above the aerodrome, any errors involved being only small.

QNH
This setting is used mainly in flight below transition altitude/level, defined later. It is an
equivalent MSL pressure calculated by Air Traffic Control from the aerodrome level pressure
assuming ISA conditions prevail between aerodrome level and MSL. With QNH set on the
sub-scale, the altimeter of an aircraft on the aerodrome indicates aerodrome elevation, that is,
the height AMSL (if there is no instrument error). In flight the altimeter will indicate altitude
but this will only be the true altitude if the mean temperature in the column of air beneath
the aircraft is the same as in ISA conditions (assuming there are no other altimeter errors). If
conditions are different from standard, the indicated altitude, sometimes called QNH altitude,
may deviate considerably from true altitude. The navigational computer can be used to make
an approximate correction for this temperature error.

TEMPERATURE ERROR CORRECTION

TEMPERATURE ERROR CORRECTION

Values to be added by the pilot to published altitudes (feet)

Aerodrome Height above the elevation of the altimeter setting source

Temp oC 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,500 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
0 0 20 20 20 20 40 40 40 40 60 80 140 180 220
-10 20 20 40 40 40 60 80 80 80 120 160 260 340 420
-20 20 40 40 60 80 80 100 120 120 180 240 380 500 620
-30 40 40 60 80 100 120 140 140 160 240 320 500 660 820
-40 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 300 400 620 820 1020
-50 40 80 100 120 140 180 200 220 240 360 480 740 980 1220

Note:- The table is based on aerodrome elevation of 2,000 ft; however it can be used operationally at any aerodrome.

Example: Decision height is 400 ft.

Aerodrome temperature is -40 0C.
From table correction = 80 ft.
Revised decision height = 480 ft

78

Aviation ebooks Company

Pressure Altimeter Chapter 5

MORE DEFINITIONS

Transition Altitude
This is the altitude at or below which the vertical position of an aircraft is expressed and
controlled in terms of altitude. In the UK its value is commonly 3,000 or 4,000 feet.

Transition Level
This is the lowest flight level available for use above the transition altitude. At and above
transition level, vertical position is expressed as a flight level.

Transition Layer
This is the airspace between transition altitude and transition level. When climbing through it,
the aircraft’s vertical position is expressed in terms of flight level; when descending through it,
in terms of altitude (though in practice the depth of the layer is usually insignificant).

CRUISE ON STANDARD
PRESSURE - 1013 mb (hPa), i.e FLs

TRANSITION LEVEL FLIGHT LEVEL

TRANSITION LAYER
TRANSITION ALTITUDE i.e 3000 ft AMSL

CRUISE ON QNH
i.e ALTITUDES

ALTITUDE

QNH

1013 mb (hPa) - on a day of low pressure

Figure 5.10 Transition

DENSITY ALTITUDE

Density altitude can be defined as the altitude in the standard atmosphere at which the prevailing
density would occur, or alternatively, as the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding
to the prevailing pressure and temperature. It is a convenient parameter in respect of engine
performance figures.

It can be obtained by use of an airspeed chart or by navigational computer. The recommended

method for use in the exam is that density altitude = pressure altitude adjusted (+ or -) by ISA
deviation x 120.

79

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 5 Pressure Altimeter

9100’
ISA +30º

ISA +4ºC ACTUAL +34ºC ISA DEV = +30

ACTUAL -26ºC ISA DEV = -30

30 X 120 = 3600’
ELEVATION
1900’
5500 5500 + 3600 = 9100’
ISA -30º 5500 - 3600 = 1900’

SEA MSL

Figure 5.11 Terminology

Example:
Suppose at Nairobi Airport (elevation 5500 ft) that the actual temp (SAT) is + 34°C. On an ISA
day the temperature at Nairobi should be + 4. There is, therefore, an ISA deviation of + 30°. If
we use the above formula the density altitude can be calculated:

D.A. = 5500 + (+ 30 x 120)

= 5500 + 3600
= 9100

The density altitude(with which the engine performance is associated) would therefore be
9,100 feet. The answer can be checked on the computer by setting pressure altitude (5,500 feet)
against temperature (+34°C) in the Airspeed window and reading off Density Altitude (about
9,100 feet) in its own window.

If the SAT in Nairobi fell to -26°C, then the ISA deviation would be -30°. The subsequent Density
Altitude would be 1900 feet (5500 - 3600).

Note: When calculating errors in Pressure / Density altitude away from ISA conditions always note the
Surface Temperature and Pressure prior to attempting the equation.

The corrections for altimeter error due to deviations away from ISA under specific conditions
may be found in Aircraft Operating Manuals.

PRE-FLIGHT ALTIMETER CHECKS.

In the UK, the apron is the designated location for pre-flight altimeter checks (the apron being
the loading and unloading and/or parking area). Apron elevation is displayed in the flight
clearance office of the aerodrome concerned and is also published in the AGA section of the UK
Air Pilot.

80

Aviation ebooks Company

Pressure Altimeter Chapter 5

Example Problem
Calculate the instrument error from the following details of a pre-flight altimeter check:

Aerodrome elevation 235 feet

Apron elevation 225 feet
Height of altimeter above apron 20 feet
Altimeter reading with QFE set 40 feet

900 100

800 200

700 300

1010
600 400
500

10' 20'
AERODROME
ELEVATION
235'
APRON HEIGHT 225'

MSL

Figure 5.10.
Solution
The apron is 10 feet below the stated aerodrome elevation so assuming the QFE to be for the
aerodrome level, an altimeter on the apron should read (-10) feet. However, the instrument is
positioned in the aircraft 20 feet above the apron so it should show (-10) + 20 = +10 feet. Its actual
reading is +40 feet so it is over-reading by 30 feet, an instrument error of +30 feet.

81

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 5 Pressure Altimeter

QUESTIONS

1. The diagram below shows a simple altimeter. The parts labelled A, B, C and D are:

A B
Figure 1

a. pitot pressure inlet, linkage mechanism, bellows, quadrant.

b. air inlet, temperature compensator, leaf spring, linkage mechanism.
c. static pressure inlet, partially evacuated capsule, linkage mechanism, subscale setting
device.
d. static pressure inlet, partially evacuated capsule, leaf spring, linkage mechanism.

2. In the International Standard Atmosphere, the mean sea level pressure is ......., the lapse rate
of temperature ....... between MSL and ....... and is isothermal up to ........ The numbers missing
are:

a. 1225 mb; 2° per 1000 ft; 37 000 ft; 66 000 ft.

b. 1013.25 mb; 1.98°C per 1000 ft; 36 090 ft; 65 617 ft.
c. 1013.25 mb; 1.98°C per 1000 ft; 36 090 ft; 104 987 ft.
d. 1225 mb; 1.98°C per 1000 ft; 36 090 ft; 104 987 ft.

3. An aircraft taking off from an airfield with QNH set on the altimeter has both static vents
blocked by ice. As the aircraft climbs away the altimeter will:

a. read the airfield elevation.

b. indicate the aircraft height amsl.
c. read the height of the aircraft above the airfield.
d. show only a very small increase in height.

4. When flying from low pressure to high pressure, the barometric error of an altimeter will cause
the instrument to:

a. read the true altitude, providing a correction is made for temperature.

b. overread the true altitude of the aircraft.
c. indicate a higher altitude than the correct one.
d. underread the true altitude of the aircraft.

5. The errors affecting the pressure altimeter are:

a. instrument position, manoeuvre induced, density, temperature, lag.

b. instrument, pressure, manoeuvre induced, density, temperature, lag.
c. instrument, position, manoeuvre induced, temperature, barometric, lag.
d. instrument, pressure, lag, barometric, temperature, compressibility.

82

Aviation ebooks Company

Pressure Altimeter Chapter 5

6. An altimeter with ....... set on the subscale will indicate ......., but with ....... set, the altimeter will
show .......

a. 1013; pressure altitude; QNH; height above mean sea level.

b. QNE; pressure altitude; QNH; height above airfield datum.
c. QFE; height above the airfield datum; 1013; height amsl.
d. QNH; height above touch down; 1013; height amsl.

7. An aircraft has one altimeter set to QFE and one to aerodrome QNH 1000 mb. If the airfield
elevation is 300 ft, immediately before take-off the altimeter with QFE set will read ....... and the
other ....... If the QFE altimeter is set to 1013 when passing through the transition altitude 3000
ft, it will read ...... (Assume 1 mb = 30 ft).

a. 300 ft; zero; 2610 ft

b. zero; 300 ft; 3390 ft
c. zero; 300 ft; 3690 ft
d. zero; 300 ft; 2610 ft

8. Which altimeter below is showing FL155:

0 0 0 0
9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1

8 2 8 2 8 2 8 2

7 3 7 3 7 3 7 3

6 4 6 4 6 4 6 4

Figure 2
9. Below is a schematic diagram of a servo-assisted altimeter. The parts labelled A, B, C and D
are:

a. cam mechanism, amplifier, servo motor, mechanical drive.

b. mechanical drive, servo motor, amplifier, AC exciter.
c. cam mechanism, amplifier, E-I bar, mechanical drive.
d. E-I bar, amplifier, servo motor, AC exciter, mechanical drive.

Figure 3
83

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 5 Pressure Altimeter

ANSWERS

1 D 6 A

2 B 7 B

3 A 8 B

4 D 9 B

5 C

84

Aviation ebooks Company

Vertical Speed Indicator Chapter 6

CHAPTER SIX

THE VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

Contents

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

PRINCIPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

VSI METERING UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

THE ERRORS OF THE VSI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

THE INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

PRESENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

SERVICEABILITY CHECKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

THE ONE IN SIXTY RULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

85

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 6 Vertical Speed Indicator

86

Aviation ebooks Company

Vertical Speed Indicator Chapter 6

INTRODUCTION

A pilot can get some idea of his rate of climb or

METERING UNIT / CHOKE descent from the angular rate of change of the
STATIC
CLIMB
altimeter pointer. However, there are times when
PRESSURE
a more accurate indication is necessary, such as
CAPILLARY achieving a certain height loss within a specified
0 time on airways or in setting up a smooth rate of
descent on a glidepath on an instrument approach.

DESCENT The Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) displays rate of

climb or descent. The instrument senses rate of
change of static by comparing the present static
pressure with a recent measurement of static.

Figure 6.1a. The Principle

Fig 6.1a of Operation of The VSI can also be known as the Rate of Climb
the V.S.I. During Level Flight. and Descent Indicator (RCDI) or, in gliders, the
Variometer (sometimes ‘vario’).

PRINCIPLE

When an aircraft departs from level flight, the

static pressure will change. The V.S.I. measures the
CLIMB
INCREASING STATIC pressure difference between each side of a restricted
PRESSURE
choke / metering unit.

0
In level flight the pressures on each side of the choke
are the same, during a climb or descent, air fed to
the choke immediately responds to the change of
DESCENT atmospheric pressure but the choke transmits this
change at a lower rate.

Fig 6.1b of Operation of

Figure 6.1b. The Principle
the V.S.I. While Descending.
CONSTRUCTION

A capsule within an airtight case is fed with static

pressure. The case is also fed with static pressure
DECREASING
CLIMB
but through a restricted choke, thus if the static
STATIC PRESSURE
pressure is changed the pressure surrounding the
capsule changes at a slower rate than that within
0 the capsule, as shown in Figure 6.1. For example, if
the aircraft is climbing, the pressure in the capsule
will be less than that in the case, the consequent
DESCENT compression of the capsule is converted by a
suitable linkage to a pointer indication of rate of
climb.

Figure 6.1c. The Principle

Fig 6.1c of Operation of
the V.S.I. While Climbing.
87

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 6 Vertical Speed Indicator

VSI METERING UNIT

The restrictor (or choke, or metering unit) is more complicated than a simple hole. The static
pressure change is actually hectopascals/min, but the pilot needs to see an indication of feet/
min, whatever the altitude. However, there are more feet to a hectopascal at higher altitudes
than lower altitudes, and therefore the rate of pressure change with altitude at different altitudes
needs to be compensated for.

This is achieved by a combination of different types of hole (called ‘capillary’ and ‘orifice’). Use
of a suitable combination of these gives a near-constant indication in feet/minute, whatever the
actual altitude and therefore, whatever the actual pressure differential needed.

DISPLAY

Fig 6.2 The VSI Display

THE ERRORS OF THE VSI.

Instrument Error. Due to manufacturing imperfections.

Position (or Pressure) Error. If the static pressure is subject to position error the V.S.I. will
wrongly indicate a climb or descent when speed is suddenly changed, this is most noticeable
during take-off acceleration.

Manoeuvre-Induced Error. Any short term fluctuations in pressure at the static vent during
attitude changes will cause the instrument to indicate a false rate of climb or descent.

Additionally with most V.S.I.s, the linkage includes a small counterbalance weight, the inertia of
which causes delays in the indications of changes in vertical speed during manoeuvres.

Time Lag. The pointer takes a few seconds to steady because of the time taken to build up a
steady pressure difference on climb or descent. There will also be a time lag on levelling out
because of the time taken for the pressures to equalise. This error is most noticeable after a
prolonged climb or descent, especially at a high rate.

88

Aviation ebooks Company

Vertical Speed Indicator Chapter 6

Any blockages of the static line or vent will cause the needle to return to zero. If the supply
of air to this instrument is blocked it is probable that the other pressure instruments (A.S.I.,
altimeter and machmeter) will also be affected.

THE INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

To overcome the problem of lag, the Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (I.V.S.I) incorporates
an accelerometer unit (sometimes called a dashpot or vane-type) which responds quickly to a
change of altitude.

The figure below shows an IVSI at the beginning of a descent.

The piston in the vertical acceleration pump immediately rises in the cylinder and causes a
temporary increase of pressure in the capsule. The capsule expands and the pointer will give
an instant indication of descent.

As the initial acceleration is turned into a steady rate of descent, the piston will slowly descend
to its original position, but by this time the correct differential pressure between the capsule and
the case will have been set up and the correct rate of descent will continue to be shown.

CAPSULE

STATIC
.5 PRESSURE
CONNECTION

VERTICAL
MAIN ACCELERATION
.5 PUMP (DASHPOT)
METERING
RESTRICTION

DESCENT

Ps

Figure 6.2b. An Instantaneous Vertical Speed indicator Showing a Descent.

Fig 6.3 The Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator

Errors Peculiar to the IVSI. Because of the sensitivity of the dash-pot assembly, the instrument
tends to overreact to turbulent flying conditions and small fluctuations should be ignored.

In a steep, level turn, the piston will tend to sink towards the bottom of the cylinder and there
will be a false indication of a climb.

89

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 6 Vertical Speed Indicator

PRESENTATION

Two types of presentation are available, a linear scale and a logarithmic scale, this latter
presentation being more easily read at the lower rates of climb/descent This is easily discerned
from the figures below.

It should be noted that diaphragm overload stops may be fitted to prevent damage to the
instrument should the rate of climb/descent exceed the maximum to which the instrument is
calibrated. On some instruments a zeroing screw is fitted.

4 1 2
3 3
CLIMB CLIMB
2 4
1 1,000 ft/min 1,000 ft/min

0 0
CLAYTON CLAYTON
INSTRUMENTS INSTRUMENTS

1 YORKSHIRE YORKSHIRE

DESCEND DESCEND 4
2
3 3
4 1 2

Figure 6.3. A V.S.I.

Fig 6.4a LinearWith
Scalea Linear Figure 6.4.
Fig 6.4b A V.S.I. With
Logarithmic Scalea
Scale Showing a Descent of 250 Logarithmic Scale Showing a
Speed Indicator as fitted in Glider Aircraft isDescent
ft/min.
Note 1: The Vertical sometimesofknown
250 ft/min.
as a “Variometer” (a
simple tube device - Green for upward movement / Red for downward movement).

Note 2: The device fitted to the IVSI to give an instant indication of vertical movement may be of the
Dashpot or Dynamic-Vane type - the indications and errors being the same for both instrument types.

SERVICEABILITY CHECKS

On the Ground

 The instrument should read zero, or the error should be within the permissible limits

• +/- 200 feet per minute at temperatures – 20°C + 50°C

• +/- 300 feet per minute outside these temperatures

 There should be no apparent damage to the instrument.

 Maximum permissable tolerance of the VSI:

• ± 30 fpm for the first 500 fpm.

• 5% for all other indications

In The Air
The accuracy of the instrument may be checked against the altimeter and a stop watch during
a steady climb/descent and the instrument should indicate zero climb or descent when in level
flight.

90

Aviation ebooks Company

Vertical Speed Indicator Chapter 6

It is important to understand the use of the VSI on the approach to a landing. The standard
glideslope is 3°. This will be dealt with in Radio Navigation. It is, however, reasonable for you
to know at this stage that, using trigonometry we can predict the correct Rate of Descent and
distance to the runway to give you the “perfect” approach. This can be done using the 1:60
rule.

THE ONE IN SIXTY RULE

Fig 6.5 The One in Sixty Rule

opposite height
Using normal trigonometry, tangent z = , which =
adjacent range
height
If angle = 3°, and range is one mile (which is 6080 feet), then tangent 3° =
6080
Therefore the required height at one mile range is tan 3° x 6080 = 319 feet.

However, there is a quick approximation which can be used for mental arithmetic in the air
without the use of a calculator. It is an application of the one in sixty rule.

The one in sixty rule states that if the range is 60 units long (sixty feet, sixty metres, etc.),
then the height will be the same number of units as the angle in degrees. In this case, for a 3°
glideslope, the height would be 3 units.

Therefore, if the range is 6000 feet, the height will be 300 feet. 6000 feet is a slight approximation
of 6080, and the use of the one in sixty rule gives us an answer that is slightly low, but is
acceptably accurate for practical use in the air.

Therefore, on a 3° glideslope, the required height is 300 feet per nautical mile.

Now, take the case of an aircraft with a groundspeed of 60 knots. When it is one mile range
from touchdown, it will take one minute. If the aircraft is at 300 feet, the required rate of descent
will be 300 feet/min. This leads to a second useful rule:

For a 3° glideslope, the required rate of descent in feet per minute = 5 x groundspeed in
knots.

Questions may be asked in the JAA exam on the use of these two rules.

91

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 6 Vertical Speed Indicator

QUESTIONS

1. During a missed approach and go-around procedure the change of aircraft attitude
plus raising of the landing gear and changing of flap settings can cause short term
unpredictable errors in certain instruments. The instruments most likely to be affected
in this case are:

a. the altimeter, artificial horizon and vertical speed indicator.

b. the airspeed indicator, machmeter and vertical speed indicator.
c. the machmeter, airspeed indicator, altimeter and vertical speed indicator.
d. the vertical speed indicator, airspeed indicator and altimeter.

2. The vertical speed indicator indications may be in error for some seconds after starting
or finishing a climb or descent. The error is a result of:

a. a combination of time lag and manoeuvre induced errors.

b. a combination of position error and manoeuvre induced errors.
c. manoeuvre induced errors only.
d. a combination of time lag and instrument error.

3. The advantage of having the VSI dial presentation in logarithmic spacing rather than in
linear spacing is that:

a. at low rates of climb or descent the pointer movement is much larger and so is
more easily read.
b. readings are instantaneous.
c. a greater range of rates of climb and descent is shown.
d. the internal mechanism is simplified by deletion of the calibration choke.

4. In the IVSI, lag error:

a. is overcome by feeding a sample of static pressure to the case and delaying it to

the capsule.
b. is virtually overcome by using a special dashpot accelerometer assembly.
c. is overcome by the use of logarithmic presentation.
d. is only overcome when initiating a climb or descent.

5. Because the VSI measures rates of change of static pressure and not actual values of
static pressure, position error:

a. never affects VSI indications.

b. may cause errors in the VSI during the take-off run.
c. may cause errors in VSI indications whenever airspeed is changed, if at the
same time there is a change in position error.
d. may cause errors in VSI indications whenever airspeed is changed, even if there
is no change in position error.

92

Aviation ebooks Company

Vertical Speed Indicator Chapter 6

6. When entering a steep turn, an IVSI is likely to show:

a. no change in altitude.
b. a slight climb.
c. a slight descent.
d. a slight descent at high airspeed only.

7. If the static vent becomes blocked during a climb:

a. the VSI will stop at the rate of climb of the aircraft at the time of blockage.
b. the VSI will indicate a decreasing rate of climb.
c. the VSI will return to zero.
d. the VSI will indicate an increasing rate of climb.

8. In conditions of clear air turbulence:

a. the standard VSI is more sensitive.

b. the IVSI is more sensitive.
c. both types will react the same.
d. the vertical acceleration pump will not be affected.

9. Change of temperature as an aircraft climbs or descends:

a. will affect VSI readings whenever temperature lapse rate differs from standard
conditions.
b. is compensated at the metering unit by means of a capillary and orifice.
c. has no effect on the VSI as only static pressure is used in this instrument.
d. may be allowed for by use of tables or computer.

10. Permissible limits of accuracy of the VSI are ....... when ....... within a temperature range
of ....... and ....... outside this range.

a. + 250 fpm, on the ground, -20°C to +50°C, + 300 fpm

b. + 200 fpm, at any height, -20°C to +30°C, + 300 fpm
c. + 250 fpm, at any height, -20°C to +50°C, + 300 fpm
d. + 200 fpm, on the ground, -20°C to +50°C, + 300 fpm

93

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 6 Vertical Speed Indicator

ANSWERS

1 D 6 B

2 A 7 C

3 A 8 B

4 B 9 B

5 B 10 D

94

Aviation ebooks Company

The Machmeter Chapter 7

CHAPTER SEVEN

THE MACHMETER

Contents
HIGH SPEED FLIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
SPEED OF SOUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
MACHMETER. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
MACHMETER CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
MACHMETER ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
BLOCKAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
MACHMETER SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
CLIMB AT A CONSTANT CAS IN STANDARD (ISA) ATMOSPHERE . . . . . . . . . 101
DESCENT AT A CONSTANT MACH NUMBER IN STANDARD CONDITIONS . . . 101
CLIMB AND DESCENT THROUGH AN ISOTHERMAL LAYER . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
CLIMB AND DESCENT THROUGH AN INVERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
CLIMB/DESCENT SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE MACHMETER . . . . . . . . . . . 103
MACH / AIRSPEED INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

95

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 7 The Machmeter

96

Aviation ebooks Company

The Machmeter Chapter 7

HIGH SPEED FLIGHT

In high speed aircraft the machmeter is an essential instrument. As an aircraft approaches the
local speed of sound the airflow over some parts of the fuselage or wings may be accelerated
up to the speed of sound and a shock wave will form. These shock waves cause more drag, less
lift, Mach tuck, buffeting, and reduction in control effectiveness or loss of control. (Mach tuck is
a downward-pitching sudden change of trim which can be severe).

In order to avoid danger associated with flight at high Mach numbers, a limiting Mach number
will be specified for each aircraft, based on flight trials. This must not be exceeded. It is known
as MMO.

The Machmeter therefore displays the present Mach Number so that the pilot can keep his
speed below the particular MMO for his aircraft and avoid the problems associated with high
speed flight.

CRITICAL MACH NUMBER

The speed at which airflow over some part of the aeroplane first reaches the speed of sound and
a shock wave forms is called the critical Mach number, known as Mcrit.

Mcrit. is not a limit and the MMO of most aircraft is greater than the Mcrit.

SPEED OF SOUND

The speed of sound is not constant but varies with air temperature. A formula for calculating
the local speed of sound (LSS) is:

LSS = 38.95 √ T

where,

LSS is given in knots,

38.95 is a constant,

and ,

T is the absolute temperature, (0°C = 273°A = 273° K)

Therefore the higher the air temperature, the higher the speed of sound, and vice versa. Since
temperature normally reduces as altitude increases, the speed of sound normally reduces as
altitude increases.

In ISA conditions at mean sea level (+15°C) the speed of sound is 661.32 knots, while at 30,000
feet ISA (- 45°C) the speed of sound will have reduced to 589.18 knots.

97

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 7 The Machmeter

MACHMETER. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The machmeter uses two capsules and linkages to indicate the aircrafts True Air Speed (TAS) as
a proportion of the local speed of sound (LSS)

The first capsule is an Airspeed Capsule which will expand and contract as a result of changes
in the Dynamic pressure.

Mach Number = TAS

LSS

The second capsule is a sealed Altimeter Capsule which will expand and contract as the static
pressure inside the instrument case changes.

D
ρ
However, MN is proportional to....
S
ρ

As Density (ρ) cancels out, we can see that:-

D P - S
MN is proportional to........... =
S S

STATIC ALTITUDE ADJUSTABLE /,0,7,1*

PRESSURE CAPSULE MACH NUMBER INDEX
MAIN SHAFT

PITOT RATIO RANGING

PRESSURE ARM ARM
AIR SPEED HAIR
CAPSULE SPRING
Figure
Figure 7.1. 7.1
TheThe Machmeter
Machmeter.

MACHMETER CONSTRUCTION

Figure 7.1 shows the parts of a machmeter (which must be learnt). It consists of a simple aneroid
altitude capsule and an airspeed capsule which are connected at the ratio arm.

98

Aviation ebooks Company

The Machmeter Chapter 7

Static pressure enters the case of the instrument, while Pitot pressure is fed directly into the
airspeed capsule. Expansion or contraction of the airspeed capsule is transmitted via the
airspeed link and main shaft to the ratio arm, but the position of the ratio arm is also governed
by expansion or contraction of the altitude capsule.

A spring-loaded ranging arm transmits the movement of the ratio arm to the pointer
mechanism.

Basically, if either or both capsules expand (due to an increase in IAS and / or altitude) then
the ranging arm will rotate out of the diagram and the indicated Mach Number will increase.
If airspeed or altitude reduce then the ratio and ranging arms move back into the paper, and a
lower Mach Number is displayed.

An adjustable index on the instrument scale can be positioned by means of a small knob. This
index can be set to the limiting Mach Number for the aircraft type (in straight and level flight),
to provide a visual warning to the pilot.

MACHMETER ERRORS

The machmeter suffers from instrument, position and manoeuvre induced errors only. It
does not suffer from temperature or density errors, as these errors cancel out. In addition since
compressibility error depends on dynamic / static pressure, and the instrument is calibrated to
this ratio, compressibility error is calibrated out.

Position Error
The instrument uses the same sources of Pitot and Static pressure as the ASI and therefore
suffers from position error caused by disturbed airflow at the pitot head and / or static vent. At
low Mach Numbers below, careful design and positioning of the pressure sources ensure that
position error on modern jet aircraft is small. However, at higher Mach Numbers, changes in
airflow may cause position error to become bigger and possibly change its sign. If the sign of
the position error is such that the machmeter under-reads, the error could become dangerous
at high Mach numbers. The normal arrangement in modern jet transport aircraft is to allow for
instrument and position error such that the machmeter always over-reads.

Manoeuvre Induced Error

The machmeter will suffer an additional, unpredictable error whenever the aeroplane
manoeuvres. This is due to the unpredictable changes in the airflow over the static source.

99

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 7 The Machmeter

BLOCKAGES

Static Source Blocked. If the static source is blocked, the pressure in the Machmeter case will
not alter when the aircraft climbs or descends.

If a blockage occurs in a climb, the altitude capsule will not move. Assuming a constant IAS
(and therefore a constant dynamic pressure) the airspeed capsule will contract as the static
component of pitot pressure reduces. The Machmeter will therefore under read.

If a blockage occurs in a descent, at a constant IAS, the airspeed capsule will expand due to the
increasing static component of pitot pressure. The Machmeter will therefore over read.

Pitot Source Blocked. Assuming a climb or descent at a constant IAS (and therefore a constant
dynamic pressure) the Machmeter will over read in the climb and under read in the descent.
In the climb the airspeed capsule will expand in error because the static component of pitot
in the capsule will be greater than the static in the case. In the descent the static component of
pitot will be too small and therefore the airspeed capsule will contract.

Note: It may be noticed that the Machmeter blockage errors are the same as the ASI blockage errors.

ABBREVIATIONS

MMR Machmeter reading, the uncorrected reading

IMN Indicated Mach number, MMR corrected for instrument error (the values quoted in
Flight Manuals are normally IMN)

TMN True Mach number, IMN corrected for position error MMO. There is much less risk of
an over-speed condition arising when this is available.

MACHMETER SUMMARY

Mach number = TAS / LSS.

Speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature, and therefore
decreases with the decrease in temperature normally encountered with increase in altitude.

While climbing at a constant Mach number, TAS decreases and CAS decreases more rapidly,
the LSS also decreases..

While climbing at a constant CAS, TAS and Mach number increase but the LSS decreases.

Remember that in calculations involving the Jet Standard Atmosphere, the temperature
is assumed to be + 15°C at MSL with a lapse rate of 2° per 1000 with no upper limit (ie no
tropopause).

100

Aviation ebooks Company

The Machmeter Chapter 7

CLIMB AT A CONSTANT CAS IN STANDARD (ISA) ATMOSPHERE

If we were to climb at 330 kt CAS from sea level to CAS TAS Mach No
36,000 ft in the standard atmosphere,

¾¾ TAS will increase from 330 kt to 593 kt,

and

¾¾ Mach number will increase from 0.5 M to

1.05 M.

SPEED

Figure 7.4. Climb
Figure/7.2
Descent in the
JSA Atmosphere at a Constant CAS.
The rapid rise of Mach number (in this case far exceeding MMO) is the reason why high
performance aircraft are flown on CAS (or IAS) for the first part of the climb before transferring
to a constant Mach number for the rest of the climb. Similarly in the descent at constant CAS,
TAS and Mach number reduce, with Mach number reducing at a greater rate.

This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 7.2 For a constant CAS (blue line) as altitude increases,
TAS (the yellow line) increases, and Mach number (the red line) increases at a greater rate. The
navigation computer can also be used to show the relationship between CAS, TAS and Mach
number but also gives us an idea of magnitude.

Now consider a descent at 0.8 M from 40,000 ft to sea level in the jet standard atmosphere on
the navigation computer.

At 40,000 ft 0.8 M is 450 kt TAS, at sea level it has CAS TAS Mach No
increased to 528 kt. The CAS has increased more
markedly from 242 kt at 40,000 ft to 528 kt at mean
sea level. This would exceed VMO. Therefore
although Mach number is used at altitude, CAS
will be used in the descent.

Note: You will have probably noticed by now that

the relationship of CAS, TAS and Mach number as
an aeroplane climbs or descends through the standard
SPEED
atmosphere remains the same. That is Figures 7.2. and
7.3. are the same - just tilted to one side or the other. Figure 7.3
Figure 7.5. Climb / Descent in the
Therefore when considering the climb/descent through
JSA Atmosphere at a Constant
an isothermal layer and an inversion only the constant
Mach number.
TAS figure will be shown.

DESCENT AT A CONSTANT MACH NUMBER IN STANDARD CONDITIONS

During a descent in the ISA, the LSS will be increasing (as temperature increases). Therefore
if Mach number is being kept constant the TAS must be increasing (Mach number = TAS /
LSS) During the descent air density increases and if TAS is also increasing the CAS must also
increase at a greater rate (Dynamic Pressure = ½ ρ V2) . This is shown in Figure 7.3. Similarly in
a climb at constant Mach number the TAS or CAS both reduce.

101

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 7 The Machmeter

CLIMB AND DESCENT THROUGH AN ISOTHERMAL LAYER

Constant Mach number

An isothermal layer is a layer of air in which CAS

the temperature does not change. Therefore the

LSS will not change, and for a constant Mach
number the TAS will not alter. The CAS will
change however due to density error, reducing
during the climb and increasing during a
descent.

Constant CAS
Climbing at a constant CAS, the TAS and Mach SPEED
number will both increase (at the same rate).
Figure 7.6. Figure
Climb7.4
/ Descent in an
Isothermal Layer at a Constant
CLIMB AND DESCENT THROUGH AN INVERSION Mach number.

Constant Mach number

In an inversion the temperature of the air will CAS Mach No TAS

increase (get warmer) as altitude increases.

Therefore in a climb the LSS will increase,
and for a constant Mach number the TAS will
increase

(Mach number = TAS/LSS).

CAS will reduce as air density reduces.

Descending at a constant Mach number the TAS SPEED

will reduce and the CAS will increase. Figure 7.7. Figure
Climb7.5
/ Descent in an
Inversion at a Constant Mach
Constant CAS
number.
Climbing at a constant CAS, the TAS and Mach number will both increase (TAS at a greater rate
than Mach number).

CLIMB/DESCENT SUMMARY

In summary;

TAS will always increase when an aeroplane climbs at a constant CAS.

Climbing at a constant TAS the CAS will always reduce.

This is because pressure has a greater effect on air density than temperature.

Climbing at a constant CAS the Mach number will always increase.

Climbing at a constant Mach number the CAS will always reduce.

This is because the CAS/TAS density error dominates over the change in LSS due to temperature
variation.

102

Aviation ebooks Company

The Machmeter Chapter 7

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE MACHMETER

Problem 1: What is the speed of sound at FL 380 in ISA conditions?

Solution 1:

In the ISA atmosphere FL 380 is above the tropopause and therefore the temperature
will be - 56.5°C or 216.5° K

LSS = 38.95 √ T

= 38.95 √ 216.5

= 573 knots

These calculations can also be completed on the navigation computer. Place the Mach
number index arrow against the temperature (in °C), locate M1.0 (the blue 10 on the
Navigation Computer) on the inner Mach number scale and read off the TAS on the
outer scale.

Problem 2: Determine the TAS corresponding to 0.70 M at JSA MSL (+15°C or 288°K).

Solution 2:

Using the computer, set the Mach number index against + 15°C in the Airspeed window.
Against 7 (for 0.7 M) on the inner scale, read off the answer (463 knots) on the outer
scale.

Alternatively calculate TAS from the formula

TAS = Mach number x LSS

= 0.7 x 38.95 √ 288

= 0.7 x 661 = 463 knots

Problem 3: Calculate without using a computer the altitude in the JSA atmosphere at
which a TAS of 450 knots corresponds to Mach 0.80

Solution 3:

Mach Number = TAS LSS = TAS

LSS MN

450
LSS = = 562.5 Kts
0.8

However, LSS = 38.95 √ T √ T = LSS = 562.5 = 14.44
38.95 38.95

T = 14.44 = 209°
2

T = 209° Absolute which is equal to - 64° C

- 64° C occurs at FL395 in the JSA which has no tropopause.

103

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 7 The Machmeter

Problem 4: If a decrease of 0.12 in the Mach Number results in a decrease of 80 Knots in the
TAS, what is the local speed of sound.

Solution 4:

Mach Number = TAS LSS = TAS

LSS MN

80
LSS = = 667 Kts
0.12

Problem 5: An aircraft is flying at FL360 with a Tas of 467 Knots at Mach No 0.8 when the
temperature difference from JSA is +9. What is the Temperature difference at FL320 if Mach 0.8
still gives a TAS of 467 Knots.

Solution 5:

At FL360 in JSA temp would be - 57°C. JSA +9 would be - 48° C

However if Mach No and TAS remain the same, then we must be flying in an Isothermal layer,
so the Temperature of - 48°C and the LSS would remain the same.

If the Temperature at FL320 is also - 48°, Temp Deviation from standard must be + 1° as JSA
should be - 49°C.

MACH / AIRSPEED INDICATOR

Since many commercial aircraft require indications of both IAS and Mach number, it is sensible
to combine both instruments. The basic principals of both instruments still apply.

Errors

The combined instrument will have the errors of both the Machmeter and the airspeed indicator,
namely; instrument, position, manoeuvre induced, density and compressibility errors.

CONSTRUCTION

There are two types of Mach/Airspeed Indicator:

¾¾ A self contained instrument fed from Pitot and Static sources.

¾¾ A combined instrument fed from the Air Data Computer.

Note that:
•• The airspeed pointer moves clockwise over a fixed scale.

•• From 0.5 M the Mach number is read off the same pointer as it moves over
a moving Mach number scale. This scale rotates anti-clockwise beneath the
pointer as Mach number increases.

 A second striped needle may be present to mark Vmo.

104

Aviation ebooks Company

The Machmeter Chapter 7

If the aircraft is fitted with an Air Data Computer (ADC) it will measure Pitot pressure, Static
pressure and Total Air Temperature and then electronically, send the information to any
instruments and other computers which require it. The advantages related to the combined
Mach / Airspeed instrument are;

¾¾ The ability to correct for instrument and position errors to give Rectified Airspeed
(CAS) instead of ASIR.

¾¾ The use of a digital displays for both Mach number and CAS.

AIRSPEED
MACH No. POINTER
SCALE

LIMIT SPEED
(VMO)
POINTER EXTERNAL
INDEX
POINTER

EXTERNAL
INDEX
POINTER COMMAND
BUG

COMMAND BUG VMO POINTER

SETTING KNOB SETTING KNOB

Figure 7.6 A
Figure Mach/Airspeed
7.8. IndicatorIndicator
A Mach / Airspeed fed from Fed
Pitotfrom
and Static
Pitot Sources
and
Static Sources.

MACH NUMBER 60
80

400
MACH
8
VMO POINTER 100
.7 7
6
350

DRIVEN CURSOR 120

300 6
AIRSPEED 285 140
KNOTS 4
POINTER
250
AIRSPEED 160
200 180
MANUAL CURSOR
SETTING CONTROL
Figure 7.9 A Combined Instrument Fed from the Air Data
Computer.
Figure 7.7 A Combined Instrument fed from the Air Data Computer

105

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 7 The Machmeter

QUESTIONS

1. The local speed of sound is equal to:

(K = Constant)

a. K √ temperature (°F) knots

b. K √ temperature (°K) knots
c. K √ temperature (°C. knots
d. K √ temperature (°K) metres per second.

2. At FL 350 with a JSA deviation of -12, the true airspeed when flying at M 0.78 is:

a. 460 kt
b. 436 kt
c. 447 kt
d. 490 kt

3. Below is a schematic diagram of a Machmeter. Parts A, B, C and D are:

a. ratio arm, mach no pointer, static pressure inlet, ranging arm.

b. ranging arm, limiting mach no index, static pressure inlet, ratio arm.
c. main shaft, TAS index, pitot pressure inlet, ranging arm.
d. ranging arm, limiting mach no index, pitot inlet, main shaft.

Figure 1
4. When climbing at a constant mach number below the tropopause through an inversion:

a. the CAS and TAS will both increase.

b. the CAS and TAS will both decrease.
c. the CAS will decrease and the TAS will increase.
d. the CAS will increase and the TAS will decrease.

5. When descending below the tropopause under normal conditions (increasing temperature) at a
constant CAS:

a. both TAS and mach number will decrease.

b. both TAS and mach number will increase.
c. the TAS will decrease and the mach number will increase.
d. the TAS will increase and the mach number will decrease.

106

Aviation ebooks Company

The Machmeter Chapter 7

6. Cruising at FL390, M 0.84 is found to give a TAS of 499 kt. The ISA deviation at this level will
be:

a. -17
b. +17
c. +19
d. -19

7. The errors to which the machmeter is subject are:

a. instrument error, position error, compressibility error and manoeuvre induced error.
b. instrument error, position error and manoeuvre induced error.
c. instrument error, position error, barometric error, temperature error and manoeuvre
induced error.
d. instrument error, position error, density error and manoeuvre induced error.

8. The relationships between TAS, mach number (MNo) and local speed of sound (LSS) is:

a. LSS = MNo
TAS

b. MNo = LSS
TAS

c. TAS = MNo x LSS

d. MNo = LSS x TAS

9. The machmeter gives an indication of mach number by measuring the ratio:

a. pitot pressure
static pressure

b. static pressure
dynamic pressure

c. dynamic pressure
pitot pressure

d. dynamic pressure
static pressure

10. An aircraft is flying at FL350 with a JSA deviation of +8. The mach no is 0.83 and the TAS 485. If
the aircraft descends to FL300 and maintains the same mach no and TAS, the JSA deviation will
now be:

a. +8
b. -2
c. +2
d. -18

107

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 7 The Machmeter

ANSWERS

1 B

2 B

3 D

4 C

5 A

6 B

7 B

8 C

9 D

10 B

108

Aviation ebooks Company

Terrestrial Magnetism Chapter 8

CHAPTER EIGHT

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

Contents
THE MAGNET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
MAGNETIC FIELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
POLES OF A MAGNET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
RED AND BLUE POLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
ATTRACTION AND REPULSION RULES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
METHODS OF MAGNETISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
METHODS OF DEMAGNETISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
HARD IRON AND SOFT IRON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
MAGNETIC VARIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
MAGNETIC DIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
FIELD STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
DIRECTIVE FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
REGULAR CHANGES IN EARTH MAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
UNPREDICTABLE CHANGES IN EARTH MAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

109

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 8 Terrestrial Magnetism

110

Aviation ebooks Company

Terrestrial Magnetism Chapter 8

THE MAGNET

For thousands of years the oxide of iron called magnetite has been observed to attract small
pieces of iron. This property is known as ‘magnetism’.

Another property for which magnetite was known was its North-seeking capability; if mounted
on wood and floated in water it would swing round and align itself in a roughly North-South
direction, so acting as a primitive compass. In more recent history it was found that some
metallic elements and alloys (mainly ‘ferrous’ - iron and steel) could be given these properties,
bars of such magnetised material being known as ‘magnets’.

MAGNETIC FIELD

The field of a magnet is the space around it in which its magnetic influence is felt. This may be
illustrated by placing a piece of card over a bar magnet and scattering iron filings on it. When
the card is shaken or tapped the filings will take up the field pattern as shown in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1 The Pattern of the Magnetic Field

Figure 8.1. The Pattern of the Magnetic Field.

POLES OF A MAGNET

From Figure 8.1. it can be seen that the ‘lines of force’ traced by the iron filings converge towards
small areas near the ends of the magnet.

These two areas are called the ‘poles’ of the magnet and are where the properties of magnetism
are most strongly displayed. Magnets are made in various shapes but each magnet always has
two poles.

A unit pole cannot exist. If a magnet is cut into two pieces, each piece will have two poles.

111

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 8 Terrestrial Magnetism

RED AND BLUE POLES

A freely suspended bar magnet (or compass needle) in the earth’s magnetic field will align itself
roughly North-South.

The end which points North is known as a North-seeking or red pole. The other end is a South-
seeking or blue pole.

By convention, magnetic lines of force are directed out from the red pole and back in to the blue
pole as shown in Figure 8.2.

Again referring to Figure 8.2, for convenience the magnet has been divided into two halves, one
half containing the red pole, the other half containing the blue pole.

Figure
Figure 8.2 The
8.2. TheRed
Red and
and Blue
BluePoles
Poles.

ATTRACTION AND REPULSION RULES

If two bar magnets are placed in a line, end to end, so that the blue pole of one faces the blue
pole of the other, a repulsion can be felt. If both magnets are turned around, so that red pole is
close to red pole, then again the ends try to move apart. If, on the other hand, the blue pole of
one magnet is placed close to the red pole of the other, an attraction is felt.
The rule is:

Like poles repel each other

Unlike poles attract each other

112

Aviation ebooks Company

Terrestrial Magnetism Chapter 8

METHODS OF MAGNETISATION

Magnetism may be induced in an unmagnetised bar of iron by one of the following methods:

¾¾ By stroking the bar repeatedly in the same direction with one end of a magnet, a proc-
ess in which the end of the bar last touched by the red end of the magnet is left as a blue
pole. Figure 8.3 depicts the process and shows the resulting polarity of the iron bar.

Figure8.3.
Figure 8.3 Making
Making aa Magnet
Magnetby
byStroking
Stroking.

¾¾ By aligning the iron bar with the lines of force of a magnetic field and subjecting it to
vibration or hammering. Such agitation during manufacture ( in the earth's magnetic
field) is the main cause of aircraft magnetism. Figure 8.4 shows the polarity of the
induced magnetism in the iron bar; it is such that there is continuity in the pattern of
lines of force, as usual directed in to a blue pole, out from a red pole. The example is
analogous to an aircraft being manufactured on a Northerly heading in the earth’s field
and acquiring a permanent red pole in the nose and blue pole in the tail.

¾¾ In the case of iron simply by subjecting to a magnetic field. The induced polarity is
shown in Figure 8.4.

Figure
Figure 8.4. Making
8.4 Making a Magnet
a Magnet by Vibrating
by Vibrating or
or Hammering
Hammering.

113

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 8 Terrestrial Magnetism

¾¾ By placing the specimen within a solenoid (a cylindrical coil of wire) carrying a Direct
Current. This is the most satisfactory method as the current flowing in the coil pro-
duces a concentrated magnetic field along the axis of the coil so that a high degree of
magnetism can be induced in the iron. (Note that the amount of magnetism which can
be induced is not unlimited because, at a certain level, the iron becomes magnetically
'saturated'). Figure 8.5. shows the polarity of the magnetism induced in the bar inside
the solenoid. (If the current flow were reversed the induced magnetic polarity would
be reversed).

Figure
Figure 8.5 Magnetisation
8.5. Magnetisation by
bySolenoid
Solenoid.

METHODS OF DEMAGNETISATION

Three ways of removing most or all of the magnetism from a magnetised item are listed
below.

¾¾ Shock. A magnetised bar of iron can be placed at right angles to the earth’s magnetic
field and hammered.

¾¾ Heat. If the specimen is heated to about 900°C, it loses its magnetism and this does not
return as the specimen cools.

¾¾ Electric Current. The component is placed inside a solenoid carrying alternating cur-
rent, the amplitude of which is gradually reduced to zero. The strong alternating mag-
netic field produced by the alternating current keeps reversing the direction of mag-
netisation (that is the polarity of the magnetism) in the specimen.

Not only is the polarity being reversed, but the intensity of magnetisation is being reduced
as the current is reduced. The specimen’s magnetism is very quickly reduced to zero or very
nearly zero.

MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Magnetic materials are ‘ferrous’ metals iron and steel, steel being iron alloyed with substances
such as carbon, cobalt, nickel, chromium, and tungsten. These metals are called ‘ferromagnetic’
and in an aircraft they may be magnetised and produce deviation in the aircraft’s compasses.

Many materials used in aircraft construction are non-magnetic and do not affect the compass.

Examples of such non-ferrous substances are aluminium, duralumin, brass, copper, plastic, and
paint.

114

Aviation ebooks Company

Terrestrial Magnetism Chapter 8

HARD IRON AND SOFT IRON

Ferromagnetic material can be broadly divided into two classes, hard iron and soft iron. The
words hard and soft do not refer to the physical properties of the material but to their magnetic
characteristics.

A strong magnetising field is required to produce magnetic saturation in hard iron.

Hard iron magnetism is said to be ‘permanent’, meaning that the material, typically steel
containing cobalt or chromium, remains magnetised for an indefinite period after it has been
removed from the magnetising field.

Such a substance is suitable for permanent magnets. Soft iron magnetism is called ‘temporary’
(or ‘transient’ or ‘induced’) the substance being easy to saturate magnetically with only a weak
magnetising field but retaining little or no magnetism when the field is removed. Nearly pure
iron behaves in this way.

Some materials exhibit magnetic characteristics which lie somewhere between those of hard
iron and soft iron. These substances can be magnetised but this ‘sub-permanent’ magnetism is
lost partly or wholly over a period of time.

EASE OF RETENTION OF
DESCRIPTION METAL
MAGNETISM MAGNETISM

COBALT AND CONSIDERABLE

HARD IRON HARD
TUNGSTEN STEEL LENGTH OF TIME

SILICON IRON PRACTICALLY

SOFT IRON EASY
PURE IRON NIL

115

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 8 Terrestrial Magnetism

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

The earth behaves as though a huge permanent magnet were situated near the centre producing
a magnetic field over the surface.

Figure 8.6 shows that the poles of this hypothetical earth-magnet do not lie on the earth’s spin
axis, this lack of symmetry giving rise to magnetic variation. The earth’s blue pole lies at present
beneath Northern Canada in the area around 70°N 95° W, the red pole being below Antarctica
at about 72° S.

Figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6 Earth’s Magnetism
Earth Magnetism.

MAGNETIC VARIATION

The direction of the earth’s field at any given point can be indicated by a freely-suspended
magnet. Such a magnet will align itself roughly in a North-South direction with its red pole
towards the North magnetic pole.

The longitudinal axis of the magnet defines

the direction of the magnet meridian at the
point.

The magnetic meridian is the direction of

the horizontal component of the earth’s
field at a point on the earth’s surface.

The angle, measured in the horizontal

plane, between the magnetic meridian at a
point and the true meridian at the point is
known as the magnetic variation.

Variation is designated West or East

depending on whether the magnetic Figure
Figure8.7.
8.7 Magnetic Variation.
Magnetic Variation
pole lies to the West or to the East of true
North.

Variation can have any value from zero to 180°, the latter occurring on the true meridian linking
North geographical with North magnetic pole, similarly in the Southern hemisphere.

116

Aviation ebooks Company

Terrestrial Magnetism Chapter 8

MAGNETIC DIP

Except near the ‘magnetic equator’, where the lines of force are parallel to the surface, one end
of the freely-suspended magnet will dip below the horizontal, pointing to the nearer pole.

To the North of the magnetic equator, the magnet’s red pole will be lower whereas to the South
the blue pole will be lower. The angle, measured in the vertical plane, between the axis of the
magnet and the horizontal is called the angle of dip.

Fairly closely following the geographical equator (in the main 10° of latitude of it) is the 'magnetic
equator', which can be represented on a chart by a line joining points on the earth where the
angle of dip is zero.

If the freely-suspended magnet is moved either North or South of the magnetic equator the
dip gradually increases, reaching about 66° in the United Kingdom. Over the earth's magnetic
poles the dip is 90° and the magnet is then vertical.

Figure 8.8.
Figure 8.8 Resolution
Resolution of theEarth’s
of the Earth'sField
Field.

FIELD STRENGTH

The total force T exerted at a point by the earth’s field acts in the direction taken up by a freely-
suspended magnet influenced only by the earth’s field. The total force, angle of dip, and
magnetic variation at a point are sometimes known as the ‘magnetic elements’ for that place. It
is convenient to resolve this total force T into its horizontal and vertical components H and Z
respectively. Figure 8.8 demonstrates this resolution.

117

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 8 Terrestrial Magnetism

DIRECTIVE FORCE

The horizontal component H of the earth’s field is known as the directive force because it is
the component which aligns the magnetic compass needle with the magnetic meridian, so
providing a directional reference. When either of the earth’s magnetic poles is approached, this
component approaches zero strength, while the value of Z approaches that of T. Over the pole,
with dip 90° and zero directive force H, the magnetic sensor (compass) becomes useless.

In the region of the magnetic equator the strength of the directive force H approaches the value
of T, while Z approaches zero as does the angle of dip.

It becomes apparent that the directive force H decreases as the angle of dip increases, and vice
versa and Figure 8.9 serves to illustrates this.

In fact, the relationship between H and dip angle is not quite as simple as it appears, because of
irregularities in the pattern of the earth's field and variations with position and time of the total
magnetic force T.

The strength of the horizontal component H at a latitude about 60°N of the magnetic equator is
very roughly half the value of H at the magnetic equator.

Figure
Figure8.9
8.9.The
TheEffect of Latitude
Effect on the
of Latitude onComponents of Dip
the Components
of Dip.

118

Aviation ebooks Company

Terrestrial Magnetism Chapter 8

REGULAR CHANGES IN EARTH MAGNETISM

Secular Change. The earth’s field not only lacks symmetry but is also subject to several known
periodic changes.

Of these, the secular changes are the most significant and are produced by the slow movement
of the magnetic poles about the geographic poles, the period of this cycle being apparently
about 960 years.

The North magnetic pole is moving slowly westward, this wander mainly affecting magnetic
variation.

In the UK the value of Westerly variation is currently decreasing at a rate of 7 minutes per
annum, and the predicted variation in London in the year 2240 is zero.

The annual rate of change of variation is shown on navigation charts so that the variation printed
against the isogonals can be readily up-dated.

Other regular changes occur diurnally, annually, and over an eleven-year period, this latter cycle
apparently being related to the eleven-year cycle of sunspot activity. These changes, unlike the
secular type mentioned earlier, are not of sufficient magnitude to affect normal navigation.

UNPREDICTABLE CHANGES IN EARTH MAGNETISM

Magnetic ‘storms’ of varying intensity and lasting for as long as three days occur at irregular
intervals. These phenomena appear to be produced by unusually large sunspots.

The main effect of these magnetic storms is a temporary but significant change in magnetic
variation. The alteration is unlikely to exceed 2° in the UK but in the Arctic and Antarctic the
change may exceed 5° and last for as long as an hour. The value of the directive force H can
also change and in high latitudes may fall below the minimum required for efficient compass
operation.

DEFINITIONS

Isogonals are dotted (pecked) lines on a map or chart joining places of equal magnetic
variation.

An Agonic Line is an isogonal joining places of zero magnetic variation.

Isoclinals are lines on a map or chart joining places of equal magnetic dip.

An Aclinic Line is an isoclinal joining places of zero magnetic dip, and is the Earth’s Magnetic
Equator.

119

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 8 Terrestrial Magnetism

QUESTIONS

1. The red pole of a freely suspended magnet will point towards ....... and at latitude 60°N will
point ....... at an angle known as the angle of .......

a. the nose of the aircraft, downwards, deviation.

b. the north magnetic pole, downwards, variation.
c. the nearest pole, downwards, declination.
d. the north magnetic pole, downwards, dip.

2. If the total force of the earth’s field at a point is T and the horizontal and vertical components H
and Z, the value of H is found by the formula:

a. H = T sin dip
b. H = Z tan dip
c. H = T cos dip
d. H = T tan dip

3. In the diagram below, the compass heading of the aircraft is ......., the magnetic heading ....... and
the true heading .......

a. 025° 015° 020°

b. 335° 035° 020°
c. 335° 340° 035°
d. 025° 015° 340°

Figure 1
4. The directive force of the earth’s magnetic field:

a. varies with the heading of the aircraft.

b. increases as the magnetic variation increases.
c. increases as magnetic latitude increases.
d. is greatest at the magnetic equator.

5. The slow change in the earth’s magnetic variation is known as the ....... change and is caused by
.......
a. annual, westerly movement of the magnetic pole.
b. diurnal, easterly movement of the magnetic pole.
c. secular, westerly movement of the magnetic pole.
d. annual, sunspot activity.

6. Soft iron is comparatively ....... to magnetise whilst hard iron is ....... to demagnetise.

a. easy; difficult.
b. easy; easy.
c. difficult; easy.
d. difficult; difficult.

120

Aviation ebooks Company

Terrestrial Magnetism Chapter 8

7. Which of the following materials are classed as ferromagnetic:

a. iron, steel, carbon-fibre.

b. nickel, iron, steel.
c. copper, iron, carbon steel.
d. iron, cobalt steel, chromium steel.

8. The magnetic moment of a magnet:

a. is the product of pole strength and effective length.

b. varies inversely as the square of the distance between the poles.
c. varies directly as the square of the distance between the poles.
d. decreases as the magnet length increases.

121

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 8 Terrestrial Magnetism

ANSWERS

1 D

2 C

3 B

4 D

5 C

6 A

7 D

8 A

122

Aviation ebooks Company

The Direct Indicating Compass Chapter 9

CHAPTER NINE

THE DIRECT INDICATING COMPASS

Contents
THE MAGNETIC COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
DIRECT INDICATING MAGNETIC COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
THE VERTICAL CARD COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
THE GRID RING COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
COMPASS REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
HORIZONTALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
SENSITIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
APERIODICITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
THE COMPASS LIQUID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
SERVICEABILITY CHECKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
DAMPING AND PIVOT FRICTION TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
DEVIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
ACCELERATION AND TURNING ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
ERRORS CAUSED BY LINEAR ACCELERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
SUMMARY OF ACCELERATION ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
TURNING ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
TURNING ERRORS - LIQUID SWIRL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
SUMMARY OF TURNING ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

123

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 9 The Direct Indicating Compass

124

Aviation ebooks Company

The Direct Indicating Compass Chapter 9

THE MAGNETIC COMPASS

A compass is an instrument designed to indicate direction on the surface of the earth, relative to
some known datum. The magnetic compass uses the horizontal component of the earth’s field
as its directional datum. Unfortunately, the earth’s field is normally not aligned with the true
meridian - the most desirable datum from which to measure direction. The angular difference
between true and magnetic meridians is called the magnetic variation discussed in the previous
chapter.

The purpose of a magnetic ‘steering’ compass in an aircraft is to indicate heading, the direction
in which the aircraft is pointing.

Magnetic influences - iron/steel components, electric currents - distort the earth’s field so that
the compass magnet assembly deviates from the magnetic meridian. This is called compass
deviation.

The rules for applying variation and deviation to the compass heading indication in order to
determine true heading are detailed in the Navigation notes.

DIRECT INDICATING MAGNETIC COMPASS

This chapter deals with the direct indicating or direct reading magnetic compass, where the
pilot directly reads his heading in relation to the pivoted magnet assembly.

There are two basic types of direct reading magnetic compasses used in aircraft, the vertical
card and, less commonly, the grid ring compass.

Figure
Figure 9.1 A
33.1. A Vertical
Vertical Card
CardCompass
Compass.

125

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 9 The Direct Indicating Compass

THE VERTICAL CARD COMPASS

The vertical card compass - which is also known as the B-type or E-type - is the direct reading
compass in general use. It is usually the main magnetic heading reference in light aircraft and
the standby compass in larger aircraft.

It consists of a circular compass card attached directly to the magnet assembly. This combined
unit is suspended in liquid within the compass bowl. A vertical lubber line on the glass window
of the bowl, enables the heading to be read off the compass card.

THE GRID RING COMPASS

The P-type compass or grid ring compass is found on older aircraft. It is more accurate than the
vertical card compass and is more stable.

It is however heavier, bulkier and more expensive. In addition it can only be read in straight
and level flight, as the grid ring has to be unclamped and aligned with the north reference
before a reading can be taken against the lubber line.

The grid ring compass also differs from the vertical card compass in that it achieves greater
aperiodicity by the addition of damping wires which also rotate through the compass liquid.

Figure
Figure 9.2 A
33.2. A Grid
Grid Ring
RingCompass
Compass.

126

Aviation ebooks Company

The Direct Indicating Compass Chapter 9

COMPASS REQUIREMENTS

The direct reading magnetic compass contains a pivoted magnet which must be able to align
itself, and remain aligned, with the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. For the
compass to succeed certain requirements must be satisfied. The most important of these are that
the magnet system must be:

¾¾ Horizontal
¾¾ Sensitive
¾¾ Aperiodic

HORIZONTALITY

In order to measure direction in the horizontal, the magnets must lie as nearly as possible in the
horizontal plane during normal straight and level flight. A freely suspended magnet assembly
would align itself with the earth’s total field so the magnets would only be horizontal at the
magnetic equator.

To achieve horizontality, the magnet assembly is ‘pendulously suspended’, the centre of

gravity of this assembly being lower than its supporting pivot, as shown in
Figure 9.3.

Figure 33.3. Equilibrium (Northern Hemisphere) Viewed

From West.
Figure 9.3 Equilibrium (Northern Hemisphere) Viewed From West

In this way, the tilting effect caused by the vertical component Z of the earth’s field is opposed
by the weight of the magnet assembly, this equilibrium being achieved at the cost of only a very
slight residual tilt of the magnets (North-seeking ends down) - by about 2° in mid-latitudes - in
the Northern hemisphere. (South-seeking end down in the Southern hemisphere). Figure 9.3.
shows the two turning couples involved.

One is produced by Z which exerts a downward force on the red (North-seeking) end of the
compass magnet and an upward force on the blue end.

The other couple is produced by the weight W acting downwards through the centre of gravity
(displaced because of the tilt) and the reaction R acting upwards through the pivot.

For equilibrium, the magnet takes up the amount of tilt necessary to make the couples balance.
(A third - very weak - couple produced by the horizontal component, H, of the earth’s field,
opposing the tilt has been omitted for simplicity).

127

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 9 The Direct Indicating Compass

SENSITIVITY

The magnet system is required to seek the horizontal component H of the earth’s field in all
areas except near the magnetic poles - where the horizontal component is inadequate.

The notes on magnetism show that the ability of a pivoted magnet to align itself with an external
field - its sensitivity - depends on the strength of the external field and on the magnetic moment of
the magnet. The weak external field (H) at a place cannot be changed, but the magnetic moment
of the magnet can be increased - by increasing the magnet’s length and/or pole strength.

It is however undesirable to increase the magnet length so the pole strength is increased by
using two, four or six short magnets or a circular magnet, made of an alloy which will accept
and retain the high degree of magnetism required.

Sensitivity is further increased by reducing friction. This is achieved in three ways:

¾¾ By using an iridium-tipped pivot in a jewelled cup

¾¾ By lubricating the pivot with the liquid which fills the compass bowl.

¾¾ By reducing the effective weight of the magnet assembly acting down through the
pivot, because the liquid that the magnet assembly is displacing is denser than air .

APERIODICITY

The magnetic assembly is required to be aperiodic or ‘dead beat’, which means that it should
settle down quickly on a steady indication after being displaced by turbulence or manoeuvres.

Any tendency to oscillate must be quickly ‘damped out’. The desired aperiodicity is achieved
as follows:

¾¾ Several short magnets are used instead of one longer one. This keeps the mass of the
assembly near the centre, so reducing the moment of inertia and consequently making
any oscillations easier to damp out. Light alloy is utilised wherever possible in order to
minimise the weight of the assembly framework.

¾¾ The primary purpose of the liquid in the compass bowl is to act as a damping liquid on
the compass assembly. The grid ring compass dampens oscillations more rapidly than
the vertical card compass, due to addition of damping wires. These wires are attached
to the magnet assembly and also pass through the damping liquid. (See Figure 9.2.)

THE COMPASS LIQUID

The liquid mentioned earlier is essential to the design of the compass. Two difficulties may arise.
Firstly, the liquid is likely to expand or contract with change of temperature; this is overcome by
incorporating an expansion chamber or ‘Sylphon tube’.

Secondly, errors occur in sustained turns as a result of ‘liquid swirl’. Liquid swirl occurs due
to the viscosity of the liquid, because of this the liquid chosen should have a low viscosity to
minimise liquid swirl. Liquid swirl is discussed later in this chapter.

128

Aviation ebooks Company

The Direct Indicating Compass Chapter 9

Various liquids, including alcohol have been used. The main properties required of a compass
liquid are:

¾¾ Low coefficient of expansion

¾¾ Low viscosity
¾¾ Transparency
¾¾ Low freezing point
¾¾ High boiling point
¾¾ Non-corrosiveness

SERVICEABILITY CHECKS

Compass body. Check that there is no obvious damage such as dents or cracks. Any lighting
system should be checked, as should the efficacy of the luminous paint.

Compass Liquid. The compass liquid should be checked and be free from:

¾¾ Sediment and discolouration - either of which would indicate corrosion which would
result in increased pivot friction.

¾¾ Bubbles - which would probably indicate a leaking seal. Turbulence and manoeuvres
would cause any bubbles to move about, creating eddies which could disturb the mag-
net system.

Accuracy Limit - JAR: ± 10°

DAMPING AND PIVOT FRICTION TESTS

These tests are carried out before a compass is installed or swung, and whenever the accuracy
of the instrument is suspect. The exact values quoted in the tests vary with the type, make and
mark of compass. Furthermore, the figures are for a specified standard value of the earth’s
directive force H. If the tests are to be conducted at latitudes where the value of H is significantly
different, there may be a need to modify these figures.

Damping Test
This is also known as a ‘swing’ test designed to check that, after displacement, the magnet
assembly returns quickly and without appreciable oscillation to its North alignment.

Using a small magnet, deflect the compass by 90°, holding this deflection for at least 20 seconds
to allow the liquid to come to rest. Remove the deflecting magnet; the time taken to swing back
through 85° should be 2 to 3 seconds for a standby compass.

Pivot Friction Test

Using a small magnet, deflect the compass by 10° and hold it in this position for at least 10
seconds. Remove the magnet and note the reading when the compass settles. Repeat the
procedure, deflecting 10° in the opposite direction, and note the reading when the compass
settles again

The two readings should agree within 2½° for a standby compass. It is usual to carry out this
test on four headings 90° apart.

129

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 9 The Direct Indicating Compass

DEVIATION

Deviation is produced by the iron/steel components in the aircraft. It is the angle between the
local magnetic meridian and the direction in which the compass magnets are lying.

Deviation is named Easterly (or plus) if the North-seeking (red) ends of the magnets point to
the East of magnetic North. If the North-seeking ends points to the West of magnetic North,
deviation is said to be Westerly (or minus).

Deviation varies with heading so it has to be measured on a series of different headings. This is
usually done by conducting a compass swing (which is fully covered in the chapter on aircraft
magnetism). Once deviation has been reduced as far as possible, the residual deviation is
recorded on a compass deviation card, which is located in the aircraft.

During the swing, normal flying conditions should be simulated as far as possible, with engines
running, electrical / radio services switched on, and the aircraft in a level flight attitude.

It is obviously most important that no ferromagnetic objects such as tools, or watches should be
placed near the compass as this would introduce unknown amounts of deviation. Furthermore,
ferromagnetic payloads should be stowed as far away from the compass as permissible within
the loading limits. With exceptionally large ferromagnetic loads, a compass swing may have to
be carried out before flight with the load aboard.

ACCELERATION AND TURNING ERRORS

Direct reading compasses are subject to large errors during linear acceleration or deceleration,
or during a turn.

Most manoeuvres which cause the centre of gravity of the magnet assembly to move away from
its normal position, almost directly below the pivot, will produce an error.

However, if the manoeuvre displaces the centre of gravity North or South of its usual position
so that cg and pivot are still in the plane of the magnetic meridian, the magnet assembly merely
changes its North-South tilt angle, with no rotation in azimuth and consequently no error.

Note also that turning and acceleration errors only occur where there is a significant vertical
component (Z) in the earth’s field, so that except for a small liquid swirl effect in turns, the
errors are non-existent near the magnetic equator.

The north seeking end of the compass magnet should remain pointing in the same direction
- Magnetic north- whether the aircraft is moving in a straight line or turning.

Acceleration and turning errors occur however when the north seeking end of the magnet is
displaced from Magnetic north and therefore an incorrect heading will be shown on the compass
card which is attached to the magnet. Figure 9.4 shows a pendulously suspended magnet (with
residual dip) in the northern hemisphere.

130

Aviation ebooks Company

The Direct Indicating Compass Chapter 9

Figure
Figure 9.4 A 33.4. A Suspended
Pendulously Pendulously Suspended
Magnet in the Magnet in Hemisphere
Northern
the Northern Hemisphere.
Note that the vertical line through the pivot point is now closer to the nearer (north) magnetic
pole than the magnet’s centre of gravity. Consider an aircraft,(and therefore the magnet assembly)
being accelerated towards the west, as shown in Figure 9.4b. The magnet is attached to the
aircraft at the pivot point. However while the pivot is being accelerated the magnet’s inertia,
which acts at the magnet’s centre of gravity, will try to maintain its state of uniform motion. The
result will be that the magnet will rotate (in this case anticlockwise) and the incorrect heading
will be shown.

ERRORS CAUSED BY LINEAR ACCELERATION

The size of the acceleration error depends on a number of factors which includes aircraft
heading. Acceleration / deceleration errors are maximum on East and West (M) headings and
zero on North and South (M) headings.

The error is caused by inertia acting on a magnet which has residual dip due to the effect of the
vertical component Z on the magnet.

Acceleration on 270°M (NH)

Figure 9.5 shows an aircraft accelerating on a
magnetic heading of 270°M in the Northern
hemisphere, such as occurs during take-off
on runway 27. Since the magnet assembly
is pendulously suspended, its inertia will
cause it to swing back behind the pivot point
which is offset to the north of the magnet’s
centre of gravity. This displacement enables a
turning couple produced by the earth’s vertical
component Z to rotate the magnet assembly
anticlockwise round the pivot.

The angle measured clockwise from the

North-seeking end round to the aircraft’s nose
increases. The compass reading will therefore
increase, so indicating an apparent turn
towards North. Thus, according to the compass,
the aircraft is now heading, say, 280° whereas
its real heading is in fact still 270°- the compass Figure33.5.
Figure 9.5 Acceleration
Accelerationon
on270°
270°MM
is over-reading. (NorthernHemisphere)
(Northern Hemisphere)

131

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 9 The Direct Indicating Compass

Acceleration on 090°M (NH)

Figure 9.6 shows an aircraft accelerating
on a magnetic heading of 090°M in the
Northern hemisphere. Since the magnet
assembly is pendulously suspended, its
inertia will cause it to swing back behind
the pivot point. This displacement enables
a turning couple to rotate the magnet
assembly clockwise round the pivot.
The angle measured clockwise from the
North- seeking end round to the aircraft’s
nose reduces. The compass reading will
therefore decrease, so indicating an
apparent turn towards North.

Thus, according to the compass, the aircraft

is now heading, say, 080° whereas its real
heading is in fact still 090°- the compass is
under-reading.
Figure 33.6. Acceleration on
Figure
090°M9.6 Acceleration
(Northern on 090°M
Hemisphere)
(Northern Hemisphere)

Deceleration on 090°M (NH)

Figure 9.7 shows an aircraft decelerating
on a magnetic heading of 090°M in the
Northern hemisphere.

Since the magnet assembly is pendulously

suspended, its inertia will cause it to
swing forwards ahead of the pivot point.

This displacement enables a turning

couple to rotate the magnet assembly
anti-clockwise round the pivot.

The compass reading will therefore

increase, so indicating an apparent turn
towards South. Thus, according to the
compass, the aircraft is now heading, say,
100° whereas its real heading is in fact
still 090°- the compass is over-reading.

Figure 33.7. Deceleration on 090° M

Figure(Northern
9.7 Deceleration on 090° M
Hemisphere)
(Northern Hemisphere)

132

Aviation ebooks Company

The Direct Indicating Compass Chapter 9

Acceleration on 270°M (SH)

Figure 9.8 shows an aircraft accelerating on a magnetic heading of 270°M in the Southern
Hemisphere. The inertia will cause the magnet assembly to swing back behind the pivot point
which is now offset to the south of the magnet’s centre of gravity. This displacement enables a
turning couple to rotate the magnet assembly clockwise round the pivot.

Figure 9.8Figure
Acceleration on 270°M (Southern
33.8. Acceleration Hemisphere)
on 270°M
(Southern Hemisphere)

The compass reading will therefore decrease, so indicating an apparent turn towards South.
Thus, according to the compass, the aircraft is now heading, say 260°, whereas its real heading
is in fact still 270°- the compass is under-reading.

Acceleration on a northerly heading (NH)

Figure 9.9 shows an acceleration on a northerly heading (northern hemisphere).

The cg lags and the North-South tilt of the magnet assembly changes, but the magnets are tilting
in the vertical plane of the magnetic meridian through the pivot - so no error occurs.

With deceleration on North/South headings there is again no error, only a reduced N/S tilt due
to the inertial forward swing of the magnet assembly.

Figure 9.9Figure 33.9. Acceleration

Acceleration on 360°M
on 360°M (Northern Hemisphere)
(Northern Hemisphere)

133

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 9 The Direct Indicating Compass

SUMMARY OF ACCELERATION ERRORS

Acceleration errors are zero on N/S magnetic headings (in both hemispheres), increasing to
maximum on headings 090°M and 270 ° M. Acceleration causes an apparent turn towards
the nearer pole (apparent turn north in the northern hemisphere, apparent turn south in the
southern hemisphere). Deceleration causes an apparent turn towards the further pole (apparent
turn south in the northern hemisphere, apparent turn north in the southern hemisphere).

Whenever the magnet assembly is displaced clockwise, the readings will decrease and the
compass will under read.

Whenever the magnet assembly is displaced anti-clockwise, the readings will increase and the
compass will over read.

The size of a linear acceleration error depends on the:

¾¾ heading

¾¾ magnitude of the acceleration

¾¾ design of the magnet system

¾¾ magnetic latitude (which affects the relative strengths of H and Z).

The errors are maximum near the magnetic poles, decreasing to zero at the magnetic equator.

TURNING ERRORS

Turning errors are maximum when turning through north and south, and ignoring liquid swirl
zero when turning through east and west.

The basic theory of turning errors is much the same as that for linear acceleration errors.

Due to the earth’s vertical component of the magnetic field, Z, the compass’s cg will be
displaced from almost beneath the pivot point away from the nearer pole. In a turn, the aircraft
accelerates towards the centre of the turn, and therefore an acceleration force acts through the
pivot towards the centre of the turn, while the opposing centrifugal force due to inertia acts
outward through the cg.

This results in the magnet assembly tending to ‘swing out’ from the turn, rotating the magnet
assembly around the pivot point and producing a turning error.

Turning errors are usually more significant than acceleration errors for the following reasons:-

¾¾ They are inherently of greater magnitude because greater displacement of the magnet
assembly is likely in turns.

¾¾ Turns occur more often and are likely to be more prolonged than linear accelerations.

134

Aviation ebooks Company

The Direct Indicating Compass Chapter 9

Turning from 045° to 315° (NH)

Consider an aircraft executing a left-
hand turn in the Northern hemisphere as
it passes through 000°M. NORTH

The magnet’s cg is displaced from beneath 315° 045°

the pivot point away from the north pole
due to the vertical component of the
earth’s magnetic field. Because of inertia CENTRIPETAL
FORCE
the magnet assembly will be thrown out TOWARDS PIVOT
of the turn rotating the magnet assembly CENTRE
anti- clockwise. OF TURN INERTIA

If there was no turning error the magnet

would remain stationary and the aircraft
rotate 90° around it - resulting in the pilot
seeing 90° passing beneath the compass’s
lubber line.
Figure 9.10. Turning from 045° to 315°
Figure (Northern
9.10 Turning from 045° to 315°
Hemisphere)
(Northern Hemisphere)

However the aircraft is turning port and the magnet assembly rotates in the same (anti-
clockwise) direction.

Although the aircraft has turned 90° around the compass, the magnet has been displaced and
rotated in the same direction by a number of degrees (say 20°). The pilot will therefore only see
70° pass beneath the lubber line and the compass is termed sluggish.

Whenever the magnet rotates anticlockwise it will overread .

This means that if the pilot stops the turn at 315° indicated the actual heading will be numerically
smaller such as 295°- therefore the turn must be stopped early (such as 335°) to achieve the
correct heading.

This can also be described as undershooting the required heading (note ‘undershoot’ is referring
to turning through a smaller angle, and should not be confused with ‘under read’ which means
that the numerical heading indicated is too small).

If the pilot deliberately undershoots, rolling out when the compass reads about 335°, he should
observe, when the wings are levelled, the compass ‘catch up’ and settle on 315°.

135

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 9 The Direct Indicating Compass

Turning from 315° to 045° (NH)

Consider an aircraft turning right through
north in the Northern hemisphere as
NORTH
it passes through 000°M, the magnet’s
cg is displaced from beneath the pivot
315° 045°
point away from the north pole due to
the vertical component of the earth’s
magnetic field.

Because of inertia the magnet assembly PIVOT

will be thrown out of the turn rotating the
magnet assembly clockwise.

Note: The aircraft and the magnet assembly

are again rotating in the same direction (but
that it is this time clockwise) and therefore the
compass will again be sluggish.

Figure 9.11. Turning from 315° to 045°

Figure(Northern
9.11 Turning from 315° to 045°
Hemisphere)
(Northern Hemisphere)

Whenever the magnet rotates clockwise it will under read . This means that if the pilot stops the
turn at 045° indicated the actual heading will be numerically larger such as 065°.

Therefore the turn must be stopped early (such as 025°), or the pilot should undershoot the
indication, to achieve the correct heading.

Turning from 135° to 225° (NH)

Now consider an aircraft turning right as
shown in Figure 9.11 through south in the NORTH
northern hemisphere as it passes through
180°M, the magnet’s cg is displaced from
beneath the pivot point away from the
nearer pole (the north pole) due to the
vertical component of the earth’s magnetic PIVOT
field.

Because of inertia the magnet assembly

will be thrown out of the turn rotating
the magnet assembly anticlockwise.
225° 135°
The aircraft is turning clockwise (right)
but the magnet assembly is rotating
anticlockwise.

Figure
Figure9.12.
9.12 Turning from135°
Turning from 135°toto225°
225°
(Northern Hemisphere)
(Northern Hemisphere)

Therefore the aircraft and the magnet are now rotating in opposite directions. Although the
aircraft has turned 90° around the compass, the magnet has been displaced and rotated in
the opposite direction by a number of degrees (say 20°). The pilot will therefore see 110° pass
beneath the lubber line and the compass is termed ‘lively’.

136

Aviation ebooks Company

The Direct Indicating Compass Chapter 9

Whenever the magnet rotates anticlockwise it will over read. This means that if the pilot stops
the turn at 225° indicated the actual heading will be numerically smaller, such as 205°.

Therefore the turn must be stopped late (such as 245°), or the pilot should overshoot, to achieve
the correct heading.

Turning from 135° to 225° (SH)

Now consider an aircraft turning right as
shown in Figure 9.12 through south in the
southern hemisphere as it passes through
180°M, the magnet’s cg is displaced from
beneath the pivot point away from the
nearer pole (the south pole). Because
of inertia the magnet assembly will
be thrown out of the turn rotating the
magnet assembly clockwise.

The aircraft and the magnet assembly

now are rotating in the same direction
(clockwise) and therefore the compass
will again be sluggish.

Figure
Figure 9.13 Turning
33.13. Turningfrom
from135°
135°toto
225°
225°
(SouthernHemisphere)
(Southern Hemisphere)

Whenever the magnet rotates clockwise it will under read . This means that if the pilot stops the
turn at 225° indicated the actual heading will be numerically larger such as 245°. Therefore the
turn must be stopped early (such as 205°), or undershoot, to achieve the correct heading.

Remember that when the wings are levelled, the compass will ‘catch up’ and settle on 225°.

Turning through East or West

Consider a turning aircraft passing through the magnetic headings of 090° and 270°.
The magnets are not horizontal but their tilt is North-South, that is in the vertical plane of the
magnetic meridian through the pivot.

There is no rotational couple acting round the pivot, so there is no turning error.
Turning errors are zero when passing through East or West.

Other Notes on Turning Errors

It is easier to steer a Southerly rather than a Northerly heading, firstly because on South the
compass does not indicate the wrong direction of turn as it can on North, and secondly because
the ‘lively’ nature of the indications reduces the risk of over-correcting small steering errors.

Magnitude of Turning Errors

There are many factors affecting the severity of turning errors. They are worst at high latitudes
where Z is strong and H is weak.

Other relevant variables include rate of turn, duration of turn, speed of the aircraft, the headings
involved, and the design of the compass.

137

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 9 The Direct Indicating Compass

TURNING ERRORS - LIQUID SWIRL

The effect known as liquid swirl was mentioned earlier. During a turn, the liquid in contact with
the inside of the bowl tends to be dragged around with the bowl, so producing in the liquid
small eddies which drift inwards from the circumference and deflect the magnet assembly in
the direction of turn. Therefore the liquid tends to swirl - and rotate the magnet assembly with
it - in the same direction as the aircraft’s turn.

Accordingly, when turning through north in the Northern hemisphere it will increase the
magnitude of the turning error (in which the assembly turns in the same direction as the
aircraft).

The size of the turning error when turning through south in the northern hemisphere (where
the assembly turns in the opposite direction to the aircraft) will be reduced.

In the Southern hemisphere the swirl effect will be in the opposite sense.

Note: At the magnetic equator where there is no vertical component Z in the earth’s field, liquid swirl is
the sole source of turning error; with most compasses the effect is only slight.

SUMMARY OF TURNING ERRORS

These are maximum when passing through magnetic North or South, decreasing to zero when
passing through East or West.

The error increases with increase in magnetic latitude.

At the magnetic equator the only turning error is due to liquid swirl.

Whenever the pilot turns through the nearer pole (north in the northern hemisphere, or south
in the southern hemisphere):

¾¾ the aircraft and compass rotate in the same direction,

¾¾ the compass will be sluggish, and
¾¾ the pilot should undershoot the turn / roll out early.
¾¾ liquid swirl will increase the turning error.

Whenever the pilot turns through the further pole (south in the northern hemisphere, or north
in the southern hemisphere):

¾¾ the aircraft and compass rotate in the opposite direction,

¾¾ the compass will be lively, and
¾¾ the pilot should overshoot the turn / roll out late.
¾¾ liquid swirl will reduce the turning error.

138

Aviation ebooks Company

The Direct Indicating Compass Chapter 9

Table of Turning Errors

Aircraft Magnets’ At the end of the turn Stop Effect of Compass

Hemis’ Turning
Turns Turn compass reads turn liquid swirl Condition

From To

Anti- Anti- Increases

N 45 315 More than 315 deg Early Sluggish
Clockwise Clockwise turning error

Clockwise Increases
N 315 45 Clockwise Less than 045 deg Early Sluggish
turning error

Anti- Reduces
N 135 225 Clockwise More than 225 deg Late Lively
Clockwise turning error

Anti- Late Reduces

N 225 135 Clockwise Less than 135 deg Lively
Clockwise turning error

Anti- Reduces
S 45 315 Clockwise Less than 315 deg Late Lively
Clockwise turning error

Anti- Reduces
S 315 45 Clockwise More than 045 deg Late Lively
Clockwise turning error

Early Increases
S 135 225 Clockwise Clockwise Less than 225 deg Sluggish
turning error

Anti- Anti- Increases

S 225 135 More than 135 deg Early Sluggish
Clockwise Clockwise turning error

Table Explained
The term SLUGGISH which appears in the right hand column of the table denotes that the
compass HEADING is LAGGING BEHIND the aircraft heading.

Conversely, when the term LIVELY is used, the compass HEADING is LEADING the aircraft
around the turn.

The following rules of thumb apply:

¾¾ During a turn through the pole which is physically nearer to the aircraft, the compass
will be SLUGGISH. It is therefore necessary to ROLL OUT EARLY on the indication
given by the Direct Reading Compass.

¾¾ During a turn through the pole which is physically further from the aircraft, the com-
pass will be LIVELY. It is therefore necessary to ROLL OUT LATE on the indication
given by the Direct Reading Compass.

From the above statements it can be seen that, at the MAGNETIC EQUATOR, there is NO
TURNING ERROR because there is no “dip”.

Remember, that it is a displacement of the MAGNETS in a CLOCKWISE direction when

viewed from above which causes the compass to UNDERREAD, and a displacement in an
ANTICLOCKWISE direction which causes the compass to OVERREAD.

139

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 9 The Direct Indicating Compass

QUESTIONS

1. In a standby direct reading compass there is:

a. a non-pendulously mounted magnet system.

b. a single pendulously mounted bar magnet.
c. a circular magnet or pair of bar magnets pendulously mounted.
d. a low magnetic moment system, either of circular or bar configuration.

2. The main requirements of a direct reading magnetic compass are that it should be:

a. horizontal, sensitive, periodic.

b. easily read, floating in a transparent liquid, quick to react to change in aircraft
heading.
c. positioned directly in front of the pilot, easily corrected for magnetic deviation,
aperiodic.
d. aperiodic, horizontal, sensitive.

3. For a position in the southern hemisphere, the effect of acceleration errors are greatest on
headings:

a. 180 ° and 360 °

b. 045 ° and 225 °
c. 135 ° and 315 °
d. 090 ° and 270 °

4. An aircraft in the southern hemisphere is turning from a heading of 045 °C to 315 °C using a
DGI. At the end of the turn the compass will read ....... than 315° and liquid swirl will .......
this effect.

a. more; increase
b. less; increase
c. more; decrease
d. less; decrease

5. In a standby compass the magnet system is immersed in a transparent liquid. The purpose of
this liquid is to:

a. increase sensitivity, increase aperiodicity.

b. increase sensitivity, decrease aperiodicity.
c. increase sensitivity at high latitudes, lubricate bearings.
d. increase sensitivity, reduce liquid swirl.

6. To improve the horizontality of a compass, the magnet assembly is suspended from a point:

a. on the centre line of the magnet.

b. below the centre of gravity.
c. above the centre of gravity.
d. varying with magnetic latitude.

140

Aviation ebooks Company

The Direct Indicating Compass Chapter 9

7. The magnitude, and sense, of turning error shown by a direct reading compass varies with:

1. the design of the compass.

2. the direction of the turn.
3. the rate of turn.
4. which hemisphere the aircraft is in.
5. the heading of the aircraft.
6. the amount of dip at the aircraft’s latitude.

Of these statements:

a. only 1, 2, 5 and 6 are correct.

b. only 1, 3, 5 and 6 are correct.
c. only 2, 4 and 5 are correct.
d. all are correct.

8. During a sustained turn ....... the nearer magnetic pole, the effect of liquid swirl will .......
compass turning error.

a. away from; increase.

b. towards; not affect.
c. away from; not affect.
d. towards; increase.

9. When carrying out a turn at the magnetic equator there will be:

a. no turning error.
b. a tendency to underread turns through south and overread turns through north.
c. a tendency to underread turns due to liquid swirl.
d. no turning error when turning through east or west

141

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 9 The Direct Indicating Compass

ANSWERS

1 C

2 D

3 D

4 D

5 A

6 C

7 D

8 D

9 C

142

Aviation ebooks Company

Gyroscopes Chapter 10

CHAPTER 10

GYROSCOPES
Contents
GYROSCOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
RIGIDITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
PRECESSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRECESSION AND RIGIDITY . . . . . . . . . . . 149
WANDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
REAL AND APPARENT WANDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
TYPES OF GYRO – BY FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
TYPES OF GYRO – BY CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
TYPES OF GYRO – SUCTION OR ELECTRIC POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
GYRO LIMITATIONS AND ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
DATA GENERATION UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

143

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 10 Gyroscopes

144

Aviation ebooks Company

Gyroscopes Chapter 10

GYROSCOPES

One of the biggest limitations of Direct Indicating Magnetic Compasses is their susceptibility
to turning and acceleration errors. Using a more stable datum than a light compass needle or
magnetic assembly would reduce or eliminate these. What is required is a datum which has
rigidity in space (the property of pointing in a specific direction, once set up) and which is
stable enough not to be disturbed by the effects of aircraft manoeuvres. A gyroscope provides
this.

As well as a direction (heading) reference, gyroscopes can also provide an attitude reference.

On simple aircraft, gyroscopes provide the basis of the:

Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI)

Artificial Horizon
Turn and Slip Indicator (or Turn Co-ordinator)

More complex aircraft use gyroscopes in:

Gyro-magnetic compasses
Inertial Navigation Systems or Inertial Reference Systems
Yaw Dampers
Autopilots
Stabilisation of radar scanners
and many other applications

The simplest form of gyroscope (or gyro) consists of a rapidly spinning disc (called a rotor).
Any rapidly spinning symmetrical rotor exhibits gyroscopic properties – even if it has not been
specifically designed as a gyro. For instance, the Earth acts as a gyro, and so do spinning tops
and bicycle wheels. Most aircraft gyros are discs between 2 and 5 cm in diameter, spinning at
speeds between 4000 and 25000 rpm, depending on their design.

The shaft about which the rotor spins is called the axis. Gyros are defined in their orientation
as either horizontal or vertical by reference to the spin axis, not the rotor.

Fig 10.1 Gyro parts and orientation

Gyros have 2 basic properties which make them important as the basis of aircraft attitude and
direction instruments. These are rigidity and precession.

145

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 10 Gyroscopes

RIGIDITY

Rigidity is the gyro’s property of maintaining its axis in a fixed direction in space unless
subjected to an external force. It is caused by the inertia of the spinning mass.

In order for a gyro to be able to maintain a fixed direction, it must be attached to the airframe in
such a way that the aircraft has freedom to manoeuvre without disturbing the orientation of the
gyro. This is achieved by using suspension devices which allow this freedom. These are called
gimbals. Gyros may have one or two gimbals.

Fig 10.2 One gimbal, one degree of freedom

In Fig 10.2, assume that the aircraft is travelling left to right across the page, ie, its longitudinal
axis is also the gyro axis XX (This is not the same thing as the spin axis). The aircraft is free
to bank whilst the gyro remains in the same orientation (spin axis horizontal and in a fixed
direction). However, if the aircraft were to yaw, the gyro and its gimbal would be forced out of
its original orientation.

The aircraft is free to pitch or bank

without affecting the gyro, but not to yaw.
How we describe this depends on the
convention being used. Some references
will describe this as a ‘2-degrees of
freedom system’.

However, the convention used by the JAA

does not regard the spin axis as a degree
of freedom, because no measurement
can be made in pitch. For JAA exams,
a single gimbal system as shown above
is described as having one degree of
freedom.

Fig 10.3, right, shows a 2-gimbal system:

Fig 10.3 Two gimbals, two degrees of freedom

146

Aviation ebooks Company

Gyroscopes Chapter 10

In Fig 10.3 the aircraft is free to pitch and bank as before but, with the second gimbal, it is
also free to yaw without disturbing the gyro. Some books describe this as a ‘three-degree of-
freedom’ system but, for the convention used in the JAA, a two gimbal system is described as
having two degrees of freedom.

The definition of rigidity includes the words ‘fixed direction in space’. Rigidity (also called
‘gyroscopic inertia’) is subject to Newton’s Laws of Motion, which apply to all of space, not just
the Earth. In theory, if there were no other errors and the gimballing system allowed complete
freedom, the axis of the gyro would point to a fixed point in space (for instance, a distant star),
irrespective of the rotation of the Earth or the motion of the aircraft over the Earth.

Over short periods of time, this

difference between Earth orientation
and space orientation may not be
important, particularly if it is swamped
by mechanical errors or if the gyro is
maintained by mechanical means to
some Earth reference. However, it
becomes important when considering
accurate freely-gimballed gyros over
long periods.

On simple aircraft, gyros do not normally

have more than two gimbals. In Fig 10.4,
right, we have an inner and an outer
gimbal, but the third structure, on the
outside of the outer gimbal, is the frame.
It is attached to the aircraft and moves
with the aircraft. Fig 10.4 Two gimbals and a frame

PRECESSION

In Fig 10.5, the gyro is rotating clockwise.

Assume that an upward force (torque) acts
on the spin axis. This is the equivalent of the
force going into the rotor at the 12 o’clock
position. However, the reaction will not be
to make the gyro rotate backwards about
the horizontal axis from the point where
the torque is applied. Instead, the torque
is precessed through 90° in the direction
of rotation and the rotor moves inwards to
the page about the vertical axis, as though
the force had been applied at the 3 o’clock
position to a stationary rotor.

Fig 10.5 Torque Precessed through

90° in Direction of Rotation

147

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 10 Gyroscopes

Now we put this situation into a gimballed gyro, as in Fig 10.6 below:

In Fig 10.6 the gyro is spinning about its spin

axis XX. A small mass M is applied on the inner
gimbal in line with the XX axis. The mass acts to
pull the inner gimbal down, producing a torque
about the YY axis. Effectively, this is a force being
applied to the 6 o’clock position of the rotor,
(right to left of the page of the above diagram).

Initially the gyro axis tilts through a small

angle φ. The spin axis is no longer pointing to
the original fixed point in space. After that, no
further movement takes place about the YY axis.

The torque is then precessed through 90º in

the direction of the gyro’s rotation. The rotary
motion takes place at the 9 o’clock position and
the spin axis starts to turn at a constant velocity
about the ZZ axis.

If the torque at M is withdrawn, the precession

ceases.

If the torque application at M continues and

Fig 10.6 Gyroscopic Precession remains in the same relative position on the
gimbal ring, the gyro spin axis will continue to
rotate at a constant velocity.

If the torque application at M continues

but remains in a fixed position , the gimbal
ring and spin axis will precess through
90º, so that the torque application is now
in line with the rotor, not the spin axis, as
shown in Fig 10.7 below.. At this point
precession will cease.

Fig 10.7 On completion of 90º of rotation,

no further precession takes place

148

Aviation ebooks Company

Gyroscopes Chapter 10

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRECESSION AND RIGIDITY

The rigidity of a gyro depends on two properties:

 Moment of Inertia (a combination of the mass and the effective radius at which the
mass operates)

 Rotor rpm

Moment of Inertia. Moment of Inertia is a measure of how big and how heavy the gyro is. A
gyro with a greater radius will have a larger moment of inertia than a smaller one with the same
mass. A gyro with a greater mass will have a larger moment of inertia than one of the same
radius but less mass.

In order to minimise weight (mass) but get a greater moment of inertia, the mass is often
concentrated at the rim of a gyro. A bicycle wheel, which uses spokes, is a clear example.

Rotor RPM. The faster the rotor spins, the greater the gyro’s rigidity.

The rigidity of a gyroscope is increased if the mass is increased, the effective radius at which
the mass operates is increased, or if the rotor rpm is increased.

The formula for precession rate (Ω) is:

T
W =
Iw
Where T is the force (applied torque)

I is the moment of inertia of the rotor

ω is angular velocity (rotor rpm)

Therefore, to give an example, suppose in the above formula, a force of 10 newtons is applied to
a rotor spinning at 10,000 rpm and, with this gyro’s particular moment of inertia, a precession
rate of 10º a minute results.

If we now double the force to 20 newtons, the precession rate will increase to 20º a minute. If we
double the moment of inertia, by changing the rotor or adding weights to it, the precession rate
will halve. If we keep the original moment of inertia but double the rotor rpm, the precession
rate will also halve, reducing to 5º a minute.

Therefore the rate of precession is directly proportional to the applied torque but inversely
proportional to the moment of inertia and the rotor rpm rate.

Effectively, this means that precession and rigidity are opposite characteristics. If a gyro has a
lot of rigidity, it will not precess very much. If it precesses a lot, it cannot be very rigid.

We use both properties in different applications. The directional gyro indicator and the artificial
horizon are applications in which high rigidity is required. We are measuring angles (heading
change, pitch, bank) from the gyro-defined datum. However, the rate of turn indicator measures
the gyro’s precession in order to indicate turn rate. We are measuring angular rate (ie, degrees/

149

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 10 Gyroscopes

sec), not angles (degrees). It is more accurate if we measure a lot of precession rather than a
little, so the rate of turn indicator’s gyro is less rigid and results in more precession. This is
why the gyros of rate of turn indicators are designed to run at significantly lower rpm rates than
those used in DGIs and artificial horizons.

WANDER

Despite this property of rigidity, the orientation of a gyro axis may alter over time. Any
departure of a gyro axis from its original orientation is called wander. Wander may be either
real or apparent (the difference is explained below) or a combination of both. Wander is sub-
divided into drift and topple.

Fig 10.8 Horizontal wander of the gyro axis - drift

If the gyro axis wanders in the horizontal plane, it is called drift, either real or apparent (Fig
10.8).

Fig 10.9 Vertical wander of the gyro axis – topple

If the gyro axis wanders in the vertical plane, it is called topple, either real or apparent (Fig
10.9).

Horizontal axis gyros can both drift and topple – as seen in Figs 10.8 and 10.9. However, vertical
axis gyros can only topple. They can topple either forwards, backwards or sideways, as shown
in Fig 10.10 – but they cannot drift.

150

Aviation ebooks Company

Gyroscopes Chapter 10

Fig 10.10 Vertical axis – topple, but no drift

REAL AND APPARENT WANDER

As stated before, gyro wander, whether drift or topple, can be sub-divided into real and apparent
wander:

Real Wander. In real wander, the axis of the gyro moves with respect to inertial space.
This departure from the original orientation is caused by manufacturing imperfections,
such as uneven rotor bearing friction, gimbal friction, imbalance in the mass of the rotor
and unbalanced gimbals. Real wander can be reduced by higher quality engineering and
manufacturing. Depending on the application, the cost of reducing real wander may not be
justified by the level of accuracy required. As with instrument error, gyros need to be as accurate
as the need of the application in use, but over-engineering costs extra money. Real wander can
also be known as ‘random’ wander.

151

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 10 Gyroscopes

Apparent Wander. However, even if all real wander were eliminated and the gyro remained in
the same orientation in space (for instance, pointing at a distant star) the direction indicated by
a gyro would still change. This is because of changes in the observer’s frame of reference. One
is caused by the rotation of the Earth and is called Earth Rate. The other is caused by flight east
or west at latitudes other than the Equator and is called Transport Wander.

Earth Rate. Imagine an aircraft parked on the equator with a gyro axis pointing to True North,
ie, aligned with the local meridian.

As the Earth rotates from position 1 to position 2,

the gyro axis remains fixed in space and also remains
aligned with the local meridian.

Fig 10.11 No Horizontal component

of Earth Rate at the Equator

152

Aviation ebooks Company

Gyroscopes Chapter 10

However, at a Pole:

At the Pole, the gyro remains aligned in space

but the meridian direction (ie, the direction
of local True North) changes as the Earth
rotates. Therefore we get the full Earth Rate
of 15º per hour. For anywhere between the
equator and the Pole:

Earth Rate = 15 x sine latitude º/hour

(The earth rotates one revolution (360º) in

1 day (24 hours). Therefore the earth’s spin
rate is 15º/hour. Latitude at the pole is 90º
and sine 90º =1. Latitude at the Equator is 0º
and sine 0º = 0).

Whether Earth Rate is positive or negative

depends on the earth hemisphere. In Fig
10.12, we are in the Northern Hemisphere. Fig 10.12 Full Horizontal component
At position 1, the aircraft and the gyro are of Earth Rate at a Pole
both pointing north. At position 2, the gyro
remains orientated to the original ‘gyro north’, but the local Earth direction of the parked aircraft
is up the local meridian, ie, True North. If the gyro is taken as the datum, the aircraft is now on
a heading of about 280º. The gyro heading has appeared to decrease. We call this a negative
Earth Rate and so it has a value of -15 x sine latitude º/hour.

However, suppose the aircraft were parked in the southern hemisphere, as in Fig 10.13 below.

The Earth rotates eastwards. As seen from

above the N pole, looking down, (Fig 10.12)
this is anti-clockwise. However, when seen
from the S pole looking upwards, as in Fig
10.13, this is a clockwise rotation. If the
aircraft is parked pointing northwards (12
o’clock in position 1), when the earth rotates,
the aircraft is now still pointing in a direction
of True North (outwards from the S pole,
point about 3 o’clock in the above diagram,
but if the gyro is taken as the datum the gyro
heading is about 080º. The gyro heading has
appeared to increase.

Fig 10.13 Earth Rate at the South Pole

Therefore Earth Rate is negative in the Northern Hemisphere

and Earth Rate is positive in the Southern Hemisphere

153

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 10 Gyroscopes

Transport Wander. Although Transport Wander

takes place at the same time as Earth Rate, we
shall explain them separately for simplicity.
So, disregarding Earth Rate, imagine the Earth
stopped in space, not rotating.

The aircraft flies from Los Angeles to London

(the red track in Fig 10.14). The gyro is aligned
with the local meridian at Los Angeles (the local
True north). This is the solid white line. When
the aircraft arrives in London, the gyro is still
aligned with the same direction in space (the
dotted white line). However, the actual direction
of True North from London is the line connecting
London to the North Pole. The difference is the
Transport Wander, which is in fact the difference
in the alignment of the meridians at Los Angleles
and London. Horizontal Transport Wander is
actually meridian convergence.
Fig 10.14 Horizontal Transport Wander

The formula for Transport Wander is:

m
Transport Wander = tan l° per hour
60

where u = easterly component of groundspeed

and λ = latitude

Transport Wander is also negative in the Northern Hemisphere and positive in the southern
Hemisphere.

Example Calculation: A directional gyro is set to read 090º. The aircraft flies for 80 minutes
on a track of 090ºT along the parallel of 20ºN at a groundspeed of 540 knots. What is the gyro
reading on completion if there is no change of the aircraft’s True heading?

Earth Rate = -15 sin 20° /hour = -5.13°/hour

Transport Wander = 540/60 x tan 20 °/hour = -3.275 °/hour

Total = -8.405 °/hour

-8.405°/hour for 80 minutes = -11.2°

Answer: 090° (original gyro heading) -11.2° = 078.8°

TYPES OF GYRO – BY FUNCTION

Some gyros measure angles, eg, 10º of pitch, 5º of bank, 30º of heading change, etc. These are
called displacement gyros. Others measure angular rate, eg, a turn rate of 3º per second. These
are called rate gyros.

154

Aviation ebooks Company

Gyroscopes Chapter 10

Displacement gyros have 2 gimbals and 2 degrees of freedom. Examples are the Directional
Gyro Indicator (DGI) and the Artificial Horizon. Rate gyros have one gimbal and one degree
of freedom and are used in the Rate of Turn Indicator and in yaw dampers.

(There is also another category – the rate integrating gyro – which is a kind of hybrid. It detects angular
rate but its output is treated as displacement. It has one degree of freedom but it behaves as though it had
two. This type is used in most, though not all, Inertial Navigation Systems).

Displacement gyros can be sub-divided into space gyros or tied gyros. Space gyros have
gyroscopic inertia with reference to a point in space. They are free to wander and, if they
do, nothing corrects them back to their original datum. Therefore they need to have a rate of
real wander which is so low that it may be considered negligible for practical purposes. Space
gyros need to be very accurate indeed and they are correspondingly expensive. They are used
in Inertial Navigation Systems.

With tied gyros, if they wander, they are restored back to some orientation by an external
force. Tied gyros are maintained in some particular attitude or direction rather than space. For
instance, the directional gyro of a gyro-magnetic compass is slaved to remain oriented to the
magnetic north.

An earth gyro is one which is maintained vertical or horizontal with respect to local gravity.
The Artificial Horizon is an example. Earth gyros are a sub-set of tied gyros. Therefore, all
earth gyros are tied gyros, but not all tied gyros are earth gyros.

155

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 10 Gyroscopes

TYPES OF GYRO – BY CONSTRUCTION

Tuned Rotor. Tuned Rotor gyros are the traditional ‘spinning disc’ type. These are fitted to all
elementary and most intermediate types of training aircraft. The basic DGI, Artificial Horizon
and Turn Meter covered in the next three chapters are all Tuned Rotors.

Ring Laser Gyros. Ring Laser Gyros (RLGs) emerged in the 1980s and are now used in nearly
all modern airliners. They work by comparing 2 light paths round a glass prism. They offer
greater reliability and accuracy but are more expensive.

Fibre Optic Gyros. Fibre Optic Gyros (FOGs) are an extension of the RLG principle. They have
only recently become accurate enough for aircraft applications and the Airbus A380 is the first
commercial aircraft to use them.

TYPES OF GYRO – SUCTION OR ELECTRIC POWER

Tuned rotor gyros may be either air-driven (suction) or electric powered.

For the air-driven type, an engine-driven vacuum pump or carburettor venturi pressure (or
venturi tube on some light aircraft) reduces the pressure in the instrument case so that filtered
replacement air is sucked in and led through a jet which blows onto ‘buckets’ cut in the periphery
of the rotor to make it spin – the same principle as a water wheel.

In electric gyros, the rotor is part of an electric motor

Suction Gyros. Suction Gyros are independent of electric power and so are not affected by
electrical failure. But moisture, dust, oil and grit in the airflow block the filter, giving variable
rotor rpm. At high altitude, the engine manifold pressure available may be insufficient to
maintain rotor speed. Furthermore, any atmospheric impurities which penetrate the filter can
reduce bearing life and unbalance gimbals, thereby impairing accuracy.

Electric Gyros. Electric gyros are generally more expensive and heavier than the air-driven
type and they require power supplies. However, they can be faster and have more moment of
inertia. The rotor rpm can be more rapidly achieved and then maintained more accurately.

Therefore, on non-electronic training aircraft, the main gyro instruments are usually electric
powered for greater accuracy whilst the standby instruments are often air-driven in order to
still be available after a power failure.

Alternate Power Sources. Both types can suffer from failure of power sources. The electric
type will have some type of ‘flag’ indicator to show the pilot if this happens so that he can
select standby power or switch to the standby instrument. Pneumatically driven gyroscopes
usually have an air pressure indicator (often called the ‘suction’ gauge) to show failure of the
vacuum pump. Some air-driven gyroscopes have an alternate power source which is manually
selected.

GYRO LIMITATIONS AND ERRORS

Apart from wander, which is an inherent property of any gyro, there are various other errors
and limitations. These are:

Gimbal errors
Gimbal lock
Cross-coupling

156

Aviation ebooks Company

Gyroscopes Chapter 10

Gimbal Errors. Take the case of the two-degree-

of-freedom system shown in Figure 10.15:

Assume that the aircraft is travelling left to right

across the page and that the horizontal axis
shown in the diagram is the aircraft longitudinal
axis.

Now imagine that the aircraft banks to the left.

The gyro, and therefore the inner gimbal, will
stay horizontal to the earth but the outer gimbal
will take up the aircraft angle of bank. The aircraft
will start to turn (change heading).

Fig 10.15 Two gimbals, two degrees of freedom

Fig 10.16 Effect of bank

One form of gimbal error is caused because the change of aircraft heading is about the earth
vertical axis but the gyro outer gimbal is measuring turn around the yawing axis.

There are subsequent more complex errors. Unless the gyro frame (ie, the aircraft) is rotated
about one of the gyro axes, the outer gimbal ring must move if the direction of the rotor axis is
to remain undisturbed. As the turn takes effect, the relationship between the gyro XX axis and
the aircraft’s longitudinal axis alters, leading to measurement errors. The detail is beyond the
scope of the JAA syllabus, but the errors occur when flying on quadrantal headings and also if
the aircraft pitches during turns.

157

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 10 Gyroscopes

Gimbal Lock. The ultimate case of gimbal interaction is gimbal lock, which occurs if the
aircraft continues its bank to 90º. In this case, the inner and the outer gimbal take up the same
orientation, as shown in Fig 10.17. The gimbals still give the freedom to continue any roll, but
one degree of freedom has been lost. If the pilot were now to pull back on the control column
(ie, rotate in the looping plane), the gyro would now be forced out of its orientation. This would
result in precession of the gyro, probably violently, usually described as ‘toppling’.

Fig 10.17 Gimbal Lock

For most unsophisticated aircraft, gimbal lock is a problem and will result in toppling, that
is, temporary loss of the use of the gyro until it can be re-erected. For more complex aircraft,
especially those with aerobatic manoeuvrability, it can be avoided, either by the use of a fourth
gimbal or by a gimbal flip mechanism.

Gimbal flip incorporates a powerful torque motor. When the inner and outer gimbals are
nearing a locked situation, the motor is triggered to rapidly flip the outer gimbal round by 180º,
thereby restoring freedom.

Cross-coupling. Gyro errors can result from sensitivity to angular inputs about axes
perpendicular to that being measured. Cross-coupling is more likely to occur if the mass of
the gyro unit (gyro plus case) is not centrally distributed. This error is not discussed further
here.

DATA GENERATION UNIT

The JAA often use the tern ‘Data Generator’ or Data Generation Unit’, though this is not a
common term in British use. A vertical Data Generator is a vertical axis displacement gyro and
a horizontal Data Generator is a horizontal axis displacement gyro.

158

Aviation ebooks Company

Gyroscopes Chapter 10

QUESTIONS

1. Rigidity of a gyroscope depends on:

a. weight, force applied and speed of rotation.

b. rate of precession and the force applied.
c. weight, rate of precession and speed of rotation.
d. mass, radius of gyration and speed of rotation.

2. A force is applied to deflect a gyroscope. If the RPM of the gyro is then doubled the precession
rate will:

a. remain as before.
b. increase.
c. decrease.
d. cease altogether.

3. In gyroscopic theory the term ‘topple’ is defined as:

a. real wander only, in the horizontal plane.

b. real wander only, in the vertical plane.
c. wander, real or apparent, in the vertical plane.
d. wander, real or apparent, in the horizontal plane.

4. A force applied to the spinning axis of a rotor is precessed:

a. through 90° in the direction of spin of the rotor.

b. through 90° in the direction of spin of the rotor in the northern hemisphere through 90°
in the opposite direction in the southern hemisphere.
c. through 270° in the direction of spin of the rotor.
d. at a rate proportional to the speed of rotation of the gyro.

5 A gyro with no real drift is set to read the correct magnetic heading when the aircraft is heading
090º (T), variation 10ºE. After a 45 minutes flight eastwards along the parallel of 62N at 545 k
groundspeed, the gyro reading is:

a. 100.5°
b. 064.8°
c. 075.0°
d. 057.3°

6. Real wander of a gyro can be caused by:

a. asymmetrical friction at the spinning axis.

b. rotation of the earth.
c. increasing the RPM of the rotor.
d. moving the gyro north or south of its present position.

7. A gyro with only one degree of freedom is known as a:

a. tied gyro.
b. earth gyro.
c. space gyro.
d. rate gyro.

159

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 10 Gyroscopes

8. A perfectly balanced space gyro at the equator has its spin axis aligned with true north. After 6
hours the axis will be aligned with:

a. true east direction.

b. true west direction.
c. true north direction.
d. true south direction.

9. The main advantage of electric gyros are:

a. light weight, high RPM, constant speed, inexpensive.

b. high RPM, only require low voltage DC, constant speed, sealed casing.
c. high RPM, high moment of inertia, rapid build-up of speed, constant RPM.
d. sealed casing, constant speed, high precession rate, low cost.

10. Apparent wander of a gyro can be caused by:

a. rotation of the earth.

b. clear air turbulence.
c. gimbal friction.
d. external torque.

160

Aviation ebooks Company

Gyroscopes Chapter 10

161

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 10 Gyroscopes

ANSWERS

1 D

2 C

3 C

4 A

5 D

6 A

7 D

8 C

9 C

10 A

162

Aviation ebooks Company

Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) Chapter 11

CHAPTER ELEVEN

DIRECTIONAL GYRO INDICATOR (DGI)

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
THE PRINCIPLE AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE DGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
THE CONTROL SYSTEM - SUCTION GYROS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
THE CAGING DEVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
DGI LIMITATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
DGI ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
GIMBALLING ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
RANDOM WANDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
APPARENT WANDER (DUE TO ROTATION OF THE EARTH) . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
LATITUDE NUT CORRECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
ERRORS DUE TO UNSTABLE ROTOR RPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
EFFECT OF CHANGE OF AIRCRAFT LATITUDE ON COMPENSATED DGI. . . . . 174
TRANSPORT WANDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
DRIFT RATE CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

163

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 11 Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI)

164

Aviation ebooks Company

Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) Chapter 11

INTRODUCTION

The directional gyro indicator (DGI), often called the ‘direction indicator’ (DI) provides a
stable directional reference in azimuth for maintaining accurate headings and for executing
precise turns. There is no magnetic element in the DI, so it is not North-seeking and must
initially be synchronised with the magnetic compass. The synchronisation must be checked at
regular intervals because of real and apparent gyro wander (drift). The DGI does not therefore
replace the compass; its stable, dead-beat indications are complementary to the North-seeking
capability of the compass. Having no magnetic element, the DGI does not suffer from the
compass turning and acceleration errors produced by the vertical component of the earth’s
magnetic field.

Vertical Display (Old) Horizontal Display (Modern)

Vertical Display (Old) Horizontal Display (Modern)
Figure 11.1. Two Directional Gyro Indicators.
Figure 11.1 Two Directional Gyro Indicators

THE PRINCIPLE AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE DGI

The DI employs a tied gyro, that is to say, a gyro having freedom of movement in three planes
mutually at right angles but with the rotor axis maintained in the yawing plane of the aircraft.
This means that the rotor axis is horizontal in level flight, and because of gyroscopic rigidity it
provides the datum from which heading can be measured.

The rotor is mounted in the inner gimbal (on bearings mounted in the outer gimbal) which has
restricted freedom to turn. The outer gimbal can rotate through 360° about the aircraft’s vertical
axis, on bearings in the case.

165

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 11 Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI)

Figure 11.2 An Air Driven Directional Gyro

Note that the rotor axis, the inner gimbal axis, and the outer gimbal axis are mutually at right
angles.

During a turn, the aircraft and instrument case turn on the vertical axis bearings of the outer
gimbal whilst the gyro rotor, gimbals and indicating scale all remain fixed in azimuth because
of gyroscopic rigidity.

Heading is indicated on the scale by a lubber line painted on a glass window in the instrument
case. Some designs have a circular vertical-card indicating scale geared to the outer gimbal, in
place of the cylindrical scale fixed to the outer gimbal in the earlier type shown in Figure 11.1.

THE CONTROL SYSTEM - SUCTION GYROS

With earlier designs of DGI, the rotor is driven by twin jets of air applied from the outer gimbal
ring. Suction is applied to the case of the instrument, and replacement air enters the case
through a filter and is ducted to the jets on the outer gimbal which act on
‘buckets’ cut in the rotor.

The jets not only spin the rotor but also serve to maintain or tie the rotor axis in the yawing
plane of the aircraft.

The rotor axis is lying in the yawing plane and therefore at right angles to the outer gimbal
axis, the full force ‘X’ of the jets being used to drive the rotor (Figure 11.3). If the aircraft banks,
gyroscopic rigidity keeps the rotor axis fixed in space and it is therefore no longer in the yawing
plane.

The outer gimbal axis is no longer at right angles to the rotor axis, so the jet driving force ‘X’
acts at an angle to the plane of the rotor.

166

Aviation ebooks Company

Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) Chapter 11

This force can now be resolved into two components, component ‘Y’ in the plane of rotation
maintaining the spin of the rotor, and component ‘Z’ acting at 90° to the plane of rotation (Figure
11.4).

Because this is a gyro, the component ‘Z’ will precess the rotor as if the force had been applied
at a point 90° around the circumference of the rotor in the direction of its spin.

The result will be as though a force ‘Q’ (Figure 11.4) was operating to re-erect the rotor with
its axis in the yawing plane. If the heading is such that the rotor axis is aligned with the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft, the application of bank alone (with no turn) will not displace
the rotor axis from the yawing plane. This aspect is mentioned again in the paragraph on
limitations.

Figure
Figure11.3
11.3.Rotor Axis
Rotor in Yawing
Axis Plane
in Yawing Figure 11.4 Rotor Axis Displaced
Figure 11.4. Rotor Axis Displaced.
Plane.
A second control system, which is usually combined with the above system works as follows:
The jet of air spins the rotor and then flows round the outside of the rotor inside a metal case,
as shown in Figure 11.5.

The air leaving the case is directed at a wedge plate fixed to the outer gimbal. When the
gyro is correctly erected, this ‘exhaust’ jet is divided by the wedge plate into two equal streams
producing equal reactions on the outer gimbal (R1 & R2). As soon as the rotor axis is displaced
from the yawing plane the streams become unbalanced (Figure 11.6) and the reactions on the
outer gimbal at the wedge plate also become unequal.

The resultant of these reactions applies a torque to the outer gimbal about the vertical axis of the
gyro. This torque is instantaneously transmitted by the outer gimbal to the inner gimbal and is
represented by force ‘F’ in Figure 11.6. This makes the rotor and inner gimbal precess.

Figure 11.5
Figure 11.5.Rotor
RotorAxis in Yawing
Axis Plane
in Yawing Plane FigureFigure
11.6. 11.6 Rotor
Rotor AxisAxis Displaced
Displaced.

167

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 11 Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI)

Thus an effective force ‘P’ acts to re-erect the rotor axis back into the yawing plane. If the gyro
was displaced so far that the jet was nowhere near the wedge plate, then the first system would
restore the gyro to its correct position.

The jet provides coarse adjustment and the wedge plate fine adjustment.

THE CAGING DEVICE

On the front of the instrument (see Figure 11.2) there is a caging knob which, when pushed in,
moves a caging arm which locks the inner gimbal at right angles to the outer gimbal so locking
the rotor axis in the yawing plane. At the same time a gear engages with the outer gimbal
so that by turning the knob the gyro can be rotated and the scale reading synchronised with
(usually) the compass reading.

The caging device is designed as described in order that:

¾¾ The DGI can be synchronised with the compass and reset as required.

¾¾ The gyro will not topple during synchronisation.

¾¾ Toppling and possible damage to the instrument can be prevented by caging before
manoeuvres in which pitch and roll limits may be exceeded.

¾¾ The gyro can be instantly re-erected and re-synchronised if it has toppled.

DGI LIMITATIONS

If the aircraft exceeds the pitch or roll limits of 85° (55°in air driven gyro DI’s) the gyro will
topple as the inner gimbal comes up against the stops, the precession causing the outer gimbal
and scale to spin rapidly. Exceptions to this can occur:

If the rotor axis is athwartships - 360° of aircraft rotation in the looping plane then being possible
without toppling the gyro.

If the rotor axis is fore and aft - 360° of roll then being possible without toppling.

The actual indications on the scale at which these two situations can arise depend on the vintage
and manufacture of the instrument.

DGI ERRORS

There are several reasons why it is virtually impossible for a DGI to remain synchronised
with the compass. The most significant errors are listed below and dealt with in subsequent
paragraphs.

¾¾ Gimballing errors.
¾¾ Random wander.
¾¾ Apparent wander due to earth's rotation.
¾¾ Errors resulting from varying rotor rpm.
¾¾ Apparent wander due to change of aircraft position (transport wander).

168

Aviation ebooks Company

Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) Chapter 11

GIMBALLING ERRORS

These are errors in the indications of the DGI which occur when bank is applied. If the errors
during a 360° turn are plotted, an approximate double sine curve results, with zero error on four
headings (90° apart) spaced between alternate positive and negative peaks (two of each). The
curve becomes more complex if pitch changes are made during the turn. The actual readings
on the DI at which the maximum errors occur depend on its make and mark.

The errors are small, provided deviations in attitude from the level position are only moderate,
and they disappear as soon as level flight is resumed. They occur because of the geometry of
the gimbal system, in that unless the instrument case (and the aircraft bolted to it) are able to
rotate about one of the axes of the gyro, the outer gimbal itself must move - giving an error - if
the rotor axis is to maintain its fixed direction.

RANDOM WANDER

The gyro rotor axis may change its direction in space (real wander) or appear to change its
direction (apparent wander) or suffer from both.

More details of real wander, which is mainly the ‘random wander’ due to manufacturing
imperfections, are given in the chapter entitled ‘Gyroscopes’. In the case of the DGI, gyroscopic
rigidity is high and random wander (or drift) rates are low.

An air-driven type with the rotor spinning at 10,000 rpm has a drift rate of about 1.6° /hr. A later
design with rpm of 20,000 has a quoted drift rate of 1.2°/hr.

Lower rates of only a few degrees per hour are possible with electrically driven indicators. The
random wander rates with gyroscopes used in inertial navigation systems may be less than
0.01°/hr.

APPARENT WANDER (DUE TO ROTATION OF THE EARTH)

The apparent wander (or drift) of an azimuth gyro has already been mentioned briefly in the
chapter on gyroscopes. It is now necessary to consider the magnitude of this wander.

An azimuth gyro (with the axis of the spinning rotor horizontal) is set up in gimbals and frame
at the North (or South) pole. The rotor axis will stay rigid in space (assuming zero real wander)
while the earth rotates under it through 360° in one day or 360/24 = 15° in one hour.

An observer standing still watching the gyro, will move (with the earth) once round it in 24
hours (See Figure 11.7).

If the gyro is the DGI, its reading will be decreasing (at the North pole) at a rate of 15° /hr.
At the South pole the reading would increase at the same rate. This is the maximum rate of
apparent wander due to the earth’s rotation.

Figure 11.8. shows a gyroscope set up on the ground at the equator with the axis horizontal and
aligned North/South. In 24 hours, the observer and gyro will move with the earth once round
the earth’s axis of rotation. There is no change in the direction of the rotor axis relative to the
meridian, so there is zero apparent drift. The apparent drift rate due to the earth’s rotation is
therefore a function of latitude, being maximum at the pole and zero at the equator.

169

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 11 Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI)

Figure 11.7 Apparent Wander at the North Pole

Figure 11.7. Apparent Wander at the North Pole.

Figure 11.8 Apparent Wander at the Equator

Figure 11.8. Apparent Wander at the Equator.

170

Aviation ebooks Company

Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) Chapter 11

Figure 11.9(a) Apparent Wander at Intermediate Latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere

Figure 11.9(a). Apparent Wander at Intermediate Latitudes in the
Northern Hemisphere.

Figure 11.9(b). Apparent Wander at Intermediate Latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.

Figure 11.9(b). Apparent Wander at Intermediate Latitudes in the
Southern Hemisphere.
171

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 11 Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI)

Figure 11.9(a) demonstrates how the apparent drift due to the earth’s rotation causes the reading
of a DI to decrease in the Northern hemisphere.

At A, an observer looking North at the DGI reads 360°. When the observer and his gyro have
rotated with the earth to B, the observer will see a value some degrees West of North (a DGI
reading of less than 360°) because gyroscopic rigidity is keeping the gyro rotor axis aligned
with a fixed direction in space.

The rotor axis cannot remain aligned N/S with the meridian because the latter, except at the
equator, is continually changing its direction in space - its spatial orientation - as the earth
rotates.
As the observer and gyro continue to rotate with the earth, the readings will decrease further.
Similarly, it can be seen that if an observer and gyro located in the Southern hemisphere rotate
with the earth from E, the readings of the DGI will increase.

Figure 11.10. shows graphically the variation of apparent drift with latitude. The drift rate is
proportional to the sine of the latitude, so that assuming there is zero random drift and no
compensation has been made:-

Apparent drift rate = 15 x sin lat (degrees per hour)

Note that this can only be correct if the gyro is ‘stationary’, meaning that it is not being moved
or ‘transported’ from one place to another.

Figure 11.10 The Rate of Apparent Wander on an Uncorrected Gyro

Figure 11.10 The Rate of Apparent Wander on an Uncorrected Gyro.

LATITUDE NUT CORRECTION

Compensation for apparent wander (drift) due to the rotation of the earth is by means of an
adjustable latitude rider nut on a threaded stud fixed horizontally to the inner gimbal.

In its central position (Figure 11.11.) the effect of the nut is cancelled by a counter-balance weight
on the opposite side of the gimbal.

172

Aviation ebooks Company

Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) Chapter 11

Screwed out a few turns, the nut applies a downward moment on the gimbal. This force, with
the usual precession rule applied, produces (viewed from above) an anticlockwise precession
of the gyro, including its scale, in azimuth. This would cause the reading in the window to
increase.

Conversely, if the nut is wound in, clockwise precession occurs, making the readings decrease.
Apparent drift due to the rotation of the earth can therefore be cancelled for a given latitude by
using the latitude nut to produce an equal and opposite real drift. The ability to screw the nut
in or out enables compensation to be made for increasing readings (Southern hemisphere) or
decreasing readings (Northern hemisphere).

Figure 11.11 Compensation for Apparent Wander

Figure 11.11. Compensation for Apparent Wander.
The setting can only be changed under workshop conditions (not in the aircraft) so that
compensation will only be correct for the chosen latitude. However, errors due to latitude
changes are usually small compared with random wander errors of the DI.

Should the aircraft be moved to a new operating area involving a latitude change of the order of
60°, a DGI with the appropriate latitude correction would probably be substituted.

Figure 11.12. illustrates graphically the effect of compensating a gyro for the apparent drift of
minus 13°/hr at 60°N (15 sin 60°).

The latitude nut introduces a real drift of plus 13°/hr so that the resultant drift (assuming no
random error) will be zero at 60°N. It will be realised that the compensation of + 13°/hr applied
for 60°N will now be present at all latitudes, and this is represented in the graph by renumbering
the drift scale.

The drift in the region of 60°N is negligible after compensation but if the aircraft is now moved
to an area South of the equator the drift values will be greater than if no compensation had been
made (as a study of Figure 11.12. will show).

173

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 11 Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI)

Figure
Figure11.12
11.12 Gyro
GyroCorrected for60°N
Corrected for 60ºN.

ERRORS DUE TO UNSTABLE ROTOR RPM

Since the rate of precession of a gyro depends on rotor rpm, over which no precise control is
maintained in a suction-driven DGI, the latitude nut compensation is only approximate.

For instance, at high altitude with inadequate suction, the rotor rpm will be lower than the
design value. This results in reduced gyroscopic rigidity and the latitude nut produces too
high a precession rate, so over-correcting the apparent drift. Should rpm exceed the design
figure, which is less likely to occur, the rigidity would increase and the latitude nut would
produce a lower rate of precession so under-correcting the apparent drift.

EFFECT OF CHANGE OF AIRCRAFT LATITUDE ON COMPENSATED DGI.

It has already been stated that the apparent drift rate due to the earth’s rotation varies with the
sine of the latitude (Figure11.10.).

If we consider an aircraft tracking due North, starting from the equator, the initial apparent drift
rate of an uncorrected gyro is zero. As the flight progresses, the reading of the DGI decreases.
By the time the aircraft reaches 30°N, the DGI reading is decreasing at a rate of 7½°/hr, and at
60°N it is decreasing at 13°/hr. It should be clear that in flight due North or South from the
equator at constant ground speed the value of the apparent drift rate will increase from zero to
an value of 15 sin lat °/hr at the pole. The rate of increase of drift rate will not be linear - because
of the sine function. The same applies if a compensated gyro is transported North or South of
its latitude of correction.

174

Aviation ebooks Company

Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) Chapter 11

TRANSPORT WANDER

At any latitude other than the equator, meridians (which define local North) are not parallel. If
the gyro is aligned to one meridian, then flown East to West, the new meridian will be inclined
to the old by Transport Wander.

Summarising:

Flight North from the ‘corrected latitude’ gives a decreasing reading (a minus drift rate).

Flight South from the ‘corrected latitude’ gives an increasing reading (a plus drift rate).

Flight away from the ‘corrected latitude’ results in the drift rate increasing

Flight towards the ‘corrected latitude’ results in the drift rate decreasing

DRIFT RATE CALCULATIONS

Example 1
An aircraft is stationary at 60°N. Calculate the hourly wander rate, for an uncompensated
gyro.

Solution 1

Apparent wander = - 15 x sin 60°(decreasing)°/hr = - 12.99°/hr

Example 2
An aircraft is stationary at 50°N. Assuming the DGI has no random error and is corrected for
apparent drift due to the earth’s rotation at 50°N, calculate the hourly wander rate.

Solution 2

Random wander = 0°/hr 0

Latitude nut correction = + 15 x sin 50° (increasing)°/hr = +11.49°/hr

Apparent wander = - 15 x sin 50° (decreasing)°/hr = - 11.49°/hr

Total observed drift = zero

Example 3
What is the hourly drift rate of a DGI in an aircraft at 25°S, if the gyro has been corrected for
10°N?

Solution 3

Latitude nut correction = + 15 x sin 10° (increasing) °/hr = + 2.60°/hr

Apparent wander = + 15 x sin 25° (increasing) °/hr = + 6.34°/hr

Total observed drift = + 8.94°/hr

(Increasing)

175

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 11 Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI)

QUESTIONS

1. A directional gyro indicator is basically a:

a. horizontal axis earth gyro.

b. horizontal axis tied gyro.
c. vertical axis earth gyro.
d. vertical axis tied gyro.

2. Apparent wander may be corrected in a DGI by:

a. causing the gyro to precess in a clockwise direction (in the northern hemisphere).
b. attaching a bias weight to the inner gimbal which makes the gyro precess in azimuth in
the same direction as apparent wander.
c. correcting wander by means of air jets.
d. attaching a bias weight to the inner gimbal which makes the gyro precess in azimuth in
the opposite direction to apparent wander.

3. An air driven DGI is corrected for apparent wander at 56 N. If the aircraft is maintaining
constant DGI readings:

a. when flying north from 56 N the true heading of the aircraft will decrease.
b. when flying east from 56 N the true heading will decrease.
c. when flying south from 56 N the true heading will decrease.
d. when flying west from 56 N the true heading will increase.

4. The formula used to calculate apparent wander of a directional gyro in the northern hemisphere
is:

a. +15 sine latitude in degrees for the time of running.

b. +15 sine latitude in degrees per hour.
c. -15 sine latitude in degrees per hour.
d. 15 sine latitude in degrees per hour increasing.

5. Errors of the directional gyro are:

a. acceleration error, turning error, altitude error, transport wander, rotor speed error.
b. gimballing error, random wander, apparent wander, rotor speed error, transport
wander.
c. gimballing error, looping error, rolling error, rotor speed error, transport wander.
d. transport wander, apparent wander, latitude error, turning error, acceleration error.

6. The spin axis of a directional gyro is maintained in ....... by means of ...... in an air driven gyro
and by means of a ....... in an electrically driven gyro:

a. the horizontal plane; air jets; wedge plate.

b. the vertical plane; air jets; torque motor.
c. the yawing plane; air jets; torque motor.
d. the yawing plane; air jets; wedge plate.

176

Aviation ebooks Company

Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) Chapter 11

7. The purpose of the caging knob is:

a. to prevent the gyro toppling.

b. to reset the heading.
c. to reset the heading and to prevent toppling.
d. to prevent apparent wander.

8. In an air driven directional gyro the air jets are attached to:

a. the inner gimbal.

b. the outer gimbal.
c. the instrument casing.
d. the rotor axis.

9. The limits of pitch and roll for a modern directional gyro are respectively:

a. 55 and 85
b. 85 and 55
c. 55 and 55
d. 85 and 85

10. Gimballing error:

a. will disappear after a turn is completed.

b. will remain until the gyro is reset.
c. will only occur during a 360 turn.
d. will be zero on only two headings during a 360 turn.

177

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 11 Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI)

ANSWERS

1 B

2 D

3 C

4 C

5 B

6 C

7 C

8 B

9 D

10 A

178

Aviation ebooks Company

The Artificial Horizon Chapter 12

CHAPTER TWELVE

THE ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

Contents

THE ARTIFICIAL HORIZON INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
ARTIFICIAL HORIZON INDICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
LIMITATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
THE AIR DRIVEN ARTIFICIAL HORIZON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
ACCELERATION ERROR IN THE AIR DRIVEN ARTIFICIAL HORIZON . . . . . . 186
TURNING ERRORS IN THE AIR DRIVEN ARTIFICIAL HORIZON . . . . . . . . . . 188
RIGIDITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
SERVICEABILITY CHECKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
THE ELECTRIC ARTIFICIAL HORIZON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
ELECTRIC ARTIFICIAL HORIZON CONTROL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
ACCELERATION ERRORS IN THE ELECTRIC HORIZON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
FAST ERECTION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
ADJUSTABLE AEROPLANE DATUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
VERTICAL GYRO UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

179

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 12 The Artificial Horizon

180

Aviation ebooks Company

The Artificial Horizon Chapter 12

THE ARTIFICIAL HORIZON INTRODUCTION

The artificial horizon (AH) provides the pilot with information in terms of the aircraft’s attitude
both in pitch and roll. It is a primary instrument, replacing the natural horizon in poor visibility.
The attitude display consists of a miniature aircraft shape or ‘gull-wing’ (tail view) painted or
engraved centrally on the inside of the glass face of the instrument, and therefore fixed to the
instrument case and the actual aircraft. Behind this representation of the aircraft is the horizon
bar, linked to the gyro in such a way that the bar is gyro-stabilised parallel to the true horizon.
The artificial horizon may be suction or electrically driven. It is also known as a gyro horizon
and attitude indicator.

CONSTRUCTION

The artificial horizon uses an Earth gyro in which the spin axis is maintained in, or tied to,
the vertical by Earth’s gravity. This means that the plane of the rotor rotation is horizontal, so
providing the stable lateral and longitudinal references required.

The basis of construction of an artificial horizon is illustrated in Figure 12.1.

Figure
Figure12.1.
12.1 Pitch andArtificial
Pitch and ArtificialHorizon
Horizon.

181

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 12 The Artificial Horizon

ARTIFICIAL HORIZON INDICATIONS

Figure 12.1. shows the three axes of the gyro; XX, YY and ZZ. Because the gyro is tied to the
vertical note that the axis XX (the spin axis) will remain Earth vertical and therefore the axis YY
will be Earth horizontal when the aircraft is straight and level.

Figure12.2.
Figure 12.2 A Nose
NoseUp
UpAttitude
Attitude.

Pitch
Figure 12.1. shows the level-flight attitude display and two views of the instrument with the
case removed.

In Figure 12.2. a nose-up attitude (of 10 degrees) is shown. The pitch-up movement has rotated
the case together with the attached outer gimbal ring about the lateral axis YY. As this occurs,
a guide pin protruding from the stabilised inner gimbal forces the horizon bar arm down. The
horizon bar is now below the gull-wing producing the nose-up indication. (Figure 12.5. shows
the gimbal rings and the pitch-indication linkage in greater detail) The three views in Figure
12.3. relate to a pitch-down situation. Note that the angle of pitch may be selected using the
pitch markers shown.

Roll
In roll, as with pitch, the rigidity of the vertical gyro provides the stable attitude reference. As
the aircraft rolls (about the longitudinal axis - ZZ in the diagrams) the instrument case and the
gull-wing will rotate about the stabilised gyro rotor and gimbal system.

The gyroscopic rigidity of the spinning rotor holds the horizon bar in the rolling plane so that
the amount and direction of bank are displayed by the gull-wing relative to the horizon bar.
A more accurate indication of the amount of bank is given by a pointer attached to the outer
gimbal and showing bank angle on a scale painted on the face of the instrument.

182

Aviation ebooks Company

The Artificial Horizon Chapter 12

Figure12.3.
Figure 12.3 A
A Nose
NoseDown
DownAttitude
Attitude.

Figure 12.4.
Figure 12.4

Figure 12.4 shows a number of artificial horizon displays with the aircraft in different
attitudes.
Figure 12.4 shows a number of artificial horizon displays with the aircraft in different attitudes.

LIMITATIONS

The amount the case can move relative to the gyro is controlled by fixed stops. With older
designs, typical limits are ± 60° in pitch and 110° each way in roll. In modern instruments
there is complete freedom in roll and up to 85° (plus or minus) in pitch. If the limits are
exceeded, the gyro ‘topples’, giving violent and erratic movements of the horizon bar. Unless a
fast erection system is incorporated, accurate indications will not be obtained until the gyro has
re-erected itself over a period of 10 to 15 minutes.

183

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 12 The Artificial Horizon

CONTROL SYSTEMS

The rotor assembly is made very slightly bottom-heavy in order to keep down the time taken
for initial erection when the gyro is first started up, but a complex control system is required to
maintain the rotor axis vertical in flight. A suction or air driven artificial horizon exhausts air
through four slots which are normally half covered by four pendulous vanes. Electric artificial
horizons use levelling / mercury switches and torque motors.

Figure12.5.
Figure 12.5 The
The Air
Air Driven
DrivenArtificial Horizon.
ArtificialHorizon

THE AIR DRIVEN ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

In the air driven artificial horizon an engine-driven suction pump (or venturi tube in some
light aircraft) is used to create a suction of about 4 inches of mercury in the instrument case.
Replacement air, drawn in by this suction via a filter, is ducted through the outer and inner
gimbals to enter the rotor case as a jet which spins the rotor at up to 15,000 rpm. After driving
the rotor, the air passes into the instrument case through slots at the base of the rotor housing.

Control System
The control system of the air driven artificial horizon consists of four slots and four pendulous
(hanging) vanes at the base of the rotor housing. The vanes hang down so that when the rotor
axis is vertical each slot is half covered by its vane, and four equal jets of air emerge from the
slots, fore an aft and left and right, as in Figure 12.6. Because the four jets are of equal strength
but in opposite directions no force is exerted on the gyro and therefore no precession occurs
- the gyro rotor remaining vertical.

184

Aviation ebooks Company

The Artificial Horizon Chapter 12

Figure12.6.
Figure 12.6 Equilibrium
Equilibrium.

However the opposing vanes are fixed to a common spindle so that the four vanes operate as
two pairs. The positioning of the vanes is such that if the rotor axis wanders from the vertical,
one vane will hang clear of its slot, allowing unrestricted airflow, while the opposite slot is
completely obstructed by its vane. The resulting unbalanced airflow precesses the gyro and
corrects the tilt, returning the gyro axis to the vertical. Exactly how this correction is achieved
is shown in Figure 12.7.

The gyro has wandered from the vertical so that vanes A and C are not affected and remain half
covering their slots. However, vanes B and D, on a common spindle, hang down so that slot B
is now closed and D is wide open. A strong jet exits through D causing an equal and opposite
reaction ‘R’ on the gyro. This reaction is precessed through 90° in the direction of rotor spin
(anticlockwise hen viewed from the top) and acts in the direction of ‘P’ which restores the gyro
axis to the vertical.

Figure 12.7.
Figure 12.7 Rotor
RotorAxis
Axis Displaced fromVertical
Displaced from Vertical.

185

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 12 The Artificial Horizon

ACCELERATION ERROR IN THE AIR DRIVEN ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

The control system of the air driven artificial horizon depends on the pendulous vanes being
affected by the Earth’s gravity. However, the vanes will be affected by any acceleration, not just
that due to gravity.

When an aircraft accelerates in a level attitude (such as during the take-off run) a false nose up,
right wing down, or climbing right hand turn indication will result. The pitch error is due to
the effect of acceleration on the lateral pendulous vanes. The roll error is due to the inertia of
the bottom-heavy rotor housing. These effects are now considered in more depth.

¾¾ Pitch Error. During acceleration, the lateral vanes lag, swinging back towards the pi-
lot, opening the starboard slot and closing the port slot. This results in a reaction ‘R’
which acts to port (see Figure 12.8.) By the rule of precession the effect on the gyro is
as if the direction of application of R had been moved 90° in the direction of rotor spin
(anticlockwise). The gyro will now be precessed out of vertical with the base moving
backwards towards the pilot. As shown in Figure 12.8., this movement is transmitted
via the guide pin and horizon bar arm to bring the horizon bar below the gull-wing
giving a nose-up indication.

Figure
Figure12.8
12.8 Pitch
PitchError
Error Due to Acceleration
Due to Acceleration

186

Aviation ebooks Company

The Artificial Horizon Chapter 12

¾¾ Roll Error. Due to inertia, the weighted base of the rotor housing tries to lag during
acceleration. However, this force will be precessed, resulting in the base of the rotor
housing moving to starboard and the gyro axis precessing out of the vertical (see Figure
12.9) This rotates the whole rotor / gimbal assembly about the longitudinal axis to give
a right wing down indication.

Figure 12.9 Roll Error Due to Acceleration

Figure 12.9. Roll Error Due to Acceleration.

Deceleration will cause a nose down, left wing low error, the opposite of the acceleration error
indication. These errors assume that the rotor is rotating anticlockwise when viewed from the
top, which is the case for British air driven artificial horizons. Most electric horizons and some
American air driven horizons have clockwise rotor spin, giving opposite errors.

187

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 12 The Artificial Horizon

TURNING ERRORS IN THE AIR DRIVEN ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

Whenever an aircraft turns there must be an acceleration towards the centre of the turn
(centripetal force). Since the pendulous vanes are now affected by a horizontal acceleration as
well as acceleration due to gravity, errors in pitch and roll indications will occur. During the
turns the centrifugal force will act on the fore and aft pendulous vanes (‘erection’ error) and
weighted base of the rotor housing (pendulosity’ error). The errors are complex and change as
the turn progresses, cancelling out after a 360° turn. The magnitude of the errors varies with
speed, rate of turn, and type of horizon. For a chosen speed and rate of turn, the errors can be
compensated for by tilting the top of the rotor axis slightly forward (for erection error) and
slightly to the left (for pendulosity error).

However in an uncorrected instrument the following errors will occur. (assume a Classic
Instrument - air driven with the gyro rotating anti-clockwise when viewed from above).

Turning through 90°: Under reads bank angle Pitch error – indicating a climb
Turning through 180°: Bank angle correct Pitch error – indicating a climb
Turning through 270°: Over reads bank angle Pitch error – indicating a climb
Turning through 360°: Bank angle correct Pitch angle correct

The tilts are of the order of 2°. The setting of the horizon bar has to be similarly modified to
indicate correctly in level flight. Small residual errors occur, particularly if the speed and rate
of turn are not those for which compensation has been applied, but the errors are very much
smaller than they would be had no compensation been made.

RIGIDITY

High rotor speeds in suction horizons of up to 15,000 rpm, result in high gyroscopic inertia.
With electric horizons, speeds of 22,500 rpm are typical giving even greater rigidity. Because
of the high inertia, precession rates are low and therefore once a horizon topples it will take a
significant period for re-erection unless a rapid erection device is fitted.

SERVICEABILITY CHECKS

Before Flight. Check that the horizon bar takes up a laterally level position with the correct
pitch indication for the aircraft type, and that this indication is maintained when taxying. If a
caging device is fitted, the instrument should be uncaged at least five minutes before take-off to
ensure that the rotor axis has had time to reach alignment with the true vertical.

In Flight. The artificial horizon should give an immediate and correct indication of any change
in pitch or roll attitude.

188

Aviation ebooks Company

The Artificial Horizon Chapter 12

THE ELECTRIC ARTIFICIAL HORIZON

The main advantage of electric artificial horizon over the air driven horizon is its greater rigidity
due to its faster spin rate. This greater rigidity results in increased accuracy due to reduced
errors. The basic principle of the instrument is the same as the air driven horizon. The vertical
gyro is still tied by Earth’s gravity, but by mercury / levelling switches and torque motors
rather than the pendulous vanes of the air driven horizon.

ELECTRIC ARTIFICIAL HORIZON CONTROL SYSTEM

The gravity-operated control system consists of mercury / levelling switches (which are fixed to
the base of the rotor) and electric torque motors. If a levelling switch is not level the mercury
liquid ball moves from its central position and closes the circuit to drive its torque motor. The
torque motor provides the force which is precessed to return the gyro axis to the vertical. There
are two levelling switches, one to sense pitch and one to sense roll.

They activate the pitch and roll torque motors respectively which precess the gyro back to the
vertical as soon as it starts to wander.

Figure
Figure 12.10The
12.10. TheElectric
Electric Horizon Control
ControlSystem
System.

Because of the 90° precession rule, the torque motor on the side of the inner gimbal corrects
wander in the rolling plane (applying torque round the lateral axis to produce rotation about
the longitudinal axis). Likewise the pitch torque motor is on the outer (longitudinal) gimbal so
that the precession is about the lateral axis to correct for pitch.

This control system, like that of the suction horizon, is designed to compensate for turning
errors by maintaining the rotor axis slightly tilted away from the true vertical and having the
horizon bar compensated by a similar amount. The amount and direction of this tilt depends
on the particular model of instrument in use.

189

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 12 The Artificial Horizon

ACCELERATION ERRORS IN THE ELECTRIC HORIZON

Acceleration errors are minimal in the electric artificial horizon for the following reasons;

¾¾ The high rotor speed of an electric artificial horizon, results in very high gyro rigidity
and therefore very low precession rates. There is therefore less potential for the gyro to
move out of the Earth’s vertical.

¾¾ The rotor housing is less bottom heavy in the electric artificial horizon and therefore
roll error is reduced while accelerating.

¾¾ Pitch and roll cut-out switches. When an aircraft in a level attitude accelerates the pitch
levelling switch will falsely complete the circuit as the mercury ‘ball’ moves back in its
tube(due to inertia). As this would then result in the pitch torque motor falsely precess-
ing the gyro out of the vertical, a pitch cut-out switch is included in the circuit which
activates when an acceleration of 0.18G or greater is detected.

¾¾ Similarly in a turn the roll mercury switch would falsely activate the roll torque motor.
A cut out is therefore incorporated in the circuit which is activated at 10 degrees angle
of bank.

FAST ERECTION SYSTEM

In many electric horizons a fast erect system is included to give rapid initial erection and quick
re-erection should the instrument have toppled due to exceeding the operating limits. Quoting
typical figures, the normal erection rate of 4° per minute is increased to 120° per minute by
pushing the fast erection knob on the face of the instrument. This action increases the voltage
to the erection torque motors. One of the advantages of having a fast erection system is that
the pendulosity (bottom-heaviness) of the gyro can be reduced, so decreasing the turning and
acceleration errors.

Note: When airborne, the fast erection knob can only be used successfully in level flight with no
acceleration. During acceleration or a turn, the liquid level switches would be ‘off-centre’, and
operation of the fast-erection system would align the rotor axis with a false vertical.

ADJUSTABLE AEROPLANE DATUM

This is a refinement found on some American artificial horizons. The idea is that if when
an aircraft is trimmed out to fly straight and level it has a pitch up attitude, the ‘aeroplane’
datum can be adjusted to lie on the horizon. However, there is a risk that such adjustment in
flight could result in a misleading datum for flying approach procedures in IMC conditions.
The Aeronautical Information Circular 14/1969 discusses this risk in depth, and strongly
recommends that in light aircraft the datum be set before flight and thereafter left well alone.
The CAA require that such movable datums be removed or otherwise rendered inoperative on
aircraft having a maximum all-up weight in excess of 6000 pounds (2727 kgs).

190

Aviation ebooks Company

The Artificial Horizon Chapter 12

VERTICAL GYRO UNIT

This unit performs the same functions as the Gyro Horizon, i.e. it establishes a stabilised
reference about the Pitch and Roll axes of an aircraft. It is sometimes referred to as a Remote
Vertical Gyro, or occasionally a Vertically Axised Data Generation Unit.

Instead of providing attitude displays by direct means, it is designed to operate a synchro

system which produces, and transmits, attitude related signals to “a steering computer” and
to an amplifier unit.

After processing and amplification, the signals are then transmitted to servo operated indicator
elements within an Attitude Director Indicator (ADI). The synchro system also supplies
attitude related signals to the appropriate control channels of an AFCS. The gyroscope and its
levelling switch and torque motor system is basically the same as that adopted in electrical gyro
horizons.

Whenever a change of aircraft attitude occurs, signals flow from Pitch and Roll synchros
disposed about the relevant axes of the vertical gyroscope to the corresponding synchros
within the indicator. Error signals are therefore induced in the rotors and after amplification
are fed to the servo motors, which rotate to position the pitch bar and horizon disc to indicate
the changing attitude of the aircraft.

Figure12.11.
Figure 12.11 Vertical
VerticalGyro
GyroUnit
Unit

The synchro described senses changes in Pitch and Roll attitudes by means of a CX synchro
positioned on each corresponding axis of the gyros’ gimbal system. The stator of the Roll
synchro is secured to the frame of the unit, whilst its rotor is secured to the outer gimbal ring.
The Pitch synchro has its stator secured to the outer gimbal ring, and its rotor to the inner
gimbal ring. The stators supply attitude error signals to corresponding CT synchros in the ADI,
and also to Pitch and Roll circuit modules of the computer.

191

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 12 The Artificial Horizon

QUESTIONS

1. An artificial horizon utilises (i)............ to show (ii)........ in (iii)....... and (iv).............

a. (i) an earth gyro (ii) position (iii) latitude (iv) longitude

b. (i) a space gyro (ii) attitude (iii) degrees (iv) minutes
c. (i) an earth gyro (ii) latitude (iii) pitch (iv) roll
d. (i) an earth gyro (ii) attitude (iii) pitch (iv) roll

2. During the take-off run an air driven artificial horizon will usually indicate:

a. nose up and incorrect left bank.

b. a false descending turn to the right.
c. increased nose up attitude and right wing low.
d. a false climbing turn to the left.

3. The indication at Figure 1 shows:

a. a climbing turn to the right.

b. nose-up and left wing down
c. 30° starboard bank, nose up.
d. 30° port bank, nose below horizon.

Figure 1

4. False nose-up attitude displayed on air driven artificial horizon during the take-off run is caused
by:

a. the high pendulosity of the rotor

b. the lag of the lateral pendulous vanes
c. the linear acceleration cut out
d. incorrect rotor speed

5. The rotor axis of an electrical horizon is tied to the earth’s vertical by:

a. four pendulous vanes

b. the roll cut out
c. the low centre of gravity of the rotor housing
d. two mercury level switches and two torque motors

6. False right wing low attitude shown on an air driven artificial horizon during an acceleration is
caused by:

a. the lag of the base of the rotor housing

b. the logitudinal pendulous vanes
c. the roll cut-out
d. high rotor speed

192

Aviation ebooks Company

The Artificial Horizon Chapter 12

7. Inside an artificial horizon:

a. the inner gimbal ring is pivoted laterally inside the outer gimbal ring and the outer
gimbal ring is pivoted longitudinally inside the case
b. the inner gimbal ring is tied to the vertical by a control system
c. the rotor axis is kept level by a calibrated spring attached to the outer gimbal ring and
the instrument case
d. there is only one gimbal ring

8. When an adjustable aircraft datum is fitted to an artificial horizon in light aircraft:

a. it should be checked at regular intervals

b. it should be set to the central position and left there
c. it should be rendered inoperative
d. it should be set to 15°

9. An electrically driven artificial horizon has less errors during the take-off run because:

a. it is less pendulous, has a higher rotor speed and a linear acceleration cut out
b. the mercury level switches are more sensitive than the pendulous vanes fitted to air
driven types
c. the roll cut-out speed is activated
d. it is less aperiodic than the air driven types

193

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 12 The Artificial Horizon

ANSWERS

1 D

2 C

3 D

4 B

5 D

6 A

7 A

8 B

9 A

194

Aviation ebooks Company

The Turn and Slip Indicator Chapter 13

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

THE TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR

Contents

THE RATE OF TURN INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

THE RATE GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
EFFECT OF VARYING ROTOR SPEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
ERRORS IN THE LOOPING PLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
THE SLIP INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
OPERATING PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
TURN AND SLIP DISPLAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

195

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 13 The Turn and Slip Indicator

196

Aviation ebooks Company

The Turn and Slip Indicator Chapter 13

THE RATE OF TURN INDICATOR

This instrument incorporates two measuring devices, both indicating on the same instrument
face. One of these, the rate of turn indicator, (commonly shortened to ‘turn’ indicator), uses a
rate gyro to measure rate of turn about a vertical axis. The other, the slip indicator, is a very
simple pendulous device which is used mainly to show whether or not a turn is balanced,
(whether the angle of bank is correct for the TAS and rate of turn), and if not, to indicate the
extent of slip or skid.

THE RATE GYRO

The turn indicator is based on a horizontal-axis rate gyro, which has only one gimbal and
therefore only one degree of freedom. If the aircraft banks (without turning) the gyro axis
has the freedom to remain horizontal. However, if the aircraft yaws, the frame, fixed to the
airframe, applies a force (labelled primary torque) in Figure 13.1, in a direction where the gyro
is not gimballed, and therefore has no freedom. This results in a precession which will cause
the gyro to depart from the horizontal. A spring system prevents the gyro from turning all the
way to the vertical, and the amount of spring stretch is a measure of the rate of turn.

OPERATION

Figures 13.1 and 13.2 illustrate the principal of operation. If the aircraft turns, the rotor is
subjected to a primary torque acting about the ZZ axis. This produces a primary precession
about the YY axis, the direction of this precession being as if the applied force were moved 90°
in the direction of rotor spin. As the rotor tilts about the YY axis it causes a spring between
gimbal and frame to be extended. The resultant spring tension subjects the rotor to a secondary
torque acting about the YY axis. This secondary torque, with the precession will continue until
the gimbal has tilted just the right amount to give the spring tension required to generate a
rate of secondary precession equal to the rate of turn of the aircraft. This gives equilibrium. It
should be emphasised that the chain of events is virtually instantaneous - as the aircraft goes
into a turn, the gimbal takes up the appropriate angle of tilt.

Figure
Figure 13.1.
13.1

197

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 13 The Turn and Slip Indicator

Figure
Figure 13.2.
13.2

If the rate of turn changes, the tilt of the gimbal will also change, to re-establish the balance of
torques on the gyro. The angle of tilt is thus a measure of the rate of turn. A pointer fixed to
or linked with the gimbal indicates the tilt on a scale on the face of the instrument. The scale
is calibrated to indicate rates of turn either side of the centre zero so that the first graduation
corresponds to a Rate 1 turn with the aircraft turning 3° per second. A second mark for Rate 2
corresponds to 6° per second. There may be further graduations for higher rates of turn.

Calibration of correct rate of turn (the spring tension) is optimised for a design TAS.

However, only a small amount of error is introduced, even for quite large departures from
design TAS.

In practice the errors produced by TAS deviations are not serious. One manufacturer quotes
a maximum error of 5% over a speed range of 85 to 350 knots, the calibration value being 260
knots.

CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS

Suction and electrically-driven types are available. With the former, an engine-driven pump
or venturi tube is used to apply suction to the case. Replacement air enters via a filter and
is directed by a jet at the ‘buckets’ cut in the periphery of the rotor. The rotor rpm are low
compared with those of the DGI and artificial horizon. This is because the gyroscopic property
of precession is used to measure rate to turn, so that a high gyroscopic rigidity is undesirable.
A damping system fitted to the gimbal reduces oscillation. This may be the piston-in-cylinder
type or an electro-magnetic device. Stops limit the movement of the gimbal to tilt corresponding
to a turn of about 20° per second.

Notes
1. As there is only one gimbal, the gyro will not ‘topple’ when it comes against the stops.

2. The warning flag on the face of the TBI indicates that electrical power to the instrument has failed.

198

Aviation ebooks Company

The Turn and Slip Indicator Chapter 13

EFFECT OF VARYING ROTOR SPEED

If the suction is inadequate (at high altitude, or with a choked filter, or a leaking suction tube)
with an air-driven instrument, gyro rigidity will be lowered as the gyro is “underspeeding”.
Consequently the secondary precession needed to equal the aircraft turn can be generated by a
smaller secondary torque. This reduced torque will be produced by a smaller angle of gimbal
tilt, and this means that the instrument will under-read the turn rate.

Alternatively, if the gyro were to “overspeed”, by the same token it will over-read the rate of
turn that is being achieved by the angle of bank applied.

ERRORS IN THE LOOPING PLANE

In a gently banked turn, the aircraft is turning mainly in the yawing plane, but in a steep turn
there is more movement in the looping plane. Normally movement in the looping plane means
that the aircraft is rotating about the rotor axis, with no effect on the gyro. However, if the
gimbal is tilted before movement in the looping plane commences, as happens with a yaw, the
movement in the looping plane will cause additional precession of the rotor.

The usual positive movement in the looping plane in a steep turn will increase the gimbal tilt
causing the indicator to over-read, sometimes coming against the stops.

THE SLIP INDICATOR

It is desirable that turns should be properly balanced, with no side slip or skid. This implies
that the angle of bank should be correct for the TAS and rate of turn. The correct bank angle
could be accurately calculated, or rules of thumb may be used. For instance, with Rate 1 turns,
we can take one tenth of the TAS and add seven to give approximately the required bank
angle. For example; Rate 1, TAS 150 knots; bank angle should be 15 + 7 = 22°. This rule gives
reasonable accuracy for Rate 1 turns with TAS between 100 and 250 knots. During instrument
flight however, the fewer the calculations that have to be made, the better. The slip indicator
gives a direct indication of the state of balance of the turn.

CONSTRUCTION

Early types of slip indicator employed a simple metal pendulum suspended in the instrument
case, its oscillations being controlled by a piston-in-cylinder damping device. The modern
version is usually a ‘ball-in-tube inclinometer’. This comprises a solid ball in a curved tube
containing liquid with damps out the unwanted oscillations. It is sketched in Figures 13.3b. and
13.4b. The heavy ball behaves like a pendulum, with the centre of curvature of the tube acting
as the effective point of suspension.

OPERATING PRINCIPLES

Consider first the aircraft in level flight with lift L balancing weight W viewed in Figure 13.3a.
The weight W of the ball in the tube acts downwards and is exactly balanced by the equal and
opposite reaction of the base of the tube on the ball, acting upwards towards the centre of
curvature of the tube. If the wings are level, the ball will lie just between the two vertical lines
etched on the tube, as indicated in Figure 13.3b..

199

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 13 The Turn and Slip Indicator

Figure 13.3a.
Figure 13.3a Figure 13.3b.
Figure 13.3b
AircraftininLevel
Aircraft Level Flight
Flight Ball-in-tube (Level Flight)
Ball-in-tube (Level Flight)

Now let us consider a balanced turn to the left. Figure 13.4a. shows the aircraft with lift L equal
and opposite to the resultant of aircraft weight W and centrifugal force C, the latter being
proportional to TAS and rate of turn.

The ball is also subject to a centrifugal force depending on TAS and rate of turn, so it rolls
outwards, taking up a new equilibrium position such that the reaction of the base of the tube
on the ball is again exactly balanced, this time by the resultant of ball weight W and centrifugal
force C (Figure 13.4b)

Because both aircraft and the ball are experiencing the same TAS and rate of turn (and so the
same acceleration towards the centre of the turn) it can be proved that the resultant weight and
centrifugal force for the aircraft will be parallel to the resultant of weight and centrifugal force
for the ball. Now if the ball is laterally central in the tube, (between the two etched lines), the
resultant and reaction forces of the ball must lie in the aircraft’s vertical (see Figure 13.4b). These
forces are parallel, as stated above, to the resultant of aircraft weight and centrifugal force with
must therefore also lie in the aircraft’s vertical and will thus be in the same line as the lift L
(Figure 13.4a) - which means that the turn is balanced.

Figure 13.4a.
Figure 13.4a Figure 13.4b.
Figure 13.4b
Balanced Turn
Balanced Turn ToToPort
Port Ball-in-Tube
Ball-in-Tube(Balanced TurnPort)
(Balanced Turn Port)

200

Aviation ebooks Company

The Turn and Slip Indicator Chapter 13

Unbalanced turns are most simply considered as follows. Let us assume that the TAS and rate
of turn are the same as in Figures 13.4a and 13.4b, so that the ball will not have moved laterally.
Now if too much bank is applied, (for the TAS and rate of turn), the tube will have been rotated
too far in the rolling plane so that the ball appears as in Figure 13.5., no longer central, but
correctly indicating the aircraft to be ‘slipping in’ to the turn, the radius of which will be less
than it should be. If on the other hand insufficient bank has been applied, the instrument will
be indicating that the aircraft is ‘skidding out’ of the turn (see Figure 13.6), the radius of turn
this time being greater than it should be.

Figure13.5
Figure 13.5. Figure 13.6.
Figure 13.6
Unbalanced
UnbalancedTurn
Turn Port (Slipping)
(Slipping) Unbalanced
UnbalancedTurn
Turn Port (Skidding)
(Skidding)

TURN AND SLIP DISPLAYS

Several examples of turn and slip indications (needle and ball type) are drawn in Figure 13.7.

Figure 13.7.
Figure Needleand
13.7 Needle andBall
BallDisplays
Displays

201

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 13 The Turn and Slip Indicator

Example Question - Rate one turn

Flying at 360 kts what is the turn diameter at Rate 1?

1. A rate 1 turn takes 2 minutes to complete, therefore.........

Flying at 360 kts each minute you will fly 6nms and so.......... in 2 minutes you
will cover 12nms.

2. The circumference of a circle = � x d (diameter of a circle)

3. The circumference is 12nmls, therefore

12 = 22/7 x “d”
or
12 x 7 divided by 22 = d
3.8 = d

4. To check we can ..... divide 360 by 100 = 3.6 --------- 4 “nmls”

similarly for 400 = “4nmls”
and for 500 = “5nmls”

Figure
Figure 13.8
13.8. Mechanism
Mechanismof
ofan
anair-driven
air-driven turn-and-bank indicator
turn-and-bank indicator.
1. Rotor 11. Agate ball
2. Instrument frame 12. Datum arrow
3. Damping cylinder 13. Gimbal front pivot
4. Buckets 14. Slip indicator
5. Air bleed 15. Expansion chamber
6. Front plate 16. Fluorescent card
7. Rate-spring adjusting screw 17. Piston
8. Dial 18. Gimbal ring
9. Rate spring 19. Jet block
10. Pointer 20. Jet

202

Aviation ebooks Company

The Turn and Slip Indicator Chapter 13

QUESTIONS

1. The rate of turn indicator uses (i) ............... which spins (ii)...................
i ii
a. space gyroscope up and away from the pilot
b. tied gyro anti-clockwise when viewed from above
c. rate gyro up and away from the pilot
d. earth gyro Clockwise

2. The gyro in a rate of turn indicator has (i) ....................... operating speed than the gyros used in
other instruments because (ii)……………........
i ii
a. lower a higher rigidity is not required
b. the same it uses the property of rigidity
c. a higher a low precession rate gives a greater operating range
d. variable more than one rate of turn is desired

3. The TBI shown alongside indicates:

a. a rate of turn to the left, slipping in

b. an aircraft taxiing and turning starboard
c. that the aircraft will complete a turn in one minute
d. the aircraft is yawing to the right

Figure 1
4. When the pointer of a rate of turn indicator shows a steady rate of turn:

a. the calibrated spring is exerting a force about the lateral axis equal to the rate of turn
b. the force produced by the spring is producing a precession equal to but opposite to the
rate of turn is correctly banked
c. the spring is providing a force which produces a precession equal to the rate of turn (in
the opposite direction).
d. the spring is providing a force which produces a precession equal to the rate of turn (in
the correct direction)

5. If the filter of the air driven rate of turn indicator becomes partially blocked:

a. the aircraft will turn faster than indicated

b. the instrument will overread
c. the rate of turn indicated will be unaffected
d. the radius of the turn will decrease

6. The radius of a turn at rate 1, and TAS 360 kts is:

a. 10nm
b. 5nm
c. 7.5nm
d. 2nm

203

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 13 The Turn and Slip Indicator

ANSWERS

1 C

2 A

3 A

4 D

5 A

6 D

204

Aviation ebooks Company

The Turn Co-ordinator Chapter 14

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

THE TURN CO-ORDINATOR

Contents

TURN CO-ORDINATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

205

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 14 The Turn Co-ordinator

206

Aviation ebooks Company

The Turn Co-ordinator Chapter 14

TURN CO-ORDINATOR

The Turn Co-ordinator is an interesting development of the Turn and Bank indicators.

The primary difference is in the setting of the precession axis of the rate gyroscope and the
method of display.

The gyroscope is spring restrained and is mounted so that the axis is at about 30 degrees with
respect to the aircraft longitudinal axis, thus making the gyroscope sensitive to banking of the
aircraft as well as to turning.

A turn is normally initiated by banking the aircraft, the gyroscope will precess, and this in turn
will move the aircraft symbol in indicate the direction of bank and enable the pilot to anticipate
the resulting turn.

The pilot then controls the turn at the required rate by alignment of the aircraft with the
graduations on the instrument dial. The rate of turn will depend on the instrument in use either
as a rate one turn, 3 degrees per second, or any other rate dependant on instrument design. The
ball still has to remain central for a balanced rate of turn.

The annotation “No Pitch Information” on the indicator scale is given to avoid any confusion in
pitch control which might result with the similarity with the presentation of the gyro horizon.

Figure 14.1.
Figure 14.1

207

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 14 The Turn Co-ordinator

QUESTIONS

1. The gimbal ring of a turn co-ordinator is inclined at about 30° with respect to the aircraft’s
longitudinal axis in order:

a. make the rate of turn more accurate

b. make the gyro sensitive to banking of the aircraft as well as to turning
c. make the gyro more effective during inverted flight
d. have a higher rotor speed which will prolong the life of the instrument

2. If an aircraft turns as indicated in Figure 1:

a. the aircraft will turn through 180° in two minutes

b. it will take one minute to turn through 90°
c. the aircraft is turning left at less than 3°/ second
d. the aircraft is turning left at 3°/ second

3. A turn co-ordinator has (i) ..... pivoted (ii) ........ in the case

i ii
a. two gimbal rings orthogonally
b. a single gimbal ring longitudinally
c. one gimbal ring laterally
d. two gimbal rings mutually perpendicular

ANSWERS

1. B 2. C 3. B

208

Aviation ebooks Company

Aircraft Magnetism Chapter 15

CHAPTER FIFTEEN

AIRCRAFT MAGNETISM

Contents

DEVIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
COMPASS SWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
HARD IRON MAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
SOFT IRON MAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
CORRECTION OF COEFFICIENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
ACCURACY LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
CHANGE OF MAGNETIC LATITUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
OCCASIONS FOR SWINGING THE COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

209

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 15 Aircraft Magnetism

210

Aviation ebooks Company

Aircraft Magnetism Chapter 15

DEVIATION

The compass needle would accurately define the magnetic meridian were it not for the aircraft’s
own internal magnetism deflecting it. Deviation is the angular difference measured between
the direction taken up by a Compass Needle and the Magnetic Meridian. Deviation is named
Easterly or Westerly depending on whether the North seeking end of the compass needle lies to
the East or West of the Magnetic meridian.

Compass Magnetic
Deviation
Heading Heading
Deviation West
095 -5 090
Compass Best
Deviation East
090 +5 095
Compass Least

PUSH PUSH

Figure 15.1
DR10-F10.1
Figure 38.1

COMPASS SWING

The basic method of determining deviation is to compare the aircraft’s heading compass reading
with magnetic heading as defined by a high quality ‘land or datum’ compass. This comparison
of aircraft compass and magnetic datum readings is carried out in an area selected specifically
for this purpose.

Therefore the aims of a compass swing are as follows:

 To observe / determine the deviations / differences between Magnetic North (observed

on a Landing Compass) and Compass North (observed in the aircraft) on a series of
headings

 To correct / remove as much deviation as possible

 To record the residual deviation which is left after the Compass has been adjusted

The magnetic deviation observed during a compass swing can be said to be derived from Hard
Iron and Soft Iron magnetism and this total field can in turn, for our purposes, be later resolved
into two further combined components (coefficients B and C).

211

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 15 Aircraft Magnetism

HARD IRON MAGNETISM

The total force at the compass position

produced by permanent hard iron
magnetism can be resolved into three
components. These components will
be fixed for a given aircraft and will
not change with change of heading.

DR10-f10.2
Figure
Figure15.2
38.2
SOFT IRON MAGNETISM

Soft iron magnetism is induced in parts of the aircraft

structure by surrounding fields - the most important of
these being the earth. The earth’s field has a vertical as
well as horizontal component. However, again for our
purposes we will within the constraints of the syllabus
only consider vertical soft iron (VSI) magnetism (Z
is the vertical component of the earths field and H is
the horizontal component). The component Z has an
increasing affect with latitude as the compass magnets
try to follow the earth’s flux lines therefore VSI
magnetism must also vary with latitude. However, Z is
zero at the equator, where the horizontal component H
is greatest, so no VSI magnetism is induced there.

When we examine the effective positioning of the

imaginary magnets found when completing a compass
swing we must remember that we use a real system
(the Compass) to give us aircraft heading and that this
readout is affected by these magnetic forces which we
have gone to some trouble to discover.

We can see from Figure 15.3 that the positioning can

vary,(even to the extent of having two imaginary
magnets affecting our compass) but the effect will be
easily resolved by the compass swing which can cater
for any positioning as long as we follow the basic rules.

For example we may examine the case where the effect IN10-F3
Figure 15.3
of the Blue Pole is said to be in the nose or forward of Figure 38.3.
the aircraft compass.

212

Aviation ebooks Company

Aircraft Magnetism Chapter 15

Heading North the isolated Blue pole is in the same horizontal

direction as the earths blue pole and so the needle is not
deviated. The directive force or alignment of the earths
field is being augmented by the blue pole, effectively they are
pulling together.

As the aircraft now turns right on to 045° deviation begins to

take place and as we can see from the table by 090° this has Figure 15.4c. Hdg C
become maximum and then starts to become less as we Figure 15.4c.
090°. Hdg C
approach 180°. 090°.
Figure
Hdg15.4a. Hdg C
C 000°
000°

Figure 15.4b. Hdg C Figure 15.4c. Hdg C Figure 15.4d

Hdg C 045°
045°. Hdg C 090° Hdg C15.4d
Figure 135°
090°.

Remember that the blue pole represents a magnetic force which

on this heading acts along the same line but in opposition to the
stronger earth’s field.

On the remaining headings 180° to 360° the effects of the blue

pole in the nose are as expected i.e. the red end of the compass
needle is being attracted to the West of Magnetic North giving
the maximum westerly deviation on 270°.
Figure
Hdg C15.4.e.
180°
Figure 15.4.e.
Figure 15.4d

If the deviations caused by the blue pole in the nose are

plotted against compass heading, a positive sine curve
is obtained. Had the blue pole been aft of the compass
a negative sine curve would have been obtained. This
would mean that on a heading of 090° the deviation
would reach a maximum westerly value instead of a
maximum easterly value. The changes in directive force
would also be revised, the maximum occurring on 180°
and the minimum on 360°.

Figure 15.4.e.
Figure 15.5
Figure 15.5

213

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 15 Aircraft Magnetism

Heading °C Deviation Directive Force

000 Zero Maximum

045 East + some More than earth’s

090 East + max Earths approximately

135 East + some Less than earth’s

180 Zero Minimum

225 West - some Less than earth’s

270 West - max Earth’s approximately

315 West - some More than earth’s

000 Zero Maximum

What we have examined here is known for compass swinging as Coefficient B which we could
view as that component which is resolved along the body of the aircraft. The forces resolved
follow a simple Sine Curve which in our case here would be ‘positive’ although negative curves
occur just as frequently.

Equally we should be able to see that if a further magnetic source

is resolved to the right wing we would achieve a positive cosine
curve along the same lines and this is more usually described as
Coefficient C.

Figure 15.6a

The combination of Coefficients A (a mechanical

function yet to be discussed) + B + C are resolved
during the compass swing and to some extent can be
removed by adjustment but other factors are at work
here and will probably leave us with some errors at the
end.

Figure 15.6b

214

Aviation ebooks Company

Aircraft Magnetism Chapter 15

CORRECTION OF COEFFICIENTS

The principle for correcting coefficients is the same for any system and can be summed up as
follows:

Coefficient A - a mechanical problem of a displaced Lubber Line corrected by loosening the

bolts holding the compass body or in the case of the RIMC the Detector Unit and carefully
turning it until the correct heading is in place.

Coefficient B - correction required because of magnetic deviating forces acting upon the DRMC
or the detector Unit and giving errors known as deviation. Firstly calculate the error to be
removed or more correctly the heading you wish to make the compass read and this will be
done on an Easterly or Westerly heading.

Coefficient C - correction required because of magnetic deviating forces acting upon the DRMC
or the detector Unit and giving errors known as deviation. Firstly calculate the error to be
removed or more correctly the heading you wish to make the compass read and this will be
done on a Northerly or Southerly heading.

We can see that the correction for B and C are very similar but that we must remember to apply
the sign of the correction properly to ensure an accurate correction to our compass system. When
the compass swing is completed we of course have to check our work and this ‘check swing’ is
carried out using eight or perhaps twelve points of the compass to allow us to derive a compass
card that will be placed in the aircraft. This compass card indicates to us the residual deviations
that we have been unable to resolve within the essentially horizontal procedure. Alternatively,
the Residual Deviations affecting the compass after the completion of a compass swing may be
shown by the use of a Graphical Table or a Curve constructed from the information obtained.
Either set of calculations will allow for the placing of a Compass Deviation Card near to the
compass in the aircraft.

ACCURACY LIMITS

In accordance with CS Ops-1 (European Regulations) the aircraft’s compasses must, after
correction, be within the following limits:

Direct Reading Magnetic Compass +/- 10°

Remote Indicating Compass +/- 1°

215

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 15 Aircraft Magnetism

CHANGE OF MAGNETIC LATITUDE

Z
Tan Dip =
H

The changes in deviation due to change of magnetic latitude have to be considered firstly with
regard to Hard Iron and secondly to Vertical Soft Iron.

Hard Iron. The hard iron deviating force, remains constant regardless of change of latitude.
However, H varies with latitude being maximum at the equator and zero at the poles. Thus the
smaller the directive force H the greater the maximum deviation, caused by hard iron deviating
force. Hard iron deviating effect increases towards the poles and is minimum at the magnetic
equator. The sign of the deviation will be the same in both hemispheres.

To summarise, maximum deviation due to hard iron magnetism, is inversely proportional to

the value of H, which changes with change of magnetic latitude.

Vertical Soft Iron. The directive force at the compass position is H, whilst the magnetising
agent of any VSI component is Z. The maximum deviation due to VSI magnetism will vary
inversely as H.

The VSI maximum deviation will vary directly as Z. Z has no effect on Hard Iron deviation.
The maximum deviation produced by VSI magnetism increases towards the magnetic poles.

Z
Max deviation = = Tan Dip
H

so maximum deviation varies directly with Tan dip.

216

Aviation ebooks Company

Aircraft Magnetism Chapter 15

OCCASIONS FOR SWINGING THE COMPASS

 When compass components are installed or replaced.

 Whenever the accuracy of the compass is in doubt.

 After a maintenance inspection if required by the schedule.

 After a significant aircraft modification, repair or replacement involving magnetic

material.

 When carrying unusual ferromagnetic payloads!

 When the compass has been subjected to significant shock.

 If the aircraft has been struck by lightning.

 After significant modification to aircraft radio/electrical systems.

 After the aircraft has been given a new theatre of operations if the move involves a large
change of magnetic latitude.

 If the aircraft has been in long term storage standing on one heading.

217

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 15 Aircraft Magnetism

QUESTIONS

1. European regulations (CS Ops-1) state that the maximum permissible deviations after
compensation are:

a. one degree for a remote indicating compass, and ten degrees for a direct reading
magnetic compass.
b. three degrees for a direct reading magnetic compass, and one degree for a remote
indicating compass.
c. ten degrees for a remote indicating compass, and one degree for a direct reading
magnetic compass.
d. one degree for a direct reading magnetic compass, and eleven degrees for a slaved
compass.

2. Compass swings should be carried out:

a. on the apron.
b. only on the compass swinging base or site.
c. at the holding point.
d. on the active runway.

3. Aircraft magnetism caused by Vertical Soft Iron:

a. varies with magnetic heading but not with magnetic latitude.

b. varies with magnetic latitude but not with heading.
c. it is not affected magnetic latitude or heading.
d. varies as the cosine of the compass heading.

4. Aircraft magnetism caused by Hard Iron:

a. is not usually influenced by the earth’s magnetic field.

b. varies directly with magnetic latitude.
c. varies indirectly with magnetic latitude.
d. is maximum on east and west.

5. The aim of a compass swing is:

1. to find deviation on the cardinal headings and to calculate coefficients A, B and C.

2. to eliminate or reduce the coefficients found.
3. to record any residual deviation and to prepare a compass correction card.

a. only answer 1 is correct.

b. answers 1 and 3 are correct.
c. answers 1, 2 and 3 are all correct.
d. none of the above answers are correct.

218

Aviation ebooks Company

Aircraft Magnetism Chapter 15

6. Deviation due to coefficient A is mainly caused by:

a. hard iron force acting along the longitudinal axis.

b. hard and soft iron forces acting along the lateral axis.
c. vertical soft iron forces.
d. a misaligned lubber line.

219

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 15 Aircraft Magnetism

ANSWERS

1 A

2 B

3 B

4 A

5 C

6 D

220

Aviation ebooks Company

Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass Chapter 16

CHAPTER SIXTEEN

REMOTE INDICATING MAGNETIC COMPASS

Contents

LIMITATIONS OF THE DIRECT READING COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

LIMITATIONS OF THE DIRECTIONAL GYRO INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
REQUIREMENT FOR THE GYRO-MAGNETIC COMPASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
BASIC SYSTEM DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
OPERATION WITH STEADY HEADING – CORRECTION FOR GYRO DRIFT . . . 224
OPERATION IN A TURN – GYRO DRIFT SMALL OVER PERIOD OF TURN . . . . 225
RAPID SYNCHRONISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
DETECTOR UNIT (FLUX VALVE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
ERROR SIGNAL COMPARISON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
HEADING INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
OPERATION AS A DGI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
ANNUNCIATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
KEEPING THE GYRO AXIS HORIZONTAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
TRANSMITTING HEADING OUTPUT TO OTHER INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . 232
OTHER FACILITIES (NOT FOUND IN ALL GM COMPASSES) . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

221

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 16 Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass

222

Aviation ebooks Company

Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass Chapter 16

LIMITATIONS OF THE DIRECT READING COMPASS

The Direct Reading Compass has three major limitations:

 Turning and acceleration errors. The compass cannot be read accurately during a
turn.

 The magnetic sensing element (the magnets on the vertical card) is contained within
the instrument and is therefore situated close to the pilot so that the card can be seen.
The cockpit area is close to sources of deviation, such as electric lights, electric motors
and ferrous metal.

 The instrument is self-contained. It is not possible to take a magnetic heading and

input it into other equipment.

LIMITATIONS OF THE DIRECTIONAL GYRO INDICATOR

The Directional Gyro Indicator attempts to solve some of these problems by use of an air-
driven or an electro-mechanical gyro. Turning and acceleration errors are eliminated and an
output can be taken to other equipment. However, there is no magnetic input, so if the gyro
drifts with time there is no correction except by the pilot manually synchronising to the direct
reading compass at regular intervals.

REQUIREMENT FOR THE GYRO-MAGNETIC COMPASS

What is required is a system which combines the best of both. The short-term rigidity of the
gyro overcomes turning and acceleration errors. This needs to be combined with the longer-
term monitoring of the Earth’s magnetic field so that if the gyro starts to drift, a servo system
slaves it to alignment with a magnetic input. Such a system is a gyro-magnetic compass.

The gyro-magnetic compass is known by several names. It can be referred to as the:

 Gyro-magnetic compass.
 Remote Indicating Compass.
 Slaved Gyro compass.
 Magnetic Heading Reference System (MHRS)

They all mean the same thing.

BASIC SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

At its simplest, the system comprises the following elements:

 Magnetic Detector Unit. This is also often known as a flux valve or a flux detector.
 Heading Indicator. This is what most people refer to as ‘the compass’.
 Precession amplifier. This may also be known as a slaving amplifier.
 Precession motor. This may also be known as a slaving or synchronising motor.
 Horizontal gyro.

In simple systems, the horizontal gyro is directly connected to the compass card of the heading
indicator via a bevel gear and a drive shaft. This is assumed in the description which follows.

223

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 16 Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass

Heading Indicator

Error Signal (AC)

Detector Unit
(flux valve)
Direct Drive Shaft
A
Horizontal Gyro

Amplified Error
Signal (DC)

Precession Motor

ȱ
FigureFigȱ32.1ȱSimpleȱSignalȱRoutingȱ
16.1 Simple Signal Routing

OPERATION WITH STEADY HEADING – CORRECTION FOR GYRO DRIFT

This description assumes a steady heading, which gives a steady input from the Detector Unit
(flux valve), and assumes that the compass has already been synchronised. Any difference
between the flux valve field and the gyro alignment would only arise if the gyro were to drift.

 The Detector Unit (flux valve) senses the earth’s magnetic field and reproduces it within
the compass unit, where it is compared with the position of the gyro drive shaft (which
also positions the compass card indicator – the indication of heading to the pilot).

 If the two are aligned, no further action takes place. The compass card is reading
the right heading. If, however, the gyro starts to drift, the drive shaft will not be in
alignment with the flux valve field, and an AC error signal is generated and passed to
the precession amplifier (marked with a big A in Figure 16.1), where it is a m p l i f i e d ,
phase detected, and rectified to DC.

 The DC signal drives the precession motor, which turns the gyro. This gyro
output is fed via the direct drive shaft to the heading indicator for comparison with the
flux valve signal.

 If the two are aligned, the compass is synchronised and no further action takes place.
If not, the error correction continues until the compass is synchronised.

224

Aviation ebooks Company

Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass Chapter 16

It would be possible to cut out the gyro, in theory. The flux valve field could be passed for
comparison with the compass card and the error signal passed to a motor which would directly
drive the compass card shaft. This would still give an electro-magnetic compass, with a detector
unit remote from the major source of deviations, and its output could be used to drive other
systems. However, such a system would be overly responsive to any fluctuations in the field
detected by the flux valve and would suffer significantly from turning and acceleration errors.
The use of the gyro gives stability and rigidity because the precession motor applies corrections
to the drive shaft at the rate of approximately only 3° per minute.

OPERATION IN A TURN – GYRO DRIFT SMALL OVER PERIOD OF TURN

Now consider what happens in a turn. We will assume, initially, that the gyro does not drift
during the turn, which is not unreasonable, because even during a full 360° orbit, the turn will
only take 2 minutes. The aircraft turns, but the gyro, having rigidity, does not. This gives relative
rotation between the horizontal gyro and the instrument case and so operation of the bevel gear
causes the direct drive shaft to rotate, changing the heading indication on the compass card.
However, at the same time, the heading sensed by the flux valve, which is being passed to the
driveshaft for comparison, is changing at the same rate. Therefore no error signal is generated
and the compass should remain synchronised during the turn.

If there is some gyro drift during the turn, on completion of the turn there will be a small error
signal. This will be taken out as described in the previous paragraph.

RAPID SYNCHRONISATION

When the gyro is started up on initial switch-on, the alignment it adopts is random and is
unlikely to be in synchronisation with the earth’s magnetic field. Therefore an error signal is
detected at the gyro drive shaft. The problem is that the precession motor’s normal correction
rate is only 3° per minute and if the gyro happened to be 90° out, it would take 30 minutes to
synchronise, which is obviously unacceptable.

The solution is to have a rapid synchronisation facility, which can either be a mechanical clutch
operated by the pilot (as in the DGI) or, in later compasses, a high gain mode for the precession
amplifier (similar in principle to rapid erection in the electric artificial horizon). This is operated
by a 2 position switch, spring loaded to the normal position, which has to be held against the
spring for rapid alignment. Operation of this switch increases the precession motor’s correction
rate so that synchronisation takes only a few seconds.

More modern compasses are even more automatic. If a large error is detected fast precession
takes place at, typically, 60°/min until the error is zero, then the system automatically reverts to
the slow precession rate of, typically, 3°/min.

We therefore have to modify our original block schematic to include the rapid synchronisation
facility:-

225

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 16 Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass

Heading Indicator

Error Signal (AC)

Detector Unit
(flux valve)
Direct Drive Shaft
A
Horizontal Gyro

Amplified Error
Signal (DC)

Precession Motor

Rapid Synchronisation
Facility

Figure 16.2 Heading Indicator Schematic with Rapid Synchronisation added

Figȱ32.2ȱȱȱHeadingȱIndicatorȱSchematicȱwithȱRapidȱSynchronisationȱaddedȱ

DETECTOR UNIT (FLUX VALVE)

The detector unit is positioned in a part

of the aircraft least affected by on-board
electrical fields (usually the wing tip or
tail fin, where any aircraft generated
magnetic disturbances are at a minimum).
Its function is to sense the direction of
the earth’s magnetic field. It contains a
pendulous magnetic detecting element
mounted on a Hooke’s Joint which enables
the detector to swing within limits of 25°
about the pitch and roll axes, but allows ȱ
no rotation in azimuth. The unit itself is
contained in a sealed case partially filled
with oil to dampen any oscillations created
during flight.
Figure 16.3 A
Figure Magnetic
34.6. DetectorUnit.
A Detector Unit

The circular plate is screwed to the underside of the wing. The black hemisphere protrudes out
into the airflow and is simply a protective cover for the flux valve inside. The cable carrying the
signals passes along inside the structure of the wing.

226

Aviation ebooks Company

Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass Chapter 16

The primary component is the flux valve, a 3-spoked device, fixed in azimuth but with some
freedom in the vertical to allow alignment with the plane of the earth’s magnetic field. Parts of
the flux valve are shown in Figure 16.4 below.

Figure 16.4 Flux Valve components

The parts in red in Figure 16.4 are shown in isolation in Figure 16.5 below. All 3 legs are shown
together, as in the actual unit:

The curved ‘rams’ horns’ at the end of each of

the 3 legs are simply to improve magnetic flux
gathering efficiency, but they do not affect the
principle The flux valve would detect even
without them. To explain how the flux valve
works, we will start by considering just a
single leg (without the ‘rams’ horns’).

Figure 16.5Figure
Three34.5
Flux Valve Legs

A simplified diagram of a flux valve leg

is shown here. Alternating current is fed
to the coil wound around the centre post
which in turn produces fields of opposite
sign in the top and bottom legs of the flux
valve.

Figure 34.1. A Simplified Diagram of a Flux Valve.

Figure 16.6 A single leg of a Flux Valve

227

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 16 Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass

The magnetic flux (a measure of the density of

the lines of force) in legs A and B is shown in
Figure 16.7 as red and blue lines. They are at
the same frequency and amplitude, but are in
anti-phase. If we add the components A and
B together, the resultant flux (the green line) is
therefore zero, and so no current is induced in
the pick-off coil.

Figure 16.7 Flux fields at A and B and resultant

Figure 34.2.

If the flux produced by the earth’s magnetic

field were present as a background, the
positive and negative flux would start from a
different baseline, which would not be zero.
This is shown below in Figure 16.8.

Figurebackground
Figure 16.8 Effect of Earth’s 16.3. magnetism

However, the physical characteristics of the

metal used in the flux valve legs are such that
they magnetically saturate at a certain level.
The metal will not magnetise further beyond
a certain point. In this case, the saturation
curve tops-out at a limiting saturation level,
giving the response shown above (the upper
end of the blue and red lines).

When we add the flux level together to see the

resultant, the total flux follows the path of the
green line.
FigureFigure 16.3.
16.9 Flux density

The operation of the flux valve is in accordance with Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
Induction:

‘If the number of lines of force threading a circuit is changing , an induced electromotive
force will be set up in the circuit, the magnitude of the EMF being proportional to the
rate of change in the number of lines of force threading the circuit’

Therefore the secondary winding (the one coloured red in Figure 16.5) will pick up change in
magnetic flux density (the dips in the green line) as an EMF. This will be detected as an AC
signal.

228

Aviation ebooks Company

Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass Chapter 16

Figure 16.10 shows that if the flux valve leg is in line with the earth’s field, then the EMF induced
will be at a maximum value. The secondary winding (which is aligned with the leg) is shown
in the diagram. If the flux valve leg is at right angles to the field, then the EMF induced will be
zero.

Figure 16.10 Effect of Earth’s Figure

field on34.4.
different directions of flux valve leg

Figure 16.10 shows that the EMF induced varies as the cosine of the magnetic direction of the
flux valve leg. Unfortunately, this cannot be transformed directly into heading because, except
for 0° and 180°, there are 2 possible values of heading for each value of voltage. Furthermore,
any slight change of input voltage would give an altered value of output voltage, resulting in a
different measured heading.

Instead, the 3-leg system shown in Figure 16.5 is used and the output from each leg is fed to one
of the 3 legs of a stator. This re-creates the earth’s field relative to the direction of the flux valve
as shown in Figure 16.11, around the direct drive shaft from the gyro to the heading indicator
compass card.

ȱ
Figȱ32.10ȱȱȱȱȱConnectionȱofȱfluxȱvalveȱtoȱstatorȱlegsȱ
Figure 16.11 Connection of flux valve to stator legs

229

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 16 Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass

ERROR SIGNAL COMPARISON

Earlier we said that if there were any difference between the gyro shaft alignment and the
magnetic field detected by the flux valve, an error signal would be generated which would be
amplified to precess the gyro so that it takes up the alignment of the magnetic heading. This
error signal detection is achieved by rotor-stator comparison.

A wound coil is mounted on the gyro drive shaft. This coil is known as a rotor. If the coil is in
line with the AC field generated by the stators, a secondary AC voltage will be induced in the
rotor (similar to the situation shown if Figure 16.10). If the rotor is at 90° to the AC field, no
secondary voltage is induced. This is known as the null position. At any position other than
the null, some secondary voltage is induced. This secondary induced voltage is passed to the
precession amplifier where it is amplified, phase detected, and rectified to DC.

Amplified. The reason for the amplification is that the un-amplified error signal is not
powerful enough to drive the precession motor.

Phase Detected. It is important that the precession motor ‘knows which way to turn’.
Suppose that the gyro shaft is misaligned 2° clockwise from the null. The motor should
rotate the shaft 2° anti-clockwise, not all the way round 358° clockwise. Otherwise, the
system would go into continuous rotation. The purpose of phase detection is to detect
the sense of the error.

Rectified. The mechanism of the precession motor is an electromagnetic solenoid acting

on a permanent magnet. This requires DC. The amplified AC is therefore rectified to
DC which, depending on the phase detected, will either be in a positive or a negative
direction, turning the shaft either clockwise or anti-clockwise for the shortest route for
error correction.

HEADING INDICATOR

The Heading Indicator dial (compass card) is directly driven by the shaft from the gyro. The
compass card rotates as heading changes and the heading is read against the index line in the
12 o’clock position (the lubber line).

Lubber Line

Heading
Warning Flag

Heading Bug

Heading Selector
ȱ
ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱFigȱ32.11ȱ–ȱTypicalȱHeadingȱIndicatorȱ
Figure 16.12 Typical Heading Indicator

A desired heading can be selected by the pilot by rotating the heading selector control. The
heading select marker (usually called a ‘bug’) indicates the selected heading. If the magnetic
input from the flux valve fails, a warning is given in the form of a heading warning flag.

230

Aviation ebooks Company

 Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass Chapter 16

OPERATION AS A DGI

If the magnetic input from the flux valve should fail or if it becomes unreliable due to proximity
to one of the Earth’s magnetic poles, it is possible to operate the gyro-magnetic compass in gyro
mode only, in which case it acts as a DGI and will need to be re-set periodically to a directional
reference such as a standby compass or other source of aircraft heading. When it operates as
a DGI, this is referred to as FREE mode, whilst its normal magnetically monitored operation is
referred to as SLAVED mode.

Figure 16.13 shows a typical modern compass controller. With the FREE/SLAVE switch at
SLAVE, the compass operates as previously described, with the gyro slaved (in the long term)
to the input from the flux valve. If the switch is moved to FREE the magnetic signal from the
flux valve is disconnected, the rotor/stator comparison ceases, and the gyro is no longer tied in
azimuth and so acts as a free gyro (DGI).

Annunciator
When the Heading Indicator in FREE the
pilot adjusts the indicated heading in order to
correct it to an external datum heading by use
of the CCW/CW (counter-clockwise/clockwise)
control switch, which is spring-loaded to the
central position.

ȱ 16.13
Figure 32.12ȱCompass
ControlControl
ȱPanel Panel
ȱ ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ ANNUNCIATOR
ȱ
ȱ During normal flight in SLAVE mode there is usually continuous slight motion due to oscillations
ȱ of heading and to vibration which means that rotor/stator comparison of the magnetic flux
ȱ valve signal against the gyro shaft position continuously generates very small error signals. The
error signal and therefore the precession amplifier are continuously ‘hunting’. This is normal,
and is how the system is designed to work.

These error signals pass through an indicator on their way from the amplifier to the precession
motor. This indicator is called an annunciator and an example is shown in Figure 16.13.
Heading Indicatorȱ
Error Signal (AC)

Detector Unit
(flux valve)
Direct Drive Shaft
A
Horizontal Gyro

Amplified
Error Signal

Precession Motor Annunciator

- +
ȱ
FigureFigȱ32.13ȱȱȱȱAnnunciatorȱinȱCircuitȱ
16.14 Annunciator in Circuit

231

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 16 Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass

The annunciator is useful to the pilot for 2 main reasons:

 It is an indication that magnetic monitoring of the gyro is taking place. It shows that the
compass is ‘synchronised’.

 On systems where it is necessary for the pilot to synchronise manually, it indicates

which way to turn the compass.

KEEPING THE GYRO AXIS HORIZONTAL

Gyro wander can take 2 forms - drift and topple. The tendency to drift is overcome, as already
described, by slaving the gyro to the flux valve output, thereby making it a tied gyro in
azimuth.

However, the gyro would still topple, over a period of time, unless prevented from doing so. It
therefore needs to be tied, either to the aircraft yaw axis, or to gravity in order to keep it erect.
Both the yaw axis and the vertical as defined by gravity have been used as the datum in various
models of compass. Both systems use a levelling switch and a torque motor.

To tie the gyro to the yaw axis, the inner and outer gimbals are maintained at 90° to each other
by a system of commutators, insulating strips and brushes. To tie the gyro to the vertical,
mercury gravity switches are used. Either way, the correcting signals are passed to a torque
motor which applies a rotational force to the gyro in the yaw axis. The resulting precession
causes the gyro to return to the horizontal, but at a slow precession rate, so that it does not react
wildly to temporary departures from the horizontal such as turns, accelerations, climbs and
descents.

TRANSMITTING HEADING OUTPUT TO OTHER INSTRUMENTS

One of the advantages of the gyro-magnetic compass over the simple direct reading compass is
the facility to electrically transmit heading information to use as an input into other instruments.
The information is picked off from the drive shaft between the gyro and the compass card. The
transmitting and receiving device is called a Selsyn Unit.

Figure
Figure 16.15
34.12. Selsyn Unit
Selsyn Unit.

232

Aviation ebooks Company

Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass Chapter 16

The rotor of the transmitter (shown in Figure 16.15) is attached to the heading drive shaft and
rotates with it. The orientation of the rotor is therefore the heading which is to be transmitted.
The rotor is supplied with a constant primary excitation AC voltage, which induces a field in the
stators. The stators are directly connected by 3-strand wire to the 3 stator arms of the repeater,
so an identical field is reproduced there.

If the rotor of the repeater is not perpendicular to the field in the repeater stators, an AC voltage
will be induced in this repeater rotor. This is passed to an amplifier and then to a motor to turn
a shaft on which the repeater rotor is mounted. The repeater shaft will turn until no further
voltage is detected. The repeater shaft therefore follows any heading changes in the main gyro
drive shaft.

OTHER FACILITIES (NOT FOUND IN ALL GM COMPASSES)

There are some facilities and functions which may be found in some gyro-magnetic compasses
but not in others, depending on the complexity and the vintage of the particular model.

Correction for Variation. A compass measures magnetic heading, but an earlier generation
of automatic navigation equipment needed to operate with an input of True heading. Many
compasses have been designed with a facility to correct for variation. The principle is simple.
The crew member turns a knob with a graduated dial on it to the desired value of variation E or
W. This turns a shaft which offsets the angle at which the stators receiving the flux valve field
are set, by the amount of variation. Thus, the new null position for the rotor will be the magnetic
field plus the variation and so the gyro will take up True, not magnetic, heading. All indications
in the aircraft are True, which is more satisfactory for the navigation equipment but, since ATC
invariably work in magnetic headings, the crew have to remember to correct back to magnetic
for ATC instructions and other communications. Later magnetic compasses had a TRUE/MAG
switch, which allowed the pilot to have magnetic heading displayed, if required, whilst True
was passed to the navigation equipment. It was still necessary, for both types, for the crew to
remember to keep the variation updated as the isogonals changed along their route.

This facility has become less popular recently because the modern generation of area nav
equipment tend to be digital computers (often of little more complexity than a scientific
calculator) and it is a simple matter to leave the compass in magnetic for ATC purposes and
have automatic arithmetical addition of variation in the present position computer.

Acceleration and Bank Cut-out Switches. Turning and acceleration errors are greatly reduced
in the slaved gyro compass, compared with the direct reading compass because of the rigidity
of the gyro. Nevertheless, because the Hooke’s joint is pendulous the detector unit will swing
back from the vertical in accelerations and swing out from a turn because of centrifugal force.
However, because of the slow slaving rate these turning and acceleration errors affect the gyro
very little, and only for a short length of time, and the error is slowly corrected out again by
slaving once straight and level unaccelerated flight is regained.

These errors, small though they are, can be reduced by disconnecting the slaving whilst turns
and accelerations take place. Some GM compasses have longitudinal accelerometers and bank
cut-out switches, much like the electric artificial horizon. An acceleration of 0.18g or a bank
angle of 10° or more causes the signal from the flux valve to be disconnected and the system
operates as a DGI during the turn. Once the bank or acceleration is over, slaving takes place
again and, if any error was introduced during the turn through gyro drift, it should be less than
that which would have been introduced by the (very small) turning and acceleration errors, and
is soon slaved out again.

233

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 16 Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass

Two –Indicator One-Gyro Systems. Some compass systems use 2 heading indicators (for a
2-pilot aircraft) but only one gyro. The second heading indicator is aligned to the gyro by a
follow-up amplifier. The diagram is below, in Figure 16.16.

Heading Indicator

Error
A Precession Motor

Detector
Unit (flux Rotor/stator comparison Precession Amplifier
valve) Direct Drive
Shaft

Direct Drive Horizontal Axis Gyro

Follow-up Amplifier Shaft

A Follow-up
Motor

Rotor/stator
Rotor/Stator comparison
Comparison Stator Field Transmission

Figure 16.16 Two Heading Indicators Driven by One Gyro

ȱ
ȱ The Earth’s
ȱ Figȱ32.15ȱ
magnetic TwoȱHeadingȱIndicatorsȱDrivenȱbyȱOneȱGyroȱ
field is detected at the flux valve and reproduced in the stators in the first
Heading Indicator. If the rotor on the direct drive shaft from the follow-up motor is not in the
null position an error signal is detected and passed to the precession amplifier and precession
motor in order to precess the gyro. This will rotate the shaft on the second Heading Indicator,
re-positioning a rotor on this shaft. This induces a field in the stators which is reproduced in
another set of stators on the first heading indicator. Rotor/stator comparison takes place and
any error is passed to the follow-up amplifier and motor, which re-positions the direct drive
shaft, thereby moving it to the null position and removing the original difference between the
follow-up shaft and the flux valve.

The precession to the gyro is at a slow rate – typically, 3° a minute - since, except for initial
synchronisation, the gyro should be in the correct orientation and only needs to be prevented
from drifting. Therefore the precession amplifier and precession motor have a slow correction
rate.

However, there is no gyro on the follow-up shaft. This shaft is turned by the follow-up motor
and has to follow the turn rates of the aircraft, which may be 500 to 600° a minute. The follow-
ȱ
up amplifier and follow-up motor are therefore designed to have a fast follow-up rate.

234

Aviation ebooks Company

Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass Chapter 16

Remote Systems. Some systems have very high-grade gyros indeed. These could be found
in a high-quality twin gyro platform, or the platform of an inertial navigation system. In this
case, the gyros drift rate may be as low as between 0.1°/hour and 0.01°/hour and any attempt
to precess the gyro using magnetic monitoring would actually degrade it. Nevertheless, there
is still value in comparing it with a flux valve in order to pick up any gyro failure or rapid
degradation. In this case, a system of comparing the magnetic and gyro outputs which does not
disturb the gyro by precessing it is used.

ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ
Compass Coupler
ȱ
ȱ Rotor/Stator Comparison
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Detector Unit Error
ȱ
(flux valve)
ȱ Stepper Motor
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ Error
ȱ
ȱ Servomotor
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ Rotor/Stator Comparison
Horizontal Gyro
ȱ
ȱ Figure 16.17 Remote System with Compass Coupler
Figȱ32.16ȱ RemoteȱSystemȱwithȱCompassȱCouplerȱ

Instead of precessing the gyro the output of the gyro is fed to a comparison system called a
compass coupler. To see how the comparison takes place, start by assuming that the compass
is synchronised and that the main shaft output to the heading indicator is the same as the input
from the gyro. The output from the main shaft is compared with the output from the flux valve.
If there is any difference, an error signal is fed to a stepper motor. This is a device with a slow
follow-up rate (in order to avoid reacting rapidly to minor routine fluctuations from the flux
valve). This error signal is now added to the output of the horizontal gyro and the combined
signal is passed to the servomotor to slowly adjust the main shaft to correspond to the flux valve
output. This results in a system which maintains magnetic monitoring in the long-term, but
only allows the stable output of the gyro to be corrected slowly.

If the gyro were to drift (which should not happen to any significant degree) the servomotor
will turn the shaft. There will now be an error between the flux valve and the shaft which will
be passed through the stepper motor slowly and will be added the output from the gyro, and
the combined signal will be passed to the servomotor, repositioning the shaft to the long-term
flux valve magnetic output. The gyro output is adjusted and corrected to the magnetic source
whilst still maintaining the advantage of gyro stability and without precessing the gyro.

235

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 16 Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass

Dual Systems. Dual systems are simply 2 gyro-magnetic compasses together. They can
operate either independently (NORMAL switch position) or, in the event of a failure in one
system, both heading indicators can be fed from the other gyro-magnetic compass (BOTH ON
1 or BOTH ON 2).
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ NORMAL
ȱ BOTH BOTH
No 1 Heading ON 1 ON 2 No 2 Heading
ȱ
Indicator Indicator
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ No 1 Compass No 2 Compass
ȱ Coupler Coupler
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
ȱ
Figure 16.18 Typical Dual System
ȱ
Figȱ32.17ȱ TypicalȱDualȱSystemȱ
SUMMARY

The gyro magnetic compass system overcomes the weaknesses of the direct reading compass
(turning and acceleration errors, magnetic element close to source of deviations, no feed to
other equipments) and of the directional gyro (no magnetic monitoring).

The gyro magnetic compass system combines the short term stability of a gyroscope with the
long term directional stability of the earth’s magnetism.

236

Aviation ebooks Company

Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass Chapter 16

QUESTIONS

1 A gyro-magnetic compass or magnetic heading reference unit is an assembly which always

consists of :
1- a directional gyro
2- a vertical axis gyro
3- an earth’s magnetic field detector
4- an azimuth control
5- a synchronising control

The combination of correct statements is :

a 2 and 5
b 1, 3 and 5
c 2, 3 and 5
d 1 and 4

2 A slaved directional gyro derives its directional signal from:

a a direct reading magnetic compass

b the flight director
c the flux valve
d the air data computer

3 The gyro-magnetic compass torque motor:

a causes the directional gyro unit to precess

b causes the heading indicator to precess
c feeds the error detector system
d is fed by the flux valve

4 The heading information originating from the gyro-magnetic compass flux valve is sent to:

a error detector
b erector system
c heading indicator
d amplifier

5 The input signal of the amplifier of the gyro-magnetic compass resetting device originates
from the:

a directional gyro erection device

b error detector
c flux valve
d directional gyro unit

6 Heading information from the gyro-magnetic compass flux gate is transmitted to the:

a amplifier
b error detector
c erecting system
d heading indicator

237

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 16 Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass

7 A flux valve senses the changes in orientation of the horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field :

1- the flux valve is made of a pair of soft iron bars

2- the primary coils are fed AC voltage
3- the information can be used by a “flux gate” compass or a directional gyro
4- the flux gate valve casing is dependent on the aircraft three inertial axis
5- the accuracy of the value of the magnetic field indication is less than 0.5%

The combination of correct statements is :

a 2, 3 and 5
b 1, 3, 4 and 5
c 3 and 5
d 1, 4 and 5

ANSWERS

1 B

2 C

3 A

4 a

5 B

6 b

7 A

238

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

CHAPTER 17

INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM PRINCIPLES

Contents

BRIEF HISTORY OF INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

INS FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
ACCELEROMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
INTEGRATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
DATA FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
GYROSCOPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
ALIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
REVISION QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
ANSWERS TO REVISION QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

239

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

240

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

BRIEF HISTORY OF INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

The initial use of INS was military, but civilian systems became available in the late 1960s/70s.
INS is a complex and expensive full navigational aid. It is extremely accurate, not affected by
external factors and, being independent of outside communication, it can operate worldwide.
INS uses a sophisticated form of dead reckoning. It starts from a known position and calculates
further positions from the acceleration of the aircraft. This gives accurate data on speed and
change of direction to determine a new position.

In 1923 a German scientist named Maximillian Schuler wrote an academic paper on a proposed
method of stabilising compasses on ships rolling at sea. In doing so, he laid down the foundations
for a method of automatically converting the frame of reference of a gyro (which has rigidity
with reference to space) to an earth-based datum. However, at that stage, aviation gyros were
in their infancy and suffered from large amounts of real wander. Schuler’s method of correction
of the vertical component of Transport Wander (which is what it was) seemed to be of purely
academic interest by comparison, and was largely forgotten by the aviation community for the
next thirty years.

The first flight of a working Inertial Navigation System (INS) took place in 1953, when a
converted ex-military B29 flew from Cambridge, Massachusetts, to Los Angeles, California.
The aircraft was guided only by the INS and flown by autopilot. At the end of the 2000 nautical
mile 10-hour flight the navigational error was a mere 10 nm. This was an amazing achievement
for the first flight of an experimental prototype. Unfortunately, the equipment weighed three-
quarters of a ton and had a team of seven technical specialists on board! It had taken 30 years
of technical developments, including the accelerating effect on technology of a World War, to
improve the engineering accuracy of the components to the level required to produce a working
system. In particular, the accelerometers and gyroscopes needed to be of very high quality.

Two of the best-known systems which emerged in the 1960s/70s were the Delco Carousel and
the Litton LTN-51. Because these systems were widely purchased and have proved reliable,
many of them remain in service and you might still well operate them, even these days, at some
time in the future. In addition, many JAA examination questions are based on these older
systems. Therefore the equipment descriptions and operating procedures in this chapter are
based on these and similar systems.

INS FACILITIES

It is often assumed that the most important single advantage of INS over previous systems is
that it produces a continuously computed present position with no dependence on external
references. This is true, but what was almost as important was that in order to compute this
position it had been necessary to greatly improve heading measurement accuracy. INS’s heading
accuracy is a whole order of magnitude better than previous gyro-magnetic solutions. Not
only is the heading accurate to within about 0.1°, it is not dependent on a magnetic input. INS
calculates an initial true heading by detecting the earth’s spin rate, then relies entirely on
high-grade gyros to maintain that accuracy. This means that INS can be used for high-latitude
and polar navigation (once aligned in lower latitudes), where the earth’s magnetic field may be
weak or the value of variation may be unreliable.

241

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

INS measures or calculates the following navigational information:

Present position (latitude and longitude)

Heading / Drift

Track / Groundspeed

Waypoint Steering

Desired Track (DSR TK) between selected waypoints

Distance to go

Time to go

Cross-track displacement (XTK)

Track Error Angle (TKE)

In addition, it is also possible to use roll and pitch data for attitude instruments.

Fig 17.1 Data available from INS

242

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

COMPONENTS

There are 3 basic units of the INS. Two of them are on the flight deck and are operated by the
pilot. The third can be remotely located in the aircraft and does not have to be accessed in
flight.

The 2 components located on the flight deck are the:

a. Mode Selector Unit (MSU).

b. Control and Display Unit (CDU).

The other unit, which contains the power supplies, gyros and accelerometers and does the
computing is called the Inertial Navigation Unit (INU). This just looks like a black box with
input/output cables.

Fig 17.2 Mode Selector Unit (MSU)

Fig 17.3 Control and Display Unit (CDU)

243

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

When any aircraft flies, there are 3 effects of motion:

a. Position change

b. Velocity

c. Acceleration

Of these, only one can be detected without some form of external reference. Imagine yourself
in an aircraft at height with all the windows blacked out and no radio or radar. You cannot
detect position. You can detect airspeed with a pitot/static system, but not speed with reference
to the ground.

However, you can detect acceleration. If you have a plumb bob weight suspended from the ceiling
of your aircraft by a piece of string and the aircraft accelerates, the weight swings backwards.
Put the airbrakes out and the weight swings forwards. The bob is obeying Newton’s First Law
of Motion, ie, ”Every body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force”.
The aircraft accelerates but, initially, the weight does not, because it obeys Newton’s First Law.
It is not the weight which is swinging backwards, but the aircraft which is accelerating forwards
and, by mechanising the system, the acceleration can be measured. The measuring device is
called an accelerometer.

This acceleration is with respect to inertial space, not local gravity. Newton’s Laws of Motion are
universal, not earth-orientated. The measurement of acceleration would work even if gravity
were not present – in fact, inertial navigation is used for spacecraft. Therefore the acceleration,
when suitably processed, gives a measurement of groundspeed, not airspeed. By knowing
where we were when we started and adding up how far we have gone, we can work out
where we are now – rather like the trip-meter on the odometer of a car.

An inertial navigation system consists of a platform which is initially levelled, then aligned
to True North, then kept stable by gyroscopically referenced servos. Two accelerometers are
mounted on the platform at right angles to each other, one kept facing North and the other
East.

In Figs 17.4 and 17.5 the platform is

shown, obviously, out of scale to the
aircraft for the sake of clarity. Suppose
the aircraft is initially flying North.
The orientation of the platform and the
accelerometers will be as follows:

The aircraft is heading North and

the platform is orientated so that the
accelerometers have their sensitive axes
facing North and East.

If the aircraft now turns, say, 45°

clockwise onto a heading of 045°, the
platform servos have to turn

Fig 17.4 Platform orientation (1)

244

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

45° anti-clockwise with respect to the

airframe, and the platform remains
orientated to the North.

This is one of the corrections to the

platform for aircraft manoeuvres.

There are also corrections for pitch and

roll. If, for instance, the airframe is
pitched, say, 5° nose up, the front of the
platform must be driven 5° downwards
with respect to the airframe. If the left
wing is dropped, the platform must be
driven upwards on that side to keep it
level with the ground.

Accelerations from each of the

accelerometers are continuously sensed
from the moment the INS is switched
to NAVigate and are passed to an
Fig 17.5 Platform orientation (2)
integrator, where they are integrated
into North and East velocities. These
are then passed to a second integrator, where they are integrated into changes of North and
East position. If the initial position is known then, by adding the subsequent changes to the
start position, present position is computed.

ACCELEROMETERS

There are various different forms of

accelerometer, but a popular early model was
the pendulous E and I bar type. The E and I
bar is a fairly common form of transducer and
is also found, for instance, in the servo-assisted
altimeter, where it turns mechanical movement
into an electrical signal.

The E-bar is made of a material with a high
magnetic permeability. This means that it
responds by producing a high magnetic flux
density in proportion to the inducing field
and responds rapidly to rapid changes in the
inducing field. A source of primary current
is applied through a coil winding round the
centre leg of the E-bar. If it were DC, this would
convert the bar into an electromagnet with a
static North pole at one end and a South pole at
the other. However, the primary exciter source
is AC, usually at 400 Hz, and so the effect is that
Fig 17.6 E and I Bar Transducer Accelerometer the magnet changes polarity every 400th of a
second (N to S and back to N again). Secondary
windings on the outer 2 legs of the E-bar therefore experience a change of magnetic flux and
pick up secondary AC voltages – the same principle as a transformer.

245

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

The amount of induction in the secondary legs is affected by the gap between the E-bar and the
I-bar. The I-bar is attached to a rigid pendulum and hangs vertically when there is no lateral
acceleration. If the gap is the same, then the amplitude of the voltage induced at the 2 ends will
be identical, but of reverse polarity, because when one end is a N pole the other is a S pole and
vice versa. This can be plotted as follows:
The induced voltages are shown in Figure 17.7
as red and blue lines. They are at the same
frequency and amplitude, but are in anti-phase.
If we add the components A and B together, the
amplitude of the resultant voltage (the green line)
is therefore zero, and so no current is induced in
the pick-off coil.

However, if the whole accelerometer now

experiences an acceleration (say, to the right,
in Fig 17.6) then, because of the inertia of the
pendulous I-bar, it will obey Newton’s First Law
and, initially, at least, stay at the same velocity
whilst the frame accelerates to the right. This will
mean that, relatively, the pendulum will swing to
the left.
Fig 17.7 Induced voltages
at ends of E-bar and resultant

Now the gaps at each leg of the E-bar

are not the same, because the I-bar has
been displaced. Therefore the induction
at each end will be different. This will
affect the amplitude but not the polarity
or phase. The positive and negatives
will no longer cancel out and there will
be a resultant, which will be another sine
wave (shown green below).

This secondary induced voltage is
passed to a feedback amplifier where
it is amplified, phase detected, and
rectified to DC. The DC is then passed
to solenoids (shown as red windings
in Fig 17.8 above). The solenoids act a Fig 17.8 Induced voltages at ends of
electromagnets and attract a permanent E-bar and resultant – different amplitudes
magnet (shown halfway down the
pendulum in Fig 17.6) in such a sense as to re-centralise it.

Amplified. The unamplified error signal is not powerful enough to re-centralise

the permanent magnet on its own.

Phase Detected. Phase detecting the AC means that the DC can be produced with the correct
polarity, so that the magnets attract/repel in the right sense to centralise the pendulum, not
push it further out.

Rectified. The mechanism is an electromagnetic solenoid acting on a permanent magnet.

This requires DC. The amplified AC is therefore rectified to DC which, depending on the phase
detected, will either be in a positive or a negative direction, zeroing the pendulum into the null
position.

246

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

Time (1 second)

Fig 17.9 Amplification and measurement of feedback in an accelerometer

A voltage is picked off and measured, downstream of the amplifier. This voltage will be
proportional to the restoring force and therefore the initial acceleration. By measuring the
amplifier output voltage, we have a measure of lateral acceleration.

Although the principle of the pendulous E and I bar accelerometer is as described, the actual
mechanisation does not need a long vertical bar and practical accelerometers are usually a
rectangular shape, with the long side horizontal.

INTEGRATORS

Integrators convert a rate of change in a

period of time into total amount change
over that time. If the input is acceleration
(ie, rate of change of velocity) then the
output is change of velocity or, given a
starting velocity, the output will be final
velocity. If the input is velocity (ie, rate
of change of position), then the output
will be change of position, or distance
gone.

Most modern integrators used in INS use

digital computing.

Suppose that, over a second, the output

from the accelerometer is an analogue
voltage like this:
Fig 17.10 Voltage analogue of
acceleration from an accelerometer

247

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

The integrator digital sampler will turn

it into this:

The input of acceleration, for example,

is sampled many times per second and
each instantaneous value is multiplied
by the time interval between samples.
Adding all of these multiplied values
together gives the total increase in
speed over one second. Integration is a
process of successive minute additions
to (or subtractions from) the last known
value to create a new value, in very small
increments, but very frequently.

Fig 17.11 Digital sampling of voltage analogue

of acceleration
DATA FLOW

The information flow in INS is organised into 2 channels, a North channel and an East channel.
As stated earlier, one accelerometer is kept orientated North and the other orientated East.
Each accelerometer senses accelerations, one in the N/S sense (labelled an in the Fig 17.12 below
and the other in the E/W sense (labelled ae in the diagram).

Fig 17.12 North and East Channels

248

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

The northerly acceleration passes through the first-stage integrator, where it is integrated into
velocity northwards (v) and the easterly acceleration is converted by its integrator into velocity
eastwards (u).

This data will be integrated further shortly, into distance gone but, even at this stage, we can use
it – to get track and groundspeed. The north and east velocities are passed to a compounder.

Fig 17.13 Track and Groundspeed Compounder

Suppose, for instance, that we are in a jet airliner and our northerly velocity (v) is 387.3 knots
and our easterly velocity (u) is 216.8 knots. Then our vector diagram is like this:

Call the track angle θ.

Tan θ = u/v = 216.8/387.3 = 0.5598

θ = arc tan 0.5598 = 29.3°

Therefore, true track is 029.3°

The groundspeed can be found using Pythagoras’s Theorem:

G/S² = 216.82 + 387.32

Adding and square-rooting: G/S = 443.9 knots

This sort of fairly simple calculation can be performed using

only calculator-level technology – there is no complex computing
involved. Typically, this would be carried out several times a second
Fig 17.14 Compounding and continuously refreshed on the display, so it would seem to the
Vector Diagram pilot to be continuously calculated.

249

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

The velocities are also passed forward, to a second-stage integrator where they are converted
into distance gone, or displacement North and displacement East. These are labelled Sn and Se
in Fig 17.15 below.

Fig 17.15 Data flow to the latitude present position display

Sn is nautical miles change of position

north or south. This is passed to a latitude
display. It is necessary for the initial
position to be input into an INS before
use so that the system knows where it is
starting from. The relationship between
nautical miles and change of latitude is
a simple one – one minute of change of
latitude is one nautical mile, anywhere
on the earth. One degree of change of
latitude is 60 nautical miles. So suppose
that, in the example in Fig 17.15, the
start position were 5137.3 N and you
had flown 20.5 nm northwards. Your Sn
value of 20.5 minutes change of latitude
would be added to the start latitude to
give a present position of 5157.8 N. This
means that you have a continuous read-
out of your present latitude, in just the
same way as the trip-meter on your car Fig 17.16 Effect of change of latitude on Departure
continuously tells you your present
distance along a route.

Longitude is slightly more complicated because one minute of change of longitude is one
nautical mile only at the equator. If you look at Fig 17.16, you can see that the distance on
the earth at latitude A between the same change of longitude is less than it is at latitude B, the
equator.

250

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

This E/W distance on the earth is called departure and is measured in nautical miles East or
West.

The formula linking departure and change of longitude can be written:

Change of longitude (in minutes) = departure

cosine latitude

However, there is mathematical function called the secant, which is simply the reciprocal of
cosine. For instance, the cosine of 60° is 0.5, so the secant will be 1 / 0.5, which is 2.000. So we
can rewrite the above formula as:

Change of longitude (in minutes) = departure x secant latitude

Therefore, in Fig 17.15 above, we need to take the departure (Se) and multiply by the secant of
latitude. Present latitude is already available to us, so the system takes a pickoff of latitude from
the North channel and feeds it to a micro-processor which calculates the secant and multiplies it
by the output of the E/W second stage integrator, thereby converting the departure into change
of longitude, to give us the completed diagram in Fig 17.17

Fig 17.17 Full latitude and longitude display of present position

The system now gives a continuous display of present position in both latitude and longitude
as the aircraft travels over the earth in any direction.

251

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

GYROSCOPES

Going back to our discussion of the accelerometer, it is designed to detect horizontal

accelerations. In normal operation, the accelerometer should be maintained horizontal in order
that its sensitive axis does not detect gravity:

Fig 17.18 Level accelerometer - gravity perpendicular to sensitive axis

However, if for any reason, the accelerometer is not level, it will pick up a component of the
Earth’s gravity.

Fig 17.19 Tilted accelerometer – component of gravity detected

Under these circumstances, the accelerometer would detect g sin θ as though it were a horizontal
acceleration and pass it to the first-stage integrator, where it would be integrated into velocity.
With continuous acceleration, the velocity would build up very rapidly. This would be further
integrated by the second-stage integrator into displacement and with continuously increasing
velocity, the value of calculated displacement would also increase very rapidly – all this whilst
the aircraft were still on chocks! This would be a highly divergent system and this build up
must not be allowed to happen. The solution is to keep the accelerometers level.

252

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

The accelerometers are therefore mounted on a platform which is kept level by tying it to
a gyro. We need to modify Fig 17.17 in order to incorporate these changes but, in order to
avoid duplication, these notes consider only the North channel in the diagrams which follow.
Precisely the same modifications are necessary in the East channel, which has been omitted to
keep the diagrams simpler.

Fig 17.20 Accelerometer mounted on Gyro-stabilised Platform

The gyroscopes used are not mechanically tied to the airframe or to gravity and would be
space gyroscopes, having no mechanism to tie them to correct for real wander, except that
mathematically computed corrections for apparent wander (earth rate and transport wander)
are applied. (And also coriolis and central acceleration – but these will be covered shortly). The
types of gyro used can either be rate integrating gyros or two-degree-of-freedom displacement
gyros. Rate integrating gyros are widely used (see Fig 17.21).

Fig 17.21 Rate Integrating Gyroscope

253

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

A rate integrating gyroscope used in INS is a single degree of freedom gyro using viscous rather
than mechanical (spring) restraint as seen in the more commonly found rate gyroscope
Figure 17.21 shows a simple rate- integrating gyro. It is basically a can within which another
can (the inner gimbal) is pivoted about its vertical axis. The outer can (frame) is filled with a
viscous fluid which supports the weight of the inner gimbal so reducing bearing torques.

The use of gyros for stabilising the platform means that corrections for gyro wander need to be
applied. These need to be analysed in a little more detail than was necessary when considering
simpler gyro instruments. The broad sub-division of gyro wander is:

Real Wander is caused by mechanical imperfections, such as gimbal friction and rotor imbalance.
Unlike apparent wander, the spin axis is actually moving with respect to space. Real wander
is minimised by high quality engineering and manufacturing techniques. These techniques are
expensive, requiring special metals, jewelled bearings, liquid sealing, ‘clean’ rooms with air-
locks and other high-technology methods. However, when the money is spent, real drift rates
of around 1/100° per hour were typical in 1970s tuned-rotor gyros. It can therefore be said that,
with INS technology, real drift is so low that the gyros can almost be regarded as ideal gyros.

In Apparent Wander, the gyro spin axis is not actually moving with respect to inertial space.
The apparent movement is caused by the change of frame of reference of the observer. Apparent
wander is sub-divided into Earth Rate and Transport Wander.

Earth Rate and Transport Wander corrections are needed to stabilise the platform, as already
discussed. In addition, we need to examine Earth Rate in order to understand how alignment
takes place, why it takes so long and why it is so sensitive to aircraft movement, and to examine
Transport Wander to understand how some types of INS errors are caused and why they have
a sinusoidal wave form with a fixed period (next chapter).

Earth Rate. The way in which Earth Rate varies with latitude will depend on whether it is
the horizontal component or the vertical component of Earth Rate which is being considered.
In our discussion of the DGI, we considered only the horizontal component, but in fact, there
are 2 components and we need to understand the vertical component in order to see how the
platform gets aligned. The sub-division of wander now looks like this:

254

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

Horizontal Component of Earth Rate. We have

already covered the horizontal component of Earth
Rate in our study of basic gyro theory and in the
DGI. Imagine an aircraft parked on the equator with
a gyro axis pointing to True North, ie, aligned with
the local meridian.

As the Earth rotates from position 1 to position 2,

the gyro axis remains fixed in space and also remains
aligned with the local meridian.

Fig 17.22 No Horizontal component

of Earth Rate at the Equator

However, at a Pole:

At the Pole, the gyro remains aligned in space

but the meridian direction (ie, the direction
of local True North) changes. Therefore we
get the full Earth Rate of 15.04° per hour.
For anywhere between the equator and the
Pole:

Horizontal component of Earth Rate

= 15.04 X sine latitude °/hour

Fig 17.23 Full Horizontal component
of Earth Rate at a Pole

255

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

Vertical Component of Earth Rate There is also a vertical component of Earth Rate. This was
not covered in previous gyro studies, but it needs to be examined in order to understand how
an INS is aligned and why alignment becomes difficult or impossible at high latitudes.

Look at Fig 17.24. We are looking down onto

the North Pole and the aircraft is parked at the
equator, at position 1, with the gyro running.
The wings are level and the gyro axis defines
the horizontal, or ‘wings level’. The earth then
rotates, taking the aircraft with it, to position 2.
The gyro, being rigid in space, has retained its
space orientation. The orientation of the aircraft
to the gyro has changed by 90° and the gyro is
now indicating 90° of bank.

Fig 17.24 Vertical Earth Rate – at the Equator

Now look at Fig 17.25. This time we are looking

at the Earth from sideways on. The aircraft is
parked at the North Pole. As before, the wings
are level and the gyro axis defines the horizontal,
or ‘wings level’. In this case, no matter what the
rotation of the earth, there will be no change in
indicated bank angle. Earth rotation will give
apparent yaw, but no apparent bank.

Therefore the apparent roll rate is greatest at the

equator, where it is 15º/hour and is zero at the
Pole. This is a function of cosine of the latitude,
so the vertical component of earth rate is:

Vertical component of Earth Rate

= 15.04 X cosine latitude º/hour

Fig 17.25 Vertical Earth Rate – at the Pole

256

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

Transport Wander Transport Wander is also divided into 2 components, horizontal and vertical,
though we did not discuss the vertical component when considering earlier gyros. However, in
the INS the vertical component becomes important, partly because it helps to explain some of
the reasons for INS errors. Therefore the full picture of Gyro Wander now looks like this:

Horizontal Component of Transport Wander. Although Transport Wander takes place at the
same time as Earth Rate, we shall explain them separately for simplicity. So, disregarding Earth
Rate, imagine the Earth stopped in space, not rotating.

The aircraft flies from Los Angeles to London

(the red track in Fig 17.26). The gyro is aligned
with the local meridian at Los Angeles (the local
True north). This is the solid white line. When
the aircraft arrives in London, the gyro is still
aligned with the same direction in space (the
dotted white line). However, the actual direction
of True north from London is the line connecting
London to the North Pole. The difference is the
Transport Wander, which is in fact the difference
in the alignment of the meridians at Los Angleles
and London. Horizontal Transport Wander is
actually meridian convergence.

Fig 17.26 Horizontal Transport Wander

Vertical Component of Transport Wander. There is no need to consider Vertical Transport

Wander in the DGI or Artificial Horizon, because these gyros are tied in the vertical sense by
air jets and mercury gravity switches. However, INS gyros are not. They are space gyros, and
they are orientated by computed corrections, not tied by sensed forces. The purpose of the
gyro is to keep the platform level in order to avoid mistaking incorrect components of gravity
for horizontal accelerations and as the aircraft travels round the curvature of the earth, the local

257

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

direction of gravity alters. Therefore the platform has to be kept level with the local vertical,
whereas the gyro would keep the platform orientated in space.

Fig 17.27 Vertical component of Earth Rate - Uncorrected space

gyro gives apparent error in definition of horizon
What is required is a system which allows the gyro to be kept orientated to the gravity vector as
it travels over the earth – like this (Fig 17.28):

This cannot be done by the methods

traditionally used on tied gyro systems such
as the electric artificial horizon, ie, mercury
gravity switches, because the INS uses
space gyros. The INS is using the gyros to
stabilise the sensors, ie, the accelerometers.
It cannot, therefore, at the same time use the
sensors to stabilise the gyros.

Instead, a method using mathematical

calculations is used.

Fig 17.28 Orientating the gyro

to the local vertical

258

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

The aircraft is initially at the equator (black

line) and the local horizon is the black
dotted line. It now flies a distance d, (say,
60 nm) northwards up the local meridian to
a second position (red line) with a new local
horizon (red dotted line). The gyro therefore
needs to be titled round by an angle θ.

Tangent θ = d / R

R is 3437.7 nm (the average radius of the

earth), so:

Tangent θ = 60 / 3437.7 = 0.01745

Arc tan θ = 1°

Fig 17.29

However, in reality, it would not be sensible to wait till the aircraft had flown a distance before
feeding in a correction to the gyro. The gyro attitude should be adjusted as soon as the aircraft
starts to travel. Therefore, instead of using d, the distance gone in the above equation, we use v,
the velocity northwards and use it to find ω, the angular velocity. The equation now becomes:

ω = v/R

The original equation was a tangent function. However, if we are dealing with very small
angles and measuring angles in radians, the tangent relation is incorporated.

We know, R, the radius of the earth. As stated before, its average value is 3437.7 nm. To find
ω, we need v. But we already have it. It is coming out of the first-stage integrator. All we have
to do is take a parallel value out of this source and divide it by R, then feed it back to the gyro,
like this:

Fig 17.30 Adding the v/R feedback loop to keep the platform
level as the aircraft travels round the earth.
259

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

There are therefore 2 feedback loops, one in the north channel, the v/R loop , which keeps the
platform level as the aircraft flies round the earth N/S. There is also a u/R loop in the east
channel to keep the platform level as the aircraft flies round the earth E/W. This method of
stabilising the platform by velocity feedback is often known as Schuler tuning.

The Pendulum Analogy. Schuler

tuning is, in fact, an electromechanical
velocity feedback loop, as shown in
Figure 17.30. The purpose is to keep
the platform level with the local
horizon as the aircraft travels round
the earth. However, some people
find it helpful to imagine a huge
pendulum with a length equal to
the earth’s radius, with the platform
bolted on at right angles. The bob of
the pendulum remains at the centre
of the earth. Then, as the aircraft
travels, the circular motion of the
rigid part of the pendulum keeps the
platform level, as in Fig 17.31 below.

This analogy is more helpful when
considering the nature of Schuler
errors, which are discussed in a
subsequent chapter
Fig 17.31 Pendulum analogy of Schuler Tuning

SUMMARY OF PLATFORM CORRECTIONS

The following corrections are therefore applied to the platform to keep it orientated to a local
earth reference rather than space:

1. Aircraft Manoeuvres. As stated earlier, the platform has to be kept north-orientated so that
the accelerometers always detect north (or south) and east (or west) acceleration. It also has to
be stabilised for pitch and roll to keep the accelerometers level as the aircraft manoeuvres.

2. Earth Rate. The gyros are space gyros. They must therefore be corrected to keep them level
with the spin of the earth. Computed corrections of 15 x sin latitude °/hour for the horizontal
component and 15 x cosine latitude °/hour for the vertical component of earth rate must be
calculated and applied to the platform.

3. Transport Wander. As we have seen, there are 2 components of transport, horizontal and
vertical. The horizontal component is corrected by a computed formula and the vertical is
corrected by Schuler tuned velocity feedback.

4. Coriolis. The waypoint steering facility in the INS computer computes a great circle track.
As seen from above, this is a straight line path along the earth’s surface. However, the earth is
rotating in space. Therefore the aircraft is actually travelling in a curve in space. Newton’s laws
of motion are universal, related to space, not earth. If there is a curved path, there must be a
force accelerating the aircraft into the turn. This coriolis force is small but it is still measurable
and needs to be calculated and a correction sent to compensate the platform.

260

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

5. Central Acceleration. As the aircraft flies round the earth and maintains a local horizon,
its nose is descending relative to space in order to follow the earth’s curvature. Again, there
must be a force accelerating the aircraft into the turn, in this case vertically. This force is central
acceleration, which is computed and passed to the platform as a correction.

SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

To summarise the full operation, refer to Fig 17.32 below:

Fig 17.32 Single channel INS operation

The accelerometer is mounted on a platform which is stabilised and True North-orientated

by gyroscopes. It detects accelerations which are passed to the first-stage integrator. Here
they are integrated into velocity. One feed of this velocity is taken forward to the second-
stage integrator, where it is converted to distance gone and added to the present position,
thereby generating a new present position. A parallel feed of the velocity is fed backwards
through a v/R feedback loop, where it is converted to the ω term which is used to rotate the
platform to keep it perpendicular to the local gravity vector.

ALIGNMENT

All of the previous explanation assumes that the platform is levelled and North-orientated. It is
therefore necessary to initialise the platform before flight in order to get it level and orientated.
This process is called alignment.

Details of the various stages of alignment vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, with some
using stages labelled ‘coarse levelling’, ‘coarse alignment’,‘fine levelling’ and ‘fine alignment’.
However, all systems share the same 3 broad stages. These are:

1 Caging

2 Levelling

3 Gyrocompassing

261

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

Caging. During caging, heater voltages are applied to bring the gyros (liquid) up to their
operating temperature and the gyro gimbals are parked in a safe configuration so that no
gimbal damage can occur as the gyros are spun up to their operating rpm. Once at full speed,
the gimbals are uncaged. The whole caging process takes about 3 minutes.

Levelling. Levelling makes use of the accelerometers. Their output should be zero for a
stationary aircraft but if the platform is tilted, they sense a component of gravity along their
sensitive axis (Fig 17.19). During levelling, these outputs, instead of being integrated into
velocities, are passed directly back to the levelling motor which tilts the platform back until
zero acceleration is sensed. At this point the platform is levelled to the local gravity vertical.
Levelling also takes about 3 minutes.

Gyrocompassing. Gyrocompassing senses the heading with reference to the earth’s spin axis,
ie, True North. It depends on the principle that an ideal gyro, being space-referenced, can detect
earth rate. In the high-quality gyros used in INSs the real wander is so low that they can be
considered as ideal gyros. Figs 17.24 shows that if the gyro axis is pointing east at the equator
the gyro will be sensitive to earth rate whilst Fig 17.22 shows that if the gyro axis is pointing
north, there is no earth rate at the equator. This horizontal component is, as we showed earlier,
15.04 x cosine latitude degrees/hour. At the equator., we get the full 15.04 cos latitude °/hr when
pointing east and 15.04 sin latitude°/hour (ie, zero) when pointing north. At any other latitude,
we get intermediate amounts, depending on the latitude.

The platform is therefore rotated by servos till no earth rate is detected by the east gyro. This
means that it is axis is pointing north. This is taken as the reference heading for the INS.

The amount of earth rate sensed is a function of the cosine of the latitude and the sine of the
heading (when the gyro is aligned to north, there is no error and the sine of zero degrees is
zero). The usual notation is:

Earth rate used for gyrocompassing = 15.04 x cos λ x sin ψ

where λ = latitude and ψ = misalignment angle

Both these components have implications in considering alignment.

Latitude Error. The INS needs to know starting latitude in order to calculate the correct earth
rate (15 sin λ°/hour and 15 cos λ°/hour). Gyro-compassing is complete when the output of the
east gyro is correct for the appropriate latitude. If the latitude inserted at start-up is in wrong,
then in addition to any DR error carried forward in the present position, the alignment will also
be incorrectly computed.

Both the sine and the cosine of latitude are used in this calculation. An incorrect latitude will
give a poor alignment. If the latitude error is considerable (the JAA assume 10° of error as the
limit) the INS may not align at all.

(Note, however, that longitude is not used in the alignment calculations. If an incorrect longitude
is inserted at start-up there will be a present position error, but it will not affect the accuracy of the
alignment).

Therefore we can say that INS alignment is sensitive to incorrect latitude but insensitive to
incorrect longitude.

262

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

High Latitudes. At high latitudes cos λ is smaller. This means that the accelerometers are
trying to detect smaller amounts of earth rate. Thus an alignment at high latitudes takes longer
than one at low latitudes and is slightly less accurate. However at very high latitudes (around
70 - 75°, depending on the vintage of the INS; 72° is a good average figure) the amount of earth
rate is so small that it is swamped by the error tolerance of the accelerometers and alignment is
not possible at all. If ground alignment can be achieved at a lower latitude, the aircraft can be
subsequently operated at high latitudes, but it cannot be initially aligned at high latitudes.

Misalignment Angle. As the platform becomes more nearly aligned, ψ, the misalignment
angle becomes smaller and sin ψ becomes harder to detect. Alignment is normally to within
0.1° and, at that stage, the effect of sin ψ is to scale whatever earth rate is available to be detected
buy a factor of 0.0017, or 17/10,000ths. Great accuracy of components is needed and accordingly
the system is very sensitive during alignment. The aircraft cannot be moved at all. With
many aircraft, it is not possible to align with engines running. Gusty wind conditions can
prevent alignment. Alignment is completed when the READY NAV light comes on and the
MSU selector can then be moved from ALIGN to NAV and the aircraft can be subsequently
moved without damaging the alignment.

263

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

REVISION QUESTIONS

1 To obtain heading information from a Gyro Stabilised platform, the gyros should have:

a. 1 degree of freedom and a horizontal axis
b. 1 degree of freedom and a vertical axis
c. 2 degrees of freedom and a horizontal axis
d. 2 degrees of freedom and a vertical axis

2 An INS platform is kept at right angles to local gravity by applying corrections for the effects
of:

i. Aircraft manoeuvres
ii. earth rotation
iii. transport wander
iv. coriolis
v. gyroscopic inertia

a. i, iii and v
b. ii, iii and v
c. ii, iv and v
d. i, ii,iii and iv

3 Gyro-compassing in an INS:

a. is possible in flight as the accelerometers can differentiate between acceleration due to

aircraft movement and initial alignment errors
b. is not possible in flight as the accelerometers can differentiate between acceleration
due to aircraft movement and initial alignment errors
c. is not possible in flight as the accelerometers cannot differentiate between acceleration
due to aircraft movement and initial alignment errors
d. is possible in flight as the accelerometers cannot differentiate between acceleration
due to aircraft movement and initial alignment errors

4 In an Inertial Navigation System (INS), Ground Speed (GS) is calculated:

a. by integrating gyro precession in N/S and E/W directions respectively

b. by integrating measured acceleration
c. from TAS and W/V from RNAV data
d. from TAS and W/V from Air Data Computer (AD

5 In an Inertial Navigation System, what is the output of the first stage North/South integrator?

a. groundspeed
b. latitude
c. velocity along the local meridian
d. change of latitude

264

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Navigation System Principles Chapter 17

6 What measurement is used to carry out alignment of an Inertial Navigation System?

a. acceleration sensed by the east gyro horizontal accelerometer

b. acceleration sensed by the north gyro horizontal accelerometer
c. acceleration sensed by the north gyro vertical accelerometer
d. difference in magnitude of the value of gravity compared with the gravity at
the last known position

7 Which of the following equipments does not use information from external sources in flight?

a INS / IRS
b. pressure altimeter
c. slaved gyro compass
d. VOR

8 In an INS, what is the output of the E/W second-stage integrator?

a. Velocity N/S
b. Distance N/S
c. Distance E/W
d. Velocity E/W

9 Double integration of the output from the East/West accelerometer of the Inertial Navigation
System when in NAV mode gives:

a. Distance E/W
b. Vehicle Longitude
c. Distance N/S
d. Velocity E/W

10 When is the last point at which an INS or IRS may be selected to NAV mode?

a. After passengers and freight are aboard

b. Immediately prior to push back or taxy from the gate
c. At the holding point
d. On operation of the TOGA switch when opening the throttles for the take-off

11 At the second stage of integration E/W speed is converted into E/W distance gone. To convert
this departure into change of longitude it has to be:

a. divided by Secant of the latitude.

b. multiplied by Secant of the latitude.
c. divided by Tangent of the latitude.
d. multiplied by Cosine of the latitude.

265

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 17 Inertial Navigation System Principles

ANSWERS TO REVISION QUESTIONS

1. c

2. d

3. c

4. b

5. c

6. a

7. a

8. c

9. a

10. b

11. b

266

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Operation Chapter 18

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

INS OPERATION
Contents

INS OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

ENTERING PRESENT POSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
ALIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
INSERTING WAYPOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
OPERATION IN ‘NAV’ MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
WAYPOINT STEERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
CDU DISPLAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
XTK – (CROSS TRACK DISPLACEMENT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
TKE – (TRACK ANGLE ERROR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
THE ‘HOLD’ BUTTON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
THE CDU ‘BATT’ LIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
THE MSU ‘BATT’ LIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
USE OF THE ‘ATT REF’ FUNCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
ANSWERS TO CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

267

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 18 INS Operation

268

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Operation Chapter 18

INS OPERATION

This chapter describes the operation of typical 1970s-era Inertial Navigation Systems such as
the Litton LTN-51 and the Delco Carousel.

ENTERING PRESENT POSITION

Before any INS operation can take place, the basic aircraft power supplies have to be available.
The aircraft generators and inverters are switched on. This may be from ground power or the
APU, if the engines are not to be started at this point.

Fig 18.1 MSU

The INS Mode Selector Unit (MSU) is then switched from OFF to STANDBY. This allows
aircraft power through to the INS and initiates the INS’s own power supplies. With STANDBY
selected, it is now possible to enter an initial present position.

Switch the Control Display Unit (CDU) rotary

switch to POS (present position). Note that the key
pad has some multi-function keys. For instance,
‘2’ is also ‘N’ (North), ‘4’ is also ‘W’ (West), ‘6’ is
also ‘E’ (East) and ‘8’ is also ‘S’ (South). In POS
mode, the keypad will accept only ’N’ or ‘S’ at
the first key press. It will not misinterpret them
as ‘2’ or ‘8’.

Fig 18.2 CDU

Enter the present position, using the format: N (or S) DDMM.M (Tens of Degrees, Units
of Degrees, Tens of Minutes, Units of Minutes, Decimal of Minutes) followed by E (or W)
DDDMM.M. There are 5 digits for the latitude because the maximum number of digits for
the degrees is 2 (90ºN or S), but there are 6 digits for the longitude because 3 digits are needed
(hundreds, tens and units) as there are up to 180º of longitude.

269

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 18 INS Operation

At the first key press (‘N’ or ‘S’), the INSERT

blue light comes on. It is both a button and a
light. Check the entry in the light-emitting diode
(LED) display. If the entry is incorrect, use the
CLEAR button to correct it (one space at a time).
Once satisfied that it is correct, press the INSERT
button. The INSERT light goes out and the
present position is entered into the computer.
Alignment can now start.

Fig 18.3 CDU

ALIGNMENT

Fig 18.4 MSU

Select the MSU rotary switch to ALIGN. The 17 minutes countdown now starts. Alignment is
under automatic control by the computer and no further aircrew actions are required until it is
complete, at which point the MSU READY NAV light will come on. After this, the crew will
switch the rotary selector to NAV when ready to move.

Fig 18.4 MSU

Alignment can also take place with NAV selected on the MSU rotary switch. If, after inserting
present position in STANDBY, a double click is made, through ALIGN to NAV, the internal
computer will put the system into ALIGN mode, despite the switch position, until alignment is

270

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Operation Chapter 18

complete. At this point, the READY NAV light will come on and the system will automatically
go into NAV mode without any further selection.

Clearly, it is advisable to select ALIGN as early as possible in the checklist sequence as there
will be 17 minutes wait time before the aircraft can be moved, and it would be better to do the
bulk of the pre-start checks after selecting ALIGN in order to make productive use of the time.

It is possible to check on how much time remains to complete the alignment, although there is
not much point – it will not make the alignment time any faster. However, the facility exists
during alignment, by use of the DSR TK / STS (desired track / system status) position on the
MSU rotary switch.

There are 2 windows on the CDU LED display – left and right. In POS and WPT the left is
for latitude and the right for longitude. In any other mode (eg, TK GS), the left is for the first
named (TK – track – in this case) and the right for the second (ie, GS – groundspeed).

In DSR TK / STS, the desired track will

not be applicable at this stage because
no waypoints will have been selected,
but, during alignment, STS gives an
indication of time to alignment. The
detailed display varies from manufacturer
to manufacturer.

In some systems the display is minutes

to go to completion of alignment and
on others there is a code number (as
shown in the diagram above) that gives
an indication of which sub-stage of
alignment is currently taking place. In
the Litton system, for instance, ‘40’ as Fig 18.6 CDU
shown above, indicates ‘Fine Align’.
This gives an approximate estimate of time to go.

However, the most useful way to spend the time waiting for alignment to complete would be to
load the waypoints. This can be done before selecting NAV.

INSERTING WAYPOINTS

In this early version up to 9 waypoints can be stored at any one time. To select which store to
load, there is a small thumbwheel, which looks like this:

Rotate the wheel to the appropriate store. Then, select the rotary display
switch to WPT.

Fig 18.7 MSU

Waypoint
Wheel

271

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 18 INS Operation

The method of entering a waypoint is exactly

as for entering a present position, ie, start with
‘N’ or ‘S’. The INSERT light comes on. Then, as
before, enter DDMM.M for latitude, followed by
‘E’ or ‘W’ followed by DDDMM.M for longitude.
Check and correct, using the CLEAR button if
required. If correct, press INSERT to commit the
position into the waypoint store and to put the
INSERT light out.

Repeat for the first 9 waypoints of the route.

If there are more than 9 waypoints en route,
subsequent waypoints can be loaded in flight
once the early ones have been overflown and are
Fig 18.8 CDU no longer required.

OPERATION IN ‘NAV’ MODE

Once alignment is complete, select ‘NAV’. The alignment is now protected and the aircraft can
be taxied or pushed back. If the system operates normally, it will now remain in NAV for the
rest of the sortie, or sorties, until final shutdown.

WAYPOINT STEERING

Although the INS will provide heading, track, groundspeed, etc, for general navigation, one of
the most useful facilities is to provide waypoint steering. A flight plan route of (initially) up to
9 waypoints can be entered and a steer signal to follow the route along its various legs can be
generated and displayed on the Flight Director system and can also be passed directly to the
autopilot to automatically steer the aircraft along the route.

To enter a waypoint steer, press the TK CHG

(Track Change) button. The blue lights in the TK
CHG button and also the INSERT button light
up. Then enter the pair of waypoints to steer
between in the order FROM / TO, ie, to steer from
WP1 to WP2, enter ‘1’,’2’. The number 1,2 appear
in the LEDs above the TK CHG button. Press the
INSERT button to enter them into the computer.
The TK CHG and INSERT lights go out.

Fig 18.9 CDU

If the AUTO/MAN/RMT selector is switched to AUTO then, on reaching WP2, an automatic

changeover takes place. The LED display changes to ‘2’,’3’ and the aircraft is steered along the
next leg. It is normal when route flying to use AUTO mode and automatically change over
from leg to leg.

272

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Operation Chapter 18

Many routes will require more than 9 waypoints. This is no problem. Suppose waypoints 1
and 2 have been overflown and the aircraft is now on the leg between WP3 and WP4. WP1 and
WP2 are no longer required. The tenth waypoint can be loaded into store number 1 and the
eleventh can be loaded into store number 2. As the aircraft completes the leg from WP8 to WP9,
the automatic changeover will go to ‘9’,’1’ for the next leg, so, provided the waypoint stores are
updated in flight by the crew when the previous waypoints are no longer needed, it is possible
to run through the 9 waypoint stores as many times as is required.

The ALERT light warns the crew of the approach

of a waypoint. Otherwise the aircraft could roll to
25º of bank at waypoint changeover onto the new
heading without the crew expecting it, which
could cause unwanted surprise on the flight deck.
The exact indications vary with the model of INS
and the mode selected but, in broad terms, the
ALERT light gives a steady illumination at about
2 minutes to go, changing to a flashing light at 30
seconds to go.

Fig 18.10 CDU

The steer signal tracks the aircraft down

the centreline of the route between the
2 waypoints in use. If the aircraft is out
to the side of the route for any reason, it
will be ‘S’-turned back onto the centreline
at quite a sharp angle. It is not steered
directly to the next waypoint.

Fig 18.11

However, there is a facility for steering directly

from present position to a waypoint. This is
‘Waypoint 0’. It is not possible to pre-load a
waypoint 0 because there is no ‘0’ selection on
the thumbwheel, but if the operator selects TK
CHG, ‘0’,’2’, INSERT, the present position at the
moment of pressing INSERT is inserted as WP0
and the aircraft is steered from WP0 to WP2.

Fig 18.12

273

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 18 INS Operation

CDU DISPLAYS

With the rotary selector on TK GS the left display

shows the True Track to the nearest 0.1° and the
groundspeed to the nearest knot

Fig 18.13 CDU

Selection of HDG DA gives a left display

of True Heading to the nearest 0.1° and
a right display of drift, expressed as
degrees left or right, also to the nearest
0.1°.

Fig 18.14 CDU

For XTK / TKE to be operative, a steer between

2 waypoints must be selected. The left display
shows the cross-track displacement from the
centreline between the 2 waypoints. The right
shows the difference between the aircraft track at
the present time and the desired track between
the waypoints in use.

Fig 18.15 CDU

274

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Operation Chapter 18

XTK – (CROSS TRACK DISPLACEMENT)

The diagram shows a desired track of 060.0 °T.

The aircraft is positioned 12.0 nm to the right of
the desired centreline.

Fig 18.16

TKE – (TRACK ANGLE ERROR)

The aircraft’s actual track at this time (ie,

the instantaneous combination of heading
and drift) is 20.0° left of the desired track
between the selected waypoints.

Fig 18.17

With the rotary switch at POS, the present

position latitude is shown in the left window
and the longitude in the right window. Both are
shown to an accuracy of the nearest one-tenth of
a minute in lat or long.

Fig 18.18 CDU

275

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 18 INS Operation

Selection of WPT displays the lat/long of

whichever waypoint has been selected in the
waypoint selector thumbwheel, to the nearest
tenth of a minute of lat or long.

Fig 18.19 CDU

With the rotary selector in DIS/TIME the

display shows the distance to go (to the
nearest nautical mile) and the time to go
(to the nearest tenth of a minute) from
present position to the TO waypoint
along the route between the 2 waypoints
selected in the FROM/TO LED display.

The time to go is calculated from the

present groundspeed and the system is
responsive to changes in groundspeed.
If the thrust is reduced, as the speed
trickles off, the operator can see the time
to go increasing as he watches. Fig 18.20 CDU

There is also a facility (by selecting the AUTO/MAN/RMT to RMT) to obtain distance between
the 2 waypoints selected in the FROM TO display. This can be useful for checking the flight
plan.

With WIND selected, the left window shows the

wind direction to the nearest degree and the wind
speed to the nearest knot.

In order to calculate wind velocity four inputs are

required. These are;

Heading

Drift (or Track)

Groundspeed

TAS
Fig 18.21 CDU
The INS generates the first 3 itself. It is necessary to have an input of TAS from another
source in order to calculate W/V. However, INS has no facility on its own for calculating TAS.
But any aircraft which has an avionics suite sophisticated enough to include an INS will also
include an Air Data Computer (ADC), which will provide the TAS to the INS.

276

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Operation Chapter 18

DSR TK STS stands for Desired Track / System

Status. The Desired Track is the initial Great
Circle True track between the waypoints selected
in the FROM/TO LED display, and is shown to
the nearest one-tenth of a degree.

Fig 18.22 CDU

As noted earlier, System Status can give an indication of time remaining to align. However,
once NAV has been selected on the MSU rotary switch, STS is used to indicate serviceability
and for fault diagnosis. If the INS is serviceable, a code (usually ‘0000’ appears in the right-
hand LED. The main use, however, is for fault diagnosis, used in conjunction with the WARN
light.

The INS carries out a continuous

process of self-monitoring as part of its
operating routine. If any malfunction
is detected the WARN light illuminates.
The WARN light simply indicates that
there is a failure. It does not tell the
operator what it is. To diagnose the
fault, select DSR TK STS. In the right
hand window a 4-digit STS code will be
indicated, which is used in conjunction
with the Pilot’s Operating Handbook.
In the ‘Malfunctions’ checklist, there is a
table consisting of 3 columns. The first
gives the numerical code, the second
identifies the failure and the third gives Fig 18.23 CDU
the appropriate action to be taken.

Finally, the TEST function is used for deeper

diagnosis by the maintenance personnel and is
not normally used by flight crew. Selection of
TEST causes all the lights to light up and puts a
‘8’ in every LED, since’8’ is the one number that
uses every element of the 7-line display. Should
an element of any LED number displayed be
suspect, the use of TEST position could clarify
whether or not there is a problem.

Fig 18.24 CDU

277

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 18 INS Operation

THE ‘HOLD’ BUTTON

In the POS selection, the present position lat/long is continuously displayed. Typical jet speeds
are around M0.7 to M0.9, ie, giving groundspeeds of around 480 knots. This is 8 miles a minute,
and, as a nautical mile is one minute of latitude, the latitude ‘minutes’ LED can change 8 times
and the ‘decimal minutes’ LED can change 80 times a minute, or more often than once a second.
The longitude decimal minutes can change even more rapidly. It can be difficult to read such a
rapidly-changing display and so the HOLD button ‘freezes’ the display.

On pressing the HOLD button with the rotary selector in POS, the LEDs ‘freeze’ and the HOLD
button lights up. On pressing the HOLD button a second time, the light goes out and the
display unfreezes to the new present position. Whilst the HOLD light is on, it is only the
display which is frozen. The internal calculation of present position still continues.

The HOLD button also allows updating of present position. If a position update is available
from an independent source (for instance, GPS, or VOR/DME), select POS and press the HOLD
button at the moment of the position fix. The display freezes, showing the INS present position
at the time of the hold. Compare the independent fix position lat/long and, if it is decided to
update, enter the corrected present position as for any position entry. As the first ‘N’ or ‘S’ is
pressed, the INSERT light lights up. On completion press INSERT. The frozen present position
is updated and the INSERT light goes out. On pressing HOLD a second time, the present
position is unfrozen and now shows the unstored position, including change of position since
pressing HOLD the first time, corrected for the fix update.

THE CDU ‘BATT’ LIGHT

There are 2 BATT lights, one on the MSU and one on the CDU. Considering the CDU one
first:

The INS normally receives its power

from the main aircraft power bus-bars. If
power to the platform and gyros were to
be interrupted in flight, alignment would
be lost. It would then not be possible to
re-align in flight and subsequent INS
navigation would be lost. To prevent this
happening, the INU has its own battery.
If main aircraft power supplies are lost,
the INS automatically reverts to its own
battery supply.

Fig 18.25 CDU

278

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Operation Chapter 18

THE MSU ‘BATT’ LIGHT

Fig 18.26 MSU

However, the battery has only a limited charge. If the voltage drops below a specified level
with time, the INS functions can no longer be preserved. In this case, the MSU BATT light
illuminates. This is more serious. It means that the battery is the sole source of power to the
INS and that the battery is failing. Alignment will be lost and, in time, all INS facilities will be
lost. Even if power is subsequently restored, it will not be possible to re-align and all navigation
computing functions remain lost.

USE OF THE ‘ATT REF’ FUNCTION

There may be occasions when full navigation computing is not available but the gyros are
serviceable. This could be in the event of a computing malfunction so that earth rate and
transport wander corrections cannot be calculated or it could be after an alignment failure in
flight.

Fig 18.26 MSU

However, on many aircraft the gyros are used as primary attitude information as well as for
inertial navigation and it may be possible to retain gyro information. This is done by selecting
ATT REF on the MSU.

Selecting ATT REF disconnects computing and loses alignment, if this has not already happened
anyway. The accelerometers now act as gravity switches, as they do during the levelling phase
of alignment and the gyros become gravity-tied in the long term, ie, earth gyros. The system
now gives attitude information and a limited form of heading. The gyros are normally very
accurate, but there is no correction for earth rate and transport wander and the heading needs
to be reset periodically to an independent (usually magnetic) source. In effect, the gyros are
acting a super-accurate form of DGI and as an attitude indicator. This completes the chapter on
equipment operation. INS errors are covered in the next chapter.

279

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 18 INS Operation

CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS

1 An aircraft equipped with an Inertial Navigation system (INS) flies with INS 1 coupled with
autopilot 1. Both inertial navigation systems are navigating from waypoint A to B. The inertial
systems’ CDU s show:

XTK on INS 1 = 0
XTK on INS 2 = 8L

From this information it can be deduced that:

a. only inertial navigation No 1 is drifting

b. only inertial navigation No 2 is drifting
c. at least one of the inertial navigation systems is drifting
d. the autopilot is unserviceable in NAV mode

2 When is the last point at which an INS may be selected to NAV mode?

a. After passengers and freight are aboard

b. Immediately prior to push back or taxy from the gate
c. At the holding point
d. On operation of the TOGA switch when opening the throttles for the take-off

3 ATT REF mode of the Inertial Navigation System (INS) is a back-up mode providing:

a. altitude, heading and position information

b. navigation information
c. only attitude information
d. only attitude and heading information

4 What method of entering waypoints can be used on all INS equipments?

a. Distance and bearing

b. Waypoint name
c. Navaid identifier
d. Latitude and longitude

5 The purpose of the TAS input, from the air data computer, to the Inertial Navigation System is
for

a. position update in Attitude mode

b. the calculation of wind velocity
c. the calculation of drift
d. position update in Navigation mode

280

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Operation Chapter 18

6 Alignment of INS and IRS equipments can take place in which of the following modes?

a. ATT and ALIGN

b. NAV and ALIGN
c. ALIGN only
d. ALIGN and ATT

7 Which mode on the CDU of an INS must be selected in order to display initial Great Circle track
between 2 waypoints?

a. HDG \ DA
b. TK \ GS
c. DSRTK \ STS
d. XTK \ TKE

8 A pilot accidently turns OFF the INS in flight, and then turns it back on a few moments later.
Following this incident

a. everything returns to normal and is usable

b. the INS is usable in NAV MODE after a position update
c. it can only be used for attitude reference.
d. no useful information can be obtained from the INS

9 You enter the start position of an INS from a ramp at 7019.2N 13946.3W but you incorrectly
enter 13946.3E instead of W. You fly to 7019.2N 180E/W without updating the INS in flight.
What longitude is indicated on your INS present position display?

a. 08027E
b. 09933E
c. 08027W
d. 09933W

10 What is the input to an INS which allows it to compute W/V?

a. Altitude and OAT

b. IAS
c. Mach No
d. TAS

281

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 18 INS Operation

ANSWERS TO CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS

1. c

2. b

3. d

4. d

5. b

6. b

7. c

8. c

9. b

10. d

282

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Errors Chapter 19

CHAPTER NINETEEN

INS ERRORS

Contents

INS ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

INPUT ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
PLATFORM TILT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
SCHULER ERROR PATTERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
THE SCHULER PENDULUM ANALOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
BOUNDED ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
UNBOUNDED ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
SUMMARY OF INS ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
CORRECTION OR ALLOWANCE FOR INS ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
ANSWERS TO CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

283

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 19 INS Errors

284

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Errors Chapter 19

INS ERRORS

An INS can be considered as comprising sensors (accelerometers and gyros), processors

(integrators and feedback loops) and outputs (displays and feeds to other equipment). Errors
in the sensors and processors (ie, input errors) will produce resultant errors in the outputs.

Consider the INS data flow as set out in Figure 19.1 below:-

Fig 19.1 Single channel INS operation

Revising the material in Chapter 17: The accelerometer is mounted on a platform which is
stabilised and north-orientated by gyroscopes. It detects accelerations which are passed to the
first-stage integrator. Here they are integrated into velocity. One feed of this velocity is taken
forward to the second-stage integrator, where it is converted to distance gone and added to the
present position, thereby generating a new present position. A parallel feed of the velocity is
fed backwards through a v/R feedback loop, where it is converted to the ω term which is used
to rotate the platform to keep it perpendicular to the local gravity vector.

Imagine the INS above has been aligned and switched to NAVigate. However, for some
reason, the aircraft remains static for a while. Theoretically, no acceleration, velocity or position
displacement should be detected.

INPUT ERRORS

In practice, any combination of the following 6 input errors could occur.

 1. Platform Tilt (also known as initial levelling misalignment). The levelling process during
alignment is very accurate (of the order of 6 seconds, ie, 1/600th of a degree). Nevertheless, it is
a compromise with the requirement for a reasonably short alignment time. On completion of
the alignment the platform may not be perfectly level.

 2. Accelerometer Bias. The accelerometers are designed to give zero output for zero input, if
properly levelled. However, due to manufacturing imperfections, there may be some slight
output when perfectly stationary and level. This is called accelerometer bias.

 3. Integrator Error. For a zero input into an integrator, there should be a zero change of output.
Again, due to manufacturing imperfections, there may be some slight scaling error. Taking the
second-stage integrator as an example, suppose the velocity input were exactly 400 knots for
exactly one hour. If the distance gone output to the present position display were 401 knots
instead of 400, that would be an integrator scaling error. Integrator error is present in both the
first-stage and the second-stage integrators.

285

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 19 INS Errors

 4. Levelling Gyro Topple. In addition to any initial levelling misalignment, the gyro may also
topple. With the accuracy to be expected of IN-quality gyros, the topple rate would be of the
order of only 1/100th of a degree per hour, but nevertheless, it is finite and would have an effect
on the output.

 5. Initial Azimuth Misalignment. Gyrocompassing usually results in an initial alignment

accuracy of about 0.1º. This is very accurate compared with a gyromagnetic flux valve heading
but even one-tenth of a degree introduces appreciable errors.

 6. Azimuth Gyro Drift. In addition to any initial misalignment error, the azimuth (heading)
gyro may also drift. This drift rate would typically be of the order of only 1/100th of a degree per
hour but, as with the topple, it is finite and would have an effect on the output.

The input errors will now be considered for their effect on the following outputs:

 Platform Tilt

 Acceleration

 Velocity

 Position

The diagram at Fig 19.1 has been slightly modified to become Fig 19.2.

Fig 19.2 Platform Tilt - Initial Condition

The accelerometer is mounted on a platform and acceleration is passed to the first-stage

integrator. This time we have added a meter so that we can monitor what the acceleration is
doing. The convention is that 12 o’clock is zero, left is positive and right is negative. Another
meter allows us to monitor velocity between the first-stage and second-stage integrator. The
position output is shown using the same convention for diagrammatic purposes even though it
would be a digital readout of lat/long in a real system.

286

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Errors Chapter 19

PLATFORM TILT

With a stationary aircraft, when NAVigate is selected at the end of the alignment phase, if the
platform is not perfectly level the following sequence takes place:

 The accelerometer detects a small component of gravity. This is sensed as a horizontal

acceleration. The integration of the accelerometer takes a finite time and therefore at the moment
NAVigate is selected, velocity and distance are zero.

 The first-stage integration produces a velocity. This velocity output is passed to the second-
stage integrator and starts to build up a position error. However, the velocity is also passed to
the v/R feedback loop. Being indistinguishable from a genuine velocity, its action on the v/R
loop has the effect of tilting the platform back to the level – anti-clockwise, in our diagram. This
brings us to the situation at Fig 19.3.

Fig 19.3 Platform Tilt - Quarter Cycle Later

The platform is level so now the accelerometer stops detecting gravity. Therefore no horizontal
acceleration is sensed. However, velocity has already built up due to first-stage integration
whilst the platform was being brought to the level. Adding zero acceleration to a standing
velocity does not result in zero velocity output. The velocity continues as an output.

 This will cause the platform to continue to tilt anti-clockwise, resulting in the situation shown
in Fig 19.4 (see overleaf).

287

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 19 INS Errors

Fig 19.4 Platform Tilt - Quarter Cycle later

 Now the platform is tilted over as far over in the negative sense as it was originally in the
positive sense at the start. Therefore a negative acceleration is sensed. This will be passed to
the first-stage integrator, resulting in the velocity being brought back from positive to zero.
Whilst this is going on velocity, though diminishing, continues to be passed to the second-stage
integrator and therefore the distance continues to increase.

 The negative tilt continues to produce a negative acceleration which is now integrated into
negative velocity. The negative velocity is integrated at the second stage to produce a negative
distance. Therefore the velocity error reduces – it comes back from full scale deflection, in our
diagram.

Fig 19.5 Platform Tilt - Quarter Cycle later

288

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Errors Chapter 19

 As previously, the platform is level so now the accelerometer stops detecting gravity. Therefore
no horizontal acceleration is sensed. However, negative velocity has already built up due to first-
stage integration whilst the platform was being brought to the level. Adding zero acceleration
to a standing velocity does not result in zero velocity output. Negative velocity continues as
an output and the action of the v/R feedback loop is to tilt the platform anti-clockwise again.
The (reducing) negative velocity is also passed to the second-stage integrator, and therefore the
position error is driven back to zero.

 So we finally finish with the system in precisely the same configuration as it was at the moment
of selecting NAVigate. The whole loop has oscillated one full cycle to return to its initial
configuration.

Fig 19.6 Platform Tilt - Final Condition

SCHULER ERROR PATTERN

The distance error starts at zero at the moment of selecting NAVigate, then increases to half of
its full displacement after a quarter of a cycle, reaches its fullest displacement at the halfway
point of the cycle, then reduces back to half displacement at three-quarters of the way through
and finally reduces to zero at the end of the cycle.

Fig 19.7 shows the pattern of error caused by platform tilt. It is sinusoidal in form. Two cycles of
oscillation are shown in the diagram, but the oscillation will continue until the INS is shutdown
at the end of the sortie.

Fig 19.7The Schuler Error Pattern

289

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 19 INS Errors

Each cycle takes 84.4 minutes. This never changes, because it is based on the constants used in
the v/R feedback loop. These are the value of the gravitational constant and the radius of the
earth. Therefore it does not mater whether your INS was designed by Honeywell, Delco, Litton
or anyone else. It will have to have a v/R feedback loop to keep the platform level as it travels
over the earth and if the platform is not level at the start, there will be an oscillation with a
period of 84.4 minutes. This is called the Schuler period.

The maximum value of the Schuler error does not increase with time. Whatever the amplitude
of the first cycle, all subsequent cycles will have the same amplitude. The oscillation is self-
sustaining because the system is resonating at its natural frequency.

THE SCHULER PENDULUM ANALOGY

As mentioned previously, the analogy

of an earth pendulum is often used
to explain Schuler tuning. Some
people find it helpful to imagine a
huge pendulum with a length equal to
the earth’s radius, with the platform
bolted on at right angles. The bob of
the pendulum remains at the centre of
the earth. Then, as the aircraft travels,
the circular motion of the rigid part
of the pendulum keeps the platform
level, as in Fig 19.8a.

Fig 19.8a Pendulum analogy of SchulerTuning

Continuing with this analogy to explain Schuler

errors, if the platform is not level at the start, as
in Figure 19.8b, then this is like starting with the
pendulum off centre. When the pendulum is
released, it will swing with a period of 84.4 minutes.
As the aircraft travels round the earth the Schuler
loop will still keep the platform levelled with the
local horizontal, but with a Schuler oscillation
superimposed on it.

Fig 19.8b Pendulum analogy

of Schuler Oscillation

290

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Errors Chapter 19

BOUNDED ERRORS

If the initial error results in an incorrect velocity, the velocity error will be fed back through the
v/R loop. This is not true for all of our six initial input errors (seven if you split integrator error
into first-stage and second-stage). Only those which affect the v/R velocity feedback will cause
this oscillation pattern. These are:

 Platform Tilt (initial levelling misalignment.

 Accelerometer bias

 First-stage integrator error

These errors are also known as bounded errors, because they do not increase with time.

UNBOUNDED ERRORS

There are other errors, however, which do not follow this sinusoidal pattern. Instead, they get
worse with time. The second-stage integrator is outside the v/R feedback loop. Suppose an
aircraft were to actually fly at exactly 400 knots for an hour, but the second-stage integrator
were to output 401 nm distance gone. Then after 2 hours, the aircraft would have actually flown
800 nm, but the integrator would have output 802 nm. After 3 hours the true distance is 1200
nm, but the integrator would have output 1203 nm, and so on.

This kind of error is a different pattern. It is called a ramp or unbounded error.

The following errors are unbounded:

Fig 19.9 Unbounded Error Pattern

 Second-stage Integrator Error. This increases in proportion to time (t). (Ramp)

 Levelling Gyro Topple. This increases in proportion to time (t). (Ramp)

 Initial Azimuth Misalignment. This increases in proportion to time (t). (Ramp)

 Azimuth Gyro Drift. This increases in proportion to time ² (t2). (Parabola)

291

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 19 INS Errors

SUMMARY OF INS ERRORS

Bounded Errors

Oscillate about a mean value and have a sinusoidal form

with a period of 84.4 minutes. These do not increase
with time.

Platform Tilt
Accelerometer Bias
First Stage Integrator Error

Unbounded Errors

Increase with time. Their form is a ramp or a parabola.

Initial Heading Misalignment

Levelling Gyro Topple
Azimuth Gyro Drift
Second Stage Integrator Error

Figure 19.10 shows an actual plot of INS errors. The pattern can be clearly seen. There is
a basic ramp increasing at approximately 1 nm per hour with a one-mile Schuler oscillation
superimposed on it.

Fig 19.10 New York to Istanbul – Horizontal Position Error

292

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Errors Chapter 19

CORRECTION OR ALLOWANCE FOR INS ERRORS

What can be done to remove or allow for these errors? In a stand-alone INS, not integrated
with other navigational aids, almost nothing. The system has nothing to compare itself with
and assumes that its own sensors are correct. However, the general accuracy of an INS is good
compared with previous systems and errors of only 5 -10 nm or so after crossing the Atlantic are
not uncommon. For a stand-alone system, this is very good.

It is possible to update the present position to an independent fix by using the HOLD button
as described in the previous chapter. However, the crew must make a value judgement on
whether it is worth it. If the error contribution is predominantly a Schuler oscillation, it might
be at maximum amplitude and shortly about to correct itself. Putting a so-called ‘correction’
in might simply displace it in error in the opposite sense at the next half-cycle. If the error
is primarily unbounded, then updating will reduce the total error. However, this requires
assessment of the error over a whole Schuler cycle to establish the trend and is usually regarded
as rather too complicated for normal route operations.

However, the later generation of inertial systems (generally known as Inertial Reference
Systems – IRS) are usually part of an integrated Flight Management System (FMS). In the Flight
Management Computer (FMC) the computation of IRS position is compared with independent
sources such as Global Positioning System (GPS) and computer generated calculation of cross-
cut positions obtained from Distance Measuring Equipment (DME). A process known as
Kalman filtering produces a ‘statistically most probable position’, known as the FMC position.

Fig 19.11 The Kalman Filtering Process (Simplified)

From this FMC statistical ‘best estimate of position’ it is possible for the FMC to establish an
error trend over a period of time and to build mathematical models of the both the Schuler
and the unbounded error propagation pattern. This is then used in the computation of future
computer generated positions.

Kalman filtering is complicated and does not lend itself to broad simplifications. However, it
is important to realise that the FMC position is NOT the ‘average’ of the IRS and DME/DME or
GPS position, but is computer generated using a sophisticated statistical algorithm.

293

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 19 INS Errors

CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS

1 What is the Schuler period?

a. 48 minutes
b. 84 seconds
c. 48 seconds
d. 84 minutes

2 The FMC position is:

a. The average of the IRS positions

b. The average of the IRS and radio navigation positions
c. Computer generated from the IRS and radio navigation positions
d. Computer generated from the radio navigation positions

3 The drift of the azimuth gyro on an inertial unit induces an error in position given by
this unit., t being the elapsed time since selecting the MSU from ALIGN to NAVigate.
The total error is:

a. Proportional to t
b. Proportional to the square of time, t2
c. Proportional to t/2
d. sinusoidal

294

Aviation ebooks Company

INS Errors Chapter 19

295

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 19 INS Errors

ANSWERS TO CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS

1. d

2. c

3. b

296

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Reference System Chapter 20

CHAPTER TWENTY

INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM

Contents
INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
INERTIAL NAVIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
INERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
INERTIAL INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
THE PRIMARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
THE LASER GYRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
PRINCIPLES OF LASER GYROS AND IRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
LIMITATIONS AND ACCURACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
PLATFORM / STRAP DOWN PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
PLATFORM ALIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
ADVANTAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
QUESTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

297

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 20 Inertial Reference System

298

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Reference System Chapter 20

INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM

The laser gyro has caused a technological revolution in the design of inertial reference and
navigation systems. This solid state high precision ,angular rate sensor is ideally suited for
highly reliable strap down system configuration. It eliminates the need for gimbals, bearings,
torque motors, and other moving parts, and consequently changes the system operation
considerably from conventional inertial navigation systems.

Figure 20.1
Figure 18.1 GEC-Marconi
GEC-MarconiFIN3060
FIN3060Commercial
CommercialAircraft Inertial
Aircraft Reference
Inertial Reference

INERTIAL NAVIGATION

Inertial Navigation means the determination of a vehicles location without the aid of external
references. Strap down inertial navigation goes a step further by enabling navigation without
the use of a mechanically stabilised platform. This has been achieved through the advent of
laser gyros / rate sensors and powerful, high speed microprocessors. The laser gyros allow a
micro processor to maintain a stable platform mathematically, rather than mechanically.

299

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 20 Inertial Reference System

INERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT

The Inertial Reference Unit ( IRU ) is the heart of the Inertial Reference System (IRS). It
provides all required inertial reference outputs for the aircraft’s avionics.

Outputs are:
Primary attitude Pitch and roll
Heading True, Magnetic
Accelerations Lateral, Longitude, Normal
Angular rates Pitch, Roll, Yaw

Inertial velocity N/S, E/W, GS, TA, Vertical rate

Position Latitude, longitude, inertial altitude
Wind data Wind speed, wind angle, drift angle
Calculated data Flight path angle and acceleration
Along and across track acceleration
Inertial pitch and roll rate
Vertical acceleration Potential
vertical speed.

INERTIAL INFORMATION

Inertial information is used by:

 Flight management computer

 Flight control computer
 Thrust management computer
 Stability augmentation system
 Weather radar
 Anti skid auto brake systems
 Attitude direction indicator
 Horizontal situation indicator
 Vertical speed indicator
 Radio direction magnetic indicator
 Flight data recorder

THE PRIMARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The primary sources of information for the IRU are its own internal sensors three laser
gyros, and three inertial accelerometers. The only other inputs required are initial position,
barometric altitude, and True Air Speed (TAS).

Initial position is required because present position is calculated from the distance and direction
travelled from the initial start position entered.

Barometric altitude stabilises the vertical navigation, and thereby stabilises the vertical velocity
and inertial altitude outputs.

The TAS input allows the IRU to calculate wind speed and wind direction.

300

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Reference System Chapter 20

THE LASER GYRO

The laser gyro is an example of the application that uses the characteristics of light to measure
motion. This device operates based on the SAGNAC effect. One beam rotates in one direction
and the other beam in the opposite direction. One of the conditions that must be satisfied to
maintain lasing is that the number of wavelengths in the beams path length must equal a whole
number. When the wavelengths change there is a concurrent change in the lights frequency.
This means that in a rotating gyro, one laser beam will exhibit an increase in frequency, whereas
the other beam will exhibit a frequency decrease. The frequency difference between the two
beams is easily and accurately measured along optical paths.

PRINCIPLES OF LASER GYROS AND IRS

Laser (Light Amplification and Stimulated Emission of Radiation) gyros measure rotation
by comparing two laser beams created and directed to rotate in opposite directions within a
very narrow tunnel. Photons are emitted within the laser cavity in all directions but only the
light that radiates backwards and forwards between the mirrors is reinforced by repeated trips
through the gain medium: continued passage amplification soon reaches saturation and a
steady state oscillation ensues, a laser beam.

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION

Construction. The laser gyro contains three mirrors to achieve a rotational path for two beams
that are generated and sent around in a triangular path in opposite directions. The lasers are
sent around small tunnels drilled parallel to the perimeter of a triangular block of temperature
stable glass with reflecting mirrors placed in each corner.

Lasing is achieved by running high voltages through helium neon gas between the anodes
and the cathode transforming many of the atoms of the gas into light in the pinkish orange
part of the visible spectrum (this action is helped by the tuned cavity effect of the tunnel in the
glass block).

Operation. The laser beam that is created can be described as a high energy beam of coherent
light which is said to be of a pure frequency. The light will be reflected by the mirrors but light
of unwanted frequencies ( i.e. not at the design frequency) will be absorbed by the mirrors and
their coatings. Because the frequency of the light is known it can be measured and modified by
adjustment of the path length i.e. “If the path length is decreased, the light is compressed and
the frequency will increase - if the path length is expanded the frequency decreases”.

301

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 20 Inertial Reference System

Figure 18.2
Figure 20.2

The triangular path of the device does not rotate but the two beams of light are caused to travel
in opposite directions and will of course travel at the same speed - the speed of light.
If there is no movement of the device the beams cancel each other out but when movement is
induced one of the beams will take longer to complete its path and the other, in opposition, a
measurably shorter length of time to complete its journey. This whole process is measured by
devices known as gain elements and the rate of rotation can be calculated.

The three mirrors involved are not identical - one makes micro adjustments to keep the physical
light path accurately aligned and another is partially transparent to allow the laser light to be
detected on the photo cell detectors.

Included with the second mirror is a prism which flips / redirects the light beam around
causing it to meet and interfere with the light beam that is aimed directly at the photo cell. The
beams alternately cancel and reinforce each other ( known as interference ) thus generating a
fringe pattern.

The photo electric cell detects the direction and speed at which the fringe pattern moves. The
change in the pattern , moving in one direction or other depends upon which way the laser
gyro is being rotated. The faster the rotation the faster the fringe pattern moves across the
photo electric cell - this is then converted to signals used within the aircraft systems.

LIMITATIONS AND ACCURACY

Drift. The principle source of error with this form of device , as with the conventional gyro
stabilised platform INS device, is associated with random drift. In a conventional gyro this
is caused by imperfections of gyro bearings and mass imbalances but with the laser system
noise is the cause and this is derived almost entirely from imperfections in the mirrors and
their coatings.

302

Aviation ebooks Company

Inertial Reference System Chapter 20

Accuracy. The accuracy of the laser system is directly influenced by the length of its optical
path - the longer the path available the greater the accuracy with a small percentage increase
in length leading to a substantial increase in accuracy.

Lock in. The most significant potential problem is lock in, also known as laser lock, which
occurs at very low rotation rates.

At very low rotation rates the output frequency can drop to zero as a result of back scattering
between the two beams which causes the beams to synchronise, that is, no longer indicate the
rotation correctly and indeed introduce undesirable errors. This phenomena is overcome by
the introduction of a vibration device known as a piezo electric dither motor which breaks
the lock in. The motor is mounted in such a way that it vibrates the laser ring about its input
axis through the lock in region, thereby unlocking the beams and enabling the optical sensor to
detect the smaller movement of the fringe pattern. The motions caused by the dither motor
are decoupled from the output of the ring laser gyro / rate sensor.

PLATFORM / STRAP DOWN PRINCIPLES

Platform. The INS (platform set in gimbals) requires three rate integrating gyros and
acccelerometers to achieve an output that we can use and this process is started by ensuring
that the platform is horizontal at the correct Latitude. IRS ( strap down) attaches the three laser
gyro / rate sensors and accelerometers directly to the aircraft chassis.

High speed micro processors then achieve a stable platform mathematically rather than
mechanically ( as per the INS) - this results in greatly improved accuracy and reliability.
Integration. Integration principles are used as per the older INS system.

Gravity. Gravity - the microprocessor subtracts the effect of local gravity from any vertical
acceleration to compensate for local effects.

Earth rotation. Earth Rotation Rate - compensated for at the rate of 15.04 degrees as with a
gyro (INS) system.

Transport compensation. Transport Rate - Schuler Tuning is again required to compensate

for oscillation errors as the system is transported over the Earth (this in relation to pendulum
theory which results in an 84.4 minute error cycle as described in the older INS.
Calibration. Automatic Calibration - completed automatically by computer to enhance the
overall accuracy of the system.

PLATFORM ALIGNMENT

True North. The system, as with the INS, requires to find true north to achieve an alignment
and this is achieved when the aircraft is stationary on the ground and the only rate of change
is that associated with the movement of the Earth. True North is then found.

Latitude. Initial Latitude must be put into the system by the operator, the computer then,
after assessing the rotational vectors that it is experiencing compares the Latitude it finds with
that entered by the operator during initialization. However, it should be noted that with this
system the inbuilt memory function remembers its position at landing and will indicate to the
crew any errors of initial position input (lat’or long’) upon startup.

303

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 20 Inertial Reference System

Alignment. The computer, after confirming the Latitude, completes a full mathematical
levelling process - initial Latitude and Longitude must be entered manually as a present
position to assist this align - THE AIRCRAFT MUST NOT BE MOVED DURING THIS
PROCESS.

This process is called Establishing the Trihedron.

ADVANTAGES

Activation. Almost no spin up time, one second activation for the rate sensor.

Manoeuvring. Insensitive to “G” attitude, rolling, pitching manoeuvres.

Construction. Mechanically simple and highly reliable.

Range. Wide dynamic range.

Drift. Very small drift rates - greatest errors induced by the operator.

QUESTION

Dither is used in a laser gyro in order to:

a. Enhance the accuracy of the gyro at all rotational rates.

b. Increase the maximum rotational rate that can be sensed by the gyro.
c. Stabilise the laser frequencies at peak power output.
d. Break the frequency lock which would prevent small rotational rates from being sensed
by the gyro.

Correct answer d.

304

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Data Computer Chapter 21

CHAPTER TWENTY ONE

AIR DATA COMPUTER

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
PITOT - STATIC SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
AIR DATA COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
SYSTEM REDUNDANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
BUILT IN TEST EQUIPMENT (BIT OR BITE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
ADVANTAGES OF AN AIR DATA SYSTEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

305

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 21 Air Data Computer

306

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Data Computer Chapter 21

INTRODUCTION

In many large aircraft currently in service, the conventional pressure instruments which show
altitude, airspeed and Mach Number(MNo) are replaced by indicators displaying information
generated by a central computer, the Air Data Computer (ADC). The computer unit and
displays, together with the sensors of the basic data of pitot pressure, static pressure and air
temperature, and a power-pack, form the aircraft’s Air Data System (ADS). Whilst such a
system is self-contained, its outputs are essential to the operation of the aircraft’s Automatic
Flight Control System (AFCS). ADS outputs may also be used in the altitude transponder, flight
data recorder, navigation computer and more.

A number of different aircraft types may use the same basic Air Data Computer and this device
will need to be integrated into the aircraft systems and this is achieved by a “Configuration
Module”. The module can be calibrated to take into account differences in pressure /
temperature gathering efficiencies due to positioning of the gathering probes and this
information can then be entered into the computer to obtain the most accurate indications
possible.

The standard ADS instruments show altitude, vertical speed, airspeed and MNo. Additional
instruments can display Total Air Temperature (TAT), Static Air Temperature (SAT) and TAS.
The ADC outputs required for other systems are various and may include TAS, Altitude, Log
Mach No, Reciprocal Mach No and Log Vertical Speed. The ADC fitted to Concorde computes
Angle of Attack and Side-slip as well as more standard data. A schematic diagram of a
conventional ADS is shown in Figure 21.3.

PITOT - STATIC SYSTEM

In a typical aircraft, identical sets of air data instruments are provided on the Captain’s and
First Officer’s instrument panels. Each set of instruments is connected to one of two(allowing
redundancy) ADC’s fed from independent pitot and static sources, which can be cross
connected, as shown in Figure 21.2. In addition to the indicators powered by the two ADC’s
there is a standby barometric altimeter and a standby airspeed indicator, fed direct from pitot
and static sources separate from those used for the ADC’s. Each of the three independent pitot-
static systems makes use of cross coupled static vents located on each side of the fuselage. This
arrangement is designed to reduce error due to side-slip or yaw.

AIR DATA COMPUTER

The Air Data Computer in current aircraft is a device that uses analogue or digital computing
techniques to convert pressure and temperature data into electrical signals which are transmitted
to the display instruments and to other systems.

The two types of ADC system found are described as either Analogue or Digital from the
method of assessment and transmission of information used.

The Analog type uses continuous physical variables, such as voltage or pressure, to assess and
represent the measurements obtained. The illustration at Fig 21.1a shows an Airspeed
assessment device from an Analogue ADC indicating the inputs of Static and Pitot Pressure.
The pressures are joined together mechanically and, using a Pressure Transducer, transmitted
forward for use through the rotation of a shaft driven by a 2-phase Servo Motor which in turn
is connected to a CX Synchro where angular position can be measured and read off as an
airspeed.

307

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 21 Air Data Computer

Figure 19.1 Analogue ADC - Airspeed Assessment

Figure 21.1 Analogue ADC - Airspeed Assessment

An Analogue Air Data Computer may internally be split into the following modules for
assessment and onward transmission of data obtained through the Temperature, Static and
Pitot Pressure gathering devices - Altitude, Computed Airspeed, Mach speed, True Air Speed
and using data from the altitude module via a Rate of Climb module will give vertical speed.

The relationships between TAS, Mach No, Temperature, Pitot and Static pressures can be
expressed as mathematical formulae. The ADC resolves these formulae continuously to produce
the required outputs from pressure and temperature inputs in the form of shaft rotations or
electrical signals.

The Digital system uses digital data (binary data) in its assessment and transmission of
information. The Analogue to Digital Converters, at the input side of the ADC, use
measurements of Pressure, Temperature and AOA and change them from the Analogue form
to Digital form for use within the ADC and onward transmission to the flight deck.

(Both forms of computer system are discussed in the lessons relating to Basic Computers
elsewhere in the course.)

308

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Data Computer Chapter 21

SYSTEM REDUNDANCY

Provision for blockages and / or failure of an ADC is made through change-over cocks that
permit an alternative static source to be connected to the computer or by the use of electrical
switching that enables the Captain’s instrument to be fed from the First Officer’s ADC and vice
versa. These arrangements are illustrated in Figures 21.2 and 21.4.

In some aircraft the ADS is designed so that the outputs from each computer are not directed
exclusively to instruments on one side of the panel. By mixing the sources of air data to each
side, the possibility of an undetected malfunction is reduced.

In the event of total failure of both ADC’s due perhaps to loss of power supply, the flight can be
continued by reference to the standby instruments.

Figure
Figure 19.2
21.2

309

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 21 Air Data Computer

BUILT IN TEST EQUIPMENT (BIT OR BITE)

There is no provision made for the manual input of data into the ADC in the event of any failure,
but the Built In Test Equipment will give prompt indication of any malfunction that might
occur. (See ‘Failure Warning’ below). In any ADC there will be three types of BITE process:

Power Up BITE
This functions when power is applied to the ADC on start up or after a break. A check is made
on the Microprocessor, the Memory Store and the Air Data functions.

Continuous BITE
This is an automatic check of all stages of input and output carried out throughout the operation
of the ADC about once every second.

Maintenance BITE
This enables maintenance crew to carry out checks on the ground using a Test or
Test/History switch (current or post failures).

ADVANTAGES OF AN AIR DATA SYSTEM.

An ADS has certain advantages when compared with conventional mechanical instruments:

Improved Displays
Electrically-servoed instrumentation allows the manufacturer complete freedom to design new
displays that are easier to read and unambiguous. These include digital, moving tape and
combined displays.

Reduced Instrument and Lag Errors

The major cause of instrument error in conventional mechanical instruments is friction loss
within the linkage. The limited response rate of such linkages gives rise to lag error. Both
problems are largely overcome with ADS’s by the use of servomotors.

Error Correction
Computation of height, airspeed and other variables within one computer permits error
corrections to be applied through especially shaped cams appropriate to the particular aircraft.
For example, position error correction (PEC) can be calculated within the Mach No computer
channel for additional use within the height and airspeed channels.

Central Source for Other Systems

The ADC provides not only the conventional information displayed on the instrument panel
but also air data in many forms as required for other systems.

Clean Design
The use of electrically-driven instruments reduces the amount of pneumatic plumbing required
behind the instrument panel to only those lines connected to the standby airspeed indicator
and altimeter. In addition to space saving and easier maintenance, the use of shorter pitot/static
line reduces error-producing acoustic effects.

310

Aviation ebooks Company

Air Data Computer Chapter 21

Failure Warning
A comparison monitor can be incorporated to compare the outputs of the ADC’s and to give
automatic warning to the pilot of malfunction. With a purely mechanical system, comparison
between left-hand and right-hand instruments must be carried out visually. A warning flag will
appear on the appropriate ADS instrument if there is loss of valid data or if an internal failure
occurs. In addition, a light will illuminate either on the instrument warning panel or on the
central warning system indicator

Figure 19.3
Figure 21.3Conventional
Conventional System
System

Notes: The weight on wheels switch decouples the stall warning system when the aircraft is on the
ground.

AOA may also be an input to the ADC for use in some aircraft systems.

311

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 21 Air Data Computer

Figure 19.4 - Combined Air Data System

Figure 21.4 Combined Air Data System

312

Aviation ebooks Company

Radio Altimeter Chapter 22

CHAPTER TWENTY TWO

RADIO ALTIMETER

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
FREQUENCIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
BASIC INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
EFIS INDICATOR - BOEING STYLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
DIGITAL READOUT - BOEING STYLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
EFIS INDICATOR - AIRBUS STYLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
RANGE AND ACCURACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
AIRCRAFT INSTALLATION DELAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

313

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 22 Radio Altimeter

314

Aviation ebooks Company

Radio Altimeter Chapter 22

INTRODUCTION

The Radio Altimeter is a device capable of measuring the height of an aircraft above ground
with a high degree of accuracy. Apart from providing a flight deck display of height Above
Ground Level(AGL), the radio altimeter has two other important functions:

• It supplies the automatic flight system with data to affect automatic landings when used in
association with the ILS / MLS.

• It furnishes height information and rate of change of height, to the Ground Proximity
Warning System (GPWS), and is a crucial component of this system.

The instrument makes use of primary radio principles transmitting a Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave (FMCW) in an elliptical pattern vertically below the aircraft.

The Radio Altimeter determines the time taken for a radio wave to travel from the aircraft to the
ground directly beneath the aircraft and back again. During this time the transmitted frequency
changes at a known rate from its start level to +50Mhz and back again to complete a “cycle”.

The carrier frequency cannot be increased indefinitely and so after half a wavelength the change
is reversed, the frequency then being decreased at a constant rate down to a specified value
before being increased again. The complete “modulation cycle/frequency sweep” is illustrated
in Fig 22.1.

Figure 20.1.
Figure 22.1

The equipment compares the frequencies of the transmitted and received signals and since the
rate of frequency change is known, the frequency difference becomes a measure of the time
taken for the radio wave to travel to and from the surface. From the information gained aircraft
height may be determined.

The breakdown of frequency difference, which occurs when the transmitter changes the
direction of its frequency sweep, is overcome by relating aircraft height to the average beat
frequency (the difference between transmitted and received frequency) observed over a short
sampling period. The frequency changeover points are thereby ignored.

315

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 22 Radio Altimeter

FREQUENCIES

Two frequency bands have been used in the past, but only the SHF band is used at present:

4200 MHz to 4400 MHz - SHF band

1600 MHz to 1660 MHz - UHF band

The total sweep of the carrier frequency is automatically varied ± 50 MHz 300 times a second.
At very low altitude with the reflection returning almost instantaneously, a wide sweep is
necessary to give a measurable frequency difference. The signal is transmitted downwards
from a flush mounted horn antenna. The conical / elliptical beam generated is wide enough to
always allow some portion of the beam to travel vertically even with pitch angles of ±30° and
roll angles of ±60°. The height will be determined from the shortest path to the ground which,
of course, will always be vertically below the aircraft.

Transmission being continuous, it is necessary to use a separate antenna, similar to the

transmitting antenna for reception. The receiver antenna needs to be positioned far enough
away to avoid interference with the transmitted signal.

Radiated power generated is of the order of One Watt.

BASIC INDICATOR

Figure 22.2

316

Aviation ebooks Company

Radio Altimeter Chapter 22

Height Scale
The scale is logarithmic being expanded from zero to 500 feet and at a reduced non-linear scale
from 500 to 2500 feet.

Mask
The height pointer disappears behind a mask:

¾¾ when altitude exceeds 2500 feet

¾¾ when there is any fault in the transmitted signal
¾¾ when the altimeter is switched off

Failure Warning Flag

The flag appears when there is too much radio noise which will corrupt the returning signal,
or if local reflections are received from the airframe itself, or in the event of a loss of power to
the equipment.

Press to Test Button/Height Selector

When this button is pressed, the height pointer swings round to a known pre-set altitude.
This provides a confidence check for the user indicating that the equipment is likely to operate
satisfactorily. This button is a dual-purpose device. When turned, it selects the reference Low
Altitude Index to the desired height.

Low Height Warning

The warning light illuminates if the aircraft is flown below any pre- selected height set by the
pilot. This occurrence is also audibly marked by the sudden cessation of an alert tone which
will sound with increasing loudness from approximately 100 feet above the decision height
setting

EFIS INDICATOR - BOEING STYLE

Figure 22.5
Figure 20.5.

317

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 22 Radio Altimeter

DIGITAL READOUT - BOEING STYLE

A digital read-out, and when below 1,000 feet a pictorial image of an altimeter dial, is drawn on
some EFIS displays. The colour of this icon (which also shrinks in size below 1,000ft indicating
height change) changes from white to flashing amber as decision height is approached. One
further function of the radio altimeter is to desensitise the Autopilot and Flight Director response
to the ILS glidepath in the latter stage of an approach.

Figure 22.3
Figure 20.3. Figure
Figure24.4
22.4

EFIS INDICATOR - AIRBUS STYLE

Figure
Figure22.5a
20.5a.

On some more modern systems, such as that used by the A300, the indication of height is
given at the base of the EADI / PFD attitude display. This height indication changes colour
from Green to Amber and the numbers also grow in size as Decision Height is passed. It is
also important to note that the Radio Altimeter is a major component of the Ground Proximity
Warning System(GPWS).

318

Aviation ebooks Company

Radio Altimeter Chapter 22

RANGE AND ACCURACY

The instrument can be used between zero and 2500 feet above the surface with an overall
expected accuracy of ± 3% of indicated height or ± 1ft whichever is the greater. The figures
include various error contributors, principally Doppler Shift, Step Error in the digital counting
circuits, and Height Lag.

AIRCRAFT INSTALLATION DELAY

The Radio Altimeter is required to indicate zero height AGL as the main wheels touch down on
the runway, because of this it has to be extremely accurate and in practice is designed to perform
to an accuracy of +/- one foot. However, in practice a single manufacturers’ product may be
found in multiple aircraft types from the very large Boeing 747 to a much smaller corporate
commuter jet and this must be catered for. At either extreme the aircraft weight and oleo
compression will vary and this leads to the need for compensation to cater for this variable. The
height difference between the antennae on the fuselage and the bottom of the trailing wheels
on the main landing gear bogeys, on the approach to a touchdown, is known as the Residual
Height. In addition, the different physical sizes of the aircraft concerned will create differences
in cable run length between the Avionics Bay and the position of the antennae on the underside
of the aircraft fuselage. When investigating the larger aircraft this distance may be as much
as 100ft or, in the smaller jet, as little as 6ft. If compensation for cable length is not catered for
in the larger aircraft an error would be generated and this would be seen as an error of height
(perhaps to 100ft in the example above).

The Aircraft installation delay is therefore adjusted to compensate for Residual Height and
Cable Length (times two - Tx Antennae/Rx Antennae to Avionics Bay) this is done to ensure that
at touchdown with the main bogeys trailing the Rad’ Alt’ reads zero.

Additionally, it should be noted that when on the ground, the radio altimeter may show a
small negative altitude. The reason for this is that the equipment has been adjusted to indicate
zero when the main wheels first touch the runway surface on landing and therefore when the
aircraft is level on the ground the antenna will be below its calibrated position relative to the
aircraft landing attitude. The effect is particularly noticeable with aircraft such as the B747
(which actually indicates -8ft) which have multi-wheel assemblies which are inclined at an
upward angle when deployed in flight and thereby create a larger difference between antenna
position and wheels at the point of touchdown.

Residual Height

x
Residual Height
Reduced

Figure 22.6 Undercarriage Residual Height

319

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 22 Radio Altimeter

320

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Management System Chapter 23

CHAPTER TWENTY THREE

FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Contents
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
CONTROL AND DISPLAY UNIT (CDU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
DATA BASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - INITIAL ACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - CLIMB VERTICAL NAVIGATION (VNAV) . . . . 326
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - CRUISE LATERAL NAVIGATION (LNAV) . . . . 327
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - DESCENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - ACCURACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - CONTROL AND DISPLAY UNIT . . . . . . . . . . 328

321

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 23 Flight Management System

322

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Management System Chapter 23

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Flight management systems are designed to improve navigation, aid fuel efficiency and to
reduce crew workload. Computers are used to fly aircraft along complex routes using
Lateral Guidance (LNAV).

Vertical Guidance (VNAV) enables the system to calculate optimum cruise altitudes and to
determine the best combination of auto-throttle control and speed during climb and descent.

At all times when the crew are not actually controlling the aircraft by hand, they use the FMS
controls to “fly” the aircraft. The controls of a FMS are, in effect, a miniature flight deck with
fingertip control.

CDU CDU

FGS FGS

DATA BASE
DME 1 DME 2
FMC FMC VOR 2
VOR 1 DATA BASE

ENG ADC 12 ADC

ADC 12 ENG
FUEL FUEL

GPS 1 IRS 1 LORAN C GPS 2 IRS 2 LORAN C

1 2
Figure 23.1 Schematic layout of a typical system

Legend:

CDU - Control and Display Unit

FGS - Flight Guidance System
FMC - Flight Management Computer
ADC - Air Data Computer
IRS - Inertial Reference System
GPS - Global Positioning System

CONTROL AND DISPLAY UNIT (CDU)

The primary function of the CDU is to act as the interface between the aircraft and the crew.
The CDU can be used to command completely automatic control of the aircraft or semi-
automatic with varying degrees of pilot involvement including full manual control.

Two CDUs are usually fitted either side of the centre console with the left CDU normally being
the master(in the B747-400 they are joined by a third CDU placed upon the centre console for
use primarily by engineering staff). They comprise of a monochrome or coloured cathode ray
tube (CRT) display on which different “pages” of selected data can be shown, and a selector
key panel.

323

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 23 Flight Management System

Figure 21.2.
Figure 23.2

The FMCs may be decoupled to provide fully Independant Mode operation. This is not usual
in that there will be no safety/cross check between the two FMCs.

When operating in Dual Mode (the norm for ordinary flight profiles) both FMCs independently
process pilot entries on both MCDUs and compare the results to ensure that crucial information
is consistent on both systems. The same output is then passed to both FMCs.

If there is a failure of an FMC the second system can be expected to operate the aircraft
successfully on its own - this is known as Single Mode. The failed FMC may be selected out of
the system to allow single mode operation of the “surviving” FMC if required by the crew.

DATA BASE

The information stored in the FMC is called its data base. The data base is divided into two
major sections. One contains performance related information and the other contains
information dealing with navigation.

324

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Management System Chapter 23

The purpose of the performance data base is to reduce the need for the flight crew to refer to
the Cruise Control Manual during flight and to provide the FMC with information required to
calculate pitch and thrust commands. All reference data normally required can be displayed on
the FMS-CDU. The data stored in the data base includes aircraft drag and engine characteristics,
maximum and minimum speeds. Maintenance can refine the data base for each aircraft by
entering factors for drag and fuel flow.

The FMC navigation data base includes most information that would normally be determined
by referring to navigation charts. This information may be displayed on the FMS-CDU / AMD
and eliminates most of the cockpit chart reading in aircraft without an FMC. The geographic
area covered includes all areas where the aircraft is normally flown. The stored information
includes the location of navigation aids, airports, runways and other airline selected information
such as SIDs, STARs, approaches and company routes.

The FMC contains two sets of navigation data, each valid for 28 days. Each set corresponds
to the normal revision cycle for navigation charts. During preflight the flight crew can select
which set is active. The FMC uses the active set for navigation calculations. The contents of the
navigation data base are updated by maintenance every 28 days. When the navigation chart
revision date arrives, the new data is already in the FMC and ready for selection.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - INITIAL ACTIONS

IDENT Page: Upon application of power to the aircraft the FMS immediately executes a
self- test procedure and upon its successful self completion the IDENT page of the system is
displayed. The IDENT page of the FMC allows the crew to confirm aircraft details on start-up
and this in turn initiates a series of prompts to direct the crew through the route procedures
that need to be generated for their flight. Importantly on this page we have confirmation of
the Navigation Data Base in operation and an indication of the date of changeover to the next
programme - if the data base is out of date it will tell us to change to the in date programme.

POS INIT Page: When we have checked the IDENT page we will be directed to the POS INIT
page where we must check the FMS clock time against the aircraft clock to ensure
synchronisation between the systems: data is saved on the FDR against time and of course ETAs
are generated by the FMC and need to be in line with times indicated by the aircraft clock. As
we complete this task we must also ensure that the airfield datum or gate position, if available,
is entered accurately to allow for IRS alignment (this position will be suitable for alignment
but is often updated at the take-off point to obtain the best possible initial position for use in
flight).

RTE Page: After completing our tasks upon the POS INIT page we will be directed to the RTE
page where we will enter our starting and destination airport ICAO Designators. We may then
expect to enter our flight number details and identify a “standard” company route to take us to
our destination: if a standard route is not available other actions will have to be taken to input
the information into the system.

PERF INIT Page: We may now move on to the PERF INIT page to update the aircraft to its
current performance / weight configuration for the route to be flown. On this page we may
input details of fuel weight, fuel reserves required, cruise altitude and even, in the case of the
B747, if we are carrying a fifth engine to our destination upon its suspension point on the wing.
At this stage we may also enter Cost Index requirements related to our flight as discussed later
in the chapter.

325

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 23 Flight Management System

SUMMARY

The following is a summary of the initial pages that you may expect to see on the Boeing series
of aircraft currently in use but of course this information may vary from company to company
as they modify the system for their own use:

IDENT page -

¾¾ Aeroplane Model / Configuration

¾¾ Operational Programme Identifier
¾¾ Drag / Fuel Flow Factors
¾¾ Navigation Data Base identifier / cycle

POS INIT page -

¾¾ IRS Position Reference

¾¾ IRS Heading Reference
¾¾ GMT / UTC / Time Zone Display

RTE page -

¾¾ Origin Airport
¾¾ Destination Airport
¾¾ Flight Number
¾¾ Route Activation

PERF INIT page -

¾¾ Gross Weight
¾¾ Fuel Quantity
¾¾ Zero Fuel Weight
¾¾ Fuel reserves
¾¾ Cost Index
¾¾ Cruise altitude
¾¾ Spare (fifth) engine carriage (B747 specific)
¾¾ Altitude Step Size

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - CLIMB VERTICAL NAVIGATION (VNAV)

Entering a cost index of “ZERO” provides economy speeds representing a maximum range
cruise. The VNAV profile that the FMC commands is a climb with climb thrust to remain within
all airspeed and altitude constraints that are part of the SID entered into the active route, then
climb at economy speed to the entered cruise altitude.

If when flying the climb speed profile it would cause a violation of an altitude constraint the
UNABLE NEXT ALT message is displayed. The pilot must then select a different speed on the
FMS-CDU that provides a steeper climb angle. Reaching cruise altitude, the FMC commands
cruise at economy speed until the top of descent point.

A number of Cost index modifications are allowed until passing Top of Descent point (TOD)
for example Long Range Cruise (LRC) and “selected speed” cruise may also be entered.

326

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Management System Chapter 23

Notes: Time Related Cost is a function of speed selected, the higher the speed in climb, cruise or
descent the higher the “trip fuel cost” but the lower the “trip time cost”.

Economy Cruise Mode will yield the lowest operating cost based on the cost index.

Cost Index is determined by dividing aeroplane operating cost ($ / £ per hour) by fuel cost ($ /
£ per pound or litre). A cost index of Zero results in “minimum trip fuel operation” and so will
include cruise at “maximum range” cruise and a low speed descent.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - CRUISE LATERAL NAVIGATION (LNAV)

LNAV guidance outputs from the FMC are normally great circle tracks between the waypoints
making up the active route. However, when a procedure stored in the FMS data base is entered
into the active route the FMC can supply commands to fly a constant heading, track or follow a
DME arc, as required to comply with the procedure.

FMC determines present position by using inputs from the IRS / INS, DME, VOR and other
navigation systems fitted. It uses its calculated present position to generate lateral steering
commands along the active leg to the active waypoint. To function, the FMC requires position
information from at least one IRS / INS. While the aircraft is on the ground, the FMC calculates
present position based only on information received from the IRS / INSs.

The FMC present position is normally the combination of all IRS / INS positions and since
inertial systems accumulate position errors as a function of time, the position information being
used by the FMC is slowly accumulating errors. These position errors can be detected by
observing the various positions of the individual IRS / INS s on the CDU. If an extended ground
delay occurs and a significant map error is noticed, the IRS / INS should be realigned and
present position re-entered.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - DESCENT

When a programmed “arrival” is entered, the FMC calculates a descent path based on the
procedure’s airspeed and altitude constraints and the End of Descent (E/D). The E/D is a
waypoint with an altitude and airspeed constraint that coincides with a final approach fix or
runway threshold.

For VFR and non-precision approaches, the FMC computed path is built to a point that is 50 feet
over the approach end of the runway. It is the flight crews’ responsibility to not descend below
“DH” until adequate visual contact has been achieved. During a missed approach, LNAV
guidance is available to the missed approach point and altitude.

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - ACCURACY

Radial error rates of less than 0.05 nm/hour are not uncommon. Introduction of Ground
Positioning by Satellite(GPS) as a navigation input will improve overall performance. It must be
stressed however that the skill of the operator and the need for constant and careful monitoring
will always be a deciding factor.

327

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 23 Flight Management System

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - CONTROL AND DISPLAY UNIT

CDU Key Groups. The keys on the lighted switch panel of the CDU perform various functions
and may be broken down into three major groups:

¾¾ Alphanumeric
¾¾ Function and Mode
¾¾ Line Select Keys (LSK)

The function of each of the keys is briefly described below:

Alphanumeric Keys -Pressing any alphanumeric key results in that character appearing in the
scratch pad.

Function and Mode Keys -Used for initialising the system, access to flight planning functions
and status, and modifying the flight plan. Select climb, cruise or descent information for
preplanning or modification.

CLB CLB (climb) - displays current or alternate climb mode for assessment and
selection. Cruise altitude is enterable, as is a speed / altitude restriction.

CRZ CRZ (cruise) - displays current or alternate cruise mode for assessment and
selection. Information about optimum altitude, step-climb savings, and
turbulence penetration N1 targets is also available.

DES DES (descent) - displays current or alternate descent mode for assessment
and selection. Target speed is enterable, as is a speed / altitude restriction.
Flight Path Angle(FPA), Vertical Speed(V/S), and Vertical Bearing(V/B).
Information is provided for crew reference.

INIT REF INIT/REF (initialisation / reference) - allows access to data pages required for
start-up of the FMCS and IRS. Also, the operator may select various reference
data and maintenance pages.

N1 LIMIT N1 Limit - permits manual command of the active N1 limit, and selection of
any Reduced Climb N1 Limit that may apply. (Allows the crew to select an
engine, “LP Turbine”, RPM.)

MENU The N1 Limit key may be shown as a menu key on the master (left hand) CDU
and can be used to find data within the system.

DEP ARR DEP/ARR (departures / arrivals) - used for selection of the procedures and
runways at the origin and destination airports.

328

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Management System Chapter 23

RTE RTE (route) - permits flight plan data entries. A primary means for lateral flight
plan alteration.

LEGS LEGS (route legs) - displays and accepts entries of detailed data concerning
each leg of the flight plan, for both the lateral and vertical paths.

HOLD HOLD - permits planning or initiation of holding at a designated waypoint.

DIR INTC DIR/INTC (direct / intercept) - provides data capability to proceed direct to any
point desired, or to intercept any leg presently in the flight plan.

FIX FIX (fix information) - displays range and bearing data from the present position
to an entered fix. Facilitates creation of fixes for use in flight planning.

PROG PROG (flight progress) - displays current flight status information such as ETA,
fuel remaining at waypoint, navigation radio tuning status, wind, and path
errors.

Line Select Keys (LSK) - entry of data from the scratch pad into the selected
line and field is accomplished by using the LSKs. There are twelve LSKs on the
CDU panel, six each to the left and right of the CRT display. Data entries are
permitted only on lines adjacent to the LSKs. Data can also be duplicated into
the blank scratch pad by pressing the LSK adjacent to the desired data line.

EXEC EXEC (execute) - used to incorporate data displayed on the CDU as part of
the active flight plan. The EXEC key is operable when its annunciator bar is
illuminated. The key is used for activating the flight plan, changing the active
flight plan, changing the active guidance mode, or inserting data which will
affect the active flight plan, guidance mode, or data base. Illumination of the
white annunciator bar indicates that a valid set of data is on display and may
be made active for guidance of the aircraft.

+ / - Change Sign Key - changes data in the scratch pad from positive to negative and
back again. May also be used to insert a hyphen for specialised data entries.

PREV PAGE Page Select Keys - when multiple-page displays are shown, pressing the
NEXT PAGE key advances the display to the next higher page number.
NEXT PAGE Pressing PREV PAGE backs up the display to the next lower page number.
Page access wraps around.

CLR Clear Key - the scratch pad’s contents can be edited or cleared by pressing the
CLR key. When an entry is present in the scratch pad, a brief depression of the
CLR key will clear the last character in the entry. If the CLR key is held down
for more than one second, the entire entry in the scratch pad will be cleared.
The CLR key is also used to clear advisory and alerting messages from the
scratch pad.

329

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 23 Flight Management System

DEL Delete Key - the delete (DEL) key is used to remove data from a display (and
thus a flight plan) after it has been line selected and accepted into a data field.
If the scratch pad is empty, depression of the DEL key writes (“DELETE”) into
the scratch pad. The delete process is then completed by line-selecting (LSK)
the data item to be removed. If the deletion is a valid one, the data field reverts
to its default value (box prompts, dashes, or a system-generated value).
The system prevents invalid use of the DEL key.

Illuminated Annunciators
There are four annunciators on the front of the CDU as shown in the illustration:

MSG Illuminates white in colour; indicates an alerting or advisory message or

pending messages.

FAIL Illuminates amber in colour; lit if FMC failure is detected.

DISPLAY Illuminates white in colour if the page displayed is not related to the active
flight plan leg or to the current operational performance mode.

OFFSET Illuminates white in colour when a parallel offset is in use (ie. the aeroplane is
flying parallel to, but a fixed distance from, the FMS preprogrammed track).

330

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR

ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INFORMATION SYSTEM (EFIS)

Contents
THE ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM (EFIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
THE UNITS OF A SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
SYMBOL GENERATORS (SGs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
DISPLAY UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
THE COLOUR DISPLAY SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
THE REMOTE LIGHT SENSOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
THE CONTROL PANEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
THE ‘EADI’ SECTION OF THE CONTROL PANEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
DECISION HEIGHT (DH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
THE ‘EADI’ DISPLAY PRESENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
THE ‘EHSI’ SECTION OF THE CONTROL PANEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
SYSTEM SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
THE ‘EHSI’ DISPLAY PRESENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
FULL VOR MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
EXPANDED VOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
FULL ILS MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
EXPANDED ILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
MAP MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
PLAN MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
DATA SOURCE SELECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
FAILURE ANNUNCIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
NAVIGATION DISPLAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
EXAMPLE DISPLAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
ANNEX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

331

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 24 Electronic Flight Information System
EFIS

332

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

THE ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM (EFIS)

The Electronic Flight Instrument System presents attitude and navigation information to the
pilot on two electronic display units in a format that is easier to read and less likely to be
misinterpreted than some older mechanical instruments.

As far as the pure basic functions and number of display units are concerned, this system, (which
is generally referred to as ‘EFIS’), is fully integrated with digital computer-based navigation
systems, and utilises colour Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) or Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) types of
Attitude Director Indicator (ADI) and Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI).

The system is therefore extremely advanced, not only in terms of physical construction, but
also in the extent to which it can present attitude and navigational data to the flight crew of an
aircraft.

THE UNITS OF A SYSTEM

As in the case of a multi crew conventional flight director system, a complete EFIS installation
is made up of left (Captain), and right (First Officer), systems.

Each system in turn is comprised of:

¾¾ Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI) or Primary Flight Display (PFD)

¾¾ Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI) or Navigation Display (ND)

¾¾ Control Panel

¾¾ Symbol Generator (SG)

¾¾ Remote Light Sensor Unit

A third (centre) Symbol Generator is also incorporated so that its drive signals may be switched
to either the left or right display units in the event of failure of their corresponding Symbol
Generators.

The signal switching is accomplished within the left and right Symbol Generators, using
electromechanical relays powered from an aircraft’s DC power supply, via pilot-controlled
switches.

The interface between EFIS units, data busses and other systems is shown in Figure 24.1

SYMBOL GENERATORS (SGs)

Symbol Generators provide the analogue, discrete, and digital signal interfaces between an
aircraft’s systems, the display units, and the control panel, and they also perform symbol
generation monitoring, power control and the main control functions of the ‘EFIS’ overall.

The interfacing between the card modules of an SG is shown in Figure 24.1.

333

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 24 Electronic Flight Information System
EFIS

Figure 22.1.
Figure 24.1 Multi-Crew
Multi-CrewEFIS Units and
EFIS Units andSignal
SignalInterfacing
Interfacing

DISPLAY UNITS

The display units may be Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT’s) or Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD’s).
LCD’s have the advantage of being smaller and generate less heat therefore need less cooling.
The PFD and ND are usually identical units to facilitate spares commonality and are often
interchangeable with the systems display units (EICAS or ECAM).

THE COLOUR DISPLAY SYSTEM

There is no set colour standard and so colour displays may vary slightly.

In a typical display system, 5 colours are usually assigned for the display of the many symbols,
failure annunciators, messages and other alphanumeric information, with a sixth colour (RED)
for weather (WXR):

WHITE Display of present situation information.

GREEN Display of present situation information where contrast with white symbols
is required, or for data having lower priority than white symbols. Engaged
autoflight modes

MAGENTA All ‘fly to’ information such as flight director commands, deviation pointers,
active flight path lines.

334

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

CYAN Sky shading on an EADI and for low-priority information such as non active
flight plan map data.

YELLOW Ground shading on an EADI, caution information display such as failure

warning flags, limit and alert annunciators and fault messages.

RED For display of heaviest precipitation levels as detected by the weather radar
(WXR).

THE REMOTE LIGHT SENSOR

The Remote Light Sensor is a photodiode device which responds to ambient light conditions on
the flight deck, and automatically adjusts the brightness of the CRT displays to an acceptable
level.

THE CONTROL PANEL

A control panel is provided for each system, and are typically, as shown in Figure 24.2, the
switches are grouped for the purpose of controlling the displays of their respective EADI and
EHSI units.

Figure
Figure 22.2. An EFIS
24.2 An Efis Control
ControlPanel
Panel

335

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 24 Electronic Flight Information System
EFIS

THE ‘EADI’ SECTION OF THE CONTROL PANEL

Brightness Control(BRT). Used to adjust the brightness of the ADI

display to the desired level.

Decision Height Selector(DH SEL). Used to select desired decision height for DH
alerting.

Decision Height Reset Switch(DH RST). When pressed it resets a DH alert on the
associated ADI. It changes the RA display
from yellow to white.

Decision Height Reference Indicator(DH REF). This displays the selected decision height on
the controller, and on the EADI.

DECISION HEIGHT (DH)

Decision height is the wheel height above the runway elevation by which a go-around must
be initiated unless adequate visual reference has been established and the aircraft position
and approach path have been assessed as satisfactory to continue the approach and landing in
safety.

THE ‘EADI’ DISPLAY PRESENTATION

The ‘EADI’ (Figure 24.3) displays normal pitch and roll attitude indications plus

¾¾ Attitude data from an Inertial Reference System (IRS)

¾¾ Flight director commands

¾¾ Localizer and glide slope deviation

¾¾ Ground speed

¾¾ Radio Altitude

¾¾ Decision height

¾¾ Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS) and Auto-throttle modes

¾¾ Speed error scale (Difference between commanded and actual)

Note: The autoland status, pitch, roll-armed and engage modes are selected on the AFCS
control panel.

336

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

Figure
Figure22.3.
24.3 An A300PFD
An A300 PFD.

Decision height (DH) is selected on the ADI control panel and shown on both the ADI and on
the control panel.

Figure 22.4.
Figure 24.4. Decision
DecisionHeight
Heightand
and At Decision Height
Radio Altimeter Presentation At Decision Height
Radio Altimeter Presentation Below
Below 1,000 Feet.
1,000 Feet.

Radio altitude on Boeing-based systems is digitally displayed during when the aircraft is
between 2,500ft and 1,000 ft above ground level.

Below 1,000 ft the display automatically changes to a white circular scale calibrated in increments
of 100 ft, and the selected decision height is then displayed as a magenta-coloured marker on
the outer scale. The radio altitude also appears within the scale as a digital readout. As the
aircraft descends, segments of the altitude scale are simultaneously erased so that the scale
continuously diminishes in length in an anti-clockwise direction.

337

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 24 Electronic Flight Information System
EFIS

On the descent, at decision height plus about 50 ft, an aural alert chime sounds at an increasing
rate until decision height is reached.

On reaching DH the marker and scale flash and change from magenta to amber or yellow.
Pressing the EADI control panel DH RST button will cancel the alert chime, stop the marker
flashing and change the DH displays back to their normal colour.

Deviation beyond normal Localiser and Glide slope limits cause the scales to change colour to
amber and the pointer to flash, which ceases if the aircraft returns to within limits.

Note: The A300 system currently in use differs from the above by using digital readout only.
This system, which is also found on some other aircraft types, displays Rad Alt at the base of
the PFD centre display using green numbers above Decision Height and amber, slightly bigger
numbers below (see Figure 24.5). The digital readout is enhanced by a voice warning system
which will give aural indications of height passing to the pilot. The aural warnings will be given
at significant heights as decided by the manufacturer working with the airline company at time
of system build.

The Speed Error Display consists of a pointer which moves relative to a deviation scale to show
difference between actual speed and commanded speed.

THE ‘EHSI’ SECTION OF THE CONTROL PANEL

RANGE Selects range for displayed navigation data and WXR.

MODE SELECTOR Selects display appropriate to mode required: VOR, ILS, MAP,
PLAN.

BRT (BRIGHTNESS) Outer knob sets main display brightness. Inner knob sets WXR display
brightness.

MAP switches Used in MAP mode. When selected, they cause their placarded
data to be displayed on the EHSI;- NAV AID (NAVIGATION
AID), ARPT (AIRPORT), RTE DATA (ROUTE DATA), WPT
(WAYPOINTS).

EXP ARC Selects VOR or ILS mode to show an Expanded Arc

WXR When pushed in, WXR data is displayed during all modes except
PLAN, or when the VOR / ILS mode is selected to present the FULL
compass rose.

338

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

SYSTEM SYMBOLS

Active Waypoint (Magenta) Inactive Waypoint (White)

the waypoint the aircraft is a navigation point making up
currently navigating to. the selected active route.

Airports (Cyan). Off Route Waypoint (Cyan)

Tuned Navaids (Green). Unused Navaid (Cyan)

Wind Direction (White) with respect to

map display orientation and compass
reference. Symbol shown in white against the
black of the screen.

339

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 24 Electronic Flight Information System
EFIS

THE ‘EHSI’ DISPLAY PRESENTATION

The EHSI presents a selectable, dynamic colour display of flight progress and a plan view
orientation. Four principal display modes may be selected on the EFIS control panel;-

¾¾ VOR

¾¾ ILS

¾¾ MAP

¾¾ PLAN
Note: Figure 22.5. shows the PFD and ND differing slightly and is an example of the A300
Ofseries
these of
VOR and ILS
aircraft, can bethe
whereas displayed as discussion
previous full or expanded compass
primarily relatesdisplays.
to the Boeing systems as
fitted in the B747 series of aircraft.

Figure 24.5 PFD and ND as fitted to the A300 series of aircraft.

The orientation of the displays may be Magnetic or True, Track or Heading as selected.

340

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

FULL VOR MODE

With a VOR frequency selected, the EHSI displays a full compass rose with the VOR source in
Figure
the lower left and the frequency in the22.6
lowerFull VOR Mode
right.

Course selection is displayed by the magenta course needle the tip pointing to the selected
course (150). Course deviation is shown by the traditional deviation bar moving across a two
dot left and two dot right scale.

A TO / FROM Pointer is shown in addition to the TO /FROM annunciation.

DME distance displayed in the top left corner

Current heading is shown in the window and by the lubber line at the top of the compass rose
(130), the current selection is Magnetic Heading as shown either side of the window

Current track is shown by the white triangle on the inside edge of the compass rose.

Selected heading shown by the magenta heading “bug” on the outer scale of the compass rose

Wind speed and direction are shown in the lower left corner orientated to the display selection
(Heading or Track, Magnetic or True)

Weather Radar displays are not available.

341

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 24 Electronic Flight Information System
EFIS

EXPANDED VOR

With a VOR frequency selected, the EHSI displays about 90° of compass rose with the VOR
source in the lower left and the frequency in the lower right.

The white triangle at the bottom of the display is the aircraft symbol

Selected course (track) is displayed by the magenta course needle the tip pointing to the selected
course (150). The course selectors are usually on either side of the autoflight main control panel
(one for the Captain and one for the First Officer). Course deviation is shown by the traditional
deviation bar moving across a two dot left and two dot right scale.

A TO /FROM annunciation is shown.

DME distance displayed in the top left corner

Current heading is shown in the window and by the lubber line at the top of the compass rose
(130), the current selection is Magnetic Heading as shown either side of the track window.
Current track is shown by the white line from the tip of the aircraft symbol to the compass arc.
Selected heading shown by the magenta heading “bug” on the outer scale of the compass rose
Wind speed and direction are shown in the lower left corner orientated to the display selection
(Heading or Track, Magnetic or True).

Weather Radar displays are available, when selected “on” range arcs are also visible. Weather
Radar shows three colours green, yellow and red, green being the least turbulence, red being
the worst. If turbulence mode is available it is shown as magenta, the area of greatest activity
in the cloud. The range of the display can be selected on the control panel, half scale range is
displayed (10 Nm) so this display is selected to 20 Nm. The outer arc of the compass rose is the
furthest range from the aircraft.

342

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

FULL ILS MODE

With an ILS frequency selected, the EHSI displays a full compass rose with the ILS source in the
lower left and the frequency in the lower right.

Course selection (Localiser) is displayed by the magenta course needle the tip pointing to the
selected course (150). Localiser deviation is shown by the traditional deviation bar moving
across a two dot left and two dot right scale. This scale is exponential.

Glide slope deviation shown by a magenta coloured triangle moving up and down the traditional
scale on the right hand side.

DME distance displayed in the top left corner

Current heading is shown in the window and by the lubber line at the top of the compass rose
(130), the current selection is Magnetic Heading as shown either side of the window

Current track is shown by the white triangle on the inside edge of the compass rose.

Selected heading shown by the magenta heading “bug” on the outer scale of the compass rose

Wind speed and direction are shown in the lower left corner orientated to the display selection
(Heading or Track, Magnetic or True).

Weather Radar displays are not available.

343

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 24 Electronic Flight Information System
EFIS

EXPANDED ILS

With an ILS frequency selected, the EHSI displays about 90° of compass rose with the ILS source
in the lower left and the frequency in the lower right.

The white triangle at the bottom of the display is the aircraft symbol.

Selected course (track) is displayed by the magenta course needle the tip pointing to the
selected course (150). The course selectors are usually on either side of the autoflight main
control panel (one for the Captain and one for the First Officer). Localiser deviation is shown
by the traditional deviation bar moving across a two dot left and two dot right scale. Glide slope
deviation shown on the right again in the traditional fashion.

DME distance displayed in the top left corner.

Current heading is shown in the window and by the lubber line at the top of the compass rose.
In this case is the heading is 1300 Magnetic, as indicated by markings either side of the window.
Current track is shown by the white line from the tip of the aircraft symbol to the inside edge
of the compass rose.

Selected heading shown by the magenta heading “bug” on the outer scale of the compass rose.
Wind speed and direction are shown in the lower left corner orientated to the display selection
(Heading or Track, Magnetic or True).

Weather Radar displays are available, when selected “on” range arcs are also visible. Weather
Radar is shown in three colours green, yellow and red, green being the least turbulence, red
being the worst. If TURBULENCE MODE is available it is shown as magenta, the area of
greatest activity in the cloud.

The range of the display can be selected on the control panel, half scale range is displayed
(10 nm) so this display is selected to 20 nm. The outer arc of the compass rose is the furthest
range from the aircraft.

344

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

MAP MODE

The mode used normally is the MAP display, which, in conjunction with the flight plan data
programmed into a flight management computer, displays information against a moving map
background with all elements to a common scale.

The symbol representing the aircraft is at the lower part of the display, and an arc of the compass
scale, or rose, covering 45 degrees on either side of the instantaneous track, is at the upper part
of the display.

Heading information is supplied by the appropriate inertial reference system and the compass
rose is automatically referenced to magnetic North (via a crew-operated MAG/TRUE selector
switch) when between latitudes 73°N and 65°S, and to true North when above these latitudes.
When the selector switch is set at TRUE the compass rose is referenced to true North regardless
of latitude.

The aircraft active route as derived from the FMC is shown as a magenta coloured line joining
the waypoints. The active waypoint (the one the aircraft is currently navigating towards) is
shown as a magenta coloured star. The other waypoints making up the active route are called
inactive waypoints and are shown as a white star. Both identified by name.

Distance to next waypoint and time at next waypoint are shown at the top of the display Weather
Radar (WXR) return data and range arcs are displayed when the WXR switch is on. Turbulence
mode (+T) may be available as previously described.

Indications of other data such as wind speed and direction, lateral and vertical deviations from
the selected flight path are also displayed.

The flight management computer (FMC) can predict events by combining current ground speed
and lateral acceleration to show a display of either a curved trend vector, white, (during turns)
or a range to altitude arc, green, (during climb or descent) . Off route waypoints, Airports ,
Nav aids can all be shown in their relative position to the aircraft’s progress and selected range.
Additional waypoint information can be displayed when selected, Altitude, Time etc.

345

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 24 Electronic Flight Information System
EFIS

PLAN MODE

In ‘PLAN’ mode a static map background is used with active route data orientated to true
north. Any changes to the route may be selected at the keyboard of the Flight Management
Computer, and the display shown on the EHSI, so they can be checked before they are entered
into the FMC.

The top portion of the EHSI remains the same as in the map mode.

This mode allows the pilot to review the planned route by using the FMC / CDU LEGS page.

Weather Radar display data is inhibited.

No wind speed or direction information

Students should be aware that the arc of compass shown is “real time”. The planning section
below this is North orientated. The heading from TOBIX to LOGAN is approximately 020°,
NOT 155°.

DATA SOURCE SELECTION

In the type of system described earlier, means are provided whereby the pilots can independently
of each other, connect their respective display units to alternate sources of input data through a
data source switch panel. e.g. the left or right Air Data Computer (ADC), the Flight Management
Computers (FMC), the Flight Control Computers (FCC), and the Standby Inertial Reference
Systems (IRS).

346

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

Figure22.11.
Figure 22.6 Failure
FailureIndications
Indications.

FAILURE ANNUNCIATION

The failure of data signals from such systems as the ILS and radio altimeter is displayed on each
EADI and EHSI in the form of yellow flags ‘painted’ at specific matrix locations on their CRT
screens.

In addition, fault messages may also be displayed, for example, if the associated flight
management computer and weather radar range disagree with the control panel range data,
the discrepancy message ‘WXR/MAP RANGE DISAGREE’ appears on the EHSI.

NAVIGATION DISPLAYS

The following symbols can be displayed on each HSI depending on EFI Control Panel switch
selection. Symbols can be displayed with different colours but the general colour presentation
is as follows:

GREEN (G) engaged flight mode displays, dynamic conditions.

White (W) present status situation, scales, armed flight mode displays

MAGENTA (M)(pink) command information, pointers, symbols, fly-to condition

CYAN (C)(blue) non-active and background information

RED (R) warning

AMBER (A) cautionary information, faults, flags

BLACK (B) blank areas, display “off”

347

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 24 Electronic Flight Information System
EFIS

Applicable
Symbol Name Remarks
Modes

200 nm / 4.4 nm PLAN, MAP Distance is displayed to next

Distance
or or FMC Waypoint(nm) or tuned
Display (W)
DME 124 / DME 24.6 VOR, ILS Navaid(DME).

Indicates number under

pointer is a heading - box
HEADING indicates actual heading.
Orientation(G) PLAN, MAP Referenced to Magnetic North
HDG 263 M Indicator(W) VOR, ILS between 60deg South and
Reference(G) 73deg North if selected and
True North when above those
latitudes.
Indicates ETA at active
0835.4z ETA Display
PLAN, MAP Waypoint based on current
(M) & (W)
ground speed.
Indicates the heading set in
the MCP. A dotted line(M)
Selected extends from the marker to
PLAN, MAP
Heading the aeroplane symbol for ease
VOR, ILS
Marker(M) in tracking the marker when
it is out of view (except plan
mode).
Compass Data is provided
Expanded
PLAN, MAP by the selected IRS (360 deg
Compass
VOR, ILS available but approximately
Rose(W)
70 deg is displayed)

Compass Data is provided by

3
0
6
9
the selected IRS.
33
12 Full Compass Full VOR,
30 15 Rose(W) Full ILS
27
18
24 21

Predicts Ground Track which

Present Track will result with present
80
MAP
Line and heading and winds. Displayed
VOR, ILS
Range Scale Range Mark is one-half the
actual selected range.

348

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

Represents the aeroplane and

Aeroplane MAP indicates its position at the
Symbol(W) VOR, ILS apex of the triangle.

Represents the aeroplane and

Aeroplane Full VOR,
indicates its position at the
Symbol(W) Full ILS
centre of the symbol.
Active - Represents the
waypoint the aircraft is
Waypoint
currently navigating to.
Active(M) MAP, PLAN
Inactive - Represents a
Inactive(W)
AMBOY navigation point making up
the selected active route.
When intersected with the
Altitude Range track line, it predicts the point
MAP
Arc(G) where the reference altitude
will be reached.
Predicts aeroplane directional
trend at the end of 30, 60 and
90 second intervals. Based on
bank angle and ground speed.
Trend Vector MAP Three segments are displayed
when selected range is greater
than 30nm, two on the 20nm
and one segment when on the
10nm scale.

The active route is displayed

with continuous lines(M)
AMBOY between waypoints.
Active Active route modifications
KILMR Route(M) are displayed with short
Active Route dashes(W) between
MAP, PLAN
PARBY Mod’s(W) waypoints. When a change
Inactive is activated in the FMC, the
Route(C) short dashes are replaced by
ARO a continuous line. Inactive
routes are displayed with long
dashes(C) between waypoints.

349

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 24 Electronic Flight Information System
EFIS

Displays vertical deviation

Vertical
from selected vertical
Pointer(M)
MAP profile(pointer) in MAP mode
and Deviation
during descent only. Scale
Scale(W)
indicates +/- 400ft deviation.
Glide slope
Pointer(M) Displays Glide slope position
ILS
and deviation and deviation in ILS mode.
Scale(W)

Displays difference between

Drift Angle Full VOR,
FMC track angle and IRS
Pointer(W) Full ILS
heading.

Indicates wind speed in knots

Wind and wind direction with
MAP, VOR,
Speed and respect to the map display
ILS
Direction(W) orientation and compass
120 reference.

Presents a dot-dash line

Offset Path and parallel to and offset from the
MAP, PLAN
Identifier(M) active route after selection on
the FMC CDU.

N Indicates map background is

North orientated and referenced to
PLAN
Pointer(G) true north.

Represents an FMC
calculated point and is
Altitude Profile
labelled on the flight plan path
T/D Point and MAP
as” T/C” (top of climb), “T/
Identifier(G)
D” (top of descent) and “S/C”
(step climb).
Multicoloured returns are
Weather Radar
presented when either “WXR
Returns
MAP, VOR, ON” switch is pushed. Most
Mapping Radar
ILS intense regions are displayed
Returns
in Red, lesser Amber lowest
(both G,A,R)
intensity Green.

350

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

EXAMPLE DISPLAYS

Figure 24.7
Figure 8.6

351

Aviation ebooks Company

 Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

QUESTIONS

Refer to Appendix A, showing various EHSI displays and answer the following questions:

1. The displays marked A, B, C, and D are respectively:

a. Plan Map ILS VOR

b. VOR ILS Expanded ILS Plan
c. Map VOR ILS Plan
d. Map ILS Expanded VOR Plan

2. Refer to the display marked E and identify the correct statement:

a. The aircraft is closing the localiser from the right, heading 130°M and is approaching
the glide path from above
b. When established on the localiser the inbound heading will be 165°M.
c. The aircraft’s track is 165°M
d. The localiser centre line is 133°M.

3. On display D the track from ZAPPO to BANTU is:

a. 310°M
b. 130°T
c. 360°M
d. 180°T

4. On display centre C the centre of the weather returns is:

a. 106° relative, 18 nm
b. 332° relative, 13 nm
c. 100°M, 130 nm
d. 30 nm left of track, 15 nm ahead.

5. The drawing below is shown on the (i)............. is displaying (ii)........... and (iii)............

(i) (ii) (iii)

a. Primary Flight Display 600 kt TAS 200ft RA
b. Navigation Display 600ft RA 200ft DH
c. EADI 600ft 200ft
Radio Altitude Decision Height
d. EHSI 600 kt GS 200ft AGL

352

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

6. This following yellow symbol appears in place of the normal radio altitude display when:

RA

a. the selected radio altitude has been reached

b. the radio altitude needs re-setting on the EHSI
c. there is a failure of the radio altimeter
d. the aircraft descents below 1000ft AGL.

7. The following symbols A, C, and E are best described respectively as:

A B C D E

a. off route waypoint, airport navigation aid.

b. next waypoint, navigation aid, airport.
c. off route waypoint, navigation aid, a navigation point making up selected route.
d. active waypoint aircraft currently navigating to, navigation aid, off route waypoint.

8. When using EHSI, weather radar may be displayed on following settings:

a. map, VOR/ILS.
b. VOR/ILS, map, expanded plan.
c. expanded map, VOR/ILS, plan.
d. map, expanded VOR/ILS.

9. WXR display is controlled from:

a. captains EHSI control only.

b. co-pilots EHSI control only.
c. a special control panel.
d. both captains and co-pilots EHSI control panels.

10. Decision height is adjusted and set on the:

a. flight management computer.

b. HSI section of the EFIS control panel.
c. ADI section of the EFIS control panel.
d. ADI or HSI

11. WXR display is on:

a. the captains CRT only.

b. the co-pilots CRT only.
c. a special screen.
d. on both the captains and co-pilots CRTs.

353

Aviation ebooks Company

 Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

12. Airspeed is shown:

a. only on the captains EHSI.

b. on both EADIs.
c. on both EHSIs.
d. only on the flight management CRT.

13. With an EFIS flight director using IRS guidance, reference north can be:

a. magnetic north only.

b. magnetic north between 73°Nth and 65°Sth and true north above these latitudes.
c. magnetic north between 65°Nth and 73°Sth and true north above these latitudes.
d. magnetic north between 75°Nth and 75°Sth and true north above these latitudes.

14. Modes available for (EFIS) HSI on some units are:

a. airspeed and Mach.

b. MAP and PLAN.
c. VOR, ILS, MAP and AUTO TRIM.
d. only from manometric sources.

15. The EFIS symbols for a navaid and enroute waypoint are:

a.

b.

c.

d.

16. An EFIS as well as having a control panel, symbol generators and a remote light sensor also
has:

a. EADIS and EHSIs

b. EHSIs and altitude indicator
c. EADIs and EICAs
d. EADI and WXR display tubes.

354

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

ANNEX A ANNEX A

26.3 nm TRK 130 M 1335.6z

WX + T DME 16.7 TRK 130 M 0358.4z
+12
DIT
ZAPPO
12000
1412z
10 CAD
AFS BANTU
10000
1359z
EYY

EDNOR PIL
12000
DFC 1347z

2500
100' / 20
129 / 20 ILS 1 110.10

DME13.3 HDG 26.2 nm TRK 130 M 1422.7z

BURDY
10

ZAPPO KBZN N

BANTU

126 / 20

DME13.3 HDG 130 M WX + T

+12 16.7 nm 0358.4z
BUGLE

10

100' / 20 2500
126 / 20 NAV
ILS 1 110.10

355

Aviation ebooks Company

 Electronic Flight Information System
Chapter 24
EFIS

ANSWERS

1 D

2 A

3 D

4 B

5 C

6 C

7 D

8 D

9 D

10 C

11 D

12 B

13 B

14 B

15 C

16 A

356

Aviation ebooks Company

Head-Up Display Chapter 25

CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE

HEAD-UP DISPLAY

Contents
THE HEAD-UP DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
THE UNITS OF A SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
FLIGHT DATA AVAILABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
THE HUD COMBINER ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
HUD INFORMATION AVAILABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
THE AMBIENT LIGHT SENSOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
CONFORMAL DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
RUNWAY APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
TAKE-OFF DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
NON-CONFORMAL DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
COURSE DEVIATION INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
WARNING AND CAUTION DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

357

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 25 Head-Up Display

358

Aviation ebooks Company

Head-Up Display Chapter 25

THE HEAD-UP DISPLAY

The Head-up Display is an extension of the Electronic Flight Instrument System. It presents
attitude and navigation information to the pilot on an electronic display in a format which is
easy, with experience, to read and importantly is in the eye line of the pilot when transferring
from instrument to visual flight conditions.

The system generally referred to as “the HUD”, is fully integrated with digital computer‑based
navigation and flight systems. It utilises a Display Guidance Computer, a Display Controller and
an Overhead Unit with Combiner Assembly to provide information more usually presented on
types of Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI / PFD) and Electronic Horizontal Situation
Indicator (EHSI / ND).

Figure 25.1

Figure 25.1 is an example of the A300 series of aircraft PFD and ND and it should be remembered
that all of this information may be shown upon a HUD if so desired by the company but the
information is generally organised as indicated below.

The system is therefore extremely advanced, not only in terms of physical construction, but also
in the extent to which it can present attitude and navigational data to the pilot of an aircraft.

359

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 25 Head-Up Display

THE UNITS OF A SYSTEM

The system is made up of the following units which provide the functions as indicated:

Display Guidance Computer:

¾¾ Combines the Flight Guidance and Symbol generation for the HUD.
¾¾ Generates EFIS / AFCS information onto the HUD using analogue displays.
¾¾ Provides flight information as requested by the pilot.

Display Controller:

¾¾ Controls the various modes of operation available for the HUD.

¾¾ Activates / deactivates the HUD.
¾¾ Provides access for engineering fault investigation.

Overhead Unit with Combiner Assembly:

¾¾ The Overhead Unit projects the HUD symbology onto the Combiner Assembly.
¾¾ The Combiner Assembly is situated in the pilots “viewing area” and displays stroke-
written graphics that orientate the pilot to the current flight situation.

FLIGHT DATA AVAILABLE

The display unit will provide information from the following sources:

¾¾ Air Data Computer(ADC)

¾¾ Inertial Reference Unit(IRU)
¾¾ Radio Altimeter(RA)
¾¾ Radio Navigation
¾¾ Flight Management System(FMS)

The display may provide information from the following sources:

¾¾ Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System(TCAS)

¾¾ Windshear Warning System
¾¾ Global Positioning System(GPS)
¾¾ Microwave Landing System(MLS)

The lists indicated are not exhaustive but can be said to be a representative selection of the
information that may be displayed dependant upon aircraft equipment fitted and company
requirements.

360

Aviation ebooks Company

Head-Up Display Chapter 25

THE HUD COMBINER ASSEMBLY

The Combiner Assembly is a foldaway glass see-through screen mounted in front of the pilot
and placed in his eyeline to the outside world. It is suspended from the overhead structure of
the cockpit where it is attached to the Display Guidance Computer(DGC).

The image projected onto the Collimator Assembly by the DGC from its electro-optical unit is
reflected so that the image produced gives a real time impression of current flight information
and aircraft flight profile. The information is presented so that the pilot may look through
the display and relate the presentation to his view of the skyline in front of the aircraft. The
presentation is achieved by using a Synthetic Hologram coating upon the glass of the Collimator
Assembly which reflects the colour of the projected display but allows light from outside to
pass through to the pilot.

The Collimator Glass may be raised from in front of the pilot and stored if required and will in
any event spring out of the way to avoid injury if the pilot was to strike it by accident.

OVERHEAD UNIT

COMBINER

DISPLAY GUIDANCE
COMPUTER

MAP COMP PLAN NAV BARO

MODE UNCAGED CAGED

SENSOR FLT REF TRS SYSTEM RW ELEV 16000

VERT ANGLE -3.00
CDI HSI -318.4 FT/NM
TEST DISP HUD SET
BRT
AUTO ON OFF MAINT
ON

DC-884 DISPLAY CONTROLLER

361

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 25 Head-Up Display

HUD INFORMATION AVAILABLE

Typically a HUD can provide the following information for display to the pilot - this may vary
dependant upon manufacturer and company requirement:

¾¾ Aircraft Attitude
¾¾ Autopilot Mode in use
¾¾ Flight Director Mode in use
¾¾ Flight Director Command symbology
¾¾ Vertical deviation from selected datum
¾¾ Radio Altitude(RA)
¾¾ Decision Height(DH)
¾¾ Minimum Descent Altitude(MDA)
¾¾ Altitude Awareness Cue
¾¾ Roll Scale
¾¾ Slip / Skid Information
¾¾ Low Speed Awareness
¾¾ Marker Beacon Indications(O - M - I)
¾¾ Altitude (Metres / Feet)
¾¾ Airspeed / Mach No
¾¾ Vertical Speed (Tape and Digital indications)
¾¾ Heading
¾¾ Selected Course
¾¾ Lateral Deviation from selected course
¾¾ Drift Angle
¾¾ Distance
¾¾ Flight Path Vector
¾¾ Synthetic Airport / Runway
¾¾ Guidance Symbology
¾¾ (Test Displays)

This list is not exhaustive but should give an indication of the information that may be shown to
the pilot. Clearly all of this information is available upon a number of “head-down” presentations
but by taking this into the eye-line of the pilot the requirement for eye movement and refocusing
is removed thus making bad weather approaches more easily achieved. The standard colour for
presentation is green and this is maintained for all of the symbology mentioned above.

THE AMBIENT LIGHT SENSOR

The HUD presentation intensity can, as with EFIS, be automatically controlled for brightness
through the use of an Ambient Light Sensor. The sensor will maintain a set brightness level as
set by the pilot to cater for cockpit light conditions as they change during the flight.

CONFORMAL DISPLAY

As described above most of the information that is displayed can be seen in similar format on a
“head-down” display somewhere in the cockpit. However, the whole purpose of the system is
to allow the pilot to look through the information presented and be able to immediately match
this information to the real world outside the cockpit. The figure below 25.3 gives an indication
of the conformal display symbology that we may expect to see at various stages of an approach
on the Honeywell HUD.

362

Aviation ebooks Company

Head-Up Display Chapter 25

ROLL SCALE LOC IAS GS

ROLL POINTER
143 AND SLIP-SKID
29 30 31 32 300

5 5
8 80
14 9 25 60 NAV1
0 40
4.5 DME
RF CRS 307
HDG 285
0.30M -900
VERTICAL
SPEED WORM

BORESIGHT -3.0 -3.0

100

M DH
AIRPORT
SYMBOL
DIGITAL RADIO
ALTITUDE

DECISION HEIGHT
ANNUNCIATOR

FLIGHT PATH
VECTOR

Conformal Display Symbols (general):

¾¾ Flight Path Vector (FPV) - The FPV is the primary symbol for control of the aircraft
and can be used to show course and flight path deviations against selected scales in a
similar fashion to the more usual Flight Director displays. However, it does not show
nose attitude as with an ordinary ADI system and will only be active at airborne speeds
(60kts plus in the Honeywell system).

¾¾ Roll Scale triangles - The Roll Scale is shown by “tick marks” at 10° intervals and allows
a presentation of roll up to 45° Angle of Bank (AOB) by the introduction of an extra
triangle at 45° which appears when the aircraft AOB is greater than 32°.

¾¾ Horizon Line - A line with a gap in the centre into which the Flight Path Vector (FPV)
fits.

¾¾ Boresight - The aircraft reference symbol around which all earth referenced informa-
tion is manoeuvred.

¾¾ Airport Symbol - Shown at the end of the runway when on approach it changes to a
Runway Symbol as the aircraft descends below 325ft AGL but will indicate accurately
only if correct runway elevation has been entered on the Display Controller(DC)HUD
Menu.

¾¾ Conformal Lateral Deviation Scale - Used in a number of applications to show displace-

ment from centreline.

¾¾ Decision Height Annunciation - A hollow box is shown when the aircraft is 100ft above
decision altitude to change as the aircraft passes the selected altitude and shows either
MDA or DH in the box.

¾¾ Airspeed Indication - If IAS / Mach is selected to Mach, the digital readout will indicate
Mach and the dial IAS.

363

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 25 Head-Up Display

RUNWAY APPROACH

AIRSPEED
DIAL DIGITS LOC IAS GS

VECTOR
144
WIND 29 30 31 32 300

5 5
8 20
14 9 52 00 NAV1
0 80
4.5 DME
RF CRS 307
HDG 295
0.30M -900
SECONDARY
MACH DIGITS

-3.0 -3.0
100

M DH

RUNWAY
SYMBOL
DECISION
HEIGHT

FLARE
GUIDANCE
CUE

Runway Approach Symbols

¾¾ Runway Symbol - The symbol is presented as the aircraft descends below 350ft su-
perimposed upon the airport symbol which will in turn disappear as the aircraft goes
below 325ft. (As with the airport symbol the runway information must be entered into
the system accurately to ensure accurate picture presentation.)

¾¾ Flare Guidance - The symbol becomes active below 100ft Radio Altitude and when
armed will move laterally with the FPV and can be expected to move up to the FPV
from below until the wings of the aircraft symbol fit between the two bars.

When the aircraft goes below 50ft the guidance switches from glideslope to Flight Director
vertical commands which are used to prompt the flare for landing (the pilot will need to
touchdown and rollout using normal visual procedures prompted by the system).

364

Aviation ebooks Company

Head-Up Display Chapter 25

TAKE-OFF DISPLAY

SELECTED METRIC
V SPEED ALTITUDE
C TO TO
BUGS

METRIC ALTITUDE
120 3150M
29 30 31 32 4500
1
R

5 5
1 80
10 2 25 60 NAV1
3 40
SE 4.5 DME
2 CRS 307
HDG 295 FS
126 -0

1R

-5 -5
SPEED ERROR N

TAPE

V SPEED
ANNUNCIATION

Take-off Display Symbols

¾¾ VSPEED Bugs - These can be placed upon the presentation either on the circular air-
speed dial or on the Speed Error Tape extending from the FPV aircraft symbol.

¾¾ Speed Error Tape - Rising or descending from the right wing of the FPV it represents
the difference between selected and achieved airspeed (above = current airspeed above
selected airspeed and below the opposite).

¾¾ Metric Altitude - Altitude can be offered in metres or feet and the selection is indicated
by an “M” after the figure if metres are selected. Selected Altitude readout is also pos-
sible and this indicates when the aircraft is within 500ft of selected altitude to give
warning of imminent level-off.

¾¾ Selected Heading Digital Readout - A digital readout of selected heading may be shown
and this is preceded by the identifier “HDG”.

365

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 25 Head-Up Display

HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

SELECTED
SELECTED ALTITUDE
AIRSPEED DISPLAY
DISPLAY LOC IAS VS

SELECTED
143
ALTITUDE
29 30 31 32 3000
BUG

INDICATED 8
5 5
20
ALTITUDE
AIRSPEED
14 9
0
52 00
80
DIGITAL
NAV1
INDICATOR DISPLAY
RF H 4.5 NM
ARROW HDG 295
CRS 307
0.30M -500

SELECTED ALTITUDE
AIRSPEED DIAL
BUG
SELECTED
-5
N
-5 HEADING
BUG
PITCH LIMIT
INDICATOR
COURSE
SELECT
LATERAL POINTER
DEVIATION
INDICATOR

Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) Display Symbols

¾¾ Selected Airspeed Bug and Display - Set manually or through the FMS by the pilot this
indicates digitally the reference speed selected and by using the bug an indication of
low or high speed against the reference may be shown.

¾¾ Pitch Limit Indicator (PLI) - As with any system it is important to know when the air-
craft is approaching a stall and this can be achieved through a stick shaker as well as
visual cues. As the aircraft approaches the relevant pitch limit (approximately 0.75 of
the available AOA with this Honeywell System) at a given weight, altitude and speed
the PLI and the FPV will come close together warning the pilot of an imminent stall
condition.

¾¾ Selected Altitude Display - The selected Altitude Bug travels around the outside of the
altitude analogue scale and will be visible when the aircraft is within 500ft of selected
altitude (this can be shown as either feet or equivalent metric values).

366

Aviation ebooks Company

Head-Up Display Chapter 25

NON-CONFORMAL DISPLAY

X, Y, WIND FLIGHT DIRECTOR

MODES
LOC IAS GS
ALTITUDE
INDICATOR
3150M
ARROW
144
29 30 31 32 3000

8 5 5
20 NAV SOURCE
14 9 52 00
0 80 NAV1 ANNUNCIATOR
RF H 4.5 NM
HDG 295
CRS 307
0.30 -500 DIGITAL
COURCE
SELECT

-3.0 -3.0
940
ALTITUDE
AWARENESS
BUG

REFERENCE VERTICAL
FLIGHT PATH DEVIATION
ANGLE LINE POINTER

NON-CONFORMAL NON-CONFORMAL
LATERAL LATERAL
DEVIATION SCALE DEVIATION
POINTER

Non-Conformal Display Symbols

¾¾ Reference Flight Path Angle Line - The dashed line represents the reference FPA se-
lected and this may be selected above or below the horizon to cater for climb / descent
profiles.

¾¾ Vertical Deviation Scale - This can be selected to show either Vpath or Glideslope devia-
tion (if the reference is from the long range navigation part of the FMS then deviation
from the VNAV path is shown).

367

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 25 Head-Up Display

COURSE DEVIATION INDICATOR

AUTOPILOT AND CAT1/CAT2

AUTOTHROTTLE ANNUNCIATION
ANNUNCIATIONS
LOC IAS VS HEADING
API CAT 2 DEVIATION
HEADING ATI LUBBER LINE
DEVIATION 3150M
.60
SCALE 29 30 31 32 43000

9
5 5
20 COURSE
.80 430 00
1 80 FMS1 SELECT
POINTER
HDG 295 H 4.5 NM
CRS 307
250 FLIGHT
DIRECTOR
COMMAND
SELECTED (GUIDANCE CUE)
HEADING
BUG
TO/FROM
INDICATOR
-5 -5

LONGITUDIAL
ACCELERATION
CARAT FLIGHT PATH
VECTOR

PITCH TAPE

Course Deviation Indicator Display Symbols:

Flight Path Vector(FPV) - placed to indicate the lateral deviation of the aircraft within the
selected course profile which moves around the FPV. In Figure 25.7 the aircraft is to the right
of the selected course, this is indicated to us by the Course Selector Pointer being offset to the
left of the line of four dots.

Autopilot / Autothrottle Modes - as with any of these systems it is important to know which
mode is armed and in use and this is achieved by a number of annunciators set upon the
HUD.

Heading Deviation Scale - the heading tape moves left / right across the screen and allows for
presentation of differences between heading selected and that currently being achieved.

Longitudinal Acceleration Carat - this device allows the pilot to view his airspeed relative to
a set value and identify if the aircraft is fast or slow against the datum, if the aircraft is at its
required speed the arrow will indicate against the end of the FPV wing.

368

Aviation ebooks Company

Head-Up Display Chapter 25

TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE

LOC IAS GS

5 5
8 20
14 9 52 00
0 80
FLIGHT PATH
ANGLE DOWN
-500 ADVISORY TARGET

FLIGHT PATH
ANGLE
-3.0
940
-3.0
FLY-TO-ZONE

FLIGHT PATH
ANGLE UP
ADVISORY TARGET

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

TCAS information may be shown on the HUD as indicated above and will take the form of
Resolution Advisory(RA) commands which are in turn translated into Flightpath Angle(FPA)
commands for presentation to the pilot.

Flightpath Angle Up / Flightpath Angle Down advisory commands are generated to manouevre
the aircraft into the Flightpath Angle Fly-to Zone which is a box where the aircraft may fly in
safety with relation to detected RAs.

WARNING AND CAUTION DISPLAY

In the paragraphs above we have described the format of information, based upon a current
Honeywell System, that may be placed before the pilot at take-off in flight and on the approach
to land. We may note from the previous discussion that just about any information generated
by the aircraft can be displayed dependant upon the requirements of the company that is to
utilise the system.

It is equally important to recognise that the system may provide warnings of mismatch
between data from sensors or imminent / actual failure of systems being utilised by the aircraft.
Importantly for the pilot, the HUD can also display warning of Windshear on approach,
assuming the appropriate sensors are fitted to the aircraft, thus allowing the pilot to take the
necessary actions to achieve a safe landing.

369

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 25 Head-Up Display

370

Aviation ebooks Company

Basic Computers Chapter 26

CHAPTER TWENTY SIX

BASIC COMPUTERS

Contents
COMPUTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
ANALOGUE COMPUTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
DIGITAL COMPUTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
CONVERTING DECIMAL NUMBERS TO BINARY NUMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
OCTAL NOTATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
DIGITAL COMPUTER COMPONENTS (HARDWARE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
INPUT OUTPUT DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
MEMORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

371

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 26 Basic Computers

372

Aviation ebooks Company

Basic Computers Chapter 26

COMPUTERS

A computer may be defined as: A device or set of devices that can store data and a program
that operates on the data. A general purpose computer can be programmed to solve any
reasonable problem expressed in logical and arithmetical terms.

The first fully operational general purpose computer, electromechanical and using binary digits
was the Z3, built in Germany in 1941 by Konrad Zuse.

Basically there are two types of computer:

¾¾ Analogue

¾¾ Digital

By far the most common is the Digital Computer or Micro Processor which now plays a part in
most aspects of everyday life.

ANALOGUE COMPUTERS

An analogue computer uses continuous physical variables such as voltage or pressure to

represent and manipulate the measurements it handles.

Analogue computers are used as electronic models or analogues of mechanical or other systems
in cases where conducting experiments on the system itself would be costly, time consuming
or dangerous. For example when designing a bridge or aircraft wing or any structure where
motion can occur, the engineer must know beforehand how it will react to various physical
variables such as wind speed and temperature.

In recent years analogue computers have become less popular because it is now possible to
program digital computers to simulate moving physical systems.

The remainder of this chapter will deal with digital computers and their use in aircraft.

DIGITAL COMPUTERS

Digital Computers use digital data (binary data) in their operations. This form of data has only
two levels of voltage as opposed to the analogue systems continuous variables. The two levels
correspond to ON or OFF ie switching circuits. Digital circuits are two state circuits. Normally
when working on paper we count from zero to nine - the decimal number system. When the
digital computer works it has to use the ON - OFF, two state or BINARY number system.

373

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 26 Basic Computers

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

The binary number system represents different quantities using only two symbols, 1 and 0. If
a quantity larger than 1 must be represented by binary numbers, the symbols systematically
repeat. As in the decimal system, the binary system repeats by adding to the left of the first
digit.

Therefore a binary number may be written: 101

How can the equivalent number be represented in the familiar decimal number system?

In the decimal system the least significant digit is on the right and the most significant digit on
the left. The same applies in the binary system.

The 1 on the right represents 1 x 2 to the power 0 or 20 which is decimal 1.

The 0 in the middle tells us there is no value in the column 21 so the is no decimal 2.

The 1 on the left indicates there is 1 x 2 to the power 2 or 22 which is decimal 4

By adding the decimal one derived from the binary 1 on the left to the 4 derived from the binary
1 on the right we get decimal number 5.

Binary 101 = Decimal 5

The table below shows the specific value of a binary digit in positions of 1 to 10, with the least
significant number on the right and the most significant number on the left.

BINARY DIGIT 10th 9th 8th 7th 6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st

POWER 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

DECIMAL 512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

VALUE

Using the table it is easy to convert binary numbers in to their decimal equivalents, you simply
place the binary number under the table, note the powers of two above the binary ones and add
them together.

The table below shows another example in addition to the previous number conversion. Note
that binary zeros are not counted.

374

Aviation ebooks Company

Basic Computers Chapter 26

Convert binary 111011 to decimal:

Binary digit 6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st

Power 25 24 23 22 21 20

Decimal value 32 16 8 4 2 1

1 0 1 4 + 1 = 5

1 1 1 0 1 1 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 59

CONVERTING DECIMAL NUMBERS TO BINARY NUMBERS

To change decimal numbers to binary numbers we simply progressively divide the decimal
number by 2 and record the remainder, the remainder being the binary number:

Example 1: Convert decimal 96 to binary:

Quotient Remainder

96 48 0 (last binary digit)

2

48 24 0
2

24 12 0
2

12 6 0
2

6 3 0
2

3 1 1
2

1 0 1 (first binary digit)

2

Decimal number 96 = binary number 1100000

375

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 26 Basic Computers

Example 2: Convert decimal 18 to binary

Quotient Remainder

18 9 0
2

9 4 1
2

4 2 0
2

2 1 0
2

1 0 1
2

Decimal number = 18
Binary number = 10010

Example 3: Convert decimal 69 to binary

Quotient Remainder

69 34 1
2

34 17 0
2

17 8 1
2

8 4 0
2

4 2 0
2

2 1 0
2

1 0 1
2

Decimal number = 69
Binary number = 1000101

376

Aviation ebooks Company

Basic Computers Chapter 26

Positive Logic

Binary 1 is usually represented by a positive voltage +5v or +28v and binary 0 by zero volts
(earth). This is known as positive logic.

Four Examples of Positive Logic Digital Signals

(a) Binary 1 = +7.5 V, Binary 0 = 0 V (b) Binary 1 = +10 V, Binary 0 = +5 V

(c) Binary 1 = +2.5 V, Binary 0 = -2.5 V (d) Binary 1 = 0 V, Binary 0 = -5 V

(Bipolar Binary)

Negative Logic

When binary 1 is represented by a negative number and binary 0 by zero (earth). This is called
negative logic and is less common.

Two Examples of Negative Logic Digital Signals

(a) Binary 1 = +5 V, Binary 0 = +10 V (b) Binary 1 = 0 V, Binary 0 = +15 V

377

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 26 Basic Computers

As can be seen from the examples on the previous page, when counting in the binary system
using just 0 and 1, many more columns are required. Successive columns from the right
represent increasing powers of 2:

24 23 22 21 20 etc

The term BIT may be used when referring to a binary digit. One bit is equal to one binary digit.
A bit will always be a high or low logic level (+ voltage and 0 voltage for example).
Bits handled as a group are referred to as a BYTE. Therefore, an eight bit binary number is a
byte containing eight bits.
A WORD is a grouping of bits that a computer uses as a standard information format. For
example, many systems communicate using a 16 or 32 bit word. Each word for a particular
system will conform to a specific format that enables the computer to understand it and decode
it’s message.

OCTAL NOTATION SYSTEM

The octal number system is based on eight, 0 to 7. The octal notation system is the binary
representation of an octal number. Octal notation is comprised of a series of three bit groups
(TRIADS). Since the largest decimal number that can be represented by three bits is 7 (111), this
is a base eight or octal system.

Octal notation is useful for certain programming techniques where large quantities of binary
numbers must be manipulated. Octal is often used for the transmission of data by aircraft
computers and their peripherals.

Triad group 4th 3rd 2nd 1st

3 - digit octal
001 010 100 001
notation
Decimal
1 2 4 1
equivalent of triad
Power of eight 83 82 81 80
Decimal value of
512 64 8 1
base eight number
Decimal
(1 x 512) (2 x 64) (4 x 8) (1 x 1)
equivalent of octal
512 128 32 1
groups

Sum the decimal equivalents of each octal group 512 + 128 +32 + 1 = 673
Octal notation 001 010 100 001 = decimal 673

378

Aviation ebooks Company

Basic Computers Chapter 26

HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

The hexadecimal (hex) system uses base 16. The main purpose of this system is to represent the
very large numbers of memory locations used in micro controllers and microprocessors.

The hexadecimal system uses the numbers 0 to 9 along with the letters A to F to make up the
16 symbols. The table below shows the relationship between hexadecimal, decimal and binary
numbers:

Hexadecimal Decimal Binary

0 0 0000

1 1 0001

2 2 0010

3 3 0011

4 4 0100

5 5 0101

6 6 0110

7 7 0111

8 8 1000

9 9 1001

A 10 1010

B 11 1011

C 12 1100

D 13 1101

E 14 1110

F 15 1111

An important point to recognise about the hexadecimal system is that 4 binary digits represent
a single hexadecimal digit. This is significant because a 16 bit binary code can be represented
by a 4 digit hexadecimal number.

379

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 26 Basic Computers

DIGITAL COMPUTER COMPONENTS (HARDWARE)

Having discussed the language in which computers work, and remembering that binary is the
basic language in which calculations are carried out and information is stored in memory, we
shall now look at the construction of a basic computer.

All computers have the basic components shown in the diagram below:

Figure 126.1
Figure A Basic Digital
A Basic Computer
Digital Computer
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The CPU performs, organises and controls all the operations the computer can carry out. It is
really the brain of the computer. What the CPU can do is controlled by an instruction set.

The CPU itself consists of:

¾¾ Arithmetic Logic Unit: The ALU performs arithmetic calculations and logical op-
erations in the binary number system.

¾¾ Shift Registers: The shift registers are temporary stores; one of them, called the ac-
cumulator contains the data actually being processed.

¾¾ Control Unit: The control unit contains the computer’s clock. This is a crystal control-
led oscillator which generates timing pulses at a fixed frequency, typically between 120
and 45MHz. This synchronises computer operations.

380

Aviation ebooks Company

Basic Computers Chapter 26

INPUT OUTPUT DEVICES

The CPU accepts digital signals from the input devices, keyboard, mouse or modem, in the case
of a PC, via its input port. In an aircraft these could be various sensors, Rad Alt, Baro Alt, TAS,
fuel flow, etc.

After processing these are fed out via its output port to a Visual Display Unit (Monitor) or
printer. In an aircraft the output may be fed to an EFIS Symbol Generator or the FMS Control
Display Unit (CDU).

BIOS (Basic Input Output System) converts the input signals to a form the computer can
work with and converts the outputs to a form the operator or another aircraft system can
understand.

MEMORY

¾¾ Working Memory: A computer needs a working memory to run the programme of

instructions (software) it has to execute. If the programme is fixed as in a computer
controlled piece of equipment, the memory only has to be read. To do this a Read Only
Memory (ROM) is used. This ROM is programmed by the manufacturer.
A Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM), Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory (EPROM), or Electronically Erasable Programmable Memory (EEPROM)
would be used if the user wanted to construct or modify the programme himself and
keep it permanently in the memory.

Memory that retains data when the power is switched off is called NON VOLATILE MEMORY.
Memory that loses data in the event of a power failure or switch off is called VOLATILE
MEMORY.

If the programme has to be changed during operation, then the memory must be able to be
written to as well as read. To do this Random Access Memory (RAM) this allows instructions
to be written in, read out and altered at will. A RAM is also required to store the data for
processing as this also will change continually. RAM is normally Volatile Memory.

¾¾ Permanent Memory: As stated above RAM is volatile and work is lost when power is
removed. Permanent storage for computer programmes and the work they generate
is usually in the form of magnetic disks. Both floppy and hard disks are permanent
stores of computer data. Their storage capacity is measured in megabytes or gigabytes.
Hard disks are usually integral parts of the hardware. Floppy disks can be inserted and
removed from drives and are transportable and securable.

¾¾ Electronically Alterable Read Only Memory (EAROM): This is a special type of ROM
that can be electronically altered. It is used in the data base of the Flight Management
System Computer. This contains a worldwide data base of all airfields, navigation aids,
airways, etc. Of course, periodically, frequencies and airways change and the data base
needs to be updated.

This is achieved on a 28 day cycle when Jeppeson issue an update floppy disk to their client
airlines. The disk is inserted into the FMS Control Display Unit, powered up and the new data
inserted and the old data cancelled.

381

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 26 Basic Computers

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

Systems which are computer controlled include:

¾¾ Flight Management System (FMS)

¾¾ Digital Flight Guidance System (DFGS)

¾¾ Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)

¾¾ Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

Of course Fly by Wire aircraft take computer control very much further, when the whole flight
envelope is controlled by computer process with inputs from the crew when necessary.

Current design favours the use of dedicated computers for each separate system. In the future
however we may see sharing of computer power in the form of an Integrated Hazard Warning
System (IHWS). Here a powerful central processor, with appropriate back up, handles inputs
from the stall warning system, windshear detection, GPWS, TCAS and even the Weather Radar,
processes the information and prioritises warnings to the crew.

Analogue to Digital Conversion (A to D)

Many aircraft sensors produce analogue information in the form of varying voltages, pressures,
temperatures, etc. Of course digital computers use digital (binary) information and a device
called an Analogue to Digital Converter is required in the interface between the sensor and the
computer input device.

Digital to Analogue Conversion (D to A)

When a digital computer has to pass information to an analogue device the process is reversed
and a Digital to Analogue Converter is used.

382

Aviation ebooks Company

Basic Computers Chapter 26

QUESTIONS

1. A basic digital computer consists of:

1. input peripherals
2. central processing unit
3. inertial unit
4. memory
5. auto brightness control
6. output peripherals

a. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6
b. 1, 2, 4 and 6
c. 1, 4, 6 only
d. 2, 3, 4 and 6

2. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of:

1. input device
2. output device
3. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
4. Shift Registers
5. Control Unit
6. Hard disk

a. 1, 2, 3 and 5
b. 3, 4, and 6
c. 1, 2, 5, and 6
d. 3, 4 and 5

3. In computer terminology an input peripheral device would be:

a. a hard disk
b. a floppy disk
c. a keyboard
d. a screen display unit

4. The two types of binary logic are:

a. positive and negative

b. variable and negative
c. positive and reversible
d. variable and reversible

5. In computer terminology an output peripheral device would be:

a. a floppy disk
b. a hard disk
c. a screen display unit
d. a keyboard

383

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 26 Basic Computers

6. In computer terminology a memory which loses its data when power is removed is called:

a. non-volatile
b. non-permanent
c. non-retentive
d. volatile

7. In computer terminology a memory which retains its data when power is removed is called:

a. non-volatile
b. volatile
c. RAM
d. ROM

8. Examples of input peripheral devices are:

1. mouse
2. modem
3. printer
4. screen display unit
5. keyboard

a. 2, 3, 4 and 5
b. 1, 2 and 5
c. 1 and 5
d. 1, 2, 3

9. In computer terminology “software” refers to:

a. the memory system floppy disks, hard disks, etc

b. the RAM and ROM capacity
c. the programme of instructions
d. the BIOS

10. In computer terminology “hardware” refers to:

a. the digital computer components, keyboard, monitor, CPU, etc

b. the permanent memory system and its capacity
c. the RAM capacity
d. the programme of instructions

11. Memory capacity in a digital computer is expressed in:

a. Bits (Mbits, Gbits)

b. Bytes (Mbytes, Gbytes)
c. ROM capacity
d. RAM capacity

12. The smallest information element in a digital system is:

a. byte
b. digit
c. electron
d. bit

384

Aviation ebooks Company

Basic Computers Chapter 26

13. A group of binary digits handled as a group is referred to as a:

a. byte
b. mega bit
c. giga bit
d. bits

14. Convert the decimal number 7 to its binary equivalent:

a. 1110
b. 111
c. 1101
d. 100

15. Convert binary 1110 to its decimal equivalent:

a. 13
b. 14
c. 15
d. 16

16. The computer language in which calculations are carried out and information is stored in
memory is:

a. decimal
b. hexadecimal
c. octal
d. binary

17. The computer language system which uses the base 16 is known as:

a. septagesimal
b. hectadecimal
c. hexadecimal
d. octal

18. The computer language system which uses the base 8 is called:

a. decimal
b. binary
c. octal
d. hexadecimal

19. The number system which uses the numbers 0 to 9 followed by the letters A to F is:

a. alpha numeric
b. hexadecimal
c. octal
d. numeric alpha

385

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 26 Basic Computers

20. In a digital computer binary 1 is represented by +5 volts and Binary 0 by earth. This is an
example of:

a. negative logic
b. bipolar logic
c. positive logic
d. analog system

21. In a negative logic system:

a. binary 1 is a low level, binary 0 is a high level

b. binary 1 is a high level, binary 0 is a low level
c. binary 1 is positive, binary 0 is negative
d. binary 1 and binary 0 are equal levels above and below zero

22. The permanent memory of a digital computer usually takes the form of:

a. Integrated circuits rated in megabytes

b. shift registers whose capacity is rated in mega or gigabytes
c. floppy or hard disks whose capacity is measured in mega or gigabytes
d. Central Processing Unit

23. The purpose of the Arithmetic Logic Unit within the Central Processing Unit is to:

a. act as a temporary store for information being processed

b. perform calculations in the binary number system
c. perform calculations in the binary, octal or hexadecimal system
d. perform all clock functions based on the computer clock frequency (clock time)

24. Within the Central Processing Unit, the temporary stores and accumulator which handle the
data during processing are called:

a. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

b. Shift Registers
c. Control Unit
d. BIOS

25. Aircraft data in analog form, before being processed by a computer must be passed through a:

a. digital to analog converter (D to A)

b. EPROM
c. EAROM
d. analog to digital converter (A to D)

386

Aviation ebooks Company

Basic Computers Chapter 26

387

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 26 Basic Computers

ANSWERS

1 B 11 B 21 A

2 D 12 D 22 C

3 C 13 A 23 B

4 A 14 B 24 B

5 C 15 B 25 D

6 D 16 D

7 A 17 C

8 B 18 C

9 C 19 B

10 A 20 C

388

Aviation ebooks Company

Future Air Navigation Systems
Chapter 27
(FANS)

CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN

COMMUNICATIONS AND THE FUTURE AIR NAVIGATION SYSTEMS

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION ADDRESSING
and REPORTING SYSTEM (ACARS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
VHF DATALINK (VDL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
LOGON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
CPDLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
FUTURE AIR NAVIGATION SYSTEMS (FANS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
FANS A/1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
FANS B/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

389

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 27 Future Air Navigation Systems
(FANS)

390

Aviation ebooks Company

Future Air Navigation Systems
Chapter 27
(FANS)

INTRODUCTION

Currently aircraft are controlled using voice communications. Over and close to populated
landmasses; ATC use radar to provide positive control of aircraft with VHF communications.
However over oceans, deserts and polar regions radar is not available and ATC provide a
procedural control service which generally requires HF communications and high vertical,
lateral and longitudinal separation distances, resulting in a low traffic density.

Aircraft operating in the same direction across the North Atlantic in MNPS and RVSM airspace
are given lateral separation of 60 nm, longitudinal separation of 10 minutes (which means a
separation of between about 60 and 100 nm) and vertical separation of 2000 ft. In non-MNPS/
RVSM airspace the minima are 120 nm, 15 minutes and 4000 ft respectively. Position reports
are passed by aircraft crossing the North Atlantic every 10° of longitude up to 70°N and every
20° north thereof, which means ATC receive a position update every 30 – 60 minutes. With
the increase in international air traffic this is posing major limitations, compounded by the
difficulties associated with HF communications which means that in these remote areas the
pilot is rarely communicating directly with the ATC controller but rather through a third party
who relays messages between the two.

Over and around populated areas primary radar and SSR mode S allow positive identification
and control of aircraft. Area navigation systems (RNAV) permit better utilisation of the airspace
since aircraft are no longer constrained to flying between VOR/DME beacons. The combination
of these facilitates an increase in capacity and a reduction in the level of communications.
However, this is a small percentage of the airspace being used for international air travel. Inertial
reference systems (IRS) are used to determine aircraft positions in remote areas, but these are
subject to errors, which can increase to as much as 10 nm during transoceanic flight. The need
to increase capacity over the rest of the world requires that ATC have real time information on
the aircraft positions, which must have improved accuracy, and better communications between
the air traffic controller and the pilot.

The advances in technology mean we now have global satellite navigation systems (GNSS)
providing position accuracy to better than one nm. Although there are still some issues on
the service provided by GNSS, in general this high level of position accuracy is now globally
achievable. Satellite communication systems (SATCOM) are also available giving the potential
for global communications through a single medium. Furthermore, datalink systems are
already reducing the need for the high level of voice communications traditionally required.

COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

Until the late 1980s communications with ATC and the air operators was only achievable using
VHF and HF voice communications. VHF communications are line of sight and therefore only
available over and in the near vicinity of habitable areas and are limited to about 200nm from
the transmitter for aircraft at FL300. Outside these areas communications have to be effected
using HF. HF is notoriously difficult to use, having high levels of static interference with fading
of signals which leads to messages being repeated and/or relayed through other aircraft. This
means that a third party communicates with the aircraft and relays messages between the ATC
controller and the pilot. Because of the stressful nature of these communications, the pilot does
not maintain a continuous listening watch but is alerted by a selective calling system (SELCAL)
which is activated by the communicator when there is a message for the aircraft.

391

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 27 Future Air Navigation Systems
(FANS)

In the 1990s voice communications were extended to SATCOM (using UHF L-band frequencies)
via geostationary satellites. Because geostationary satellites can only be positioned above the
equator at an altitude of 35800 km coverage is limited to about 80° of latitude. To provide a
service in polar regions it is intended to use satellites in lower altitude orbits with the orbits
inclined such that polar regions will have a full SATCOM service.

AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION ADDRESSING and REPORTING SYSTEM (ACARS)

Voice communications are prone to human fallibility with the potential for errors being made
both by pilots and ATC controllers in the recording of messages. In order to improve the
integrity of message handling and reduce the volume of voice communications ACARS came
into operational use in the late 1980s. ACARS uses datalink in telex format to pass messages
between the aircraft and ATC or aircraft operating companies at the relatively slow rate of 2.4
kbps using VHF and the messages were printed out in the cockpit. In the early 1990s this service
was extended to SATCOM for flights outside VHF coverage using geostationary satellites. The
gap in polar regions was closed in 2001 by extending the service to HF.

In the 1990s interfaces with the FMS were developed which allowed operational data, for
example meteorological information and alternate flight plan routes, to be evaluated using the
FMS. Maintenance functions were also added to allow independent monitoring of the aircraft
systems. This is implemented through ATSU/DCDU (digital cockpit display unit).

VHF DATALINK (VDL)

ACARS is gradually being replaced with VDL mode 2 which provides a digital link at a rate
of 31.5 kbps, giving more than 10 times the capacity of ACARS. VDL mode 2 requires specific
address for an aircraft and the unique mode S address will be used. This type of digital system
is known as controller pilot datalink communications (CPDLC)

VDL mode 2 is the part of the new digital aeronautical telecommunications network (ATN)
which links ATC facilities and aircraft operational control (AOC) with the aircraft.

LOGON

To gain access to the VDL service the pilot must perform a manual logon this requires the
pilot to input the four digit ICAO address for the ATSU into the FMS which then sends the
logon message to the ATSU. The logon message includes the aircraft address and information
on the services the aircraft equipment supports. The ATSU acknowledges the logon message
then sends a connection request message to the aircraft the aircraft responds with a connection
confirm message and the process is complete. This known as the ATS facilities notification
(AFN)

This initial logon is performed on first contact with the ATSU on the ground, when entering an
area with CPDLC from a non-CPDLC area and if there has been any interruption to the service
(that is if the link is broken). Once the service is established the equipment will perform an
automatic transfer to subsequent CPDLC capable ATSUs.

392

Aviation ebooks Company

Future Air Navigation Systems
Chapter 27
(FANS)

The message from the aircraft to the ATSU is always referred to as the downlink (DL) message,
and from the ATSU to the aircraft as the uplink (UL) message even if the aircraft is on the
ground.

CPDLC

CPDLC permits datalink messages to be generated for all stages of flight. The messages have
a fixed format defined within the FMS and ATSU computers and are activated by the ATC
controller or pilot either as an instruction or response to a request. The messages are annotated
according to whether a response is required or not. For example if the pilot is instructed to
report levelling at FL310 then the message will remain open until the aircraft reaches FL310
when the FMS will send the response. The confirmation that the aircraft is at FL310 does not
require a response from the controller, so the message will automatically close one received at
the ground station.

ELEMENTS OF A CPDLC
SYSTEM

SATCOM
LINK

VHF COM
EFFECTIVE LINK GROUND EARTH
CONTROL STATION

ATSU

Figure 27.1

The message formats available cover all aspects of pre-departure clearance (PDC), taxy
instructions, takeoff, climb, en-route, descent and landing. Additionally, there is provision
for emergency and safety messages. Should either the ATC controller or the pilot need
to communicate a non-standard message then this can be achieved through normal voice
communication circuits.

393

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 27 Future Air Navigation Systems
(FANS)

Figure 27.2

Air Traffic Management (ATM)

ATM will be implemented through the digital aeronautical telecommunications network (ATN),
VDL mode 2 for land areas and SATCOM for remote areas, with either VHF or SATCOM for
voice communications.

Other Digital Services

ATIS is being digitised (D-ATIS) to provide either a print out in the cockpit or input to the FMS
for display on the MCDU. VOLMET and pre-departure clearance (PDC) messages are also
being digitised. Here are some examples of the message formats:

Digital ATIS Printout in Cockpit

/HKGATYA.TI2/VHHH ARR ATIS Z
2205Z
HONG KONG ATIS
RWY IN USE 07R
EXPECT ILS DME APCH
WIND LIGHT AND VARIABLE
VIS 10 KM
CLOUD FEW 1600FT
TEMP 28 DP 22 QNH 1007
ACK Z ON FREQ 119.1 FOR ARR AND 129.9 FOR DEP

394

Aviation ebooks Company

Future Air Navigation Systems
Chapter 27
(FANS)

Digital VOLMET Printout in Cockpit

/HKGVOYA.TI2/VHHH ENR ATIS
HONG KONG VOLMET
VHHK SIGMET A2 VALID 090530/090930 VHHHHONG
KONG CTA EMBD TS FCST S OF N19 E OF E114 TOP FL 350 STNR NC =
METAR VHHH 090730Z 16011KT 130V190 9999 SCT028 BKN300 33/23 Q1007 NOSIG=
METAR ZGGG 090700Z 13004MPS 9999 FEW040TCU FEW040 34/23 Q1007 NOSIG=
METAR ROAH 090730Z 19013KT 9999 FEW015 32/25 Q1010=
METAR RCTP 090730Z 28012KT 9999 SCT012 FEW020CB BKN022 BKN050 30/27 Q1009
TEMPO 3000 -SHRA=
METAR RCKH 090730Z 18017KT 9999 FEW020 SCT300 33/23 Q1007 NOSIG=
METAR RPLL 090700Z 14008KT 9999 SCT025 SCT100 31/18 Q1008 TCU W=
METAR RPVM 090700Z 24014KT 9999 FEW020 SCT300 31/26 Q1007 A2976=
TAF VHHH 090530Z 090615 18010KT 9999

PDC Printout in Cockpit

PDC 130044
CPA065 B742 VHHH 0100
CLEARED TO OMDB VIA
07R
LAKE 1A DEPARTURE V1
ROUTE:FLIGHT PLAN ROUTE
MAINTAIN:5000FT
EXPECT:F330
SQUAWK A5156
— END

FUTURE AIR NAVIGATION SYSTEMS (FANS)

The aim of FANS is to provide an integrated air traffic control system in areas where radar is
not available by using GNSS to define aircraft position with datalink and voice communications
through geostationary and lower orbit satellites providing global coverage to ATC centres.
This will provide ATC with continuous information on the aircraft positions and direct pilot
to controller communications. When in operation this will allow separation distances to be
significantly reduced, and if position accuracy is degraded for any reason, the aircraft still have
TCAS to warn of any potential conflict.

FANS A/1

FANS has been under development since about 1990 by Airbus (FANS/A) and Boeing (FANS/1).
FANS A/1 provides a communications, navigation and surveillance (CNS) system and an
automatic dependent surveillance system (ADS). Communications utilise current frequency
allocations in HF, VHF and L-band and GNSS provide the navigation input for the surveillance.
Currently it is used by some AOCs to monitor the progress of aircraft at all stages of flight. So,
for example, the aircraft system will automatically inform the AOC of gate departure, take-
off, landing and gate arrival. In flight progress and the operation of on board systems can
also be monitored and, where necessary, messages can be passed to alert/assist the crew when
potential problems are detected. FANS A has been in use over the North Atlantic since 2002 by
some operators for waypoint position reporting (WPR) using VHF or SATCOM

395

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 27 Future Air Navigation Systems
(FANS)

The typical architecture is shown in the next diagram:

Figure 27.3

Fig 27.4 The diagram shows a typical DCDU message display:

FANS B/2

FANS B/2 extends the VDL type service to areas outwith VHF coverage. The principle is the
CNS/ADS. Aircraft position is defined using GNSS and automatically reported to the ATSU.
Messages to/from aircraft are effected using datalink. SATCOM voice communications will
only be used for emergency or non-standard communications.

396

Aviation ebooks Company

Aviation ebooks Company
Chapter 28 Flight Director Systems

398

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Director Systems Chapter 28

CHAPTER TWENTY EIGHT

FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS

Contents
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEM COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
FLIGHT DIRECTOR MODES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
NAVIGATION MODES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
DUAL FDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

399

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 28 Flight Director Systems

400

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Director Systems Chapter 28

GLOSSARY

A/P Autopilot
A/T Auto-Throttle
A/L Auto-Land
ADC Air Data Computer
ADI (EADI) Attitude Director Indicator (Electronic)
AFCP Auto-Flight Control Panel (see also MCP)
AFCS Auto-Flight Control System
AFDS Auto-Flight Director System
AFS Auto-Flight System
ALT ACQ Altitude Acquire (mode)
AoA Angle Of Attack
APP Approach (mode)

CADC Central Air Data Computer

CDI (bar) Course Deviation Indicator (bar)
CDU Control and Display Unit
CMD Command (or Autopilot Engage)
CWS Control Wheel Steering

DG / DI Directional Gyro / Direction Indicator

ECAM Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring

EFIS Electronic Flight Instrumentation System
EICAS Engine Instruments and Crew Alerting System
EPR Engine Pressure Ratio

FADEC Full Authority Digital Engine Control

FCC Flight Control Computer
FD Flight Director
FDC Flight Director Computer FDS Flight Director System
FMA Flight Mode Annunciator
FMC Flight Management Computer
FMGS Flight Management and Guidance System

G/S Glideslope or groundspeed dependant on context

GA Go Around or Gear Altitude dependant on context

HDG Heading (mode)

HSI (EHSI) Horizontal Situation Indicator (Electronic)

INS Inertial Navigation System

IRS Inertial Reference System

LAND 2 Fail Passive

LAND 3 Fail Operational
LNAV Lateral NAVigation (mode)
LOC Localiser (mode)
LVL CHG Level Change (mode)

MCP Mode Control Panel (see also AFCP)

MI Magnetic Indicator

401

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 28 Flight Director Systems

N1 RPM of the first stage of compression (normally the fan in a high

bypass engine) expressed as a percentage
ND Navigational Display

PFCU Powered Flying Control Unit

PFD Primary Flight Display (EADI including speed, altitude, VSI tapes
and commonly a compass and annunciator panel)
PMC Power Management Computer

QDM “Q” code for a magnetic heading to fly assuming zero wind

RA Radio Altitude

SPD Speed (mode)

TCS Touch Control Steering

TLA Throttle Lever Angle
TMA Thrust Mode Annunciator
TMS Thrust Management System
TO/GA Take Off / Go Around
TRK Track

V/S Vertical Speed (mode)

VG Vertical Gyro
VNAV (SPD/PTH) Vertical NAVigation /Path or Speed (mode)
VOR VOR tracking (mode) or a VHF omni-range beacon dependant on
context

402

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Director Systems Chapter 28

INTRODUCTION

The Flight Director System (FDS) was originally developed as an aid used by the pilot during
landing. It gave a pilot the ability to concentrate on fewer instruments and, as it gave instructions
as to attitude and steering, it reduced the workload on the pilot. As autopilots became more
advanced the signals produced by the FDS could be coupled to the autopilot allowing it to
perform more complex tasks.

With a FDS, information about the attitude, heading and flight-path of an aircraft, can be
integrated with navigation information to produce either easy to interpret visual instructions
for the pilot and / or input to the autopilot, or both.

To bring the terminology of FDS and autopilot together it is usual to describe the FDS as having
2 “channels”. The first channel is the roll channel, the second is the pitch channel. You will
learn more about channels in the autopilot section.

Information for the FDS can come from several possible sources:

¾¾ Pitot-Static system or Air Data Computer (ADC).

¾¾ VHF Nav receiver allowing input from VOR beacons or ILS.

¾¾ Flight Management System, Inertial Navigation / Reference System.

The FDS also requires attitude and directional information. On older, electro-mechanical
systems this would come from the Gyro Magnetic Compass and a Vertical Gyro System. More
modern aircraft use Inertial Navigation/Reference System (INS / IRS) information in place of
a vertical gyro and will be able to feed the navigation data from these systems into the FDS /
Autopilot combination.

Fig 1.1Fig 28.1 A “typical”

A “typical” electro-mechanical
electro-mechanical Flight Director
Flight Director SystemSystem

403

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 28 Flight Director Systems

FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEM COMPONENTS

There follows a description of a “typical modern” FDS:

Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI)

This is a fairly standard artificial horizon providing pitch and roll information and gives the
Attitude to the name of the instrument. The Director part comes from the instruments ability to
display demand information from the Flight director system using Flight Director Command
Bars. These come in 2 main forms as shown below:

Both of the indications for these apparently different displays are intuitive and essentially the
same in that the pilot is required to “fly to” either the point where the “wires” cross, or the point
between the wedges, in order to satisfy the demand from the FDS.

Figure 28.2

404

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Director Systems Chapter 28

Primary Flight Display (PFD)

The PFD is part of an EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System) display and brings all of the
information required to fly the aircraft onto one display. It has an EADI normally surrounded
by speed, altitude, and vertical speed tapes and often a compass display incorporating some
minimal navigation information. It also has an area which is used for annunciating flight
director, autopilot and auto-throttle modes and status.

Figure 28.3

405

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 28 Flight Director Systems

Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI)

You may already be familiar with the Gyro Magnetic Compass. An HSI is a gyro magnetic
compass display with a Course Deviation Indicator (CDI bar), a series of dots representing
deviation in degrees (the scale varies with the type of display) a from / to pointer, a selected
course window and a DME display of range. A heading bug is also included. In older systems
the course selection is done directly on the HSI using an attached knob. The system we will refer
to uses a remote centralised FD mode control and AP panel called the Autoflight Mode Control
Panel (AMCP or simply MCP). The system we will be referring to also uses a Navigational
Display (ND). This, like the PFD, is a more flexible display but is able to show “classical”
representations of an HSI.

Figure 28.4 HSI Display

Figure 28.5 EHSI

406

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Director Systems Chapter 28

Flight Director Computer (FDC)

This is where all the information is gathered and processed. On older aircraft this information
could be in the form of analogue outputs from the ADC and VG. Current systems will be purely
digital. Older aircraft that have been refitted may have analogue inputs to a digital converter
so that modern displays and autopilot systems can be used. Outputs from here are sent to the
symbol generators for the EADI / EHSI and /or the autopilot as required.

Optional Components
FDS use other components depending on what generation they belong to:

Instrument Amplifier or Symbol Generator

Where information is required to be displayed on electro-mechanical instruments the signals
require amplification to drive the associated motors. On EFIS fitted aircraft the FDC output can
be fed directly to the symbol generators for the Primary Flight Display (PFD) and Navigational
Display (ND) units.

Vertical Gyro or INS / IRS

In older or smaller aircraft types, normally without any INS / IRS, reference to the vertical for
the Artificial Horizon part of the ADI is provided by a remote Vertical Gyro system. This simply
means that the gyro that acts as the artificial horizon is not contained in the instrument in the
panel in front of the pilot but can be any where on the aircraft (normally near the C of G). The
information derived from it is fed to motors that drive the display of the ADI. The benefits of
this system are that the gyro can be near the aircraft’s C of G and therefore provide a more
accurate display of the attitude of the aircraft, and this data, in electrical form can be fed to any
other items requiring attitude information e.g. the Autopilot.

More modern and larger aircraft may use data from their INS or IRS to replace that normally
provided by a VG as the INS is simply a more modern and much more sensitive version of a
gyro.

Mode Controllers or Mode Control Panel (MCP)

The mode controller allows the pilot to change the mode of the FDS, alter the pitch trim and
switch the FDS display on or off as required. Obviously on a visual approach it would be
unnecessary to display the FD command bars and could clutter up the display at a critical phase
of flight. The modes available depend on the fit of the aircraft. On modern aircraft the MCP, on
which most of the information for the autopilot is programmed is used to replace the separate
FD mode controller. Typical modes and the pitch trim will be discussed a little later. The MCP
will also be described in more detail later.

Figure 28.6

407

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 28 Flight Director Systems

Mode Annunciators / Indicators or PFD Flight Mode Annunciators (FMA)

These are a series of simple lights, magnetic indicators or a small panel of illuminated indicators
that show the pilot what mode or phase of a particular mode that the FDS / Autopilot is in.
In more basic systems the most common indications are during an ILS approach. These panels
are usually only powered with the FD switch on.

When the aircraft is awaiting capture of the localiser, the LOC (localiser) light will typically
be amber. When the localiser has been captured the light will change to a green LOC light.
Approaching the glide-slope the GS light will be Amber and again will change to green to
indicate the fact that the FDS has locked on to the GS.

More capable systems will have more functions and consequently more lights, such as those
indicating the state of the auto-throttle and flare or Go Around modes.

EFIS equipped aircraft display the appropriate information on the PFD/EADI in an area called
the Flight Mode Annunciator. As the same space can be used for all the different messages,
it can be kept small. Here all the modes for the FD auto-throttle and autopilot are displayed.
Newly changed information is often emphasised on the FMA type display by surrounding it
in a box.

FLIGHT DIRECTOR MODES

As has been said the modes for each system vary. The modes described now are the most
common but not all may be available depending on aircraft fit.

First it must be appreciated that there is a distinction in the way data displayed to the pilot. The
glideslope indicator to the side of the ADI and the CDI bar are what is termed Raw information.
That is the information is not processed in any way and simply indicates that the aircraft is left
or right of track / localiser, or above or below the glideslope and knowledge of the system will
tell you by how many degrees.

In order to anticipate turns, climbs and descents for smooth flying the FDS can use the raw
data, compute and signal commands to either the pilot via the Flight Director bars or directly
to the autopilot. This is called computed information and is derived from the rate of change
of deviation of the incoming signal. As the rate of change of deviation from the desired track
increases, the FDS computes that in order to intercept the track correctly, rather than fly straight
through, it must indicate a turn onto track.

This becomes important if the FDS fails as although the computed information will no longer
be reliable / available, the raw information may still be available and used.

Many of the FD modes are common with the autopilot modes. We have detailed the FD modes
in the following sections. Where they are similar to the autopilot mode the description is fairly
basic with the full description being found in the autopilot chapter. Where the FD mode differs
from the autopilot mode the description will detail the differences.

FD Fail indications
Before going on to discuss the modes individually we need to know how the FDS informs
us if the information it is giving is reliable. On electro-mechanical displays warning flags are
used. If the vertical gyro or other vertical referencing system fails or its power supply fails
then a “Gyro” warning flag will pop into view, normally on the ADI. Failures of the FDC, the
instrument amplifier, or the ADI itself, are indicated by a flag labelled either “ATT” for attitude
or “FD”. This will normally again be in the ADI display.

408

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Director Systems Chapter 28

If glideslope information is unreliable, due to poor signal strength or failure of the system, a
“GS” flag will appear in front of the raw glideslope scale where it appears, either to the side of
the ADI or the HSI.

Poor reception, unreliable or loss of VOR, LNAV or LOC information is indicated by a “NAV”
flag, normally located on the HSI.

The HSI will have a power failure flag to indicate loss of power to the instrument or the compass
gyro. It will also indicate if the compass system is operating in Directional Gyro (DG) mode i.e.
the magnetic reference has been lost and the compass is now essentially a DI.

Command attitude changes

When flying level the pilot selects an attitude that, for the given airspeed, will achieve level
flight. With the aircraft at low airspeed the pitch angle will be several degrees nose up to avoid
descending. As an aid to keeping a constant pitch angle the FD command bars can be offset
vertically to provide an intuitive aiming point for the pilot.

This can also be used for keeping constant pitch angles for climbing and descending. The
movement of the bars is achieved by moving the Pitch Trim knob or wheel (dependent on age
of design) until the command bars are in the desired position. The pitch trim system is inhibited
whenever any other pitch mode is active.

Flight Director Takeoff Mode

Initially both flight director systems should be switched on prior to starting the takeoff roll.
The FD takeoff mode is engaged by pressing either of the TO/GA switches on the throttles. The
AFDS annunciation is “TO/GA”. The initial FD commands are for 10 degrees nose-down pitch
and wings level. At 60 kts IAS, the FD command changes to 15 degrees nose-up and wings
level.

To engage the FD system during the takeoff even if the FD switches are off press the TO/GA
button after 80 kts IAS but before 2000’ or 150 seconds after lift-off and the command bars will
automatically disappear.

The FD provides pitch commands after lift-off. It continues to command 15 degrees nose-up
pitch until sufficient climb rate is achieved. It then commands pitch to maintain the MCP speed
plus 20 kts IAS; this speed is calculated and set during the pre-flight. Next, when either autopilot
is engaged or when the MCP speed selector is rotated 20 kts IAS is added automatically to the
MCP IAS display.

FD roll commands wings level from takeoff mode engagement through to the takeoff climb-
out. To terminate the takeoff mode below 400’ RA, both of the FD switches must be turned off.
Above 400’ RA, the takeoff mode can be terminated by selecting other FD pitch modes or by
engaging an autopilot.

Engaging an autopilot after a FD takeoff, automatically engages the autopilot and FD in LVL
CHG (level change) for pitch and HDG SEL (heading select) for roll. If the FD mode had been
changed from TO/GA to LNAV, HDG SEL or VOR/LOC, the autopilot initially engages in the
same roll mode as the FD’s. When LVL CHG engages, the MCP IAS/MACH display and airspeed
cursors change to V2 + 20 kts.

If an engine fails during takeoff before reaching V2 speed, the FD pitch commands are referenced
to V2. If the engine failure occurs after reaching V2, but less than V2 + 20 kts, the reference speed
is that at which the engine failure occurred. If the failure occurs at or above V2 + 20 kts, V2 + 20
kts is the commanded speed. Reference speed is never less than V2 for the current flap setting.
Roll control remains the same as for all engines operating.

409

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 28 Flight Director Systems

Figure 28.7

Figure 28.8

Altitude Acquire / Altitude Hold

In the cruise we require to fly at a constant level. The FDS can be used to help achieve this.
Signals from the ADC through the FDS mean that when we are at the selected level, the FD
command bars indicate a neutral position. If the aircraft were to deviate above the desired
altitude the command bars would indicate a pitch down command and visa versa.

410

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Director Systems Chapter 28

NAVIGATION MODES

Heading Mode
In this mode VOR beacons and various internal navigation systems can be linked to either
display information using the FDS or linked to the autopilot or both.

The simplest nav mode is to have the aircraft keep flying in the direction you select. This is
called Heading Mode. In this mode the pilot selects a desired heading, either using a knob on
the HSI, using the central FDS / autopilot panel or on the MCP. The FDS will now indicate a fly
to command to bring the aircraft on to the desired heading.

LOC/ VOR (LNAV)

This selection allows VOR, Localizer or INS/IRS/FMS(GPS) nav information to be fed and
displayed on the FDS. In the case of the VOR, after tuning and correctly identifying the station
to be used, with VOR / LOC selected on the mode selector and the desired track to (or from) the
beacon set in the course selection widow (using either on the HSI, MCP or the CDU), the FDS
will give appropriate steering command to intercept and then maintain track.

Intercepting the LOC is very similar but will be discussed in more detail later.

With aircraft being fitted with more accurate navigation systems it is only logical that this
information should be made available to the pilot and autopilot. INS / IRS / FMS / GPS
information can be selected for display in very much the same way as the VOR information and
is represented in the same way.

Note that because the actual track of the aircraft is being compared with the desired track, and
the flight director commands are given to fly the desired track, the flight director system will
effectively compensate for drift. There is no need for wind velocity information (although the
INS could provide it), it is purely an effect of the flight director giving commands to fly the
desired course/track selected.

Flight Director Approaches (FDA)

The ILS frequency is tuned into the VHF nav radios and identified and the QDM for the
approach is set up in the course window. The mode selector should be set to AUTO / APP.
The annunciator will show that the FDS is looking to capture the LOC. After beam capture, in
a similar manner to VOR tracking the FDS will (given enough distance) arrange the intercept
to establish on the localizer with a turn demand and the annunciator panel will indicate LOC
capture.

The FDS is now looking for the glideslope signal and so the annunciator GS light or MI will
indicate such. As soon as the glideslope is captured the annunciator changes again and the FDS
will indicate a pitch nose down demand to fly the ILS glideslope.

411

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 28 Flight Director Systems

If the interception of the localiser has been misjudged it is possible to end up established on
the localiser past the point of GS intercept i.e. above the glideslope. Modern systems may
automatically adjust and capture from above by increasing the rate of descent. On older aircraft
it was sometime possible to temporarily switch the FDS mode to MAN / GS. This forces the FDS
into accepting a capture from above. It can also be used to establish a fixed intercept angle of
the LOC beam and to force a LOC or GS capture condition if it is known that the beam- sensing
circuits of the computer are inoperative.

FD Go Around (GA)
For the 737-400 series of a/c 2 criteria must be met before the FD can engage in the GA mode.
The FD switches can be either on or off and:

In-flight below 2000’ RA and not in the TO mode

TO/GA switch pressed

After engaging in GA, command bars appear for both pilots, TO/GA is annunciated for the FD
pitch mode, the MCP IAS/MACH display blanks and the Airspeed Cursors display manoeuvring
speed for the existing flap setting.

Below 400’ RA, both of the FD switches must be turned from ON to OFF to exit the FD GA
mode. Above 400’ RA, other pitch and roll modes can be selected. If the roll mode is changed
first, the FD pitch mode remains in the GA mode. If the pitch mode is changed first, the FD roll
mode automatically changes to HDG SEL.

Engaging an AP following a FD GA automatically engages both the AP and FD in LVL CHG

and HDG SEL for pitch and roll respectively.

For a 2 engine GA the FD command a 15 degrees nose-up pitch and roll to hold the approach
ground track at the time of engagement. After reaching a programmed rate of climb, pitch
commands hold the manoeuvring speed for each flap setting.

During a single engine GA the FD pitch command is initially to 13 degrees nose-up but as climb
rate increases, FD pitch commands maintain a target speed. Roll commands are the same as for
the 2 engine case. If engine failure occurs prior to GA engagement, then MCP selected speed
becomes the target speed. If the engine failure occurs after GA engagement, then FD target
speed depends on whether 10 seconds have elapsed since GA engagement:

¾¾ If prior to 10 seconds, the MCP selected approach speed becomes the target speed.

¾¾ If after 10 seconds and the airspeed at engine failure is within 5 kts of the GA en-
gagement speed, the airspeed that existed at the GA engagement becomes the target
speed.

¾¾ If after 10 seconds and the airspeed at engine failure is more than 5 kts above GA en-
gagement speed, then the current airspeed becomes the target airspeed.

In all cases, the GA target speed is not less than V2 speed based on flap position unless in wind-
shear conditions.

The FD target speed is displayed on the MCP and by the airspeed cursors. No commanded
acceleration can occur until a higher speed is selected on the MCP.

412

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Director Systems Chapter 28

FD Manoeuvre Protection
Because the modern FDC is configured for each particular aircraft type it will have the aircraft
performance parameters stored in its memory. As it has inputs from the ADC and other systems
it can ensure that it never commands a manoeuvre which will over-stress the aircraft. This is
the beginning of the systems used for protection in aircraft with fly by wire controls (discussed
fully in another chapter).

Flight Director Gain Scheduling

Gain scheduling is the varying of the gain of the pitch and roll demands of the FDC in relation
to the task. This has many parallels with autopilot gain scheduling or gain adaption. The FD
mode of operation using gain scheduling is the FDA. As the approach progresses the glideslope
beam converges with the runway (which is how it works and what we want). The ILS works
as a beam set at a certain angle diverging from the runway, normally about 3 degrees. ILS
equipment displays that received signal as an error in degrees from the ideal.

At 6nm one degree of error equates to about 608ft of vertical distance. At ½nm that same one
degree of error equates to about 54ft of vertical distance. It should be obvious that although the
indications on the raw ILS glide-slope will be the same, a less forceful correction is required as
the aircraft nears the ILS transmitter. So the FD computed information must be modified as
the approach progresses to reduce the commanded corrections.

As the aircraft approaches touch-down the magnitude of the pitch changes required to follow
GS reduce. Gain scheduling reduces the magnitude of the commands as the aircraft proceeds
on the FDA. So initially the FDS can demand manoeuvres almost to the full authority of the
system. As the threshold approaches however, the gain is reduced to perhaps a ½ or 1/3 of the
original value.

The initiation of this scheduling can come in many forms depending on the age of the system:
Early systems simply used time e.g. 45 seconds after GS capture the gain is reduced.
The next systems used the Marker Beacons to try to actually match the scheduling required to
the approach being flown. This system has fallen into disuse however because of the loss of the
marker beacon systems at many airfields.
Radio Altimeter. This relies on no ground signals and gives accurate scheduling in relation to
actual aircraft height. This also means that the actual scheduling can be phased in gradually as
opposed to the stepped method of the timing or marker systems.

Gain scheduling or adaption can made to occur for any change in the flight regime to reduce the
demands from the flight director to ensure adequate safety.

DUAL FDS

When, as on large aircraft 2 FDS are fitted (one for each pilot), each system can be used to
monitor the indications of the other. This system is the FD Comparator or Monitor.

The FD Comparator monitors command bar positions. The command bars are removed when
a difference is sensed between the 2 FDS of approximately 1 to 4 degrees of pitch and / or 3 to 9
degrees of roll. FD command bars reappear when the difference returns to within limits.

FD comparison is only active during certain modes of FD operation. First, both FD switches
must be on and neither autopilot engaged. Second, it only operates in either the TOGA or APP
mode below 800 ft RA.

413

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 28 Flight Director Systems

Figure 28.9

FD comparison is inhibited for several reasons. It is inhibited on the ground or when either FD
is affected by electrical bus transfer. Also, it is inhibited by failure of either a FD sensor or an
FD itself.

Having 2 FDS also means a certain amount of redundancy in the system. It also means that if
one system should fail, as along as the associated display equipment is serviceable, both sets
of display can if necessary be run from one FDC. This on electro-mechanical instruments is
often simply a switch which when operated, splits the FDC output from the serviceable FDS
instrument amplifier and feeds it into both sets of ADIs and HSIs. The flight instrument and FD
power (and that of navigational information sources) may also be separate to aid redundancy.

EFIS equipped aircraft have a spare symbol generator also to retain extra redundancy.

414

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

CHAPTER TWENTY NINE

AUTOPILOT

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
THE AUTO PILOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
FAIL SAFE AUTOPILOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
CONTROL LOOPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
AIRCRAFT INNER LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
TYPES OF AUTOPILOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
EU-OPS REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
TYPES OF ACTUATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
ENGAGEMENT CRITERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
TRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
OUTER LOOP CONTROL (ALSO KNOWN AS FLIGHT PATH MODES) . . . . . . . 429
MODE ANNUNCIATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
AIRCRAFT SENSOR INPUTS TO THE AUTOFLIGHT COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . 432
AUTOPILOT IN OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
OTHER AUTOPILOT FEATURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
AUTOPILOT LIMITATIONS AND OPERATIONAL RESTRICTIONS . . . . . . . . . 440
FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

415

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

416

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

INTRODUCTION

The main purpose of the autopilot is to relieve the pilot of the physical and mental fatigue of
flying the aircraft, especially during long flights. This will result in the pilot being more alert
during the critical phase of landing the aircraft safely.

Autopilot systems also enable the aircraft to fly a prescribed route accurately due to the
autopilots’ ability to react quicker than a human pilot to disturbances.

Many different autopilot systems exist offering many different modes of operation and facilities.
Generally, however, today’s modern airliner, when fitted with an auto-throttle system, will have
the facility to fly the aircraft automatically for almost the entire route. In each such system,
the autopilot flies the aircraft as it responds to commands from attitude sensors, navigation
systems, and pitot-static systems. Power is controlled through the engine throttles moved by
auto-throttle servos responding to commands from the thrust management computer.

It should be noted that, as yet, the autopilot does not carry out the take-off which has to done
by the pilot. The autopilot, though, can be engaged shortly after take-off at about 400 feet or
possibly even a lower height.

THE AUTO PILOT

The basic autopilot has been in existence for about 50 years. It was introduced as an aid to the
pilot flying the aircraft for 2 major reasons:

Reduction in Workload
Allowing automatic systems to fly the aircraft means that the crew not only are more rested for
the more demanding phases of flight, but it also allows the pilots to concentrate on other tasks
such as navigation.

The Response Time

An autopilot is much quicker than a human and as a result it can fly aircraft more accurately. A
human pilot takes approximately 1/5 of a second (200 milliseconds) in detecting a change in the
aircraft’s attitude and then instigates a further delay while deciding which control to apply to
oppose the disturbance. An autopilot will detect a disturbance and put on the required control
to correct the disturbance in approximately 50 milliseconds.

417

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

FAIL SAFE AUTOPILOT

With any automatic system it is necessary to protect against malfunctions - in particular,

runaways. This is achieved either by limiting the authority of the actuator or the rate at which
the actuator can travel. In this way the pilot should always be able to override the effects of a
malfunction and retain control of the aircraft in the event of autopilot failure. Such a system
would be called a fail-safe system and the term applies to any single autopilot.

The Basic Autopilot

The basic autopilot is a very simple system. Understanding of the basic autopilot is essential for
understanding and explaining what any autopilot is doing throughout the flight.

Aircraft Stabilisation
This is the key function for an autopilot (and this is all that some basic autopilots may achieve).
All the modes such as VOR tracking and altitude hold etc. are “extras”.

Consider an early aircraft design. All that was originally required was a system that would keep
the aircraft flying in the same attitude once the pilot was happy. He could then concentrate on
navigation, disengaging the autopilot as necessary to correct headings and so on. To design
such a system we need to consider the sequence of events that must occur to keep the aircraft’s
attitude constant. Consider yourself flying a light aircraft e.g. a Warrior in slightly turbulent
conditions. Now consider that the aircraft experiences a disturbance in pitch:

A human pilot controls the aircraft’s stability by sensing a change in aircraft attitude, computing
the necessary corrective action required and using his muscles to move the flight controls. He
will then sense that corrective action has taken place and move the flight controls back to remove
the correcting input.

The Autopilot is capable of producing the same actions as the pilot to maintain aircraft stability in
a shorter reaction time. It must detect the disturbance and then work out appropriate corrective
action. It must then apply that correction using its “muscles”. Finally it must detect that the
correction has taken place and re-centre the controls. This is known as inner loop control (or
sometimes closed loop or auto-stabilisation). In list form it can:

¾¾ Sense changes in attitude

¾¾ Compute the amount and direction of control required.

¾¾ Provide the muscle to move the control surfaces using servo-motors.

¾¾ Detect that the control has been applied and that the aircraft has responded.

¾¾ Return control surfaces back to the neutral condition when the disturbance has been
corrected.

As you will learn in the principles of flight aircraft will naturally tend to be stable in any case so
you may wonder why go to the bother of installing this basic autopilot. Yes aircraft are naturally
stable but you will learn that there are different type of stability and that stability can change
with respect to the ambient conditions. The basic autopilot then augments and fine-tunes this
stability to provide enhanced stability over a greater range of ambient conditions.

It must be emphasised that the most basic autopilot available will be of a type that will only
provide auto-stabilisation.

418

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

CONTROL LOOPS

An autopilot is a control system which uses control loops. The inner loop is a classic example
of a closed loop control system (hence one of its common titles). Outer loop (which will be
described later) is sometimes described as an “open loop”. This is not quite correct as there is
still feedback in the system. The best name for it is the outer loop because of how it acts on the
inner loop to achieve its aims.

The basic elements of a closed loop control system are shown in Figure 29.1 and comprise:

¾¾ Input

¾¾ Error detector

¾¾ Output

¾¾ Control element

¾¾ Feedback

Fig 2.1
Figure 29.1Closed Loop
Closed Control
Loop Control

Figure 29.2Open
Fig 2.2 Open Loop
Loop Control
Control

Figure 29.2 shows an open loop control system which does not have feedback. The controller may
consist of a pre-determined programme or a human operator. However, if a human operator is
used then the system, in effect, becomes a closed-loop system with the human closing the loop
and feeding back the output signals.

The difference between open loop and closed loop systems can be illustrated by the domestic
central heating system. A system with a timing controller but no thermostat would be an open
loop system i.e. the pump would continue to send hot water round the house regardless of the
room temperature for the duration of the period set on the timer control. On the other hand, a
system with a thermostat would interrupt the circulation when the room temperature reaches
the pre-selected level i.e. it has feedback control.

419

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

Feedback control systems used for positional control e.g. aircraft flying controls, are usually
referred to as servo systems or servomechanisms. An essential feature of such a system is that
a low power error signal is used to control the supply of power to the control elements that
consist of pneumatic, hydraulic or electrical servo-motors; in other words, there is some form of
power amplification in the system.

AIRCRAFT INNER LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

The components of an inner (closed) loop control system in an aircraft shown in Figure 29.3
are:

Attitude sensor
A rate gyro senses disturbance of the aircraft in one axis only.

Transducer
Converts mechanical movement of the gyro into an electrical signal.

Signal processor
The Error detector. Compares the signals from the transducer with the input signals, determines
the required corrective action (the error) and transmits a signal to the servo-motor. Receives and
compares position and rate of movement feedback signals from the servo-motor.

Servo-motor
Converts processed signal into movement of the aircraft flight controls proportional to rate and
direction of signal. Uses hydraulic, electric or pneumatic power.

Aerodynamic Feedback
The attitude reached by the aircraft is sensed by the rate gyro which gives a measure of the
output.

A disturbance to the selected flight path produces an error signal; the autopilot operates to
move the aircraft back towards its stabilised condition. This causes the error signal from the
transducer to be progressively reduced and therefore removes the control surface deflection
after the disturbance has been corrected.

Inner Loop systems

Inner loop systems are those that provide the auto-stability only. It is the Innermost control
Loop.

Outer Loop systems

Outer loop systems are those extra facilities offered e.g. Altitude Hold, Heading Hold, LNAV,
VNAV. They are still essentially loops (so there is still some confusion occasionally) but they
act from an external position on the inner loop and “fool” the inner loop into manoeuvring the
aircraft into achieving its aim.

420

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

ATTITUDE
TRANSDUCER SENSOR
AERODYNAMIC FEEDBACK

ELECTRICAL
SIGNAL CLOSED
LOOP
CONTROL
SIGNAL SURFACE
PROCESSING
(AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER)
SERVOMOTOR
MECHANICAL
(ACTUATOR)
COUPLING

AUTOPILOT
ENGAGE AND
MANUAL RATE AND
FUNCTIONS POSITION
FEEDBACK

Figure 29.3 Closed Loop of Inner Loop.

Fig 2.3 Closed Loop of Inner Loop.

OUTER LOOP
MCP Gyro
Heading Magnetic
Hold Compass
Error
Detector

Auto-pilot Control
computer Surface

Servo-
Motor

INNER LOOP

Figure 29.4 Diagram showing the relationship of an outer loop function to the inner loop.
Fig.2.4 Diagram showing the relationship of an outer loop function to the inner loop.

421

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

TYPES OF AUTOPILOT

An aircraft can be subjected to disturbances about its three control axes i.e. longitudinal (roll),
lateral (pitch) and vertical or normal (yaw). Stabilisation must therefore be controlled about the
same three axes. Autopilot systems are broken down into three basic control channels:

¾¾ Roll to control the Ailerons

¾¾ Pitch to control the Elevators

¾¾ Yaw to control the Rudder

It is therefore possible to get an autopilot that is classed as single axis, twin axis or triple axis.
There will be a separate inner loop for each axis of autopilot control. If an aircraft has more than
one autopilot there will be one inner loop for each axis of control for each autopilot.

A Single Axis System

A single axis attitude control system would normally be limited to the roll axis only, i.e. a single
autopilot channel controlling the ailerons. At its most basic, the single axis system will only
give lateral stability or level the wings. The roll axis is known as the primary axis. This system
is sometimes simply called a Wing Leveller.

A Two Axis System

A two axis control system would control the aircraft attitude about the roll and pitch axes.
The pitch axis is known as the secondary axis. There are two autopilot channels which control
the ailerons and the elevators. Systems can vary in complexity from the fairly simple set-ups
which can be found in smaller aircraft, having only a few basic modes of operation, up to the
most intricate integrated systems with full flight profile modes of operation, including auto-
land modes. Two axis systems may have an aileron/elevator cross-feed to keep the nose up in
a turn.

A Three Axis System

A three axis system would give attitude control about all three axes, namely roll, pitch and yaw.
The yaw axis is the third or tertiary axis. The roll and pitch channels are used as the primary
control channels. It is these two channels to which outer loop signals (discussed later) are fed
to control the various modes. The rudder channel is basically a stability channel. It is common
to have interaction between the roll channel and rudder channel to assist in co-ordinated turns
and to give faster stability response. On aircraft that require it, a yaw damper will be fitted as a
standby rudder channel but would operate independently of the autopilot.

422

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

EU-OPS REQUIREMENTS

Single pilot operation under IFR or at night.

An operator shall not conduct single pilot IFR operations unless the aeroplane is equipped
with an autopilot with at least ALTITUDE HOLD and HEADING MODE. This means that the
aircraft must have at least a two-axis autopilot.

Installation of automatic pilot system

Each automatic pilot system must be approved and must be designed so that the autopilot
can be quickly and positively disengaged to prevent it from interfering with the control of the
aeroplane.

Unless there is automatic synchronising, each system must have a means to readily indicate to
the pilot the alignment of the actuating device in relation to the control system it operates.

Each manually operated control for the system must be readily accessible to the pilots.

Quick release (emergency) controls must be on both control wheels, on the side of each wheel
opposite the throttles.

Attitude controls must operate in the plane and sense of motion specified for cockpit controls.
The direction of motion must be plainly indicated on, or adjacent to, each control.

The system must be designed and adjusted so that it cannot produce hazardous loads on the
aeroplane, or create hazardous deviations in the flight path, either during normal operation or
in the event of a malfunction.

If the autopilot integrates signals from auxiliary controls or furnishes signals for operation of
other equipment, there must be positive interlocks and sequencing of engagement to prevent
improper operation. Protection against adverse interaction of integrated components, is also
required.

Means must be provided to indicate to the pilots the current mode of operation and any modes
armed by the pilot.

TYPES OF ACTUATOR

Actuators produce the physical movement of the control surfaces and can be of different types
depending on their principle of operation which can be:

¾¾ Electro-mechanical
¾¾ Electro-hydraulic
¾¾ Pneumatic

There are two types of configuration in which actuators are connected to the flying controls:

Parallel
The actuator produces the movement of the control surface as well as providing feedback to the
control stick i.e. the stick will move when the autopilot is controlling the control surfaces.

423

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

Figure 29.5
Fig 2.6 A/PA/P Actuator
Actuator in Parallel
in Parallel

Series
The actuator produces movement of the control surface but not the control stick.

Figure 29.6 A/P Actuator in Series

Fig 2.7 A/P Actuator in Series
It is also possible to have a combined series/parallel configuration.

Torque Limiter
In flight, particularly where high rates of control are to be produced, the movement of the flight
control surfaces can result in loads which may impose excessive stresses on the aircraft structure.
It is necessary therefore, under automatically-controlled flight conditions, to safeguard against
such stresses, and furthermore to safeguard against a servo-motor ‘runaway’ condition which
would cause control surfaces to be displaced to their maximum hard-over positions.

Such safeguards are implemented by limiting the torque applied to the servo-motors, and also
by allowing them either to slip, or to be completely disengaged, in the event that present torque
limits are exceeded. The methods adopted usually depend on either mechanical, electrical or
electromechanical principles.

424

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

ENGAGEMENT CRITERIA

Autopilot Interlocks

Before coupling an autopilot with the aircraft’s control system the integrity of the Autopilot
Inner Loop must be established to ensure that it may safely take control of the aircraft.To
monitor the performance of the inner loop components a system of interlocks is provided which
close to allow autopilot engagement and hold it engaged if the correct valid signals have been
received. The function of the interlocks can be represented by a number of relays in series (see
Figure 29.7), although in modern aircraft the actual switching is more likely to be accomplished
by solid state logic switching. Failure of a circuit monitored by a relay will cause the autopilot
to disengage accompanied by the associated aural and visual warning indications. Operation of
the disengage switch will have the same effect.

Figure 29.7Autopilot
Fig 2.15 Autopilot Interlocks
Interlocks

Conditions of Engagement

Before the autopilot can be engaged certain conditions must be met. These conditions vary with
aircraft type. For the 737-400 these conditions are as follows.

Each autopilot can be engaged by pressing a separate CMD or CWS engage switch. A/P
engagement in CMD or CWS is inhibited unless both of the following pilot-controlled conditions
are met:

No force is being applied to the control wheel.

The Stabiliser Trim Autopilot Cut-out Switch is at NORMAL.

Once the above conditions are satisfied and no failures exist, either A/P can be engaged in CMD
or CWS by pressing the respective engage switch. Control pressure applied after an A/P is
engaged in CMD, overrides the A/P into CWS pitch and/or roll. The light remains illuminated
in the CMD engage switch.

425

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

The A/P automatically disengages when any of the following occur:

¾¾ Pressing either A/P disengage switch.

¾¾ Pressing either TOGA switch with a single A/P engaged in CWS or CMD below 2000ft
RA.
¾¾ Pressing either TOGA switch after touchdown with both A/Ps engaged in CMD.
¾¾ Pressing a lighted A/P engage switch.
¾¾ Pushing the A/P disengage bar down.
¾¾ Activating either pilot’s control wheel trim switch.
¾¾ Moving the Stabiliser Trim Autopilot Cut-out Switch to CUT-OUT.
¾¾ Loss of respective hydraulic system pressure.
¾¾ Repositioning the EFI transfer switch.
¾¾ Either left or right IRS system failure or FAULT light illuminated.
¾¾ Loss of electrical power or a sensor input which prevents proper operation of the en-
gaged A/P and mode.

Only one A/P can be engaged at a given time unless the approach (APP) mode is engaged.
Pressing an engage switch for the second A/P, while not in the APP mode, engages the second
autopilot as selected and disengages the first A/P. The second A/P then operates in CWS or
CMD without interrupting CWS or command operation.

If an A/P is engaged with the CMD engage switch during FD only operation while pitch or roll
commands are more than ½ scale from centred, the A/P automatically engages in CWS for pitch
and/or roll and the FD command bars retract.

Automatic Synchronisation
In addition to the pre-engage requirements that the autopilot circuits are electrically complete,
it must also be ensured that on engagement the ‘take-over’ is affected smoothly and without
‘snatching’ of the aircraft’s control system. In other words the aircraft must be trimmed for
the desired flight attitude before engagement and the automatic control system must be
synchronised to maintain that attitude on engagement.

In the majority of autopilot systems synchronisation is effected by specifically designed

synchronising circuits which automatically sense any existing ‘standing signals’ in the pitch
and roll channels and automatically reduce or ‘wash out’ these signals to zero. This stops the
servo-actuator in a position which is synchronised with the datum attitude detected by the
sensing element, such position being indicated by the return of the trim indicator pointer to its
central position.

426

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

TRIM

Manual Systems
The purpose of the trim system is to relieve the pilot of forces on the aircraft controls while
maintaining aircraft attitude. In manual control, trim on light aircraft is provided in all three
axes through mechanical linkages to trim tabs on the control surfaces. On larger aircraft this
is usually achieved by electrical actuators that bias the Powered Flying Control Unit (PFCU),
particularly for pitch trim. Trim steering signals would be provided to the trim tab actuators for
elevator, aileron and rudder as well as to the horizontal stabiliser.

Manual operation of the pitch trim will, in most systems, automatically disconnect the autopilot
as it cannot co-ordinate manual trim movement with movement of the C of G or aerodynamic
movements.

Automatic Trim (Auto-trim)

As the aircraft uses fuel the C of G position will move. If we are flying the aircraft manually we
would trim these forces out manually to eliminate stick forces. Currently as our basic autopilot
stands if it is flying the aircraft and the C of G changes it will simply hold the stick forces using
the brute strength of its servo-motor outputs. This will not pose much of a problem unless the
forces overwhelm the servo-motor or until such time as we wish to disconnect the autopilot.
Not only does this mean that the aircraft is producing more drag than necessary but if there
is a standing load on the controls when we disconnect the autopilot we will not know of its
existence or which way the aircraft will pitch. The aircraft will “snatch” or lurch in response to
the out of trim condition. This is not a very satisfactory situation so a system of Automatic Pitch
Trim was included in most autopilot systems.

When the autopilot is engaged automatic trim is available only in pitch. This is called Automatic
Pitch Trim or simply Auto-trim. Auto-trim is active only when the autopilot is engaged (excluding
the Airbus series of Fly by Wire aircraft which are a special case). It is typically achieved by a
separate trim servo actuator operating either the normal trim tab or, more commonly on modern
jet transports, the variable incidence horizontal stabiliser. The latter permits the elevator to
always be in neutral position with respect to the horizontal stabiliser, therefore allowing the
autopilot full elevator control authority both sides of the trimmed position. Another important
consideration is that in the event of autopilot disconnect the aircraft will be in a trimmed
condition and thus will not suddenly pitch up or down.

The out of trim condition is sensed most commonly by using one of two methods:

¾¾ A standing load being sensed on an electrical actuator. Due to the out of trim situation
the autopilot is having to hold a force against the out of trim condition in exactly the
same way as a pilot would have to. The magnitude of the load on the actuator is going
to be directly proportional to the force being held, and of course the direction is known
from which way the actuator is having to apply that load. That information can be used
to move the normal trimming system of the elevators to reduce the standing load to
zero. The aircraft is now in trim.

¾¾ The actual position of the actuator. If there is an out of trim force to be coped with
the actuator will be positioned to input the required control displacement to hold that
force. The displacement of the actuator will again give the direction and magnitude of
the force. Large modern aircraft tend to use Trim Tails or all moving tail-planes. Both
of these systems due to the way they trim reset the control inputs to give full elevator
movement up and down from the trimmed position. So now, as the Auto-trim moves
the normal elevator trim, the displacement of the normal control input is reset, remov-
ing the actuator displacement.

427

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

Figure 29.8 Trimming by variable incidence tailplane

Fig 2.8 Trimming by variable incidence tailplane
The output is applied to the trim tab actuator or the horizontal stabiliser.

In the event of a failure of the trim system the pilots would be alerted by warning lights and/
or suitable indications on the electronic display unit. At the same time the autopilot would
disengage, giving both visual and aural alerts. The latter can also sound when there is an
excessive trim input as, for example , in an actuator runaway situation. If the auto trim system is
not available, then the autopilot may become inoperative (will become inoperative for the B737-
400). If another autopilot is available it would be common practice to use the fully operative
system.

If there is only one autopilot or the aircraft is not fitted with auto-trim, the aircraft must be
correctly in trim before the engagement of the autopilot to minimise the control loading
expected on disengagement. The standard operating procedure for the aircraft will stipulate a
time period after which the autopilot must be disengaged, the aircraft re-trimmed and then the
autopilot re- engaged. This will minimise the control snatch on autopilot disengagement.

The pilots may have some indication of the trim controls but in the case of auto-trim there is
always a stabiliser trim indicator and a auto-trim failure warning so that the system can be
monitored during autopilot operation. The autopilot may not engage if there is too great a
standing load i.e out of trim condition already present.

428

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

Fig 2.9
Figure 29.9Auto-Trim
Auto-TrimFailure Light
Failure Light

Independent Systems
Mach trim (if required) will operate independently of the autopilot. A Mach Trim system is
provided in aeroplanes that fly at high subsonic speeds and are susceptible to Mach tuck. At
these speeds as the aeroplane approaches it’s critical Mach No. the centre of pressure moves aft
resulting in a nose down attitude known as Mach tuck. This condition is automatically trimmed
out by a mach trim system. The mach trim system will be armed at all stages of flight but will
only activate at high subsonic speeds.

Yaw dampers will be covered in detail in another chapter. They are however another example
of an inner loop system.

OUTER LOOP CONTROL (ALSO KNOWN AS FLIGHT PATH MODES)

In addition to performing the primary function of stabilisation, an Automatic Flight Control

System (AFCS) can also be developed to control the path of the aircraft horizontally or vertically
to predetermined conditions. For example to hold a selected airspeed, altitude, magnetic
heading or intercept and track radio beams from ground-based aids, etc. The number of inputs
available serve as an indication of the progressive development of automatic flight from the
basic single-axis wing-levelling type of autopilot, to the highly sophisticated flight guidance
systems now used in many present-day transport aircraft.

The outer loop inputs are applied to the inner loop in such a way as to fool the auto-stability
control into believing that the aircraft is being disturbed. The inner-loop systems reaction to the
input is calculated to produce the result required, such as altitude holding or turning to follow
a heading.

Such data inputs constitute Outer Loop Control and can be referred to as Command Modes
or Flight Path (Referenced) Modes. Outer Loop command modes are coupled to the relevant
autopilot channel by selection on the Mode Control Panel (MCP) which is located on the glare-
shield and provides the pilot’s interface with the auto-flight system. A typical example of
modern twin jet MCP is shown in Figure 29.12. It allows the pilot to engage an autopilot and
select any of the pitch and roll outer loop inputs. Incorporated in the selector switches are lights
to indicate which autopilot or command modes are engaged.

Only one command mode may be engaged in a single channel at any one time (i.e. one in
Roll and one in Pitch). So it is impossible for the autopilot to maintain a speed for example by
pitching the aircraft and at the same time hold a height by pitching the aircraft. Do not confuse
this with those auto flight control systems that include auto throttle / thrust.

429

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

The provision of raw data inputs relevant to a particular flight path is referred to as ‘coupling’ or
as a ‘mode of operation’. Other terms commonly used in connection with operating modes are
‘hold’, ‘lock’, and ‘capture’. For example, an aircraft flying automatically at a selected altitude
is said to be in the ‘altitude hold’ or ‘height lock’ mode. The term ‘capture’ relates principally
to modes associated with the selection and interception of beams from ground-based radio
navigation aids; for example, ‘glide slope capture’.

In some cases, mode switching is automatic, thus, to switch from intercepting a beam or a
heading, to tracking the beam on reaching it, a Beam Sensor is installed. This device senses
beam deviation and switches modes automatically when the aircraft flies into the beam. Glide
slope capture can also take place automatically, in this case the pitch control channel is switched
from ‘altitude hold’ mode to glide slope track when the aircraft flies into the glide slope beam.

The raw data is supplied from aircraft sensors (attitude, air data, heading, radio etc.) to the
relevant auto-flight computer which compares the data with the selected values on the MCP
and computes control inputs to achieve those selected values.

In a modern transport aircraft which is using a flight guidance system with an automatic
landing capability, the outer loop inputs could comprise some or all of the modes listed in the
following table.

Roll Channel

¾¾ Heading hold
¾¾ Heading select
¾¾ VOR intercept and track
¾¾ LOC intercept and track
¾¾ Inertial Nav or L.NAV

Pitch Channel

¾¾ Altitude hold
¾¾ Speed hold
¾¾ Mach hold
¾¾ Vertical Speed
¾¾ V.NAV

Auto-land

Roll Channel Pitch Channel Yaw Channel

Localiser Glideslope Runway align

Roll-out Flare Roll-out

430

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

MODE ANNUNCIATOR

The Mode Annunciator will indicate the current auto-flight system status and can be a separate
indicator or an integrated part of the EFIS primary flight display (Figure 29.10). The electronic
display indicates armed and engaged modes of the auto-flight system in different colours. It can
also indicate autopilot, autothrottle, auto-land and flight director status.

Figure 29.10 Primary Flight Display.

There will also be an illuminatedFig

switches or simply
2.10 Primary warning
Flight lights that will indicate whether
Display.
an autopilot is engaged, warning of disengagement, warning of auto-throttle disengagement,
failure to achieve target speed and of auto-trim failure.

431

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

Figure 29.11 Boeing 737-400 Flight Mode Annunciations.

Fig 2.11 Boeing 737-400 Flight Mode Annunciations.

AIRCRAFT SENSOR INPUTS TO THE AUTOFLIGHT COMPUTER

Manometric (Or Air) Data.

Raw data inputs which come under this heading are those associated with altitude, airspeed/
mach No, vertical speed. Each of these provides current aircraft status for outer loop control in
the pitch channel of the autopilot.

Sensing may be carried out either by independent sensor units, or by a Central Air Data
Computer (CADC). The sensors operate on the same fundamental principles as the basic pitot-
static instruments, the measuring elements being coupled to appropriate types of electrical
transducers instead of instruments.

Attitude Reference
Attitude reference data (roll, pitch, yaw) is fed into the auto-flight computer from the primary
attitude sensors which could be a Vertical Gyro and Directional Gyro combination, an Inertial
Navigation System or an Inertial Reference System depending on the age of the aircraft. These
sensors may also transmit data to slave the ADI and HSI.

432

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

Magnetic Heading Reference

A Magnetic Heading Reference System (MHRS or Gyro Magnetic Compass) combines inertial
heading with magnetic compass heading providing magnetic heading signals to the HSI and
reference data to the auto-flight computer.

Radio Navigation
To allow the auto-flight system to be able to capture and track a radio beam data signals are
transmitted to the relevant auto-flight computer from the VOR and ILS receivers.

Computer Generated Data

Modern aircraft can follow a computer generated flight profile in both roll (lateral) and
pitch (vertical) from a Flight Management System (FMS). Steering signals from the Flight
Management Computer (FMC) are connected to the auto-flight computer to control the attitude
of the aircraft.

MANOMETRIC
REFERENCE
SYSTEM (AIR
DATA
A B
COMPUTER)
ROLL ROLL
ATTITUDE INNER INNER
REFERENCE
SYSTEM (VG,
LOOP LOOP
INS or IRS)
A B
PITCH PITCH
MAGNETIC
AIRCRAFT HEADING INNER INNER
REFERENCE
DATA
REFERENCE
SYSTEM LOOP LOOP
A B
VOR / ILS
YAW YAW
RECIEVERS INNER INNER
LOOP LOOP

FLIGHT
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM

COURSE IAS/MACH HEADING ALTITUDE VERT SPEED A/P ENGAGE COURSE

ARM V NAV L NAV
090 A250 130 30000 + 0000 CMD A CMD B 180
MCP
AUTOPILOT 30 10 DN
ENGAGE MA SPD ALT MA
OFF CWS A CWS B
AND OUTER INTV VOR LOC INTV A
LOOP INPUT A F/D C/O A A F/D
SELECTION ON A 10 30 ON
N1 SPEED LVL CHG HDG APP ALT VS DISENGAGE
UP
OFF
OFF

Figure 29.12 Inputs to the MCP.

An example of an AFDS (737-400)

For these notes the Boeing 737-400 is used as an example. It is also officially the AFDS that the
JAR objectives and exams are currently based around. Therefore a description of the AFDS as
fitted to this aircraft is given.

General
The Automatic Flight System (AFS) for the 737-400 consists of the Autopilot Flight Director
System (AFDS) and the Auto-Throttle (A/T). The Flight Management Computer (FMC) provides
N1 limits and target N1 for the A/T and command airspeeds for the A/T and AFDS.

The AFDS and A/T are operated from the AFDS Mode Control Panel (MCP) and the FMC from
the Control Display Unit (CDU).

The AFDS MCP provides co-ordinated control of the autopilot (A/P), Flight Director (FD), A/T
and altitude alert functions.

433

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

AFS mode status is displayed on the Flight Mode Annunciators (FMA) on each pilot’s ADI.

Normally, the AFDS and A/T are used to maintain and or thrust settings calculated by the
FMC.

Autopilot Flight Director System (AFDS)

The AFDS is a dual system consisting of 2 individual Flight Control Computers (FCCs) and a
single MCP.

The 2 FCCs are identified as A and B. For A/P operation, they send control commands to their
respective pitch and roll hydraulic servos, which operate the flight controls through 2 separate
hydraulic systems.

For FD operation, each FCC positions the FD command bars on the respective ADI.

MCP Mode Selector Switches

The Mode selector switches are pressed to select desired command modes for the AFDS and
A/T. The switch illuminates to indicate mode selection and that the mode can be deselected by
pressing the switch again. While a mode is active, de-selection can be automatically inhibited
and this is indicated by the switch light being extinguished.

When engagement of a mode would conflict with current AFS operation, pressing the mode
selector switch has no effect. All AFDS modes can be disengaged by selecting another command
mode or by disengaging the A/P and turning the FDs off.

COURSE IAS/MACH HEADING ALTITUDE VERT SPEED A/P ENGAGE COURSE

ARM V NAV L NAV
090 A 250 130 30000 + 0000 CMD A CMD B 180
30 10 DN
MA SPD ALT MA
OFF CWS A CWS B
INTV VOR LOC INTV A
A F/D C/O A A F/D
ON A 10 30 ON
N1 SPEED LVL CHG HDG APP ALT VS DISENGAGE
UP
OFF
OFF

Figure 29.13 Mode Control Panel.

MCP Parameter Selection

The following information is in addition to that contained in the controls and indicators section
of this chapter.

Parameter selections common to both FCCs for speed, heading, altitude and vertical speed are
made from the MCP.

Two course selectors and course displays are located on the MCP. The Captain’s course
selector provides selected course information to the A FCC, the No. 1 VHF Nav receiver and
to the Captain’s HSI course pointer and course deviation bar. The First Officer’s course selector
provides selected course information to the B FCC, the No. 2 VHF Nav receiver and to the First
Officer’s HSI course pointer and deviation bar.

434

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

Examples of Outer Loop Inputs in ROLL

Heading Select and Hold

The Heading Select mode sends roll commands to turn and maintain the heading shown in the
MCP Heading Display. After mode engagement, roll commands are given to turn in the same
direction as the rotation of the heading selector only. The bank angle limit is established by the
Bank Angle Limit Selector on the MCP.

Pressing the Heading Select Switch on the MCP engages the heading select mode. HDG SEL is
annunciated for the AFDS.
The HDG SEL mode automatically disengages upon capture of the selected radio course in the
VOR LOC and APP modes.

VOR Localiser tracking (VOR LOC) mode

The VOR mode gives roll commands to capture and track the selected VOR course. The LOC
mode gives roll commands to capture and track the selected localiser along the inbound front
course bearing. Back-course tracking is not available.

Pressing the VOR LOC switch selects the VOR mode if a VOR frequency is tuned, or selects a
LOC mode if a localiser frequency is tuned. The VOR LOC switch illuminates and VOR LOC
armed is annunciated.

The selected course can be intercepted while engaged in L NAV, HDG SEL or CWS ROLL, with
an autopilot engaged in CMD. The capture point is variable and depends on intercept angle and
closure rate. Localiser capture occurs not later than ½ dot deviation. When within the course
capture area, the VOR LOC annunciation changes from armed to captured and roll commands
track the VOR or localiser course.

When a localiser frequency is selected the navigation radios automatically switch from the
antenna in the tail to the antenna in the nose when VOR/LOC is annunciated (armed or engaged).
If antenna switching does not occur, the localiser and approach modes are inhibited.

Tracking Through VOR “Cone of Confusion”

The ‘cone of confusion’ is an area overhead a VOR navigation beacon where the signals are
unusable. Thus an aircraft transiting the VOR will receive no usable signals for a period
depending upon its ground-speed and altitude.

As the aircraft approaches the VOR the radials are converging and the course deviation indicator
becomes more sensitive. At some point , before it enters the cone of confusion the information
from the selected inbound radial becomes unusable due to the convergence. At this point the
VOR signals are ‘cut off’ by the ‘over station sensing’ circuits i.e. the roll channel automatically
de-couples from the radio beam and controls the aircraft through the cone of confusion on
the drift-corrected heading existing when the radio signals are de-coupled. In other words the
autopilot goes into Heading Hold for a set period after which it reverts to the VOR Mode. Note
that the autopilot does not go into Heading Mode.

Inertial Navigation System (INS)/Inertial Referencing System (IRS)

Older aircraft without a Flight Management System may be able to couple the Inertial
Navigation/Reference System to the autopilot to allow the aircraft to be steered sequentially
through a series of way points that have been loaded into the INS/IRS before flight.

Lateral Navigation (L NAV)

In the L NAV mode, the FMC controls AFDS roll to intercept and track the active FMC route.
The desired route is activated and modified through the FMC CDUs. In addition to en-route
guidance, the active routes can include terminal procedures such as SIDs, STARs and instrument
approaches.

435

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

Engagement criteria must be met to use L NAV. There must be an active route in the
FMC, capture criteria must be satisfied, and the L NAV switch must be pressed.

L NAV capture criteria is divided into 2 categories. First, any aeroplane satisfies capture criteria
when within 3nm of the active route segment. Second, outside of 3nm, the aeroplane must be
on an intercept course of 90 degrees or less and intercept the active route segment before the
active way-point.

L NAV will automatically disconnect for several reasons. It will disconnect upon reaching the
end of the active route or upon entering a route discontinuity. Additionally, it will disconnect
upon either intercepting or missing the intercept of an approach path inbound track. Finally,
either loss of capture criteria or selecting HDG SEL will disconnect L NAV.
Examples of Outer Loop Inputs in PITCH

Altitude Hold (ALT HLD)

The altitude hold mode gives pitch commands to hold the MCP selected altitude or the
uncorrected barometric altitude at which the ALT HOLD switch was pressed. ALT HOLD
engages in either of 2 conditions

ALT HOLD at the MCP selected altitude. This is indicated by the annunciation of ALT HOLD
and the ALT HOLD switch light extinguished.

ALT HOLD not at the MCP selected altitude. This is indicated by the annunciation of ALT
HOLD and the ALT HOLD switch light illuminated.

ALT HOLD not at the MCP selected altitude occurs with either of the following:

¾¾ Pushing the ALT HOLD switch while not at the MCP selected altitude.

¾¾ Selecting a new MCP altitude while in ALT HOLD at the currently selected altitude.

ALT HOLD is inhibited after glideslope capture. When in ALT HOLD at the selected altitude,
LVL CHG, V/S and V NAV climb and descend functions are inhibited until a new altitude is
selected.

The altitude selected on the MCP is referenced to the Captain’s barometric altimeter setting for
the “A” autopilot and FDS, and to the First Officer’s barometric setting for the “B” autopilot and
FDS. After ALT HOLD engages, changes in the altimeter barometric settings do not change the
selected altitude reference.

Altitude Acquire (ALT ACQ)

The altitude acquire mode is the transition manoeuvre entered automatically from a V/S, LVL
CHG, or V NAV climb or descent to a MPC selected altitude. The altitude acquire mode is also
armed while climbing or descending in CWS with an autopilot engaged.

Altitude acquire engagement is annunciated ALT ACQ in pitch when levelling off in either V/S
or LVL CHG. However, V NAV remains annunciated throughout the altitude acquire mode
when levelling in V NAV.

ALT ACQ engagement is inhibited when the ALT HOLD switch is pressed or while the
glideslope is captured.

IAS/MACH Hold. (SPD)

This will hold a selected IAS or MACH No. by comparing selected value with actual value from
the ADC and pitching the aircraft up or down to decrease or increase speed.

436

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

Vertical Speed (V/S).

The V/S mode gives pitch commands to hold the selected vertical speed and engages the auto-
throttle in the SPEED mode to hold the selected airspeed. The V/S mode has both an armed and
engaged state.

Pressing the V/S switch engages the V/S mode unless the ALT HOLD is engaged or after
glideslope capture.

V/S engaged is annunciated, the Vertical Speed Display changes from blank to present vertical
speed and desired vertical speeds can be selected with the vertical spedd thumb- wheel.

The V/S mode becomes armed if, while in the ALT HOLD at the selected altitude, a new MCP
altitude is selected which is more than 100 ft different than the previously selected altitude. V/S
armed is annunciated and the V/S mode can be engaged by moving the vertical speed thumb-
wheel.

The V/S mode automatically engages when the altitude acquire mode is engaged and a new
altitude is selected which is more than 100 ft different than the previously selected altitude.
The V/S mode annunciates engaged and existing vertical speed appears in the vertical speed
display. The commanded V/S can be changed with the vertical speed thumb-wheel. Vertical
speeds can be selected which command flight toward or away from the selected altitude.

Level Change Mode (LVL CHG)

The LVL CHG mode co-ordinates pitch and thrust commands to make automatic climbs and
descents to pre-selected altitude at selected airspeeds. A LVL CHG climb or descent is initiated
by selecting a new altitude and engaging the LVL CHG mode.

During a LVL CHG climb, the annunciations are MCP SPD for pitch and N1 for the auto-throttle
(A/T). During a LVL CHG descent, the annunciations are MCP SPD for pitch and RETARD for
the A/T while reducing the thrust toward idle. When at idle thrust, ARM is annunciated for the
A/T.

If a speed mode was active prior to engaging LVL CHG, he previous speed is retained as the
target speed for the LVL CHG mode. If the LVL CHG mode is engaged with no active speed
mode, the IAS/Mach display and airspeed cursors synchronise to existing speed and present
speed becomes the LVL CHG target speed. After LVL CHG mode engagement, the target speed
can be changed with the MCP speed selector.

Vertical Navigation Mode (V NAV)

With the V NAV mode engaged, the FMC commands AFDS pitch and A/T modes to fly the
vertical profile selected on the FMC CDUs. The profile includes pre-selected climbs, cruise
altitudes, speeds, descents, and can also include altitude constraints at specified way-points.
The profile may end with an ILS approach to the destination airfield.

Pressing the V NAV switch selects the V NAV mode provided FMC performance initialisation
is complete. The mode selector switch illuminates, the MCP IAS/Mach display becomes blank
and the airspeed cursors are positioned at the FMC commanded airspeed. The FMA displays
are V NAV SPD or V NAV PTH for the AFDS pitch mode and FMC SPD, N1, RETARD or ARM
for the A/T mode.

V NAV climbs and descents are constrained by the selected MCP altitude. V NAV
commanded speeds can be changed with the FMC CDUs.

During V NAV path cruise flight, selecting a lower MCP altitude, arms the FMC to automatically
begin the descent upon arrival at the FMC calculated top of descent point.

437

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

During a V NAV path descent, V NAV remains engaged until:

Glideslope capture, or
Another pitch mode is selected, or

Flaps are extended beyond 15, or

L NAV is disengaged without glideslope capture.

Proper MCP altitude selections ensure correct altitude alerting.

AUTOPILOT IN OPERATION

The modes of operation of the autopilot during the various flight phases can be seen from the
following table:

PHASE ROLL PITCH AUTOTHROTTLE

Take-off TOGA TOGA THR REF

THR REF, SPD or

Climb LNAV, HDG or VOR FLCH SPD, VNAV or V/S
MACH

Cruise LNAV, HDG or VOR ALT HOLD, VNAV SPD or MACH

THR REF, SPD or

Descent LNAV, HDG or VOR FLCH SPD, VNAV or V/S
MACH

Approach LNAV, HDG or LOC ALT, G/S, FLARE SPD

Land ROLLOUT

Go Around TOGA TOGA THR REF

OTHER AUTOPILOT FEATURES

Roll and Pitch Modes

Approach mode (APP) allows Localizer and Glideslope elements of the ILS system to be coupled
to the roll and pitch channels of the autopilot to allow automatic control down to decision
height, or to effect a fully automatic landing.

Control Wheel Steering (CWS)

A Control Wheel Steering mode (CWS) is provided in some automatic flight control systems
(Boeing 737-400), its purpose being to enable the pilot to manoeuvre his aircraft in pitch and/or
roll, through the automatic control system without disconnecting the autopilot. The signals for
the A/P are produced by transducers in the control column.

Pressing a CWS engage switch, engages the A/P pitch and roll axes in the CWS mode and
displays CWS P and CWS R on the FMAs.

438

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

With CWS engaged, the A/P manoeuvres the aeroplane in response to control pressures applied
by either pilot. The control pressure is similar to that required for manual flight. When control
pressure is released, the A/P holds existing attitude.

If aileron pressure is released with 6 degrees or less angle of bank, the A/P rolls the wings level
and holds the existing heading. This heading hold feature with bank less than 6 degrees, is
inhibited when any of the following conditions exist:

 Below 1500 ft RA with the landing gear down.

 After FD VOR capture with TAS 250 kts or less.
 After FD LOC capture in the APP mode.

Pitch CWS with a CMD Engage switch selected

The pitch axis engages in CWS while the roll axis is in CMD when:

A command pitch mode has not been selected or was de-selected

A/P pitch has been manually overridden with control column force. The force required for
override is greater than normal CWS control column force. This manual pitch override is
inhibited in the APP mode with both A/Ps engaged.

CWS P is annunciated on the Flight Mode Annunciators (FMA) while this mode is engaged.
Command pitch modes can then be selected.

When approaching a selected altitude in CWS P with a CMD engage switch selected, CWS P
changes to ALT ACQ and when at the selected altitude, ALT HOLD engages.

If pitch is manually overridden while in ALT HOLD the annunciator changes to CWS P. If
control force is released within 250 ft of the selected altitude, CWS P changes to ALT ACQ and
the A/P returns to the selected altitude and ALT HOLD engages. If the elevator force is held
until more than 250 ft from the selected altitude, pitch remains in CWS P.

Roll CWS with a CMD engage switch selected

The roll axis engages in CWS while the pitch axis is in CMD when:

A command roll mode has not been selected or was de-selected.

A/P roll has been manually overridden with control wheel force. The force required for override
is greater than the normal CWS control wheel force.

CWS R is annunciated on the FMA while this mode is engaged.

CWS R with a CMD engage switch illuminated, can be used to capture a selected radio course
while VOR/LOC or APP mode is armed. Upon intercepting the radial or localiser, the FD and
A/P annunciation changes from CWS R to VOL/LOC engaged and the A/P tracks the selected
course.

Touch Control Steering (TCS)

Touch Control Steering (TCS) also permits a pilot to manoeuvre his aircraft in pitch or roll, but
unlike CWS the appropriate automatic control channels and servo-motors are disengaged while
the TCS button is held depressed while the pilot flies the aircraft to the desired attitude using
manual control. The autopilot is re-engaged by release of the TCS button and the autopilot
continues to again hold the aircraft in the attitude in which it was left.

439

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

Altitude Reference to Autopilot

The altitude selected in the window on the MCP is referenced to the Captain’s barometric
altimeter setting when the ‘A’ autopilot is selected and to the First Officer’s when ‘B’ is selected.
After ALT HOLD engages, changes in altimeter barometric settings do not change the selected
altitude reference i.e. the autopilot will not change altitude until a new altitude is selected and
engaged.

AUTOPILOT LIMITATIONS AND OPERATIONAL RESTRICTIONS

Autopilot Disengage Warnings

The “A/P” light flashes red and a tone sounds when an autopilot has disengaged.

The warning can be reset by pressing either disengage light or either A/P disengage switch.

The A/P warning light stays at steady red if:

Stabiliser is out of trim below 800ft RA on a dual channel approach.

Altitude Acquire mode is inhibited during an A/P go-around. (stabiliser not trimmed for single
A/P operation. See A/P Go-Around).

Disengage light test switch is held in position 2 (red filament test).

Automatic ground system test fail.

The light will illuminate a steady amber when the Disengage Light Test Switch is held in
position 1 (amber filament test).

The light will flash amber if A/P automatically reverts to CWS pitch or roll while in CMD. The
light will reset when either light is pressed or another mode is engaged.

Maximum Pitch and Bank Angles

During normal autopilot operation the maximum angles are:

Pitch ± 10°
Roll ± 30°

These limits are however not stipulated legally and will vary from aircraft to aircraft.

Gain Adaption
Variations in flight parameters such as altitude, speed, aircraft load, configuration and rate
of manoeuvre, will have an effect on the handling characteristics of an aircraft. It is therefore
necessary to incorporate ‘gearing’ elements within flight control systems which will adapt the
parameters to the aircraft so that their effect on handling characteristics is reduced. In automatic
systems the response is altered by changing the ‘gain’ of the system to a given level of input
signal. This can be likened to changing gear ratios in a mechanical system.

Gain adaptation is particularly important for maintaining handling characteristics with changes
in IAS during the different phases of flight and is similar to the gain scheduling in the flight
director system.

Approach/Land mode
During an auto-land sequence the autopilot has to execute many important manoeuvres. These
are described in the Auto-land notes.

440

Aviation ebooks Company

Autopilot Chapter 29

FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The autopilot can form part of the overall Flight Management System (FMS). This is may also
be designated the Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS) or the Flight Management and
Guidance System (FMGS). It provides manual or automatic modes of control throughout the
entire flight envelope from take-off to landing and roll-out. All the subsystems of the FMS are
fully integrated and have levels of redundancy to achieve a high level of reliability. Redundancy
is accomplished by providing two or more systems of each type so a failure of one system will
not affect the operation of the complete system.

The AFCS and FMS will be checked completely during the pre-flight checks. During these
checks all the automated systems will be engaged, tested and their various safety devices tested.
The FMS will be checked for the correct information and any additional information will be
entered.

441

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 29 Autopilot

442

Aviation ebooks Company

Autoland Chapter 30

CHAPTER THIRTY

AUTOLAND

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
AUTOLAND SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
THE AUTOMATIC LANDING SEQUENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
APPENDIX 3A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
ILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
WEATHER MINIMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
THE ICAO CATEGORISATION OF LOW VISIBILITY LANDING CAPABILITIES . . . 451
ALERT HEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452

443

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 30 Autoland

444

Aviation ebooks Company

Autoland Chapter 30

INTRODUCTION

The approach and landing manoeuvre is the most difficult one demanded of a pilot in that
it entails control of the aircraft in all three axes simultaneously as well as control of airspeed
through engine power changes. The pilot has to:

¾¾ Align the aircraft with the runway centre-line

¾¾ Achieve a sinking rate of about 2 feet per second before touchdown
¾¾ Reduce the airspeed from 1.3 Vs to about 1.15 Vs by progressive reduction of engine
power
¾¾ Level the wings before actual landing yaw the aircraft to remove any drift angle (drift
“kick off” or de-crabbing).

An automatic landing system that takes over from a pilot must be able provide guidance and
control better than that required of the pilot.

Autopilots have for a long time now been able to fly most of the approach allowing the pilot to
concentrate on navigating the approach correctly. The pilot would then take over at decision
height and continue to land manually. Aircraft that are fitted with all the equipment required
for a fully automatic landing may, due to lack of required ground equipment for example
or simply for pilot experience requirements, carry out an auto-approach. Essentially all the
procedures are carried out as for an auto-land, but when decision height is reached the pilot
will take over manually.

AUTOLAND SYSTEM

Objective
In order to achieve the objective of automatic landing, the operation of an automatic flight
control system must be of such a nature that it will:

Not disturb the flight path as a result of an active malfunction

Have adequate authority for sufficiently accurate control along the required flight path
Warn of a passive failure
Allow the intended flight manoeuvre to be completed following an active or a passive failure.

Requirements
To enable an aeroplane to complete an automatic landing the auto-land system requires

A minimum of two independent autopilots capable of following ILS signals

Two independent Radio Altimeters to give accurate height from the ground information
Category 3 ILS ground installation at the airport.

Auto-land Status
The number of autopilots required also depends upon the auto-land status of the aircraft. These
fall into two main categories:

Fail - passive (Fail-soft)

This is defined as the ability of the system to withstand a failure without endangering passenger
safety, and without producing excessive deviations in the flight path but removing its capability
to complete an automatic landing.

The minimum number of autopilots required for a fail-passive capability is two.

445

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 30 Autoland

Fail-Operational (Fail - active)

This status is defined as the ability of a system to withstand a failure without affecting the
overall functioning of the system and without causing degradation of performance beyond the
limits required for automatic landing.

The system requires a minimum of three autopilots. However it is possible for an aircraft to have
a fail operational category with only two autopilots provided that there is suitable duplicate
monitoring for each channel.

THE AUTOMATIC LANDING SEQUENCE

Profile
During cruise and initial stages of approach to land, the control system operates as a single
channel system, controlling the aircraft about its pitch and roll axes, and providing the
appropriate flight director commands. The profile of an automatic approach, flare and landing
sequence is shown in Figure 30.1 and is based on a system that utilises triple digital flight
control computer channels, allowing for redundancy to operate in the fail operational and fail
passive conditions already defined.

Status Annunciator
Depending upon the number of channels that are armed and engaged, the system performs
what are termed a ‘LAND 2’ status or ‘LAND 3’ status auto-land. Thus ‘LAND 2’ signifies
there is dual redundancy of engaged flight control computers, sensors and servos (fail passive
operation) while ‘LAND 3’ signifies triple redundancy of power sources, engaged flight control
computers, sensors and servos (fail operational). Each status is displayed on an auto-land
status annunciator.

Approach
Since multi-channel operation is required for an automatic landing, at a certain stage of the
approach, the remaining two channels are armed by pressing an ‘APPR’ switch on the flight
control panel. The operation of this switch also arms the localiser and glide slope modes. Both
of the ‘off-line’ channels are continually supplied with the relevant outer loop control signals
and operate on a comparative basis the whole time.

Radio Altimeter
Altitude information essential for vertical guidance to touchdown is always provided by signals
from a radio altimeter which becomes effective as soon as the aircraft’s altitude is within the
altimeter’s operating range (typically 2500 feet).

AFS Radio Altimeter Loss

Two independent radio altimeters provide RA to the respective FCC. The Captain’s radio
altimeter also provides RA information to the A/T.

With a radio altimeter inoperative, do not use the associated FCC or the A/T, if affected, for
approach and landing, i.e. failure of a single radio altimeter causes the auto-land system to fail
passive.

The Sequence
An example of an auto-land sequence (for a Boeing aircraft) is described below.

Approach (APP) mode

The approach mode arms the AFDS to capture and track the localiser and glideslope. It can
be engaged for dual or single pilot operation (auto-land with dual only). Dual autopilot (A/P)
approach operation is described first.

446

Aviation ebooks Company

Autoland Chapter 30

Approach mode allows both A/Ps to be engaged at the same time. Dual A/P operation provides
fail passive control through landing flare and touch down or an automatic go-around. During
fail passive operation, the flight controls respond to the A/P commanding the least control
movement.

One VHF Nav receiver must be tuned to an ILS frequency before the approach mode can be
selected. For a dual A/P approach, the second VHF Nav receiver must be tuned to the ILS
frequency and the corresponding A/P engaged prior to 800 ft RA.

Localiser and glideslope armed.

After setting the localiser frequency and course, pressing the APP switch selects the APP mode.
The APP switch illuminates and VOR LOC and G/S armed is annunciated. The APP mode
permits selecting the engagement of the second A/P. This arms the second A/P for automatic
engagement after LOC and G/S capture and when descent below 1500 ft RA occurs.

The localiser can be intercepted in the HDG SEL, CWS R or L Nav modes. Either the LOC or
G/S can be captured first (although it its most common to capture LOC the G/S).

Localiser Capture
The localiser capture point is variable and depends on the intercept angle and rate of closure,
but does not occur at less than ½ a dot deviation. Upon LOC capture, VOR LOC annunciates
captured, 1 CH is annunciated for the A/P status, the previous roll mode disengages and the
aeroplane turns to track the LOC.

Glideslope Capture
The G/S can be captured from above or below (although from below is generally preferred).
Capture occurs at 2/5 dot deviation. G/S annunciates captured, the previous pitch mode
disengages, the APP switch light extinguishes if the localiser has also been captured, aeroplane
pitch tracks the G/S and the annunciated N1 thrust limit for the A/T is GA.

After LOC and G/S are both captured the APP mode can be exited only by pressing the TOGA
switch or by disengaging the A/P and turning off both FD switches or re-tuning a VHF Nav
receiver.

After Localiser and Glideslope Capture

The A/Ps will disengage and the FD command bars will retract to indicate an invalid ILS
signal.

At 1500 feet radio altitude (RA)

Shortly after capturing both LOC and G/S and descending below 1500 ft RA, the second A/P
couples with the flight controls, FLARE mode armed is annunciated and the A/P go-around
mode arms but is not annunciated. ROLL OUT mode if available will also now arm. The auto-
land status will also now be annunciated as either “LAND 2”(or “LAND 3” for fail operational
aircraft).

The pitch and roll axes cannot be manually overridden into CWS. Attempts to do so will result
in A/P disengagement.

800 ft RA
The second A/P must have been engaged by 800 ft RA to execute a dual A/P approach. Otherwise,
engagement of the second A/P is inhibited on descending through 800 ft RA.

447

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 30 Autoland

400 - 330 feet RA

The stabiliser is automatically trimmed an additional amount nose-up, with the elevators
neutralising and holding the pitching up moment. If the A/Ps subsequently disengage, forward
control column force may be required to hold the desired pitch attitude. This biasing aids the
flare and in the event of a subsequent fail passive the aircraft will tend to pitch nose up to
prevent a hard contact with the ground and aids the initiation of a go around.

If FLARE is not armed by approximately 350 ft RA, both A/Ps automatically disengage.

At 45 feet gear altitude (GA)/ 50 ft RA

The A/P flare manoeuvre starts at approximately 50 ft RA and is completed at touchdown.
FLARE engaged is annunciated and the FD command bars retract. Also:

The stabiliser trim is again automatically trimmed an additional amount nose-up.

The FLARE mode is automatically engaged (replacing G/S) to give the aircraft a 2 feet/second
descent path

The A/T begins retarding thrust at approximately 27 ft RA so as to reach idle at touchdown.

The gear altitude calculation, which is pre-programmed into the computer, is based upon radio
altitude, pitch attitude, and the known distance between the landing gear, the fuselage and the
radio altimeter antenna.

At about 5 feet GA:

The flare mode is disengaged and there is transition to the touchdown
LOC disengages
Roll-out mode (if available) will engage.

At about 1 foot GA:

The pitch attitude of the aircraft is decreased to 2°
At touchdown, a command signal is supplied to the elevators to lower the aircraft’s nose and
so bring the nose landing gear wheels in contact with the runway and hold them there during
the roll-out.
When reverse thrust is applied the auto-throttle system is automatically disengaged.
Irrespective of reverse thrust deployment, the A/T automatically disengages approximately 2
seconds after touchdown.

The automatic flight control system remains on until manually disengaged by the flight crew,
which is when the auto-land sequence is considered to be completed.

Other features of Auto-land

Runway Alignment
Although the yaw channel has not been mentioned any auto-flight system capable of an
auto-land must be capable of ‘kicking off drift’ prior to touchdown. This is known as runway
alignment mode and will typically be armed at the same time as the flare mode and engaged
at less than 100’. During the approach from 1500’ the yaw channel will compute the difference
between heading and track, when align mode engages the rudder deflects to align the aircraft
with the runway centreline before touchdown . This manoeuvre is known as de- crabbing, or
drift ‘kick-off’.

448

Aviation ebooks Company

Autoland Chapter 30

Roll-out
Another function of Cat 3 auto-land systems is roll-out which gives steering commands on the
ground proportional to localiser deviation along the centreline. These commands can show
left/right steering guidance through a rotating ‘barbers pole’ indicator known as a para-visual
display (PVD). Alternatively automatic steering can be achieved by applying deviation signals
to the rudder channel and nosewheel steering to keep the aircraft on the centreline throughout
the ground roll.

A/P Go-around Mode

The A/P go-around (GA) mode require dual A/P operation and becomes armed when FLARE
armed is annunciated. The A/P GA mode cannot be engaged before flare arm is annunciated or
after the A/P senses touchdown.

Note: if the GA mode is selected after touchdown and prior to A/T disengagement, the A/Ps will
disengage and the A/Ts may command GA thrust, with the procedure being flown manually.

Pressing either TOGA switch engages the GA mode and GA engaged is annunciated for the
AFDS. The MCP IAS/Mach display becomes blank and the airspeed cursors are positioned at
the AFDS commanded speed. Command airspeed is the flap manoeuvring speed.

A/P GA Pitch control

Upon GA engagement, the thrust levers advance toward the reduced GA N1. The A/P initially
commands a 15 degree nose-up pitch attitude, and the airspeed cursors display manoeuvring
speed for the flap setting. When a programmed rate of climb is established, the A/P controls
pitch to hold airspeed based on the normal flap manoeuvring speed.

A/P GA Roll control

With the GA mode engaged, the A/Ps maintain the aeroplane ground track existing at GA
engagement.

Leaving A/P GA mode

Below 400 ft RA, the A/Ps must be disengaged to change either pitch or roll modes from GA.
Above 400 ft RA, other pitch and roll modes can be selected.

If the roll mode is changed first, the selected mode engages in single A/P roll operation and
is controlled by the A/P which was first engaged. Pitch control remains in the dual A/P GA
mode.

The pitch mode cannot be changed from GA until sufficient nose-down trim has been input to
allow single A/P operation. This nose down trim is automatically added to reset the previous
trim inputs that were applied automatically during the Auto-approach. If the pitch mode is the
first to be changed from GA, the selected pitch mode engages in single A/P operation and is
controlled by the first A/P that was engaged for the approach. The second A/P disengages and
the roll mode changes to CWS R.

With pitch engaged in GA, ALT ACQ engages when approaching the selected altitude and ALT
HOLD engages at the selected altitude if the stabiliser position is satisfactory for single A/P
operation.

The transition from GA to ALT ACQ is normally successful if the selected altitude is at least
1000ft above the GA engagement altitude. A higher selected altitude may be required if full GA
thrust is used.

449

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 30 Autoland

If stabiliser trim is not satisfactory for single A/P operation, ALT ACQ is inhibited and the
A/P disengage lights illuminate steady red and pitch remains in GA. To extinguish the A/P
disengage lights, a higher altitude can be selected or the A/Ps disengaged.

Approach (APP) Mode / single A/P

A single A/P ILS approach can be executed by engaging only one A/P after pressing the APP
switch. Single A/P approach operation is the same as for dual, with the following exceptions:

A/P status of 1 CH is annunciated for the entire approach after localiser capture.
Full automatic flare and touchdown capability is not available. FLARE is not annunciated and
stabiliser trim bias is not applied.
An A/P GA is not available.

The following diagram shows an automatic landing, see if you can correctly fill in the pitch
and roll armed and engaged modes in the annunciator boxes at each stage of the approach and
landing. I’ve started you off at point A as Approach mode has been selected.

APPENDIX 3A

THE FOLLOWING NOTES ARE FOR GUIDANCE ONLY AND

DO NOT FORM PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE JAA EXAM.

ILS

An Instrument Landing System (ILS) is a short-range navigational aid which provides azimuth
and vertical guidance during the approach to an airport runway. The system comprises ground-
based transmitting elements and also receiving elements carried on board the aircraft.

The ground-based elements are:

¾¾ A localiser transmitter which sends runway azimuth approach information.

¾¾ A glide slope transmitter which provides vertical approach information.

¾¾ Marker beacons which transmit information about the distance to the runway thresh-
old.

The airborne elements are:

¾¾ A localiser signal receiving antenna (usually the same antenna as the one used for the
VOR).

¾¾ A glide slope signal receiving antenna.

¾¾ A dual ILS receiver installation.

¾¾ An indicator which shows whether the aircraft is on the correct approach path. Loc and
GS deviation.

¾¾ A marker beacon antenna and receiver.

¾¾ Marker lights on the main instrument panel.

450

Aviation ebooks Company

Autoland Chapter 30

WEATHER MINIMA

In low visibility operations, the weather limits for landing are given in the following terms:

Runway Visual Range (RVR), which is an instrumentally derived value that represents the
range at which high-intensity lights can be seen in the direction of landing along the runway.
The measurements are transmitted to the air traffic controller who can inform the pilot of the
very latest visibility conditions.

Decision Height (DH)

This is the wheel height above the runway elevation at which a go-around must be initiated by
the pilot, unless adequate visual reference has been established, and the position and approach
path of the aircraft have been visually assessed as satisfactory to safely continue the approach
or landing.

Minimum values of DH and RVR are known as ‘weather minima’ and are specified by the national
licensing authorities for various types of aircraft and airports. When the traffic controller advises
that the RVR is above the specified minimum, the pilot may descend to the specified decision
height and if, by then, he has sighted a sufficiently large segment of the ground to enable him
to be confident of his judgement, he may carry on an land. He must otherwise overshoot, and
either enter the holding pattern pending another approach, or divert to an alternative airport.
During the approach, the pilot’s line of sight is down the glide-path and not along the runway,
and this gives rise to another factor, called ‘slant visual range’, which a pilot must take into
account in order to avoid misinterpretation of visual cues.

THE ICAO CATEGORISATION OF LOW VISIBILITY LANDING CAPABILITIES

All Weather Operations

The term ‘all weather operations’ is frequently used in connection with automatic landing
systems and in describing low weather minima . This is a term which can, and sometimes is,
taken to mean that there are no weather conditions that can prevent an aircraft from taking-off
and landing successfully. This is not the case, because no automatic system can, for example,
perform the landing task in wind conditions in excess of those for which the aircraft has been
certified, this being primarily governed by the controllability characteristics and strength factors
of the aircraft. Similarly, no automatic system can land an aircraft on a runway which has a
surface which is not fit for such an operation because of contamination by water, slush or ice.

Category of Operation
The definitions of the main categories are illustrated in Figure 30.1, overleaf.

The three categories also serve as an indication of the stages through which automatic
approach and automatic landing development progress, and thereby designate the capabilities
of individual automatic flight control systems. In addition, they designate the standards of
efficiency of the ground guidance equipment available at airports, namely ILS localiser and
glide path, and approach, runway and taxi-way lighting.

Category 1
A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height no lower than 60 m (200 ft),
and with either a visibility not less than 800 m, or a runway visual range not less than 550 m

Category 2
A precision instrument approach and landing with decision height lower than 200 ft but not
lower than 100 ft, and a runway visual range not less than 300 m.

451

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 30 Autoland

Figure 30.1 Categories of Low Visibility Landing Capabilities

Figure 3.3. Categories of Low Visibility Landing Capabilities.
Category 3A
A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height lower than 100 ft and a
runway visual range not less than 200 m.

Category 3B
A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height, if any, lower than 50 ft and
a runway visual range less than 200 m but not less than 75m.

Category 3C
To and along the surface of the runway and taxi-ways without external visual reference.

ALERT HEIGHT

The alert height is a specified radio height, based on the characteristics of the aircraft and its
fail-operational landing system. In operational use, if a failure occurred above the alert height
in one of the required redundant operational systems in the aircraft the approach would be
discontinued and a go-around executed, unless reversion to a higher decision height is possible.
If a failure in one of the required redundant operational systems occurred below the alert height,
it would be ignored and the approach continued to compete the auto-land.

452

Aviation ebooks Company

Autothrottle Chapter 31

CHAPTER THIRTY ONE

AUTOTHROTTLE

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
AUTO-THROTTLE SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
THRUST COMPUTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
FADEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

453

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 31 Autothrottle

454

Aviation ebooks Company

Autothrottle Chapter 31

INTRODUCTION

An auto-throttle system is a computer controlled, electro-mechanical system which can control

the thrust of an aircraft’s engines within specific design parameters. The throttle position of
each engine is controlled to maintain a specific value of thrust in terms of:

¾¾ Fan Speed (N1)

¾¾ Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) or
¾¾ Target Airspeed (set by SPD on mode control panel)

Thrust is the force generated by the engines. The throttles control the thrust and in some aircraft
the preferred name for the throttles is thrust levers. It is worth noting that although there are
thrust computation systems there is, as yet, no direct indicator of thrust value in use. Instead N1
and EPR are used to indicate a measure of engine thrust.

Using the above modes the auto-throttle can control aircraft speed from the beginning of the
take-off roll until the system is disconnected after an automatic landing. (See Figure 31.1).

AUTO-THROTTLE SYSTEM

System Components
The Auto-throttle can also be called the Thrust Management System (TMS) that works in
conjunction with the autopilot and the FMS.

Figure 31.1 shows a basic auto throttle system and signal interfacing between various aircraft
systems and sensors.

Inputs
These would include:

¾¾ Mode selection and A/T Arm switch on the MCP

¾¾ TAS, Mach No and TAT from the ADC

¾¾ Attitude and acceleration from the IRS

¾¾ N1 speed and/or EPR from engine sensors

¾¾ Angle of attack from AoA sensor

¾¾ Radio altitude from the radio altimeter

¾¾ Air / ground logic from the landing gear switch

¾¾ Reverse thrust requirement from the engine accessory unit

Plus
Thrust command from the FMS or thrust mode selection from the trust mode select
panel

¾¾ A/T disconnect switch on the throttles

¾¾ PLA (power lever angle) position from transducers

¾¾ Flap position.

455

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 31 Autothrottle

Figure 31.1

Outputs
The main outputs from the system would be signals to:

¾¾ A/T servo-actuator to move the throttles

¾¾ A/T disengage circuit
¾¾ BITE (built in test equipment) circuits in the FCC and the FMC
¾¾ Mode annunciation to the EFIS symbol generator
¾¾ Thrust limits and to the EICAS / ECAM display
¾¾ Failure warnings annunciations (lamp and/or aural, electronic display).

Feedback
The auto-throttle system compares the actual values with reference values and passes control
signals to the servo-motors of the thrust levers. In order to control the speed at which the thrust
levers are moved there is a suitable feedback from the servo actuators to the TMC.

Boeing 737-400 General

The A/T system provides automatic thrust control from the start of the takeoff through climb,
cruise, descent, approach and go-around or landing. In normal operation, The FMC provides
the A/T system with N1 limit values.

The A/T moves the thrust levers with a separate servo-motor on each thrust lever. Manually
positioning the thrust levers does not cause A/T disengagement unless 10 degrees of thrust lever
separation is exceeded during a dual channel approach after FLARE armed is annunciated.
Following manual positioning, the A/T may reposition the thrust levers to comply with
computed thrust requirements except while in the HOLD and ARM modes.

Power Management Control (PMC)

The thrust control system consists of a hydro-mechanical MEC unit and a PMC unit mounted
on each engine. The PMC in an electronic system with limited authority over the MEC. The
Main Engine Control (MEC) schedules fuel to provide the thrust called for by the Forward

456

Aviation ebooks Company

Autothrottle Chapter 31

Thrust Lever setting on the flight-deck. This fuel flow is further refined electronically by the
Power Management Control (PMC) without moving the thrust levers.

The PMC uses MEC power lever angle, N1 speed, inlet temperature and pressure to adjust, or
trim, the MEC to obtain the desired N1 speed. The PMC adjusts fuel flow as a function of thrust
lever angle.

The PMC provides a constant thrust climb feature once the thrust lever is set at the beginning
of climb. Thus, when thrust is set for climb, the PMC automatically maintains that thrust
throughout the climb profile with no further thrust lever adjustments. If the thrust lever is
repositioned, the PMC maintains the setting corresponding to the new thrust lever angle.

The PMC includes failure detection and annunciation modules which detect PMC failures
and provide a signal to the crew. For detectable failure conditions, the PMC schedules a slow
N1 drift over approximately 30 seconds and then illuminates the PMC INOP Light, the ENG
System Annunciator Light and the MASTER CAUTION Lights. For a PMC failure, the PMC
can be selected OFF by a switch on the aft overhead panel. The engine speed is then controlled
by the hydro-mechanical MEC only. The PMC INOP light is suppressed below starter cutout
engine speed.

A/T - PMC Operation

The A/T system operates properly with the PMCs ON or OFF. In either case, the A/T computer
controls to the FMC N1 limits.

During A/T operation, it is recommended that both PMCs be ON or both OFF, as this produces
minimum thrust lever separation. A/T takeoffs may be performed with both PMCs OFF.

A/T Engagement and Disengagement

Moving the A/T Arm Switch to ARM, arms the A/T for engagement in the N1, MCP SPD or
FMC SPD mode. The A/T Arm Switch is magnetically held at ARM and releases to OFF when
the A/T becomes disengaged.

Any of the following conditions or actions disengages the A/T:

Moving the A/T Arm switch to OFF.

Pressing either A/T disengage switch.
An A/T system fault is detected.
2 seconds have elapsed since landing touchdown.

Thrust levers become separated more by than 10 degrees during a dual channel approach after
FLARE is annunciated.

A/T disengagement is followed by A/T Arm Switch releasing to OFF and the A/T Disengage
Light flashing red.

The A/T Disengage lights can be extinguished by any of the following actions:

¾¾ Returning the A/T Arm Switch to ARM

¾¾ Pressing either A/T Disengage light

¾¾ Pressing either A/T Disengage Switch

The A/T Disengage lights do not illuminate when the A/T automatically disengage after
landing.

457

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 31 Autothrottle

Take Off Mode

The Takeoff mode is engaged by pressing either TOGA Switch with the aeroplane on the
ground, the A/T armed and the desired takeoff N1 thrust limit selected from a FMC CDU. The
A/T annunciation changes from ARM to N1 and the thrust levers advance toward take-off
thrust.

The A/T sets takeoff thrust. THR HLD annunciates at 84 kts (64 kts for aeroplanes with earlier
model A/T computers) to indicate that the A/T cannot change thrust level position, but thrust
levers can be repositioned manually.

After liftoff, the A/T remains in the THR HLD until 400 ft RA is reached and approximately
18 seconds have elapsed since liftoff. A/T annunciation then changes from THR HLD to ARM.
Reduction to climb thrust can now be made by pressing the N1 switch.

Until 2½ minutes after liftoff, automatic reduction to climb thrust is inhibited when in LVL CHG
or V/S mode. If V NAV, ALT ACQ or ALT HOLD is engaged during this 2½ minute period,
automatic thrust reduction occurs normally.

N1 Mode
The A/T maintains thrust at the N1 limit selected from a FMC CDU. N1 is annunciated for the
A/T and the N1 switch illuminates. Pressing the N1 switch changes the A/T mode from N1 to
ARM.

If an engine fails while the A/T is in the N1 mode, the thrust lever of the failed engine will
advance forward a few degrees and then return to or below the other thrust lever position.

Speed Mode
The speed mode is available throughout the flight once the takeoff phase is completed. Pressing
the MCP Speed Select Switch selects the speed mode if compatible with the engaged AFDS pitch
mode. MCP SPD is annunciated for the A/T mode and the Speed Mode Switch illuminates. The
speed or Mach shown in the MCP IAS/MACH Display is the target speed. The A/T will not set
power above the displayed N1 limit, however, the A/T can exceed an N1 value that has been
manually set by the N1 manual set knob. If an engine fails while the A/T is in a speed mode,
both thrust levers advance together to maintain the target speed.

When on final approach in landing configuration, it is not recommended to set the A/T command
speed to allow for wind or gust corrections. Through airspeed and acceleration sensing, the A/T
corrects for normal wind gusts. Higher command speed settings result in excessive approach
speeds. The recommended A/T approach speed setting is VREF +5.

Below 400 ft RA, A/T thrust level response rate and engine power levels are sufficient to place
the engines in the rapid acceleration range.

FMC Speed Mode

The FMC SPD mode is an A/T mode which is commanded by the FMC during V NAV operation.
When engaged, the MCP IAS/Mach display is blank, the airspeed cursors are positioned at the
FMC commanded airspeed and the A/T maintains this commanded speed. The A/T is limited
to the N1 value shown on the thrust mode annunciators.

N1 Equalization
The A/T attempts to equalize N1 through the dual servo individual thrust lever control.
Equalization control is limited to 8 degrees of thrust lever separation.

458

Aviation ebooks Company

Autothrottle Chapter 31

ARM Mode
The A/T annunciates ARM when the A/T Arm Switch is at ARM and no A/T mode is engaged.
The thrust levers can be manually positioned without interference from the A/T system while
ARM is annunciated.

The A/T automatically transfers to ARM from the SPEED or N1 mode when the mode is deselected
by pressing the respective Mode Selector Switch while the switch light is illuminated.

Descent Retard Mode

The A/T engages and annunciates RETARD during LVL CHG and V NAV descents. RETARD
changes to ARM when the thrust levers reach the aft stop or when they are manually prevented
from reaching the aft stop.

Landing Flare Retard Mode

During landing, The RETARD mode engages, reduces thrust and annunciates RETARD 2 ½
seconds after FLARE mode engagement or at 27 ft RA, whichever occurs first. During a non-
precision or visual approach with flaps extended to 15 or greater and the AFDS not in ALT ACQ
or ALT HOLD, the A/T RETARD mode engages at 27 ft RA. The A/T automatically disengages
approximately 2 seconds after landing touchdown.

Go-Around Mode
With the A/T Arm Switch at ARM, the A/T go-around mode is armed when descending below
2000 ft RA, with or without the AFDS engaged. Once armed, the A/T go-around mode can be
engaged until 2 seconds have elapsed after landing touchdown.

Pressing either TO/GA Switch engages the A/T go-around mode. GA is annunciated for the A/T
and the thrust levers advance to the reduced go-around thrust setting. This setting produces a
1000 to 2000 fpm rate of climb. After reaching reduced go-around thrust, pressing either TO/GA
Switch the second time signals the A/T to advance thrust to the full go-around N1 limit.

After reaching reduced or full go-around thrust, the A/T GA mode can be terminated by selecting
another AFDS pitch mode or when ALT ACQ annunciates engaged.

During a single engine FD go-around, the A/T will increase thrust to the full N1 limit.

Auto-throttle Disengage Switches

Pressing an Auto-throttle Disengage Switch disengages the auto-throttle (A/T). The A/T
disengage light flashes and the A/T ARM switch on the MCP trips off. Pressing the Auto- throttle
Disengage Switch a second time extinguishes the A/T warning.

After an automatic A/T disengagement pressing the Auto-throttle Disengage Switch will
extinguish the A/T warning.

Auto-Throttle Disengage Light

The A/T Disengage Light will flash red if the A/T disengages for any reason.

The A/T Disengage Light will illuminate steady red when the Disengage Light Test Switch is
held in position 2 (red filament test position) and steady amber when the Disengage Light Test
Switch is held in position 1 (amber filament test position).

459

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 31 Autothrottle

The A/T Disengage Light flashing amber indicates an A/T airspeed error if speed is not held
within +10 or -5 knots of the commanded speed when all of the following conditions exist:

¾¾ In flight
¾¾ Flaps not up
¾¾ A/T engaged in MCP SPD, or FMC SPD mode

An automatic test of the A/T flashing amber function is performed if the A/T is engaged and the
following conditions exist:

¾¾ MCP SPD or FMC SPD is the active A/T mode

¾¾ More than 150 seconds after liftoff
¾¾ Flaps extended

The A/T amber light flashes for 2 seconds, remains extinguished for 2 seconds and then flashes
for 2 seconds again.

Thrust Mode Annunciator Panel (TMA)

On the Boeing 737-400 the Thrust Mode Annunciator panel is located on the centre instrument
panel, above the N1 RPM indicators. It displays the active N1 limit reference mode for auto-
throttle and manual thrust control. N1 limits are also displayed on the N1 RPM indicator cursors
with the reference knobs pushed in.

N1 limits are normally calculated by the FMC. When FMC N1 limit calculations become invalid,
or if either engine N1 is less than 18%, A/T LIM is annunciated. The auto-throttle computer then
calculates a single N1 limit for the affected engine(s).

Flexible Take-Off
In situations where take-off can be executed without the need for full engine power (such as
light weight takeoff from a long runway), then reduced power may be used, thereby reducing
engine wear and increasing their life. This is called the Flexible take-off mode (and in the Airbus
aircraft there is a detent position for the thrust levers labelled FLEX TO). The most basic way to
achieve the reduced thrust is to manually set a lower RPM setting. To achieve a reduced power
setting with the auto-throttle we can select a temperature on the control panel that is higher
than the ambient airfield temperature. This causes the thrust computation system to calculate a
lower limiting EPR or N1, thereby producing reduced power for the take-off.

460

Aviation ebooks Company

Autothrottle Chapter 31

THRUST COMPUTATION

Thrust
Engine thrust is a force which when multiplied by TAS will give us engine power.

Thrust = mass x acceleration.

In order to calculate thrust we need to establish the mass of air flow through the engine (M)
and the change in velocity between the inlet and outlet of the engine (Vo - Vi). In practice other
parameters are measured and the thrust obtained by computation. This process is carried out
by the thrust computation system.

Thrust computation
The primary thrust parameter is EPR which is the ratio between the pressures at the compressor
intake and the turbine outlet or exhaust. If EPR is not available then N1 (fan speed) is used to
compute the thrust The thrust lever is therefore used to select a value of EPR or N1.

In the auto-thrust mode (A/THR) the thrust is computed by the flight management and guidance
system (FMGC) and is limited to the value corresponding to the thrust lever position. Most
modern engines include an electronic control system that manages engine power throughout
the flight. This is called FADEC.

Thrust rating Limit

The thrust rating limit for the engines for the various phases of flight are determined by a thrust
rating limit computer.

FADEC

The system example comes from the Airbus series of aircraft.

Function
FADEC stands for full authority digital engine control. It provides complete engine management
throughout all phases of flight and performs the following functions:

¾¾ Gas generation control (fuel flow, acceleration/deceleration, variable bleed valve and
variable stator vane schedules, turbine clearance control, idle setting)

¾¾ Engine limit protection (over-speed N1 and N2)

¾¾ Power management (control of engine thrust rating, computation of thrust parameter

limits, auto-thrust system demand, thrust lever position manual demand)

¾¾ Automatic engine starting sequence (control of start valve, fuel, ignition, monitoring
N1, N2, FF, EGT)

¾¾ Manual engine starting sequence (passive monitoring of start valve, fuel, ignition, N1,
N2, FF, EGT)

In performing its functions it takes into account such variables as power demanded, air bleed
for air conditioning and de-icing, temperature, static pressure and engine accessory selection.

Advantages
The FADEC system reduces crew workload, provides engine limit protection, improves engine
life and saves fuel and maintenance down time.

461

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 31 Autothrottle

Components
FADEC consists of an electronic engine control (EEC) plus a fuel metering unit, sensors and
peripheral units. There are suitable Interface circuits between the EEC and its peripheral units.
There are 2 FADEC channels per engine, oe in control and one in standby for redundancy. Each
channel is powered by the aircraft’s A/C supply before and during the initial start and then by
an individual internal magnetic alternator above 12% engine RPM.

Thrust control is provided by a FADEC dedicated to each engine. Thrust selection is achieved
by means of the thrust levers when in manual mode or the Flight Management and Guidance
System (FMGS) when in automatic mode. Thrust rating limit is provided by the FADEC
according to the thrust lever position both for manual and automatic thrust.

Fuel Control
In addition to the high pressure fuel pumps and shut off system there are again 2 main systems
controlling engine performance. The Hydro- Mechanical Unit (HMU) is modulated by the
FADEC. It provides control of fuel flow to the combustion chamber, control of fuel hydraulic
signals to actuators, and over-speed protection.

The Fuel Metering Valve (FMV) transforms FADEC orders through a torque motor / servo valve
into fuel flow to the engine nozzle. The FMV resolver provides an electrical feedback signal
proportional to the FMV position. The by-pass valve regulates a constant pressure drop across
the FMV to ensure that metered fuel flow is proportional to FMV position.

The FADEC computes fuel flow necessary to hold the target N1. To obtain this N1, the N2 is
allowed to vary without exceeding N2 min and N2 max. The FADEC will also vary N2/N1 in
order to maintain RPM under varying load conditions, maintain bleed air production, avoid
engine stalls or flameout. With the Airbus FADEC it even modulates the cooling airflow around
the engine in order to expand or contract the casing to control the compressor and turbine
clearances at nominal settings.

Thrust Levers
The thrust levers are only moved manually (unlike many other auto-throttle systems). They
move over a sector which is divided into 4 segments defined by 5 detents or stops. Thrust lever
position is transmitted to the FADEC which computes and displays the thrust rating limit and
the N1 TLA. Note that there is no reverse idle detent. When the idle stop is cleared by pulling
up the reverse thrust levers, reverse idle is selected.

Thrust Rating Limit

Thrust rating limit is computed according to the thrust lever position. If the thrust lever is set
in a detent the FADEC will select the rating limit corresponding to this detent. If the lever is set
between 2 detents the FADEC will select the rating limit corresponding to the higher mode.

462

Aviation ebooks Company

Autothrottle Chapter 31

Thrust Control:

Manual Mode
The engines are in the manual mode provided that the ATS function is:

Not armed
Armed and not active (thrust lever is not in the ATS operating range and/or no alpha floor
condition)

In these conditions, each engine is controlled by the position of the corresponding thrust lever.
Thrust modulation is performed by the pilot moving the thrust lever from IDLE to TO/GA
position. Each position of the thrust lever within these limits correspond to a N1. When the
thrust lever is positioned in a detent, the corresponding N1 is equal to the N1 rating limit
computed by the associated FADEC.

When the thrust lever is set in the FLX-MCT detent:

On the ground: When the engine is running, the flex TO thrust rating is selected provided a flex
TO temperature greater than the current TAT has been selected through the MCDU. Otherwise
the MCT thrust is selected.

After TO
A change from FLX to MCT is achieved by setting the thrust lever to TO/GA or CL position and
then back to MCT. After that FLX rating setting is not possible.

MAX TO power is always available by pushing the thrust lever fully forwards.

Automatic Mode
In the auto-thrust mode (A/THR function active), the thrust is computed by the FMGC and is
limited to the value corresponding to the thrust lever position (except if the alpha floor mode
is activated).

Inputs

¾¾ Air data parameters from the air data inertial reference system.

¾¾ Operational commands from the engine interface unit ( target N1 )

¾¾ Thrust lever angle (TLA)

¾¾ Engine Pressure sensors ( N1 and N2 )

¾¾ Temperature (EGT)

¾¾ Fuel flow.

Outputs

¾¾ Data outputs necessary for the FMGS

¾¾ Thrust parameters and TLA to the FMGS

¾¾ Control signals to the fuel metering unit

¾¾ Command N1 to the ECAM display.

463

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 31 Autothrottle

464

Aviation ebooks Company

Yaw Dampers Chapter 32

CHAPTER THIRTY TWO

YAW DAMPERS

Contents
DUTCH ROLL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
FUNCTION OF A YAW DAMPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
THE YAW DAMPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
DUTCH ROLL FILTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
RUDDER CONTROL COMPUTING AUTHORITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
THREE AXIS AUTOPILOT WITH SERVO MOTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
RUDDER CONTROL SYSTEM SCHEMATIC (Boeing 727) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
EXAMPLE OF SEPARATE YAW DAMPER AND MAIN ACTUATOR . . . . . . . . . 478
EXAMPLE OF A DUPLEX YAW DAMPER SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

465

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 32 Yaw Dampers

Figure 32.1 Dutch Roll Stability

Figure 32.2 Change in Effect Asppect Ratio with Yaw

466

Aviation ebooks Company

Yaw Dampers Chapter 32

DUTCH ROLL

Dutch roll is caused by the interplay between lateral stability around the longitudinal axis (roll)
and longitudinal stability around the vertical axis (yaw) of an aircraft in flight. An aircraft with
an excess of lateral stability will by default have poor directional stability and therefore will be
susceptible to dutch roll.

More simply, any disturbance of an aircraft in yaw directly causes a secondary disturbance in
roll and visa versa. Stability is determined as the aircraft’s natural tendency to resist and counter
these disturbances to return to the same conditions as before the perturbation. If the relative
stabilities in yaw and roll are in a particular range of proportions to each other, Dutch Roll can
be the effect.

Consider an aircraft disturbed by a gust causing it to yaw. As the aircraft yaws one wing will
travel slightly faster through the surrounding air and the other wing will travel slightly slower.
The fast wing will produce slightly more lift than before and the slower wing will produce
slightly less. This obviously will produce a roll.

As lift increases then lift induced drag will increase so the faster, higher wing will produce more
drag and the low wing will produce less. This causes a yawing moment in opposition to the
initial disturbance and the whole process is reversed.

Swept wing further exasperate the tendency for dutch roll because the forward going wing
undergoes a reduction in effective wing sweep, further increasing the lift it produces, while the
retreating wing experiences an increase in effective wing sweep, again reducing its lift.

All airline aircraft will be statically stable, in that they will naturally try to return to the
undisturbed condition. Whether or not they are dynamically stable depends on the amount of
damping force available. This is produced by the stabilizing aerodynamic surfaces in the main.
As an aircraft climbs however its true air speed must increase to maintain the lift pressure. This
increase in TAS means that the relative angle of attack for the aerodynamic surfaces is reduced
for the same given disturbance, and so the corrective force supplied by that surface is reduced,
so the damping effectiveness is reduced at high altitude.

FUNCTION OF A YAW DAMPER

To increase the damping forces at altitude could mean an increase in the overall size of the
stabilizing surfaces but this would also increase drag. Another option is to produce an aircraft
that is dynamically stable at lower and middle altitudes and have a system to automatically
counter dutch roll which can detect the start of the oscillations at levels below the threshold of
the pilots ability to detect and with rapid, effective rudder deflections, stopping the dutch roll
almost before it starts. This system we call a Yaw Damper.

The number of yaw dampers fitted depends on how stable the aircraft is. If the dutch roll is easy
for the pilot to control (it is not diverging quickly and the frequency of oscillation is reasonably
large) then only one yaw damper may be required. Large, modern, airliners generally have
poor dutch roll characteristics and so tend to have 2 and even 3 yaw damper systems, because
a failure of all the systems may well limit the altitude at which the aircraft can operate to one
suitably low to increase the damping forces available and reduce the tendency for dutch roll to
start.

467

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 32 Yaw Dampers

Figure 32.3 Principle of Phase Advance

468

Aviation ebooks Company

Yaw Dampers Chapter 32

THE YAW DAMPER

Typical Yaw Damping Signal Processing

Sensing
Sensing of a disturbance in yaw is usually by a rate gyro, though some systems may employ
an accelerometer. The objective being to sense the yawning motion as quickly as possible and
produce a correcting signal / demand to the servo/actuator which then feeds signals to the
rudder control system to apply rudder in opposition to that yaw.

Phase Advance
Is means of applying the damping application as soon as possible. The reason for this is that
damping must be applied when the rate of disturbance is at its greatest, not when the disturbance
as moved to the point where the natural stability of the fin has arrested the disturbance. If a
rudder application is applied at the same instant the fin starts to return the aircraft, both the
combined forces will over correct and cause the aircraft to overshoot. Figure 32.3 tries to explain
the ideal damping required.

Figure 32.3 shows a typical phase advance of the signal by 90°. It can be seen that it is nothing more
than a capacitor and resistor connected to form a differentiator. The output of a differentiator is
a rate signal. Therefore, if the input to the phase advance is a yaw rate, the output must be rate/
rate, which is acceleration. The circuit has effectively accelerated the yaw signal to provide the
rapid damping the system requires.

DUTCH ROLL FILTER

The system as described, however, would also interpret a normally commanded turn as
a yaw and act in opposition to produce an uncoordinated turn (in fact the rudder would be
exacerbating the coordination problem by introducing the full amount of its rudder authority
in the opposite direction to that required). So the Yaw Damper system needs to be able to
distinguish commanded turn inputs from yaw due to a disturbance or apparent dutch roll.

When an aircraft is turned, the aircraft rolls about the longitudinal axis in the direction of the
turn and also YAWS about the vertical axis. A yaw damper is provide to dampen dutch roll, not
to prevent the aircraft following a turn command. Therefore only the dutch roll frequency must
be acted upon by the yaw damper.

The dutch roll frequency is based on the natural yawing frequency of the aircraft. The frequency
is relatively LOW and will differ slightly with aircraft type. Typical valued being 0.2hz – Bae
1-11, 0.4Hz - Boeing 747.

Yaw dampers must be designed to allow the dutch roll frequency to control the rudder but
block other frequencies. Figure 32.5 illustrates a typical dutch roll filter and circuit action.

Initially, while the rate of turn is building up to the constant rate, the dutch roll filter output
also builds, then falls off to nothing when the rate of turn becomes constant. The reverse, with
opposite polarity as the filter capacitor discharges, occurs as the aircraft levels out on completion
of the turn. Therefore, whilst the turn is constant the filter output is zero. This results in no
rudder demand.

Figure 32.4 shows an aircraft yawing at the dutch roll frequency. Since the rate of turn is the
constantly changing, the output from the rate gyro is constantly changing. The D.C. graph at the
bottom of Figure 32.4. is the dutch roll filter output.

469

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 32 Yaw Dampers

Figure 32.4 Filter Output - Dutch Roll

The D.C. polarities are the greatest when the rate of turn is the greatest and reverse when the
direction of turn (rate of gyro signal) reverses.

Figure 32.5 is s super simplified yaw damper, illustrating mainly dutch roll filter. The dutch
roll filter is a NARROW BAND PASS FILTER designed to pass only signals which change the
frequency of the dutch roll. The rate gyro produces outputs for all turns, but only those related
to dutch roll will appear at the input to the servo amplifier driving the rudder servo motor.

RUDDER CONTROL COMPUTING AUTHORITY

As removal of oscillations does not require a large rudder movement and to reduce the hazard
posed by a yaw damper runaway, yaw damper authority is normally only about 3-6 degrees
left and right of centre. If 2 yaw damper systems are operating on a single span rudder their
authority is accumulative, i.e. singly each system could move the rudder by 3 degrees, together
they can move it by 6 degrees.

On aircraft with a split rudder surface, if one yaw damper system fails then the aircraft has only ½
the yaw damper protection that it originally had. This is allowed for in the design and operation
of the aircraft. As even this small input may cause over-stress in certain flying conditions, some
aircraft have an input to the yaw damper computer from the CADC to schedule the gain of the
yaw damper inputs for the ambient flying conditions. At high speed therefore the yaw damper
authority may be even further reduced to avoid an over-stress condition.

470

Aviation ebooks Company

Yaw Dampers Chapter 32

Figure 32.5 Basic Yaw Damper Showing Dutch Roll Filter

Figure 32.6 Yaw Damper Effect in a Commanded Turn

THREE AXIS AUTOPILOT WITH SERVO MOTOR

Engagement
Prior to engagement, the rudder signal chain is earthed and the rudder servo, which is
disconnected from the rudder control runs, synchronises to the null position. Refer to Figure
32.7 for circuit description. On engagement, 29.5V AC is connected to the rudder servo clutch.
At the same time, a rudder engage thermal relay operates and energises a rudder engage relay
to connect filtered bank demand signal from the aileron channel to the rudder servo loop. The
half second delay between energising the rudder servo clutch and operating the rudder engage
relay permits a transient free engagement. Any yaw rate which then develops, produce a rudder
deflection which tends to oppose the yaw rate.

471

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 32 Yaw Dampers

Figure 32.7 Three Axis Autopilot - Rudder Channel - Elliot E2000Ap

472

Aviation ebooks Company

Yaw Dampers Chapter 32

Figure 32.8 Rudder Controls

Yaw Rate Signal

The yaw rate signal is derived from a synchro attached to the yaw rate gyro which forms part
of the Three-Axis rate transmitter. The Band Pass Filter has a peak frequency of 0.2Hz, which is
the natural yawing frequency of the aircraft. It attenuates steady and slowly changing yaw rate
signals which are present during a steady turn to prevent unwanted rudder deflection which
would mis-coordinate the manoeuvre.

Bank Demand Crossfeed

To improve co-ordination in autopilot control, the rudder correction is applied during the
manoeuvres. the demand signal is modified by a function of IAS from the CADC. This is because
a smaller rudder deflection is needed at high speed than at low speed for a given bank angle.

Dynamic Vertical Sensor

Dynamic Vertical Sensor, which consists of a damped pendulum, provides a signal which is
proportional to the difference between the aircraft vertical and the dynamic vertical. In the long
term, yawing movement caused by an un-coordinated turn or engine failure is thus opposed by
a sustained rudder deflection instead of a side slip.

473

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 32 Yaw Dampers

When the flap selector lever is moved to give more than 26° of flap, the flap relays the increase
the gain of the dynamic vertical sensor signal, and decrease the gain of the yaw rate signal.

Series Yaw Damper Operation

The yaw damper provides damping of the aircraft’s yaw axis movement by shaping, amplifying
and coupling rate gyro and yaw damper actuator position signals to control the rudder through
the hydraulic actuator. The yaw damper operation is confined to synchronisation mode and
engaged mode.

Operating Modes

Synchronisation
Is to prevent yaw axis engagement transients by cancelling servo motor outputs by an inverting
integrator. RL1 is energised prior to yaw damper engagement. Any amplifier output is fed back
through the integrator, the inversion through the integrator cancels any transients present. On
engagement of the yaw damper, RL1 is de-energised.

Engaged Mode
Providing the interlock logic is good, the engage solenoid engages allowing the yaw damper
elements of the Power Control Unit (PCU) to pressurise. The rate gyro signal is phase advanced
and applied to the de-modulator. The demodulator converts the signal to a DC signal where the
output polarity will represent the AC signal input phase. The yaw damper frequency is passed
by the bandpass filter which blocks all other frequencies. Consequently, the yaw damper does
not oppose normal turn manoeuvres and does not respond to aircraft vibration and bending. The
modulator restores the AC signal maintaining the appropriate phase. The servo amplifies the
signal and applies it to the transfer valve which in turn drives the yaw damper actuator which
drives the main actuator. The maximum deflection of the rudder is 3° - 4° in either direction.

The LVDT position feedback is applied to SP2 to cancel the processed rate gyro signal when
the corresponding change in rudder position is appropriate for the rate of yaw change. Position
feedback is also applied through the energised relays of RL2 which is fed back to SP2.The
purpose of this is to ensure that the rudder will always return back to the neutral position. The
rudder can be effected by crosswinds. If the crosswind is strong, the position feedback voltage
may not be large enough to drive the rudder to the central position. The position feedback
voltage now causes INT 2 to ramp up, increasing the voltage at SP2. This increase in position
feedback starts to drive the rudder back to the neutral position. As the rudder returns the
position feedback voltage decreases allowing the integrator to run down.

Yaw Damper Testing

Actuation of the yaw damper test switch to either the right or the left applies a voltage to
the yaw damper rate gyro torquing coil which torques the rate gyro and simulates aircraft
movement. The rudder position indicator responds to this action of an output from the position
transducer. If the switch is moved to the left the indication will first move to the left and then
back to the centre, on release of the switch the indication will move to the right and back to the
centre. The reverse will happen if the switch is first moved to the right.

Yaw Damper Indications

Yaw damper controls and indications are fairly simple. On a typical aircraft (fitted with 2 yaw
dampers), the main indications will be a panel or part thereof that contains an on/off switch, a
test switch or button and a failure light for each of the yaw dampers. The failure light indicates
many faults in the system; loss of hydraulic or electrical power, logic failure in the yaw damper
computation system, loss of input from the rate gyro. The switch can then be used to isolate the
inoperative yaw damper to avoid spurious rudder inputs.

474

Aviation ebooks Company

Yaw Dampers Chapter 32

Also involved with the monitoring of the yaw dampers is a small rudder trim indicator, one for
each yaw damper system fitted. It indicates the demands on the rudder by moving left and right
of centre. It is mainly used during the testing of the yaw dampers during pre-flight checks. If the
yaw damper test switch is operated for one of the yaw dampers a test signal operates a small
torquing coil on the yaw damper rate gyro. This moves the gyro and fools the yaw damper
system into thinking that an yaw condition exists. A pass at test is indicated by the position
moving in the direction tested and back to centre. Moving the switch to the left simulates a yaw
in one direction and the position indicator should move to left also. If the switch is operated to
the right then the rudder should move to the right.

Other aircraft use a test system where an artificial signal representing an oscillatory yaw is used
causing the rudder to move left and right at approximately 0.5 Hz. The yaw damper is switched
on and the oscillations should stop.

Common to all these tests is the fact that if the yaw damper is engaged the rudder itself may
be being moved and as with moving any surface or service on the ground there are safety
considerations.

RUDDER CONTROL SYSTEM SCHEMATIC (Boeing 727)

Manual inputs from the rudder pedals to the rudder power unit is by cables through the rudder
feel and centring unit. The feel is accomplished by a feel and centring spring. The input crank
positions the control valve through the summing assembly. The hydraulic pressure is ported to
move the main actuator. The main actuator to the external summing lever returns the control
valve to neutral, stopping further movement. A right rudder command is demonstrated by the
solid arrows and the dashed line indicates feedback.

When the yaw damper is engaged, the yaw damper actuator solenoid will energise allowing
hydraulic pressure into the transfer valve. When a signal is received from the yaw damper the
transfer valve converts the signal from an electrical signal into a hydraulic signal. The output
of the transfer valve displaces the yaw damper actuator which is pivoted about “A” displacing
the control valve. The hydraulic output moves the main actuator, the feedback will move the
external summing lever as the rudder is moved. This will stop the rudder movement. The
rudder is recentered by a feedback signal from the LVDT to the yaw damper coupler. Command
is limited to ±5°.

The Boeing 727 yaw damper is a series system. Therefore, yaw damper inputs will not be fed
back to the rudder pedals. This is achieved through the external summing lever. This unit allows
the main rudder power control unit to move the rudder but the swinging function about the
input shaft pivot does not transfer the movement back to the rudder pedals.

475

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 32 Yaw Dampers

Figure 32.9 Rudder Control System Schematic (Boeing 727)

476

Aviation ebooks Company

Yaw Dampers Chapter 32

Figure 32.10 Series Yaw Damper Systamatic Diagram

477

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 32 Yaw Dampers

Figure 32.11 Boeing 757 Yaw Damper Panels and Yaw Damper Servo

EXAMPLE OF SEPARATE YAW DAMPER AND MAIN ACTUATOR

(BOEING 757/767)

The input from the servo amplifier to the actuator is converted from an electrical signal to
a hydraulic demand by a conventional transfer valve. The yaw damper usually has its own
actuator with a LVDT for position feedback. A main actuator controls the rudder. The two
individual actuator systems allows easy separation between manual inputs and autopilot
inputs in a series connected yaw damper.

Figure 32.13 shows practical connection of the two actuator systems. The diagram is based
on a Boeing 757. Two yaw dampers are fitted, the left and right system. Each yaw damper
can be selected individually from the yaw damper control panel, both systems are operating
together.

Each system feeds its own servo actuator, supplied by a different hydraulic system. A mechanical
linkage connects both outputs into the main rudder actuators. With all three hydraulic systems
and all three actuators serviceable, the three actuators will operate simultaneously to control
the rudder.

Series interfacing with rudder

The inputs to the rudder system are in series with the pilots rudder input. This means that
although the rudder is being moved by the yaw dampers and some of the rudder authority that
pilot would normally have is being lost, the pilot will not feel the operation of the yaw damper
through the pedals.

478

Aviation ebooks Company

Yaw Dampers Chapter 32

Figure 32.12 Simplified Schematic of Boeing 757 Yaw Damper Actuators

479

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 32 Yaw Dampers

Figure 32.13 Rudder Control System Schematic

480

Aviation ebooks Company

Yaw Dampers Chapter 32

Power Sources for movement (s/m/l)

Small aircraft without a substantial hydraulic system that still require yaw damping may use
electrical actuation to achieve rudder movement. Large aircraft will invariably use hydraulic
actuation through the normal rudder power system. Some more obscure types may use
pneumatic actuation.

Monitoring
As has been stated previously a yaw damper runaway can be guarded against by reducing the
amount of control input it can achieve in the event of a fault occurring. With 2 yaw damper
systems running side by side however, they can be used to monitor each other. This is called
Duplexing.

This comparison can be carried out electrically or mechanically. The example shown is of the
latter type from a BAe 146 RJ.

EXAMPLE OF A DUPLEX YAW DAMPER SYSTEM

(SMITH’S - Bae 146)

Some yaw damper systems operate in a duplex mode (duplex monitoring), providing lateral
stabilisation through all phases of flight.

A duplex system provides the monitoring necessary to prevent large fast movements of
the rudder in the event of a runaway fault condition. The two channels are identical and
independent, their outputs being fed to a comparator. Misalignment between them will cause
automatic disengagement of both channels. Figure 32.14 shows a block diagram of the system.

As the channels are identical, only one single channel will be considered:

Any unwanted lateral movement generates a yaw rate gyro 400 Hz signal. The phase of the
signal will determine the direction of the rudder and the amplitude will determine the rate of
movement of the rudder. The signal is reduced at 30° of flap to compensate for the effects of
increased airflow over the control surface.

The vertical gyro input is differentiated to produce a roll rate signal to assist in rudder application
when a roll is sensed. If the roll is a commanded turn, the roll rate signal decays quickly to
prevent the rudder opposing the turn.

The roll rate and yaw rate signals are fed through a 90° phase advance differentiating capacitor
to accelerate the signal to ensure that damping is applied at the correct time. The signal is then
summed with the Lateral Accelerometer. The accelerometer applies rudder to compensate for
slip and skid during a turn.

The summed yaw rate, roll and lateral signal is fed to the input of a servo amplifier where it is
summed with the rate and position feedback. The resultant of this summation is used to control
the actuator motor drive circuit and hence the actuator motor. This is mechanically linked to a
tacho-generator to provide rate feedback and an LVDT to provide position feedback.

Each actuator motor drives two rams which drive one side of a ‘T’ bar onto the rudder drive
mechanism. The right angles at the top of this ‘T’ bar are checked by the comparator switches,
misalignment causes both yaw dampers to be disengaged.

481

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 32 Yaw Dampers

Figure 32.14 Duplex Monitor Yaw Damper System - Smiths BAe 146

Different sources of 115V 400Hz and 28VDC are provided to both channels. The initial switch
on is made by two master yaw damper switches. This provides initial power to the system and
allows the gyros to run up. The actuator brake will still be on at this time and the power held
off the servo amp. Engaging the yaw dampers on the autopilot controller starts interlock and
monitor circuit operation. A one second timer starts, which allows the actuators to align. The
actuator brakes are released and engagement is complete.

482

Aviation ebooks Company

Yaw Dampers Chapter 32

Figure 32.15 Bendix FCS-60B Three Axis Autopilot - Dual Control

Vibration
All structures have frequencies at which they oscillate or resonate. The vibrations can be caused
by the engines, pumps, generators, aerodynamic loads etc. These vibrations cause flexing of the
structure which leads to fatigue and eventually failure of the structure. The vibrations can also
cause passenger discomfort in the form of fatigue due to excess noise and motion sickness. The
very latest yaw damper systems (767 era) have between 2 and 4 Modal Accelerometers fitted
fore and aft. These are fed in parallel with the gyro input and allow the yaw damper system
to utilize the rudder to damp out these vibrations. This increases both passenger comfort and
decreases fatigue of the airframe thus increasing its life.

483

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 32 Yaw Dampers

484

Aviation ebooks Company

Control Laws Chapter 33

CHAPTER THIRTY THREE

CONTROL LAWS

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
BOEING 737-400 AUTO PILOT LIMITING AND REVERSION MODES . . . . . . . . 487
FLIGHT ENVELOPE PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
THE PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
HIGH ANGLE OF ATTACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
HIGH SPEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
PITCH ATTITUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
BANK ANGLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
LOAD FACTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
AUTOPILOT GAIN ADAPTION / GAIN SCHEDULING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

485

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 33 Control Laws

486

Aviation ebooks Company

Control Laws Chapter 33

INTRODUCTION

The autopilot must be able to manouevre the aircraft logically and safely in a similar manner
to the way a human pilot should. This means ensuring the autopilot does not break aircraft
limitations in terms of speed, load factor, pitch and bank limits etc. However the autopilot
should be able to use a satisfactory amount of the performance of the aircraft otherwise the
manoeuvres would take too long to execute.

For example consider a light aircraft on a VFR navigational exercise. Overhead the next way-
point the pilot requires an 80° left turn to proceed to the next point. The bank angle used will
be determined by that turn. The pilot will not generally choose under normal circumstances
to turn with 5° of bank as that would mean the turn taking an inordinate amount of time.
Conversely the pilot would not normally choose a 90° banked turn as that would be excessively
hard, possibly breaking load factor limitations as well as probably causing a loss of height. A
turn using 30° - 45° angle of bank would be the most sensible. If the turn required was about 10°
instead of 80° then banking to 30° would generally be considered to be too harsh.

The autopilot needs to be able to apply similar logic to all its actions. Whenever the autopilot is
required to make a correction either for stability or when referring to a particular flight path the
control response will always be in proportion to deviation or corrective action required but only
up to a limit that prevents the autopilot attempting a manouevre that would cause an excursion
from the safe flight envelope.

BOEING 737-400 AUTO PILOT LIMITING AND REVERSION MODES

Command Speed Limiting and Reversion Modes

To prevent the AFS from causing a flight envelope excursion there is a system of command
speed limiting and reversion modes. AFS command limiting and reversion is independent of
the stall warning and airspeed/Mach warning systems.

Command Speed Limiting

The AFS provides speed, pitch and thrust commands to avoid exceeding the following limit
speeds:

¾¾ VMO / M MO.
¾¾ Wing flap limiting speeds.
¾¾ Landing gear speeds.
¾¾ Minimum speeds

The commanded speed can be equal to, but will not exceed a limit speed.

Speeds greater than VMO / M MO cannot be selected from the MCP. Speeds can be selected
which exceed flap and gear limiting speeds or that are less than the minimum flight speed.

Minimum speed is based on an angle of attack and is approximately 1.3VS for the current
flap configuration. It is sensed by the angle of attack vanes, one on either side of the forward
fuselage.

If a speed greater than a placard speed, or less than the minimum speed is selected, the AFS
allows acceleration or deceleration to slightly short of the limit, then commands the limit speed.
The over-speed or under-speed limiting symbol appears in the MCP IAS/Mach display when
the commanded speed cannot be reached.

487

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 33 Control Laws

Either pitch or thrust, whichever is engaged in a speed mode, attempts to hold the limit speed.
The commanded limit speed and MCP speed condition symbol remain until another speed is
selected which does not exceed the limit. A speed 15 kts greater than the minimum speed must
be selected to remove the under-speed symbol.

Reversion Modes
During some flight situations, speed control by the AFDS or A/T alone could be insufficient to
prevent exceeding a limit speed. If this occurs, AFDS and A/T mode automatically revert to a
more effective combination. The reversion modes are:

Placard Limit reversion.

Minimum airspeed reversion.

Mode reversion occurs slightly before reaching the limit speed. Both the AFDS and the A/T
have reversion modes which activate according to the condition causing the reversion.

Placard Limit Reversion

When one of the placard limits (gear, flap or VMO / M MO) is reached, the over-speed limiting
symbol appears in the MCP IAS/Mach display and the following occurs:

¾¾ If not in AFDS or A/T speed control and the A/T is armed, the A/T reverts to SPEED
mode and controls speed to the placard limit.

¾¾ If in AFDS or A/T speed control, no reversion is necessary. The AFDS or A/T, whichever
is controlling speed, holds speed slightly below the placard limit.

¾¾ If the A/T is not available, no reversion response to gear or flap placard speeds is avail-
able. The AFDS reverts to speed control for VMO / M MO speed limiting.

Minimum Speed Reversion

The AFDS and A/T do not control speed to a speed which is less than the minimum speed
for the current flap configuration. This speed is approximately 1.3 VS. Minimum speed, FMC
speed or selected speed, whichever is higher, becomes the AFS commanded speed. If actual
speed becomes equal to or slightly less than the minimum speed, the under speed limiting
symbol appears in the MCP IAS/Mach display and if operating in the V/S mode, the AFDS
reverts to LVL CHG.

The AFS commands a speed 5 kts greater than the minimum speed. Selecting a speed 15 kts
greater than the minimum speed reactivates normal MCP speed selection control. The AFDS
commands nose down pitch to increase airspeed if the thrust levers are not advanced. When
actual speed becomes 15 kts greater than minimum speed, the under speed limiting symbol
disappears.

The A/P disengages and the FD command bars retract when in LVL CHG climb with a command
speed equal to minimum speed and a minimum rate of climb cannot be maintained without
decelerating.

No minimum speed reversion is available when the A/T is OFF and the AFDS is in ALT HOLD,
ALT ACQ or after G/S capture.

488

Aviation ebooks Company

Control Laws Chapter 33

FLIGHT ENVELOPE PROTECTION

INTRODUCTION

Flight envelope protection is taken to the extreme by fly-by-wire aircraft with the aim of ensuring
that the aircraft remains within the normal flight envelope in all phases of flight. The system
prevents the envelope being violated during extreme situations, such as:

¾¾ Windshear
¾¾ Very high turbulence
¾¾ Midair collision avoidance
¾¾ GPWS or TCAS activation
¾¾ Mismanagement by the crew.

The purpose of the flight envelope protection is to:

¾¾ Give full authority to the pilot in order to consistently achieve the best possible air-
craft performance in those extreme conditions.
¾¾ Reduce the risks of over controlling / overstressing the aircraft.
¾¾ Provide the pilot with an easy, instinctive and immediate procedure to achieve the best
possible performance when required.

THE PROTECTION

The system provides protection in all phases of flight to prevent the aircraft exceeding the limits
for the following parameters:

¾¾ Angle of attack
¾¾ Speed
¾¾ Pitch attitude
¾¾ Bank angle
¾¾ Load factor.

HIGH ANGLE OF ATTACK

The protection enables the pilot to execute a rapid pull-up manoeuvre in an emergency situation
(as in a midair collision avoidance situation) at maximum angle of attack, max, without over-
controlling the aircraft. The technique requires simply that the pilot “snatch stick fully back”.
If the aircraft exceeds the normal flight envelope for any reason, the pilot is immediately made
aware of the situation by the pitch auto-trim stop and the aft pressure required on the stick
to keep the flight path. The high angle of attack protection is an aerodynamic protection but
thrust is required to maintain the flight path and the auto-thrust function would automatically
provide TOGA thrust when the aircraft reaches a certain value (called floor ) before it gets to
max. The input to the circuit is the angle of attack and the output is applied to the elevators and
the auto-thrust.

489

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 33 Control Laws

HIGH SPEED

High speed protection circuits prevent the aircraft from reaching Vd / Md by adding a positive
nose-up G demand to the pilot demand on the stick; this demand is proportional to the amount
of speed overshoot beyond Vmo / Mmo. This enables a pilot to enter a steep dive rapidly by
pushing the stick forward, safe in the knowledge that the high speed protection will prevent the
aircraft from exceeding the design speed limits.

The inputs to the unit would be airspeed/mach no. from the air data computer and the output
is applied to the elevators.

PITCH ATTITUDE

The pitch attitude protection enhances the high angle of attack protection and the high speed
protection. The circuit reduces the pitch demand of the stick when the aircraft reaches the pre-
defined maximum pitch attitude values which are:

30° nose-up and 15° nose-down.

The input is the pitch angle from the attitude gyros and the output is applied to the elevators.

BANK ANGLE

On a commercial aircraft the bank angle does not normally exceed 30°. However in certain
circumstances higher bank angles might be required. Bank angle protection allows the pilot to
achieve any roll manoeuvre efficiently and prevents the aircraft entering into an uncontrollable
state. For example, the limits of bank angle for an Airbus aircraft are:

¾¾ 67° in the normal flight envelope

¾¾ 45° when high A.o.A is triggered
¾¾ 40° when high speed protection is triggered.

After a roll manoeuvre if the pilot releases the stick the aircraft would return to a bank angle
of 33. The bank angle limit is achieved by reducing the roll rate demand progressively as the
bank angle increases.

LOAD FACTOR

A commercial aircraft is designed to withstand a maximum load factor, beyond which structural
damage is likely to occur. In aircraft where no protection is provided the pilot has to assess the
instantaneous G load and could overstress the aircraft in an urgent situation.

Load factor protection is provided by sensing the G load on the aircraft with accelerometers.
The G load limiter protects the aircraft against overstress by maintaining it within its structural
limitations while allowing the pilot to react immediately to an evasive manoeuvre. The load
factor protection is linked to the high angle of attack protection.

490

Aviation ebooks Company

Control Laws Chapter 33

AUTOPILOT GAIN ADAPTION / GAIN SCHEDULING

In the same way as the Flight Director System uses gain scheduling to reduce demands when
in close proximity with the ground in order to ensure that the FD system does not demand
a manouevre that would endanger the aircraft, the autopilot has a comparable system. This
ensures that for example, during an auto-land the autopilots pitch and roll authority is
significantly reduced as the aircraft nears the ground. An example of this may be an aircraft
that has an autopilot which when used in the manual mode may have bank angle limited to
45°. During VOR or Localiser tracking this may be reduced to 30° as that is deemed all that is
necessary. However during the final phase of an automatic approach or an auto-land this may
be reduced to 15°.

Gain adaption may also be used to alter the autopilots limits to allow for differing aircraft
performance at different altitudes and speeds. Although artificial feel is provided to give pilots
awareness of control forces, autopilots could easily ignore artificial feel inputs and overstress
the aircraft. So an input from the ADC to the autopilot may be used to reduce the autopilots
authority in proportion to Q.

491

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 33 Control Laws

492

Aviation ebooks Company

AFCS Revision Questions Chapter 34

CHAPTER THIRTY FOUR

REVISION QUESTIONS - AFCS

Contents
QUESTION PAPER 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
QUESTION PAPER 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
ANSWERS - PAPER 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
ANSWERS - PAPER 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

493

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 34 AFCS Revision Questions

494

Aviation ebooks Company

AFCS Revision Questions Chapter 34

QUESTION PAPER 1

1. A single axis autopilot system:

a. Provides stabilisation about the normal axis

b. Provides control about the pitch axis
c. Is unsuitable for use in powered aircraft
d. Provides control about the roll axis

2. A single axis autopilot may also be called:

a. Altitude hold
b. Wing leveller
c. Pitch control loop
d. Auto stabilisation loop

3. An auto pilot:

a. Is a system which will maintain a preselected altitude

b. is a system which will maintain a preselected airspeed
c. is an auto stabilisation system
d. Is an outer loop control system

4. The fundamental components of an autopilot control loop are:

a. Rate gyro, servomotor, error signal generator

b. Rate gyro, servo motor, torque limiter
c. Torque limiter, error signal generator, servomotor
d. Servo motor, rate gyro, torque limiter, error signal generator

5. A device in a closed loop control system in which a small power input controls a much larger
power output in a strictly proportionate manner is:

a. An amplifier
b. A servomechanism
c. A powered flying control unit
d. A rate gyro

6. An automatic flight control system:

a. Is another name for an autopilot system

b. Applies flight data to the auto pilot system
c. Is automatically disengaged by a GPWS alert
d. Can only be used in EFIS equipped aircraft

7. An aircraft has yaw damping included in its auto stabilisation system. An essential
requirement of such a system is:

a. A three axis autopilot system

b. Parallel connected servo motors
c. Automatic maintenance of c of g position
d. INS inputs to the CADC

495

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 34 AFCS Revision Questions

8. Automatic flight systems may be capable of controlling the aircraft flight in:

a. Azimuth, elevation and velocity

b. Azimuth and velocity only
c. Azimuth only
d. Azimuth and elevation only

9. An automatic flight control system is fitted with control wheel steering (CWS)

a. The autopilot must be disengaged before the pilot can input manoeuvring commands
b. Manoeuvring commands may be input by applying normal forces to the control yoke
without first disengaging the autopilot
c. Manoeuvring commands may be input using pitch and turn controls on the automatic
flight system control panel, without first disengaging the autopilot
d. The CWS is only there for steering on the ground

10. During an approach to an autoland at 1500 feet:

a. Off line channels are manually engaged, flare mode is armed

b. Localiser is controlling the roll channel, off line channels are automatically engaged
and flare mode is armed
c. Localiser is controlling the roll channel, stabiliser is trimmed nose up and roll out is
armed
d. Provided both localiser and glideslope signals are valid LAND 3 will illuminate

11. What type of autoland system would be required for the landing to continue following
a single failure below alert height:

a. Fail soft
b. Fail passive
c. Fail operational or fail active
d. Land 2 system

12. Inputs to the rudder channels initially originate from:

a. Servomotors
b. Compass gyro and gyro for AH
c. Compass gyro and turn and slip gyro
d. AH gyro and turn and slip gyro

13. An automatic flight system which can safely continue with an automatic landing after a
system failure is a:

a. Fail redundant system

b. Fail passive system
c. Three axis system
d. Fail operational system

14. Altitude Select and Altitude Hold are examples of:

a. inner loop functions in pitch

b. manometric functions from the ADC
c. interlocking functions
d. outer loop functions in roll

496

Aviation ebooks Company

AFCS Revision Questions Chapter 34

15. During an autoland the caption LAND 2 is illuminated. The system is:

a. Fail active or fail operational

b. Fail passive
c. Approaching decision height
d. Requiring a crew input

16. For an autoland system to meet FAIL PASSIVE criteria it must:

a. Have suitable system redundancy

b. Withstand a system failure without excessive deviations from flight path
c. Can continue with an autoland below alert height
d. Can continue with an autoland above alert height

17. During an autoland at 50 ft AGL (45’ GA) the pitch control of the autopilot is ............. and
the roll control is ....................

a. glideslope localiser
b. glideslope roll out
c. flare roll out
d. flare localiser

18. During an autoland approach:

a. Flare is engaged at 1500’agl

b. localiser roll control is disengaged just prior to touchdown
c. flare is disengaged prior to touchdown at 5’GA
d. glideslope is the engaged pitch mode until 5’GA

19. In an autoland at 1000’ AGL with two autopilots engaged:

a. The armed roll mode would be LOCALISER

b. The engaged roll mode would be GLIDESLOPE
c. The engaged pitch mode would be FLARE
d. The engaged roll mode would be LOCALISER.

20. An automatic flight control system in which the application of normal forces on the control
column allows the pilot to input demands to the autopilot is a:

a. control wheel steering

b. touch control steering
c. series connected system
d. parallel connected system.

21. If a fault develops in a Triplex auto-pilot system during an approach, the system will revert
to:

a. fail passive and the landing may continue.

b. fail control wheel mode.
c. fail operational.
d. a manual disconnect.

497

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 34 AFCS Revision Questions

22. Central Air Data Computers (CADC’s) transmit data concerning;-

a. airspeed, altitude and decision height.

b. airspeed, altitude and Mach Number.
c. airspeed, attitude and Mach Number.
d. airspeed and altitude only.

23. Inner loop stability is obtained by;-

a. inputs from the Air Data Computer.

b. manometric locks.
c. ‘I’ bar displacement.
d. raw data feed to the data control bus bar.

24. The auto-throttle is used to control some factors during the three primary control modes, they
are:

a. EPR, Mach and Speed.

b. EPR, wheel and speed
c. EPR, Mach and altitude.
d. EPR, wheel and altitude.

25. The mode that enables the pilot to manoeuvre his aircraft in pitch and roll by use of the
automatic control system is called the;-

a. control wheel steering (CWS )mode that allows the pilot to control the aircraft, and
when the wheel is released, the aircraft holds the newly established attitude.
b. touch control steering that will permit the pilot to control the aircraft via the air data
computer.
c. control wheel steering mode which will disengage the servomotors.
d. the touch control steering mode which will prevent the flaps retracting.

26. Touch control steering:

a. prevents aerodynamic feedback.

b. will only operate while the flaps are down.
c. allows the pilot to control the aircraft with the servomotors disengaged.
d. engages the servomotors during manual operation in pitch and roll.

27. A system which can still function without degradation of performance after a failure has:

a. fail passive ability.

b. fail soft ability.
c. fail operational ability.
d. fail symbol ability.

28. During a CAT 2 ILS automatic approach, the source for altitude information is
the:

a. basic altitude capsule stack.

b. radar altimeter which becomes effective below about 2,500 feet.
c. radio altimeter which becomes effective below about 2,500 feet.
d. mode comparator sensor.

498

Aviation ebooks Company

AFCS Revision Questions Chapter 34

29. Heading hold mode relates to control in:

a. the height lock via the CADC.

b. the pitch channel via the inner loop.
c. the roll channel via the outer loop control source.
d. the manometer mode of the CADC.

30. The system which allows the pilot to control the aircraft with the servomotors engaged is
called:

a. touch control steering.

b. control wheel steering.
c. the electronic inner / outer axis loop.
d. the outer loop control.

31. The type of automatic landing system which would necessitate a manual landing after a
system failure during an automatic approach is:

a. fail passive.
b. fail safe.
c. fail active.
d. fail operational.

32. After a failure of one of the necessary redundant systems below alert height you would:

a. continue the descent but revert to a higher D.H.

b. carry out a missed approach.
c. disengage autoland and take over manually.
d. continue descent and land automatically.

33. When localiser and glide slope are captured at 1,500 feet during an automatic landing
sequence, two other functions will be activated at the same time, they are;-

a. touch down mode and roll out mode.

b. flare mode arm and touch down mode.
c. flare mode engage and roll out mode.
d. flare mode arm and off line channels engaged.

34. A fundamental requirement of a closed loop servo-mechanism is;-

a. a stable reference device.

b. an interlock control.
c. a tacho-generator.
d. feedback.

35. ALT HOLD is an example of:

a. Inner loop control in the roll axis

b. Outer loop input to the pitch channel
c. Outer loop control about the longitudinal axis
d. Inner loop control in the pitch axis

499

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 34 AFCS Revision Questions

36. A rate gyro:

a. Has three degrees of freedom, two gimbals and a transducer

b. Senses rate of turn and positions an indicator on the EHSI
c. Supplies rate and displacement information to the computer
d. Controls the outer loop inputs

37. To prevent servo motor runaway from producing excessive demands to the control surface:

a. A gyro damper is fitted

b. A torque limiter is fitted
c. A gyro limiter is fitted
d. A torque converter is fitted

38. Autotrim is functional:

a. In the pitch and roll channel with the autopilot engaged

b. In the pitch channel only with the autopilot engaged
c. In the pitch channel only with the autopilot disengaged
d. In the pitch and roll channel with the autopilot disengaged

39. L.NAV is an............. input to the ..............channel using data from the...........

a. outer loop, pitch, FMC

b. inner loop, pitch, ADC
c. outer loop, roll, FMC
d. inner loop, roll, ADC

40. In an aircraft which requires a mach trim system it will apply inputs to the horizontal
stabilizer:

a. All the time

b. At high mach numbers with the autopilot engaged
c. At mach one with the autopilot engaged or not
d. At high subsonic speeds with the autopilot engaged or not.

500

Aviation ebooks Company

AFCS Revision Questions Chapter 34

QUESTION PAPER 2

1. With the Autopilot engaged in the Alt mode the Captain alters the barometric setting. The
aircraft:

a. maintains its altitude

b. changes its altitude in accordance with the change in pressure setting
c. switches barometric input over to the 1st Pilot setting
d. trips out of altitude hold.

2. Control wheel steering enables a pilot to:

a. taxy the aircraft on the ground

b. manoeuvre the aircraft in the air while the autopilot is engaged
c. alter the flight path while the autopilot is engaged by applying a breakout force
d. manoeuvre the aircraft with the autopilot disengaged.

3. Autopilot synchronisation in an aircraft:

a. requires that the interlocks are made before the autopilot will engage
b. ensures that, when the autopilot is engaged, the take-over is effected smoothly and
without snatching on the control system
c. requires that the aircraft is trimmed out before the autopilot can be engaged
d. needs at least two alternators running in parallel.

4. The rules for the use of Autotrim are that it:

a. can be engaged without the autopilot

b. usually operates on all three axes
c. is not needed if the autopilot is engaged
d. operates only in conjunction with the autopilot.

5. The JAR OPS requirements for single pilot operation under IFR state that the aircraft must be
fitted with:

a. single axis autopilot

b. a two axis autopilot
c. a three axis autopilot
d. a two axis autopilot with autothrottle

6. JAR 25 operational requirements for the installation of automatic pilot state that the system
must have:

A. automatic synchronisation
B quick release controls on both control wheels.

a. Only statement A is correct

b. Only statement B is correct
c. Both statements are correct
d. Neither statement is correct.

501

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 34 AFCS Revision Questions

7. Consider the following statements regarding flight envelope protection:

A High speed protection prevents the airspeed from exceeding Vmo/Mmo

B High angle of attack protection comes in when the aircraft reaches the stalling AoA

a. Only statement A is correct

b. Only statement B is correct
c. Both statements are correct
d. Neither statement is correct.

8. The control laws for an autopilot are known as:

a. normal law and emergency law

b. alternate law and direct law
c. normal, alternate and emergency laws
d. normal, alternate and direct laws.

9. An autoland system that, in the event of an autopilot failure, continues to function without
degradation of performance beyond the limits required automatic, would be one with the
status:

a. fail passive
b. fail safe
c. fail operational
d. duplex.

10. The Autoland. sequence is considered to be complete when:

a. reverse thrust is engaged

b. the autopilot is manually disengaged by the pilot
c. the aircraft touches down
d. the aircraft reaches the end of the runway.

11. The Autothrottle will come on automatically even with the A/T switch OFF when:

a. in a FBW aircraft the AoA reaches a critical value called floor

b. the AoA reaches the stalling angle
c. TOGA button is pressed
d. reverse thrust is selected in flight.

12. An aircraft on Autopilot is engaged in the VOR mode and loses the VOR signals as it flies
through the VOR cone of silence. The autopilot:

a. automatically switches to Heading mode

b. decouples from the VOR and disconnects
c. tunes to the next VOR on the route
d. decouples from the VOR and flies the last heading for a fixed period.

502

Aviation ebooks Company

AFCS Revision Questions Chapter 34

13. For an aircraft with a non-synchronised autopilot system, ‘snatching’ of the controls by the
autopilot when engaging or disengaging can be prevented by:

a. the pilot ensuring that the aircraft is trimmed out before selecting or disengaging the
autopilot
b. being in a straight and level position
c. disengaging the autotrim
d. switching on the yaw dampers.

14. With the autopilot in CWS the pilot manoeuvres the aircraft and releases control. The aircraft
will maintain:

a. heading and altitude

b. heading, speed and attitude
c. altitude and attitude
d. attitude at the time of release.

15. Autopilot corrections affecting Pitch are carried out by:

a. autotrim only
b. autotrim and elevators
c. elevators only
d. autothrottle.

16. For a commercial aircraft operating with a single pilot in IFR the minimum requirement is
that the autopilot should have control in:

a. three axes
b. Heading mode
c. Altitude Hold and Heading mode
d. Altitude Hold, Heading mode and Speed.

503

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 34 AFCS Revision Questions

ANSWERS - PAPER 1

1 D 21 A

2 B 22 B

3 C 23 C

4 A 24 A

5 B 25 A

6 A 26 C

7 A 27 C

8 A 28 C

9 B 29 C

10 B 30 B

11 C 31 A

12 C 32 D

13 D 33 D

14 B 34 D

15 B 35 B

16 B 36 C

17 D 37 B

18 C 38 B

19 D 39 C

20 A 40 D

504

Aviation ebooks Company

AFCS Revision Questions Chapter 34

ANSWERS - PAPER 2

1 A

2 B

3 B

4 D

5 B

6 B

7 D

8 D

9 C

10 B

11 A

12 D

13 A

14 D

15 B

16 C

505

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 34 AFCS Revision Questions

506

Aviation ebooks Company

Aviation ebooks Company
Chapter 35 Flight Warning System

508

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Warning System Chapter 35

CHAPTER THIRTY FIVE

FLIGHT WARNING SYSTEM

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
LEVELS OF ALERTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
WARNINGS IN GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
THE FLIGHT WARNING SYSTEM (FWS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
FWS COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514

509

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 35 Flight Warning System

510

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Warning System Chapter 35

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the Flight Warning System (FWS) is to produce cautions and warnings for the
crew to increase their situation awareness and to give them suitable indications of the action
necessary to avoid impending danger.

The proliferation of various warning systems in today’s aircraft poses a severe problem in that
the crew could be confused by the multiplicity of warnings. It is therefore necessary to install
an integrated flight warning system that will prioritize the warnings. By producing warnings
relevant to a particular stage of flight and inhibiting other warnings the system enables the crew
to respond to the warning posing the most immediate threat to safety.

LEVELS OF ALERTS

The alerting and warning system produces the following levels of alerts:

¾¾ Warnings or Level A alerts. These require immediate crew action. Warnings must at-
tract the pilot’s attention in sufficient time for appropriate action to be taken.

¾¾ Cautions or Level B alerts. These require immediate crew alertness and possible future
action.

¾¾ Advisories or Level C alerts. These require crew alertness.

WARNINGS IN GENERAL

The alerting and warning messages are presented to the crew in visual, aural and sensory
forms.

VISUAL
The level of alert is indicated by colours as follows:

¾¾ Warnings are presented in Red

¾¾ Cautions are shown in Amber or yellow

¾¾ Advisories are also shown in Amber or yellow

These visual indications can be presented in two different forms:

¾¾ Electronic Screens. Alerts and warnings appear in coloured text or symbols on various
electronic screens (flight, navigation, engine and aircraft system displays).

¾¾ Lights or Flags. Red lights or reflective flags signify warnings and require remedial
action if flight is to continue. An amber light or flag is used to indicate that a system or
equipment is approaching a limit of normal function and that corrective action is neces-
sary to prevent further deterioration and consequent failure.

Additionally, master warning and caution lights are normally provided and are located near the
centre of scan in front of each pilot.

511

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 35 Flight Warning System

AURAL
An audible warning is mandatory if the pilot is required to assume control. This can be in a
variety of forms depending upon the type of aircraft. The alert can be in the form of sounds or
synthetic voice messages or a combination of both.

Warnings
Boeing aircraft produce the following aural warnings:

¾¾ A bell accompanies Fire messages

¾¾ A siren accompanies warnings on Cabin Altitude, Configuration and Overspeed

¾¾ A Wailer accompanies Autopilot disconnect

¾¾ Synthetic Voice messages for ground proximity, wind shear, airborne collision avoid-
ance.

Airbus aircraft produce:

¾¾ continuous repetitive chimes ( red warnings)

¾¾ cavalry charge ( autopilot disconnect)

¾¾ Cricket sound (stall warning)

¾¾ Synthetic voice (GPWS, TCAS warnings)

Cautions
Beepers with various tones or chimes or musical chords are used to caution the crew to potential
threats to safety.

SENSORY
A vibratory mode on the controls is used to indicate stall approach and demands immediate
action to avert loss of control. In some aircraft a stick-pusher provides guidance to prevent a
further deterioration of the situation that demanded the vibratory warning.

To rationalize warnings systems, a Master Warning Indicator light is often provided near the
centre of scan. In older systems the crew member would then refer to a Master Warnings Panel
where warnings were assembled in a rational order and annotated. In the modern Electronic
Instrumentation Systems most of the alerts and warnings appear on appropriate electronic
screens together with associated aural messages and master warning lights.

512

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Warning System Chapter 35
Figure 1.1 shows the cockpit displays and warnings of an Airbus A320.

Figure 35.1 shows the cockpit displays and warnings of an Airbus A320.

THE FLIGHT WARNING SYSTEM (FWS)

General
The Flight Warning System generates alerts and warnings for the following situations:

¾¾ Engine and Airframe systems malfunctions

¾¾ Aerodynamic limits exceeded

¾¾ Presence of external Hazards.

Engine and Airframe systems malfunctions

These are dealt with in detail in the Engines and in the Systems sections of the course.

Aerodynamic limits
If aerodynamic limits are exceeded the FWS provides the following alerts to the crew:

¾¾ Altitude Alerting

¾¾ Overspeed Warning

¾¾ Stall Warning

These are dealt with in the next chapter.

513

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 35 Flight Warning System

External Hazard Warning

The external hazards that constitute a threat to aircraft safety are proximity to terrain and to
other aircraft. These hazards can be avoided by the use of:

The Ground Proximity Warning System and

The Airborne Collision Avoidance System. These are dealt with in chapters 34 and 35.

FWS COMPONENTS

The FWS system comprises:

Inputs
There are inputs from various sources including hundreds of engine and airframe sensors, air
data sensors, GPWS and ACAS systems.

A processing unit
This is made up of one or two flight warning computers.

Outputs
The outputs are classified either as alerts or as warnings and are generated according to the
nature of the malfunction or threat to safety. Alerts can be visual (amber lights or text on
VDU’s) or aural (chimes or tones). Warnings are given in the form of red lights or by red text on
electronic screens (steady or flashing) as well as aural signals (siren, bell, hooter). Additionally
there are red and amber lights on the glare shield in front of the pilots to act as attention getters.
A block diagram of a Boeing 767 warning and alert system is shown at Figure 35.2.

Figure 35.2 Warning and Alerting System (Boeing 767)

514 Figure 1.2 Warning and Alerting System (Boeing 767)

Aviation ebooks Company

Aerodynamic Warnings Chapter 36

CHAPTER THIRTY SIX

AERODYNAMIC WARNINGS

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
OVERSPEED WARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
STALL WARNING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521

515

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 36 Aerodynamic Warnings

516

Aviation ebooks Company

Aerodynamic Warnings Chapter 36

INTRODUCTION

The Flight Warning System alerts the crew if there are deviations from certain aerodynamic
parameters like altitude, airspeed and angle of attack. The system therefore provides the
following alerts and warnings:

¾¾ Altitude Alerting System

¾¾ Overspeed Warning

¾¾ Stall Warning.

ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM

Function
The function of the Altitude Alerting System is to warn the pilots that the aircraft is approaching
or deviating from the altitude selected on the Autopilot control panel. It does this in certain
height bands above and below the selected altitude.

Operation
The height bands within which altitude alerting operates are typically 300 feet to 900 feet for
Boeing aircraft and 250 feet to 750 feet for Airbus aircraft. Figure 36.1. shows the operation of
altitude alerting on a Boeing 747-400.

Figure 36.1 Altitude Alert (Boeing 747-400)

Figure 2.1 Altitude Alert (Boeing 737-400)
Approaching a selected altitude
At 900 feet prior to the selected altitude a white box will be displayed around the selected
altitude and current altitude displays on the PFD.

At 300 feet prior to the selected altitude the white boxes disappear.

517

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 36 Aerodynamic Warnings

Deviation from selected altitude

At 300 feet from the selected altitude:

¾¾ Master caution lights illuminate

¾¾ Caution beeper sounds
¾¾ EICAS caution message ALTITUDE ALERT is displayed
¾¾ current altitude box changes to amber.

At 900 feet from the selected altitude, or on returning to within 300 feet from the selected
altitude:

¾¾ Master caution lights extinguish

¾¾ EICAS caution message disappears
¾¾ Current altitude box changes to white

Block Diagram
Figure 36.2 shows a block diagram of a Boeing 767 altitude alerting system. When the aircraft
approaches the selected altitude the advisory light on each electric altimeter illuminates. If the
aircraft deviates by more than 300 feet from the selected altitude the system generates a level B
warning (ie a caution) consisting of a level B message on the EICAS display, an alert tone from
the speakers and illumination of the master caution (amber) light and the ALT ALERT light.

Figure2.2
Figure 36.2Altitude
AltitudeAlerting
AlertingSystem
System (Boeing
(Boeing767)
767)
System inhibition
Altitude alerting is inhibited in flight whenever glideslope is captured or when landing flaps
are selected with the gear down.

Regulatory requirement
It is a requirement of regulations that an aircraft is equipped with an altitude alerting system
if it is:

¾¾ a turbine powered aircraft weighing more than 5700 kg or has more than 9 seats or

¾¾ a turbojet aircraft

518

Aviation ebooks Company

Aerodynamic Warnings Chapter 36

The altitude alerting system must be capable of:

¾¾ alerting the crew on approaching the preselected altitude.

¾¾ alerting the crew by at least an aural signal when deviating above or below a pre-
selected altitude.

OVERSPEED WARNING

Function
The purpose of the Overspeed warning system is to alert the flight crew if the airspeed exceeds
the Vmo / Mmo limits calculated by the air data computer (ADC).

Operation
Whenever an overspeed situation occurs in an aircraft with electronic instrumentation the
system:

¾¾ sounds the siren or horn

¾¾ illuminates the red master WARNING lights

¾¾ displays the message OVERSPEED on the EICAS upper display in red.

The warning continues while the overspeed situation exists and cannot be cancelled by
depressing the red master WARNING light switch.

The system obtains its input from the air data computers (ADC’s) via the flight warning system.
It can be tested on the ground before flight by pressing a test switch which would then sound
the siren or horn as appropriate for that aircraft.

In case of system failure the pilot would receive no warning if Vmo or Mmo is exceeded.

Displays
The maximum allowable speed is shown on the airspeed indicator by means of a barber’s pole
on a conventional meter and on the airspeed tape on the primary flight display or EADI of an
EFIS display. These are shown in Figures 36.3 and 36.4. The barbers pole indicates the Vmo
up until the Mmo (when expressed in terms of an indicated air speed. becomes limiting. The
barbers pole will the move counter-clockwise to indicate the maximum allowable speed. As
altitude increases when climbing at a constant indicated airspeed the Mmo when expressed as
an indicated airspeed will decrease.

519

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 36 Aerodynamic Warnings

Figure 36.3
Figure Conventional ASI
2.3 Conventional ASI with
with Vmo
Vmo pointer
pointer

Figure
Figure2.4
36.4Overspeed
OverspeedWarning
Warning on PFD
on PFD

520

Aviation ebooks Company

Aerodynamic Warnings Chapter 36

STALL WARNING SYSTEM

Function
The purpose of the stall warning system is to warn the pilot of an impending stall. It does so
when the aircraft approaches the stalling angle of attack for the current speed and configuration
of the aircraft.

Stall Warning Systems

The simplest form of system, and one which is adopted in several types of small aircraft,
consists of a hinged-vane-type sensor mounted in the leading edge of a wing so that the vane
protrudes into the airstream. In normal level flight conditions, the airstream maintains the vane
in line with the relative air flow. If the aircraft’s attitude changes such that increases, then, by
definition, the airflow will meet the leading edge at an increasing angle, and so cause the vane
to be deflected. When reaches that at which the warning unit has been preset, the vane activates
a switch to complete a circuit to an aural warning unit in the cockpit.

In larger types of aircraft, stall warning and prevention systems are designed to perform a more
active function, such as ‘stick-shaker’ or ‘stick-push or nudger’ type.

The Warning
The regulatory margin between the stall and the stall warning is 5 knots or 5% of the CAS
whichever is the greater.

The warning provided can be in the form of tactile, aural or visual or a combination of these
signals. Most aircraft have warning provided by stick-shakers which vibrate the control column
as well as produce a rattling noise. In fly-by-wire systems the warning consists of a cricket (insect)
sound, a synthetic voice STALL message and the red master WARNING light illumination.

The stall warning must continue until the angle of attack is reduced to approximately that at
which the stall warning is initiated.

Operation
The stall warning module processes the signals from the various inputs to produce appropriate
stall warning output signals. The system has the following inputs:

¾¾ angle of attack
¾¾ flap and slat positions
¾¾ landing gear weight-on position
¾¾ airspeed

The angle of attack sensors are usually located on either side of the front fuselage. Sensing relays
denote the positions of the flaps and slats. Since the pitch attitude of the aircraft is also changed
by the extension of flaps or slats the angle of attack signal has to be modified when these are
extended. During take-off when the nosewheel lifts off, microswitches operate to make the stall
warning system active. The airspeed is usually derived from the ADC.

The output signals from the system can be applied to:

¾¾ a stick-shaker motor
¾¾ an angle of attack indicator
¾¾ aural warning
¾¾ synthetic voice warning
¾¾ red master WARNING light

521

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 36 Aerodynamic Warnings

Components
A block diagram of the component parts of a stall warning system and an angle of attack sensor
are shown at Figures 36.5.

Figure 36.5 Components of a Stall Warning System

Figure 2.5 Components of a Stall Warning System
Angle of Attack Sensing
The angle of attack (AoA), or alpha (α) angle, also known as the aerodynamic incidence, is the
angle between the chord line of the wing of an aircraft and the direction of the relative airflow,
and is a major factor in determining the magnitude of lift generated by a wing. Lift increases as
increases up to some critical value at which it begins to decrease due to separation of the slow-
moving air (the boundary layer) from the upper surface of the wing, which, in turn, results in
separation and turbulence of the main airflow. The wing, therefore, assumes a stalled condition,
and since it occurs at a particular angle rather than a particular speed, the critical AoA is also
referred to as the stalling angle. The angle relates to the design of aerofoil section adopted for
the wings of any one particular type of aircraft, and so, of course, its value varies accordingly;
typically it is between 12° and 18° for straight wings but maybe as high as 30° or 40° for swept
or delta wings.

522

Aviation ebooks Company

Aerodynamic Warnings Chapter 36

Alpha Probes
The two types in current use are the conical slotted probe and the vane detector; the conical
slotted probe is shown in Figure 36.6 and the vane type in Figure 36.7. The vane detector is
a counter-balanced aerodynamic vane which positions the rotor of a synchro. Both types are
protected against ice formation by a heater.

Figure 2.6.
Figure 36.6

The conical probe extends through the aircraft skin perpendicular to the flow of air. The probe is
attached to a paddle inside the transmitter housing. The probe and paddle are free to rotate. Two
sets of slots in the probe allow pressure variations, caused by changes in airstream direction, to
be transmitted through separate air passages to opposite sides of a paddle chamber. When the
pressure acting on one side of a paddle is greater than the pressure on the other side, the paddle
and probe rotate until the pressures are equal. The probe thus positions itself to determine the
angle of attack of the aircraft. The probe also drives the electrical pick offs such as potentiometers
or synchros.

Figure
Figure2.7
36.7 Angle
Angleofofattack sensor
attack sensor

523

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 36 Aerodynamic Warnings

Angle of Attack Indicators

These may be fitted in addition to the stall warning system. A simple schematic lay-out of the
installation is shown in Figure 36.8.

Figure 2.8
Figure 36.8

524

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

CHAPTER THIRTY SEVEN

GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM (GPWS)

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
BOEING 737 MARK II EGPWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
A TABLE OF THE EGPWS OPERATING MODES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
MODE 1 - EXCESSIVE BAROMETRIC DESCENT RATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
MODE 2 - EXCESSIVE TERRAIN CLOSURE RATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
MODE 3 - ALTITUDE LOSS AFTER TAKE-OFF OR GO-AROUND . . . . . . . . . . 534
MODE 4A - UNSAFE TERRAIN CLEARANCE WITH LANDING GEAR
NOT DOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
MODE 4B - UNSAFE TERRAIN CLEARANCE WITH FLAPS
NOT IN LANDING CONFIGURATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
MODE 5 - BELOW GLIDE SLOPE DEVIATION ALERT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
MODE 6A - BELOW SELECTED MINIMUM RADIO ALTITUDE . . . . . . . . . . . .542
MODE 6B ALTITUDE CALL-OUTS AND BANK ANGLE ALERT . . . . . . . . . . . 543
MODE 7 WINDSHEAR ALERTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
ACTION TO BE TAKEN ON RECEIVING A WARNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
ENHANCED GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM (EGPWS) . . . . . . . . . 545
TERRAIN AWARENESS SYSTEM (TAWS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
TERRAIN CLEARANCE FLOOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
INTEGRITY TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
INHIBITION OF EGPWS MODES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552

525

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

526

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

INTRODUCTION

The aim of the system is to give visual and audible warning signals to a pilot when the aircraft’s
proximity to the terrain poses a potential threat to its safety. Although not a foolproof means
of preventing a collision with the earth’s surface, EGPWS enhances flight safety and can
prevent those accidents which could result from crew errors or distraction, malfunction or
misinterpretation of navigational equipment, or inappropriate ATC instructions.

Figure 37.1 shows the three elements of a GPWS: inputs, outputs and a central processing unit.
The Central Processing Unit will also indicate a computer failure and any failures of the six
input signals. The system operates between 50’ and 2450’ actual height above the surface and
automatically selects the correct mode of operation.

Figure 37.1
DEFINITIONS

ALERT: A caution generated by the EGPWS equipment.

WARNING: A command generated by the EGPWS equipment.

Types of Warnings/Alerts

Genuine
The equipment provides a warning in accordance with its technical specification.

Nuisance
The equipment provides a warning in accordance with its technical specification, but the pilot
is flying an accepted safe procedure.

False
A fault or failure in the system causes the equipment to provide a warning that is not in
accordance with its technical specification.

527

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

BOEING 737 MARK II EGPWS

Figure 37.2 First Officer’s Instrument Panel

528

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

A TABLE OF THE EGPWS OPERATING MODES

ADVANCED EQUIPMENT
GPWS MODE
Alert Warning

1. Excessive descent rate ‘Sink Rate’ ‘Whoop Whoop Pull Up’

2. Excessive terrain
‘Terrain Terrain’ ‘Whoop Whoop Pull Up’
closure rate

3. Altitude loss after

‘Don’t Sink’ -
take-off or go-around

4A. Proximity to
terrain - Gear not ‘Too Low gear’ ‘Too Low Terrain’
4. Unsafe terrain locked down
clearance while
not in the landing
configuration 4B. Proximity to
‘Too Low Terrain’
terrain - Flaps not in a ‘Too Low Flaps’
(see note below)
landing position

5. Descent below glide-

‘Glideslope’ -
slope

6A. ‘Minimums’ -
6. Descent below
‘minimums’
6B. ‘Bank angle’ -

7. Windshear warning - ‘Wind Shear’

Note: Although some manufacturers of GPWS equipment may show in their literature ‘Too Low Terrain’
to be an alert, the view of the CAA is that the response to this should be as for a warning.

529

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

MODE 1 - EXCESSIVE BAROMETRIC DESCENT RATE

Mode 1 has two boundaries and is independent of aircraft configuration. Penetration of the first
boundary generates an aural alert of “SINK RATE” repeated each 1.5 seconds.

Penetrating the second boundary causes the repeated warning of “WHOOP, WHOOP PULL
UP”, until the rate of descent has been corrected.

MODE 1

AURAL ALERT - SINK RATE, SINK RATE

AURAL WARNING - ‘WHOOP WHOOP PULL UP’ VISUAL - PULL UP

530

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

MODE 1

AURAL ALERT - SINK RATE, SINK RATE

AURAL WARNING - 'WHOOP WHOOP PULL UP'

VISUAL - PULL UP

2500

'SINK
2000
RATE'
1500

1000

500

50
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 70
BAROMETRIC DESCENT RATE (FEET PER MINUTE)
Figure 37.3 MODE 1
Figure 3.4 MODE 1

531

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

MODE 2 - EXCESSIVE TERRAIN CLOSURE RATE

Mode 2 monitors Mach number, radio altitude rate of change, barometric altitude and aircraft
configuration.

Mode 2 has two boundaries. Penetrating the first boundary causes an aural alert of “TERRAIN,
TERRAIN”, followed by the repeated aural warning “WHOOP, WHOOP PULL UP”. After
leaving the PULL UP area, the repeating TERRAIN message will again be heard while in
the terrain portion of the envelope. If both boundaries are penetrated while in the landing
configuration, only the repeating TERRAIN aural alert will occur. The terrain message is
repeated each 1.5 seconds.

As Mach number increases from 0.35 to 0.45 with gear up, the highest radio altitude at which
Mode 2 alert warning will occur is increased to 2450 feet. This higher portion of the envelope
is inhibited with the flap override switch in the FLAP OVRD position.

MODE 2

AURAL ALERT - ‘TERRAIN, TERRAIN’

AURAL WARNING - ‘WHOOP WHOOP PULL UP’

VISUAL - PULL UP

532

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

Figure 37.4 MODE 2

533

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

MODE 3 - ALTITUDE LOSS AFTER TAKE-OFF OR GO-AROUND

Mode 3 provides an alert if a descent is made during initial climb or go-around. The aural alert
is a voice message of “DON’T SINK”, repeated each 1.5 seconds until the flight condition is
corrected.

Mode 3 is effective between 50 and 700 feet radio altitude and generates the alert when the
accumulated barometric loss equals approximately 10 percent of the existing radio altitude.

Mode 3 does not arm during the descent until below 200 feet radio altitude.

MODE 3

AURAL ALERT - ”DON’T SINK”

VISUAL - PULL UP

534

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

MODE 3

AURAL ALERT - ”DON’T SINK”

VISUAL - PULL UP

Note Mode 3 arms when the aeroplane descends below 200ft in the landing configuration

Figure 37.5
Figure MODE33
3.6 MODE

535

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

MODE 4A - UNSAFE TERRAIN CLEARANCE WITH LANDING GEAR NOT DOWN

The terrain clearance mode with gear retracted, is armed after take-off upon climbing through
700 feet radio altitude.

When this envelope is penetrated at less than 0.35 Mach, the aural alert “TOO LOW GEAR” is
sounded. When the envelope is penetrated at more than 0.35 Mach, the aural alert “TOO LOW
TERRAIN” is sounded and the upper boundary of the envelope is increased to 1000 feet radio
altitude. The applicable voice message is repeated each 1.5 seconds until the flight condition
has been corrected.

MODE 4A

AURAL ALERT -”TOO LOW GEAR” or “TOO LOW TERRAIN”

VISUAL - PULL UP

536

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

Figure 37.6 MODE 4A

537

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

MODE 4B - UNSAFE TERRAIN CLEARANCE WITH FLAPS NOT IN LANDING

CONFIGURATION

This mode provides an alert when the gear is down and the flaps are not in the landing
position. If the envelope is penetrated at less than 0.28 Mach with the flaps not in the landing
position, the aural alert of “TOO LOW FLAPS” is sounded.

When the envelope is penetrated at more than 0.28 Mach, the aural alert of “TOO LOW
TERRAIN” is sounded and the upper boundary of the envelope is increased to 1000 feet radio
altitude.

The applicable voice message is repeated each 1.5 seconds until the flight condition has been
corrected. The “TOO LOW GEAR” alert takes priority over the “TOO LOW FLAPS”. The too
low flaps alert and associated too low terrain alert are inhibited with the flap inhibit switch in
the FLAP OVRD position.

MODE 4B

AURAL ALERT - ”TOO LOW FLAPS” or “TOO LOW TERRAIN”

VISUAL - PULL UP

538

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

MODE 4B

AURAL ALERT - ”TOO LOW FLAPS”

“TOO LOW TERRAIN”

VISUAL - PULL UP

MACH - IAS CONVERSION

ALTITUDE
MACH SL 5000' 8000' 10000'
0.28 185 169 180 154
0.45 298 272 258 249
1000

500
“TOO LOW TERRAIN”

“TOO LOW FLAP”

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
MACH NUMBER
Figure 37.7 MODE 4B
Figure 3.8 MODE 4B

539

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

MODE 5 - BELOW GLIDE SLOPE DEVIATION ALERT

This mode alerts the flight crew of a descent of more than 1.3 dots below an ILS glide slope.
The envelope has two areas of alerting, soft and loud. In both areas, the alert is a repeated
voice message of “GLIDE SLOPE”, and illumination of both pilots’ BELOW G/S’ lights. The
voice message amplitude is increased when entering the loud area. In both areas, the voice
message repetition rate is increased as the glide slope deviation increases and the radio altitude
decreases. The mode is armed when a valid signal is being received by the captain’s glide slope
receiver and the radio altitude is 1000 feet or less.

The mode may be cancelled or inhibited by pressing either pilot’s below G/S light while below
1000 feet radio altitude. The mode will re-arm when climbing above 1000 feet radio altitude.
Mode 1 to 4 aural alerts and warnings have priority over mode 5 aural alerts, however both
PULL UP and BELOW G/S lights could be illuminated at the same time.

MODE 5

AURAL ALERT - “GLIDE SLOPE”

VISUAL - BELOW G/S P TO INHIBIT

540

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

Figure 37.8 MODE 5

541

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

MODE 6A - BELOW SELECTED MINIMUM RADIO ALTITUDE

Mode 6A provides an aural alert if a descent is made below the minimum decision altitude
cursor in the captain’s radio altimeter. This mode operates between 50 and 1000 feet of radio
altitude.

This alert is aural only and consists of “MINIMUMS, MINIMUMS” sounded once.

The mode is rearmed when the radio altitude becomes greater than that selected with the
captain’s altitude cursor.

50 FT

FEET 0
× 100
1
50
30 ‘MINIMUMS,
2 MINIMUMS’
20
RADIO ALT

10
4
5
OFF PRESS
ON TO TEST

1,000 FT

CAPTAIN’S RADIO ALTIMETER

Figure3.10
Figure 37.9 Mode
Mode 6
6

542

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

MODE 6B ALTITUDE CALL-OUTS AND BANK ANGLE ALERT

Call-outs of selected altitudes and minimums is available. The call outs used are a customer
option but for example may consist of calls at 200ft and 100ft to decision height, or absolute
height call outs from the radio altimeter with respect to the ground.

Figure 37.10 Mode 6B

Figure 3.13 Mode 6B
“BANK ANGLE” can be used to alert crews of excessive roll angles. The bank angles will be
specific to each aircraft. The bank angle limit reduces with proximity to the ground due to the
reduced wing tip clearance to prevent wing tip or engine damage during take off and landing.

543

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

MODE 7 WINDSHEAR ALERTING

Visual and aural windshear warnings are given when several parameters such as ground
speed, airspeed, barometric height and rate of descent and radio altitude, indicate the initial
conditions of entering an area of windshear. Again as with the terrain threat display there is no
scanning beam looking ahead to avoid the condition entirely. Rather the benefit from the system
is derived from the fact that it allows the pilot to initiate the windshear go-around procedure
earlier, giving the aircraft a greater probability of avoiding an accident.

Figure 37.11 Mode 7 Windshear Alerting

Figure 3.14. Mode 7 Windshear Alerting

544

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

ACTION TO BE TAKEN ON RECEIVING A WARNING

The response to all alerts or warnings should be positive and immediate: establishing the cause
of EGPWS activation should take second place.

There is a risk that repeated experience of unwanted alerts/warnings may reduce confidence
in the system. Hence, flight crews should report ALL alerts/warnings to the operator thereby
ensuring that appropriate analysis and remedial action can be taken. There is a GPWS operation
reporting form for this purpose.

The immediate response must be to level the wings and to initiate a maximum gradient climb
which should be maintained until the aircraft attains the minimum safe altitude for that part of
the route being operated. Modification is permissible only in exceptional circumstances such as
the necessity to follow a curved path for azimuth terrain avoidance.

When established in the climb every effort shall be made to determine the cause of the warning
and to verify the aircraft’s position. The only circumstances when a climb to this altitude may
be discontinued are when:

¾¾ The cause of the warning has been positively identified and the warning cease

¾¾ The aircraft is operated by day in clear visual conditions

¾¾ It is immediately obvious to the commander that the aircraft is not in a dangerous

situation with regard to terrain, aircraft configuration or the present manoeuvre of the
aircraft.

ENHANCED GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM (EGPWS)

TERRAIN AWARENESS SYSTEM (TAWS)

EGPWS does not “look ahead” and any Mode 2 warning when flight is towards high ground
will be dependent upon the steepness of the terrain. Hence, a sheer cliff ahead will not
generate a mode 2 warning and any subsequent warning due to rising ground beyond the cliff
will be delayed until the aircraft is over that ground. However this limitation has been overcome
by Enhanced GPWS with the Terrain Threat Display. This uses essentially an electronic map
of the world (giving ground elevation) and information from the aircraft’s navigational system
(be that INS/GPS or any combination). Given the location of the aircraft, its course and height
(either from the ADC or derived from GPS) a display can be created showing the locations of
terrain that could threaten the safety of the aircraft.

Using this system EGPWS can warn of approaching high terrain even when that terrain is not
in close enough proximity to initiate a mode 2 warning. This terrain threat display and warning
will be initiated in sufficient time to comfortably avoid any threat of flight into terrain. The
terrain is shown in shades of green, yellow and red and the display indicates terrain not only
below the aircraft but also ahead of its flight path. At a certain time before predicted impact the
warning will issue a “Caution Terrain” message and the threat terrain will turn solid yellow.
If the situation is allowed to deteriorate so as to close further with the high ground, the second
message “Whoop Whoop Pull Up” will sound and the most threatening terrain will turn solid
red. This will happen at sufficient spacing to avoid impact with the terrain but this time using
more positive control movements.

545

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

The accuracy of this display is however linked to the accuracy of the navigational equipment.
A poor nav fix or a malfunctioning nav system will result in dangerously inaccurate display.
Some pilots have been found to be using the threat display to “thread” their way through high
terrain. This is of course a gross misuse of the system and is strongly advised against.

The terrain display can be selected by the pilot, or may be automatically activated whenever
the terrain becomes a threat. The threat display may be incorporated with the weather radar
display; the navigational display or it may have its own Plan Position Indicator (PPI).

Figure
Figure 37.12
3.11 Terrain
Terrain Display
Display

546

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

Figure 3.12 “Look

Figure 37.13 “LookAhead”
Ahead” Warning
Warning

547

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

TERRAIN CLEARANCE FLOOR

This alerts the crew to possible premature descent for non-precision approaches regardless
of aircraft configuration. It uses the present aircraft position with respect to the runway. It is
speculated that in the future the database for this and the EGPWS as a whole will be merged
with that for the FMS. This will mean that the EGPWS can work with the latest information and
include temporary obstacles normally notified by NOTAM.

Figure 3.15 Terrain

Figure 37.14 ClearanceFloor
Terrain Clearance Floor

INTEGRITY TESTING

The GPWS is provided with built-in test equipment (BITE) which allows all its functions and
visual/audible warnings to be tested prior to flight; the pre-flight BITE is inhibited in flight.
The test is initiated by the pilot pressing the test switch.

During flight the system is continuously monitored to confirm its serviceability and any in-
flight failure is automatically indicated on the flight-deck. A short confidence check is possible
while airborne, but this is not a full BITE check..

INHIBITION OF EGPWS MODES

The EGPWS must not be de-activated (by pulling the circuit breaker) except for approved
procedures. Instructions on inhibition must include a statement that no person may de-activate
the EGPWS except in accordance with the procedures stated in the Operations Manual.

¾¾ Inhibition of the glideslope mode may be desirable when a glideslope signal is present
but the aircraft is deliberately being flown without reference to it, e.g. the pilot may
have discontinued the ILS, to land on a different runway, or is performing a localiser
only approach.

¾¾ Inhibition may also be required when the gear or flap position inputs are known to be
non- standard.

548

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

QUESTIONS

1. The GPWS the alert/warning information is provided by a radio altimeter with:

a. a downward transmitting beam whose dimensions are in the order of 60 and 30 in the
fore/aft and the athwartship axes.
b. a downward transmitting beam whose dimensions are in the order of 30 and 60 in the
fore/aft and the athwartship axes.
c. a forward transmitting beam.
d. a downwards transmitting radio beam

2. The GPWS would provide visual and audible warning to a pilot if the aircraft descended:

a. to below 500’ radio altitude with flaps not in the landing position and speed below
Mach.28
b. to below 500’ radio altitude with flaps not in the landing position and speed below
Mach.35
c. to below 200’ barometric altitude with flap not in the landing position and speed below
Mach.28
d. to below 200’ radio altitude with flap not in the landing position and speed below
Mach.28.

3. The Ground Proximity Warning mode 5 provides a visual and audible warning to the pilot if
the aircraft:

a. descends below 500ft radio altitude with gear retracted.

b. is below 1000ft radio altitude and more than 1.3 dots below the ILS glidepath.
c. descend below 200ft radio altitude with flaps retracted.
d. sinks more than approximately 10% of accumulated altitude.

4. The GPWS uses inputs from:

a. the radio altimeter, the ILS receiver, the Air Data Computers and the landing gear
position indicators.
b. the radio altimeter, the Air Data Computers, the landing gear position indicators and
the flap position indicators.
c. the radio altimeter, the Air Data Computers, the Captain’s ILS receiver, the landing
gear position indicators and the flap position indicators.
d. the radio altimeter and the ILS receiver.

5. The Ground Proximity Warning mode 4a provides a visual and audible warning ‘Too Low
Gear’ to the pilot if the aircraft descends below _ _ _ _ _ _ with landing gear retracted.

a. 200 feet radio altitude with speed below M 0.28.

b. 200 feet barometric altitude with speed below M 0.28.
c. 500 feet radio altitude with speed below M 0.35.
d. 500 feet barometric altitude with speed below M 0.35.

549

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

6. An aircraft ‘goes around’ after descending to a radio alt of 190 feet. As power is applied a power
unit is lost and some height is lost. The GPWS would provide an alert when the aircraft had lost
about:

a. 10 feet
b. 20 feet
c. 50 feet
d. 100 feet

7. GPWS Mode One gives warning of:

a. excessive descent rate.

b. height loss after take-off/missed approach.
c. unsafe terrain clearance when not in the landing configuration.
d. excessive terrain closure rate.

8. GPWS, Mode Three gives warning of:

a. excessive descent rate.

b. height loss after take-off/missed approach.
c. unsafe terrain clearance when not in the landing configuration.
d. excessive terrain closure rate.

9. GPWS, mode two operates between:

a. 50ft and 2450ft agl

b. 50ft and 1800ft agl
c. 50ft and 700ft agl
d. 50ft and 500ft agl

10. With reference to GPWS:

a. In all six modes the audible alerts and warnings are accompanied by the red flashing
PULL-UP’ light.
b. Mode 4A activates when the aircraft descends below 500ft radio altitude at a speed less
than .35Mach with the landing gear retracted.
c. Mode 4A activates when the aircraft descends below 500ft barometric altitude at a
speed less than .28Mach with the landing gear retracted.
d. Mode 6 re-arms when the aircraft leaves the hard alerting area.

11. An aircraft ‘goes around’ after descending to a radio altitude of 190ft. As power is applied a
power unit fails and some height is lost. The GPWS would provide an alert when the aircraft
had lost about:

a. 10ft
b. 20ft
c. 50ft
d. 100ft

12. GPWS mode 3 will operate if altitude loss occurred before you have acquired:

a. 700 ft barometric altitude gain.

b. 500 ft terrain clearance.
c. 200 ft barometric altitude gain.
d. 700 ft terrain clearance.

550

Aviation ebooks Company

Ground Proximity Warning System Chapter 37

13. With reference to GPWS Mode 4. At or below what radio altimeter altitude is mode 4 activated
if not in the landing configuration?

a. 500 ft
b. 700 ft
c. 200 ft
d. 790 ft

14. Mode 4 gives warning of:

a. excessive descent rate.

b. height loss after take-off/missed approach.
c. unsafe terrain clearance when not in the landing configuration.
d. excessive terrain closure rate.

551

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 37 Ground Proximity Warning System

ANSWERS

1 B

2 D

3 B

4 C

5 C

6 B

7 A

8 B

9 A

10 B

11 B

12 D

13 B

14 C

552

Aviation ebooks Company

Airborne Collision and Avoidance System Chapter 38

CHAPTER THIRTY EIGHT

AIRBORNE COLLISION AND AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (ACAS)

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
TCAS I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
TCAS II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
PRINCIPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
SYSTEM INTERCONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
SYNTHETIC VOICE PRIORITISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
TRAFFIC ADVISORIES (TAs) RESOLUTION ADVISORIES (RAs) . . . . . . . . . . . 559
RESOLUTION ADVISORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
PROXIMATE TRAFFIC/OTHER TRAFFIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
DATA TAG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
OFF SCALE TRAFFIC ADVISORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
TCAS DISPLAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
COMBINED TCAS AND SSR CONTROL PANEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
TCAS TRAFFIC ADVISORIES ON ELECTRONIC VSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
TCAS PREVENTATIVE RESOLUTION ADVISORIES ON ELECTRONIC VSI . . . . 564
TCAS CORRECTIVE RESOLUTION ADVISORY ON ELECTRONIC VSI . . . . . . . 565
TCAS TEST FORMAT ON ELECTRONIC VSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
NO BEARING ADVISORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
ACTION TO BE TAKEN ON RECEIVING TA’s AND RA’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
STANDARD R/T PHRASEOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570

553

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 38 Airborne Collision and Avoidance System

554

Aviation ebooks Company

Airborne Collision and Avoidance System Chapter 38

INTRODUCTION

Today’s higher traffic densities and greater speed differences have generated a need for an
Airborne Collision Avoidance System. Although ICAO named it ACAS it is usually known as
Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). The system is designed to provide an
additional margin of safety and keep commercial aircraft clear of conflict, independently of Air
Traffic Control. An aircraft must carry a transponder and have the facility to interrogate other
aircraft transponders. Of the four proposed systems, TCAS I, II, III and IV, TCAS I and II fulfill
present and future requirements. Aircraft built to carry more than 30 passengers must have an
approved system for flight in the USA.

TCAS I

TCAS I is a first generation collision avoidance system and simply warns the crew of other
traffic in the vicinity of their aircraft. It will detect and display range and approximate relative
bearing. If the TCAS display aircraft and the intruder are carrying Mode C relative altitude
will also be displayed. It encourages flight crew to look for the conflicting traffic by generating
visual and aural warnings - TRAFFIC ADVISORIES (TAs):

“ Traffic, Traffic”.

It does not give any resolution advisory information. i.e. a course of action to follow. The
FAA requires smaller aircraft, with 30 or fewer seats, to carry TCAS I.

TCAS II

TCAS II detects intruders in the TCAS aircraft’s vicinity, assesses the collision risk and presents
warnings to the crew in the form of TAs and Resolution Advisories (RAs) e.g:

“Climb” “Increase Climb” Descend” “Increase Descent” Monitor Vertical Speed”

Thus, RAs offer manoeuvring advice in the vertical plane to resolve conflict. If the your aircraft
and the intruder both have Mode S data-link transponders the system will co-ordinate the RAs
to provide complimentary vertical avoidance instructions. The rest of this chapter deals with
TCAS II only and discusses both visual and audible TAs and RAs in detail.

PRINCIPLE

TCAS II operates on the secondary radar principle using the normal SSR frequencies of
1030MHz and 1090MHz, but in an air to air role. Using this principle the TCAS system creates
two protective three dimensional bubbles around the TCAS equipped aircraft (Figure 38.1).

555

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 38 Airborne Collision and Avoidance System

RA

TA

Figure 4.1.
Figure 38.1

AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT

For aircraft to be visible to a TCAS equipped aircraft they must have a minimum of a Mode “A”
Transponder. If the transponder is switched off, or is unserviceable, the intruding aircraft are
invisible to the TCAS equipment and a collision risk exists. Mode A transponders transmit no
height information and therefore the information available to the TCAS equipment is two
dimensional only and therefore can only give TAs.

Mode “C” Transponder equipped intruders broadcast height information to the TCAS
equipment and the system becomes three dimensional and can now give both TAs and RAs.
Mode “S” Transponder TCAS equipped intruders as well as broadcasting height information
allow a discrete data link to be established between them. This data link will allow avoidance
manoeuvres to be mutually resolved.

OPERATION

The range of an intruder is determined by measuring the time lapse between transmission of
an interrogation, and receiving the response (Radar Principle). The bearing of an intruder is
determined by a directional antenna (Figure 38.2.). Because of the wavelengths involved and
the necessarily small size of the antennas bearing resolution is the least accurate parameter.
TCAS never offers collision avoidance commands in the horizontal plane; only in the form of
climb or descend.

The relative height of an intruder is found by comparing it’s Mode “C” height with the TCAS
equipped aircraft’s height.

556

Aviation ebooks Company

Airborne Collision and Avoidance System Chapter 38

Figure
Figure4.2.
38.2TCAS
TCASBearing Determination.
Bearing Determination

SYSTEM INTERCONNECTIONS

Figure 38.3 shows a TCAS installation in a Commuter/Feeder airliner. The heart of the system is
the TCAS receiver-transmitter-computer unit controlled by a combined ATC/SSR/TCAS control
panel. The TCAS displays in this installation are a dedicated TCAS Plan Position Indicator
(PPI), and the red and green sectors on the Vertical Speed Tape of the Primary Flight Display
(PFD. Electronic Attitude Director Indicator (EADI). A synthetic voice issues TCAS commands
over the intercom system.

The TCAS upper and lower antennas are directional while the Mode “S” antennas are omni-
directional.

The TCAS also has feeds from the Radio Altimeter to modify the RAs received when in close
proximity to the ground i.e. there are no instructions given at all when the aircraft is below 400ft
agl, no descent RAs are given below 1000ft agl and no increase rate of descent commands below
1400ft agl. The system will also take aircraft configuration / performance into consideration
when deciding an avoiding action. When the aircraft has gear and / or flap deployed its climb
performance will be poor so TCAS will avoid giving climbing demands for a RA.

557

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 38 Airborne Collision and Avoidance System

Figure
Figure4.3.
38.3 TCAS
TCAS Aircraft Installation
Installation.

SYNTHETIC VOICE PRIORITISATION

Modern aircraft use a synthetic voice to give warning advice to the crew. The voice is used for
various systems including Windshear detection, Ground Proximity Warnings, including height
call outs, and TCAS. The synthetic voice is prioritised as follows:

Stall Identification/Stall Prevention. (Stick Shake/Stick Push). The synthetic voice is inhibited
during stick shake/stick push operation.

Windshear. The detection of performance decreasing windshear takes first priority with the
synthetic voice, inhibiting both GPWS and TCAS warnings.

Ground Proximity Warning System(GPWS). Detection of approach to terrain takes priority

over TCAS announcements.

558

Aviation ebooks Company

Airborne Collision and Avoidance System Chapter 38

TRAFFIC ADVISORIES (TAs) RESOLUTION ADVISORIES (RAs)

Depending upon the setting of the TCAS function switch on the control panel, the equipment
level of intruder aircraft and the phase of flight of the TCAS aircraft, TCAS will generate the
following.

a) Traffic Advisories (TAs) exist when an intruder penetrates the outer bubble
caution area and is between 45 and 35 seconds from the collision area. TA’s
appear as solid amber circles on the TCAS display and are accompanied by
the synthetic voice saying “Traffic, Traffic”. This is a potential collision threat.

b) Resolution Advisories (RAs) exist when an intruder penetrates the inner

bubble warning area and is between 30 and 20 seconds from the collision
area. RA’s appear as solid red rectangles on the TCAS display accompanied
by various synthetic voice warnings. RA’s indicate a serious collision threat.
(See Figure 38.4).

Figure 4.4.
Figure 38.4

RESOLUTION ADVISORIES

Resolution Advisories come in two forms:

Preventative Advisories are situations where no collision risk exists unless a change of level is
initiated by either aircraft. The synthetic voice advisory is “Monitor Vertical Speed”.

Corrective Advisories are situations where a collision risk exists and a manoeuvre is necessary
to avert it. The synthetic voice produces the appropriate command.

559

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 38 Airborne Collision and Avoidance System

Figure 38.5. shows examples of Preventative and Corrective RA’s displayed on the Vertical
Speed tape of the Primary Flight Display.

Figure
Figure 38.5Corrective
4.5. Correctiveand
andPreventative
Preventative Resolution Advisories.
ResolutionAdvisories

PROXIMATE TRAFFIC/OTHER TRAFFIC


Proximate Traffic appears as a solid cyan diamond and represents transponder
equipped aircraft within range of the display and within +/- 1200 feet relative
height. TCAS does not consider this traffic a threat and displays it to improve
crew situational awareness.


Other Traffic appears as hollow cyan diamonds which represent transponder
equipped aircraft within range of the display and within +/- 2700 feet relative
height (+/- 8700 dependant on position of ABOVE and BELOW switch). Again
it is displayed to improve situational awareness.

The predicted flight paths of Proximate and Other Traffic do not penetrate the Collision Area
of the TCAS aircraft.

560

Aviation ebooks Company

Airborne Collision and Avoidance System Chapter 38

DATA TAG

The traffic symbols may also have an associated altitude TAG which shows relative altitude in
hundreds of feet, to indicate whether an intruder is climbing, flying level or descending:

A + sign and number above the symbol means an intruder is above the aircraft.

A trend arrow ↑ or ↓ appears alongside the symbol when the intruder’s vertical rate is 500 feet
per minute or greater.

No altitude number or trend arrow will appear beside an intruder that is non altitude reporting.
If TCAS II direction finding techniques fail to locate the azimuth of another aircraft a no bearing
message appears on the screen.

OFF SCALE TRAFFIC ADVISORY

When TCAS is tracking an intruder that is outside the selected display range, but has entered
the caution or warning areas, one-half of the appropriate symbol will appear at the appropriate
bearing at the edge of the display area. The symbol will appear in its proper colour and have its
data tag displayed providing there is room. (See Figure 38.10).

TCAS DISPLAYS

TCAS range and bearing information can appear on a variety of displays:

Dedicated Plan Position Indicator

SELECTED RANGE
DISPLAY

RELATIVE
ATTITUDE

TD FAIL FLAG,
COULD SHOW
INTRUDER ‘TCAS OFF’
SYMBOL

VERTICAL
DIRECTION ARROW
(SHOWS RATE IS
GREATER THAN 500
ft/min.)
2 NM
RANGE RING
OWN AIRCRAFT
SYMBOL

OFF SCALE TA ONLY

MESSAGE MESSAGE

NO BEARING
INTRUDER

Figure
Figure4.6.
38.6TCAS
TCAS PPI.
PPI

561

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 38 Airborne Collision and Avoidance System

Electronic Vertical Speed Indicator

RESOLUTION
ADVISORY(SOLID
RED SQUARE)

TRAFFIC ADVISORY
(AMBER

PROXIMATE
TRAFFIC (CYAN)

Figure 38.7 Electronic VSI

Figure 4.7. Electronic VSI.

Superimposed on Navigation Display of EFIS equipped aircraft.

FigureFigure
38.7a 4.7a. NavigationDisplay
Navigation Display inin
MAP Mode
MAP Showing
Mode TCAS. TCAS
Showing

562

Aviation ebooks Company

Airborne Collision and Avoidance System Chapter 38

COMBINED TCAS AND SSR CONTROL PANEL

The control panel is produced in various forms but all perform the same functions. The TCAS
controls are as follows: See Figure 38.8.

Figure 38.8 ATC Transponder/TCAS Control Panel

Figure 4.8. ATC Transponder/TCAS Control Panel.
Function Switch

¾¾ Standby - warm-up power is applied to the system, but it is not operational.

¾¾ On - the transponder only is operational.

¾¾ TA - the transponder and TCAS are now operational but only Traffic Advisories are
generated. “TA ONLY” will be indicated on the TCAS display.

¾¾ RA/TA - the transponder and TCAS are operational and both Resolution Advisories
and Traffic Advisories are generated.

¾¾ TEST - pressing the centre TEST button on the function switch initiates a full Built - in -
Test Equipment (BITE) of the system. After completion of a successful test the synthetic
voice will respond with “TCAS SYSTEM TEST OK”. If the system test is unsuccessful
the voice response is “TCAS SYSTEM TEST FAIL”.

TCAS RNG (range)

This will select the range of the TCAS display either 5, 10, or 20nm. It does not alter the range at
which aircraft are detected or when warnings are given.

563

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 38 Airborne Collision and Avoidance System

TCAS TRAFFIC ADVISORIES ON ELECTRONIC VSI

‘TRAFFIC TRAFFIC’ ‘TRAFFIC TRAFFIC’

Figure
Figure 4.9.
38.9 Traffic Advisory
Traffic Advisory Figure
Figure4.10.
38.10 Off
Off Scale TrafficAdvisory
Scale Traffic Advisory.

TCAS PREVENTATIVE RESOLUTION ADVISORIES ON ELECTRONIC VSI

Figure 4.11.
Figure 38.11Preventative Resolution
Preventative Resolution Advisories.
Advisories

564

Aviation ebooks Company

Airborne Collision and Avoidance System Chapter 38

TCAS CORRECTIVE RESOLUTION ADVISORY ON ELECTRONIC VSI

‘CLIMB CLIMB’
Figure
Figure4.12.
38.12 Corrective RA.
Corrective RA

TCAS TEST FORMAT ON ELECTRONIC VSI

‘TCAS SYSTEM TEST OK’

Figure
Figure4.13.
38.13 Test Display.
Test Display

565

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 38 Airborne Collision and Avoidance System

NO BEARING ADVISORIES

If TCAS is unable to track the bearing of an

intruder, possibly due to antenna screening,
the RA or TA will appear lower centre of the
display appropriately colour coded. Up to two
lines of information can be displayed.

“TA 2.2- 04” means the intruder is creating a

TA 2.2 nm away 400 below and the up arrow
indicates the intruder is climbing at 500 fpm
or greater.

It is important to realise that TCAS’ ability to

compute a Traffic or Resolution Advisory is
not degraded by lack of bearing information.

‘INCREASE CLIMB’
Figure 4.14. No Bearing RA and TA.
Figure 38.14 No Bearing RA and TA

ACTION TO BE TAKEN ON RECEIVING TA’s AND RA’s

¾¾ Action on Receiving a TA. TAs alert flight crews to the possibility that an RA may
follow, which could require a flight path change. Flight crews should assimilate the
information provided by the TA and commence a visual search of that part of the sky.
They should also prepare to respond to an RA if the situation worsens. If the potential
threat cannot be seen and continues to give cause for concern flight crews should seek
advice from ATC.

¾¾ Action on Receiving an RA. Pilots are to initiate the required manoeuvre immediately,
adjusting flight path, aircraft power and trim accordingly. Crew members not involved
in executing this manoeuvre should confirm that the sky ahead is clear of other aircraft
and continue the visual search for the established threat. They are to inform ATC as
soon as possible of any deviation from an ATC clearance.

¾¾ Disregarding RA’s. Manoeuvres should never be made in a direction opposite to that

given in an RA; this is because the sense may have been determined following an ex-
change of data with the established threat. For this reason:

•• RA’s may be disregarded only when pilots visually identify the potentially
conflicting traffic and decide no deviation from the current flight path is
needed.

•• If pilots receive simultaneously an instruction to manoeuvre from ATC and an

RA, and both conflict, the advice given by TCAS should be followed.

566

Aviation ebooks Company

Airborne Collision and Avoidance System Chapter 38

STANDARD R/T PHRASEOLOGY

Notification of a manoeuvre in response to an RA

Pilot: TCAS climb (or TCAS descent).

Controller: roger.

after “clear of conflict”.

Pilot: Returning to xxxxft/flxxx (details of assigned clearance).

Controller: roger, a revised clearance may then be issued.

inability to comply with atc instruction.

Controller: climb (descend. flxxx.

Pilot: Unable to comply, TCAS RA.

Further reading: CAP 579 airborne collision avoidance systems (ACAS): guidance material.

567

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 38 Airborne Collision and Avoidance System

568

Aviation ebooks Company

Airborne Collision and Avoidance System Chapter 38

QUESTIONS

1. On receipt of a TCAS RA your action is to:

a. initiate the required manoeuvre immediately.

b. make a note of the details.
c. request a flight clearance deviation from ATC.
d. Do nothing until a TA is received.

2. Which of the following statements concerning TCAS is correct:

a. TCAS 2 provides avoidance instructions in the vertical and horizontal planes.

b. TCAS 2 cannot provide information on non-SSR equipped intruders.
c. TCAS 2 requires Mode S to be fitted to other aircraft.
d. TCAS 2 provides advice on which way to turn.

3. With reference to Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems. The difference between TCAS I and II is
that:

a. TCAS II can provide Traffic Advisories and Resolution Advisories whilst TCAS I can
only provide Traffic Advisories .
b. TCAS II can only be fitted to large aircraft which carry more than 30 passengers. Whilst
TCAS I can be fitted to any aircraft.
c. TCAS I can be fitted to aircraft which carry transponders with Mode A only whilst
TCAS II can only be fitted to aircraft whose transponders include either Mode C or
Mode S.
d. TCAS II can only be fitted to aircraft which are equipped with EFIS.

4. The aural messages provided by TCAS II are:

a. Threat, Climb; Threat, Descend.

b. Climb left; Climb right; Descend left; Descend right.
c. Climb; Descend; Increase climb; Increase Descent.
d. Turn left, Turn Right, Increase Turn, Decrease Turn

5. With reference to Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems:

a. RAs may be disregarded only when the pilot visually identifies the potentially conflicting
traffic and decides that no deviation is necessary and has the clearance confirmed by
ATC.
b. RAs may be disregarded only when the pilot visually identifies the potentially
conflicting traffic and decides that no deviation is necessary and has advised ATC of
the other aircraft’s proximity.
c. RAs must never be disregarded.
d. RAs may be disregarded only when the pilot visually identifies the potentially
conflicting traffic and decides that no deviation is necessary.

569

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 38 Airborne Collision and Avoidance System

ANSWERS

1 A

2 B

3 A

4 C

5 D

570

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Data Recorder Chapter 39

CHAPTER THIRTY NINE

FLIGHT DATA RECORDER

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
FDR DESIGNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
FDR COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
AIRCRAFT INTEGRATED DATA SYSTEMS (AIDS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
PARAMETERS RECORDED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
EUROPEAN REGULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

571

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 39 Flight Data Recorder

572

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Data Recorder Chapter 39

INTRODUCTION

Commercial aircraft have a flight recorder which records various aircraft parameters during the
entire duration of the flight The main function of the flight data recorder (FDR) is to preserve
the aircraft data in order to determine the cause of any aircraft accident. It is also used to
gather information for trend analysis and trouble shooting. In smaller aircraft the FDR may be
combined with a cockpit voice recorder.

FDR DESIGNS

The FDR records the last 10 or 25 hours of aircraft data on a digital storage device housed in
a fire and shock resistant box. The box that is painted red or orange and located at the rear of
the aircraft, normally under the fin . On the front of the unit is an underwater locating device
(ULD). The older type of FDR’s are of non digital design while the regulation now states that on
aircraft registered as of the 1 April 2000, all FDR’s must be of the digital type.

FDR COMPONENTS

The FDR consists of the following components (see Figure 39.1):

¾¾ a recording system

¾¾ a control unit on the overhead panel

¾¾ a control unit on the pedestal

The recording system includes a digital flight data recorder (DFDR), a flight data interface unit
(FDIU) and a 3-axis linear accelerator (LA).

The control unit on the overhead panel also controls the cockpit voice recorder (CVR). A spring-
loaded switch labelled GND CTL can be selected ON or AUTO as follows:

¾¾ ON The CVR and the DFDR are energised and the ON light is lit

¾¾ AUTO The CVR and the DFDR are energised:

•• on the ground with one engine running

•• in flight (with engine running or stopped).

The control on the pedestal consists simply of push button labelled ‘EVENT’ which sets an
event mark on the DFDR recording. This acts as a kind of bookmark to enable the “event” to be
found rapidly on the recording at a subsequent analysis.

573

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 39 Flight Data Recorder

Courtesy of Airbus Industrie

Figure 39.1 Digital Flight Data Recorder
Figure 5.1 Digital Flight Data Recorder

574

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Data Recorder Chapter 39

When on the ground the FDR is automatically stopped 5 minutes after the final engine shut-
down.

A block diagram of a digital flight data recorder system for a Boeing 767 aircraft is shown in
Figure 39.2.

Figure
Figure 39.2
5.2 Digital
Digital FlightData
Flight DataRecorder
Recorder System
System(Boeing)
(Boeing)

AIRCRAFT INTEGRATED DATA SYSTEMS (AIDS)

AIDS processes data for various aircraft systems to ease maintenance tasks. This is done via a
data management unit (DMU) that collects and processes data to compile reports for storage
and for printing. Some of this information is sent to the FDR via the flight data interface unit
(FDIU) for recording mandatory parameters of the flight. The rest of the information is recorded
on a separate flight maintenance recorder from which data can be printed out for the purpose
of maintenance.

Data stored on the DMU can be printed out both in flight as well as on the ground for the
purpose of maintenance.

It is also possible to transmit relevant data from AIDS to ground at certain intervals so that the
aircraft performance can be monitored from the ground. This is done via ACARS (Airborne
Communications and Reporting System) on a VHF data link.

575

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 39 Flight Data Recorder

PARAMETERS RECORDED

The mandatory aircraft parameters recorded on the FDR depend upon the age and size of the
aircraft and are specified in EU OPS.

The main parameters are:

¾¾ altitude

¾¾ airspeed

¾¾ heading

¾¾ acceleration

¾¾ pitch and roll attitude

¾¾ radio transmission keying

¾¾ thrust or power on each engine

¾¾ configuration of lift and drag devices

¾¾ air temperature

¾¾ use of automatic flight control systems and

¾¾ angle of attack.

Additional parameters include the following:

¾¾ positions of primary flight controls and trim

¾¾ radio altitude and navigation information displayed to the flight crew

¾¾ cockpit warnings and

¾¾ landing gear position.

576

Aviation ebooks Company

Flight Data Recorder Chapter 39

EUROPEAN REGULATIONS
Carriage of FDR equipment Period of Recording

It is a requirement of the regulations that aircraft shall be equipped with a flight data recorder
capable of recording and storing data as follows:

¾¾ during at least the last 10 hours of its operation for an aircraft that is 5700 kg or less and
registered after 1 April 1998

¾¾ during at least the last 25 hours of its operation for an aircraft that is:

•• over 5700 kg or
•• has more than 9 seats

Parameters Recorded
The main parameters mentioned opposite must be recorded in all aircraft weighing 27,000 kg or
less while the additional parameters must also be recorded in all aircraft over 27,000 kg.

Method of Recording
All FDR’s must use the digital method of recording except that aircraft registered before 1 April
1995 and weighing more than 5700 kg the continued use of non-digital recorders is acceptable
until 1 April 2000.

Other Requirements
The other regulatory requirements are:

¾¾ The FDR must start automatically to record the data prior to the aeroplane being capa-
ble of moving under its own steam and must stop automatically after the aeroplane is
incapable of moving under its own power.

¾¾ The FDR must have a device to assist in locating that recorder in water.

¾¾ Aeroplanes of 5700 kg or less may have the FDR combined with the cockpit voice re-
corder.

¾¾ An aeroplane may be dispatched with an inoperative FDR provided that:

•• it is not reasonably practicable to repair or replace the FDR before flight

•• the aeroplane does not exceed 8 further consecutive flights
•• not more than 72 hours have elapsed since the unserviceability
•• any cockpit voice recorder required to be carried is operative (unless it is
combined with the FDR)

577

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 39 Flight Data Recorder

578

Aviation ebooks Company

Cockpit Voice Recorder Chapter 40

CHAPTER FORTY

COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER

Contents
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
THE RECORDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
THE VOICE RECORDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
THE CONTROL UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
EUROPEAN REGULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586

579

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 40 Cockpit Voice Recorder

580

Aviation ebooks Company

Cockpit Voice Recorder Chapter 40

INTRODUCTION

The principle function of a Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) system is to preserve, in the event of
an air accident, vital information that is recoverable for use by the Accident Investigation Branch
(AIB). The CVR automatically records the last 30 minutes of communications and conversations
on the flight deck. It becomes operational whenever 115 volts AC power is applied to the aircraft
though it can be disabled during aircraft maintenance. The system comprises a tape recorder, a
control unit, a monitor display and an area microphone. The units and their locations are shown
in Figure 40.1.

THE RECORDING

The voice recorder is a standard magnetic tape recorder using a minimum of four recording
heads and a tape that is about 300 feet long in the form of an endless loop. This should give
a minimum 30 minutes of 4-channel parallel recording. The recorder should be capable of
recording the frequency range 350 Hz to 3000 Hz though this likely to be increased to 6000 Hz
in future. The information recorded includes:

¾¾ communications and interphone audio between the captain’s, first officer’s and the
observer’s stations via their boom microphones or oxygen mask microphones (these
are applied to channels 1, 2 and 3).

¾¾ conversations and other sounds on the flight deck picked up by a separate area
microphone usually mounted on the control unit (applied to channel 4).

¾¾ on some two-crew aircraft the observer’s channel may be used to record public address
messages.

THE VOICE RECORDER

The tape recorder is located inside a crash-proof metal box that is painted red or orange and
normally placed at the rear of the aircraft, often adjacent to the flight data recorder. The high
impact case should be able to withstand shock, high temperature and fire.

On the front of the unit is fitted an underwater locating device (ULD). that will emit a continuous
series of ultrasonic pulses to help locate a submerged CVR. The unit is automatically activated
by water and the battery will last several days.

The front panel of the CVR also enables the information recorded on all the tracks to be
monitored via a playback head and monitor amplifier.

581

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 40 Cockpit Voice Recorder

Courtesy of Airbus Industrie

Figure 40.1
Figure 6.1 Cockpit
Cockpit Voice
Voice Recorder
Recorder

582

Aviation ebooks Company

Cockpit Voice Recorder Chapter 40

THE CONTROL UNIT

This is mounted on the flight deck, usually in the roof panel. It contains monitoring and testing
circuitry and also the area microphone to pick up general flight deck conversations and sounds.
It has the following controls:

AUTO / ON When the switch is in the AUTO position the CVR will start to record when the
first engine is started and will stop 5 mins after the last engine is shutdown. Selection of the ON
position starts the CVR recording immediately and latches the switch in the ON posiion until
first engine start, when it will click back to AUTO.

CVR TEST Pressing the TEST button activates an extensive set of functional tests which
determine the integrity of the system using the BITE (built in test equipment) facility. A successful
self-test results in a visual ‘good’ indication (a status deflection needle or a status LED. and a 600
or 800 Hz audio tone heard via the microphone monitor jack.

ERASE Erasure of the tapes is only possible with the aircraft on the ground, all engines
stopped and the parking brake set. Suitable safety interlocks are installed to prevent inadvertent
or airborne tape erasure. Additionally the erase button must be held depressed for at least 2
seconds before the circuit activates.

Some CVR control units will incorporate the area microphone as shown in Figure 40.2.

Figure 40.2 CVR Control Unit

Figure 6.2 CVR Control Unit

EUROPEAN REGULATIONS

It is a requirement of the regulations that aircraft shall be equipped with a cockpit voice recorder
capable of retaining recorded information as follows:

¾¾ during at least the last 30 minutes of its operation for an aircraft registered before 1
April 1998 and is:

•• 5700 kg or less and having more than 9 seats, or

•• over 5700 kg

¾¾ during at least the last 2 hours of its operation for an aircraft registered on or after 1
April 1998 and is:

•• multi-engine turbine powered with more than 9 seats, or

•• over 5700 kg

583

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 40 Cockpit Voice Recorder

The other requirements are:

¾¾ The CVR must be capable of recording:

•• voice communications transmitted from or received on the flight deck by

radio

•• the aural environment of the flight deck, including where practicable, without
interruption, the audio signals received from each boom and mask microphone
in use.

•• voice communications of flight crew members on the flight deck using the
aeroplanes interphone system.

•• voice or audio signals identifying navigation or approach aids introduced into

a headset or speaker and

•• voice communications of flight crew members on the flight deck using the
public address system, if installed.

¾¾ The CVR must start to record prior to the aeroplane moving under its own power and
continue to record until the termination of the flight when the aeroplane is no longer
capable of moving under its own power.

¾¾ The CVR must have a device to assist in locating the recorder in water.

¾¾ An aeroplane may be dispatched with an inoperative CVR provided that:

•• it is not reasonably practicable to repair or replace the CVR before flight

•• the aeroplane does not exceed 8 further consecutive flights

•• not more than 72 hours have elapsed since the unservicability

•• any flight data recorder required to be carried is operative (unless it is combined

with the CVR)

584

Aviation ebooks Company

Cockpit Voice Recorder Chapter 40

QUESTIONS

1. An altitude alerting system must at least be capable of alerting the crew on:

1. Approaching selected altitude

2. Abnormal gear/flap combination
3. Excessive vertical speed
4. Excessive terrain closure
5. Excessive deviation from selected altitude
6. Failure to set SPS or RPS as required

a. 1&3
b. 2&5
c. 4&6
d. 1&5

2. According tothe regulations, when must the DFDR on a 12 seat turbo prop a/c begin
recording?

a. Switch on until switch off

b. From before the aircraft is capable of moving under its own power to after the a/c is no
longer capable of moving under its own power
c. From lift off until the weight on wheels switch is made on landing
d. At commencement of the taxi to turning off the runway

3. What is the EGPWS mode 3 audible alert?

a. “don’t sink, don’t sink” followed by “whoop, whoop, pull up” if the sink rate exceeds a
certain value.
b. “don’t sink, don’t sink” followed immediately by “whoop, whoop, pull up”.
c. “don’t sink, don’t sink” continuously.
d. “Terrain, don’t sink” continuously.

4. What are the inputs to a modern jet transport aeroplane’s stall warning system:

1. A.o.A
2. Engine RPM
3. Configuration
4. Pitch and bank information
5. Control surface position
6. Airspeed vector

a. 1, 2, 3 & 4
b. 2, 4, 5 & 6
c. 1, 2, 3 & 6
d. 2, 3, 4 & 5

585

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 40 Cockpit Voice Recorder

5. EGPWS may indicate:

1. Excessive sink rate after T/O

2. Excessive descent rate
3. Excessive closure
4. Ground proximity, not in the landing configuration
5. Deviation from glide-slope
6. Proximity to en-route terrain

a. 1, 4 & 6
b. 2, 3 & 5
c. 1, 3 & 5
d. 2, 4 & 6

ANSWERS

1 2 3 4 5

D B C C A

586

Aviation ebooks Company

Aviation ebooks Company
Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

588

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

CHAPTER FORTY ONE

ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION

Contents
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGINE INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
TYPES OF DISPLAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
THRUST AND POWER MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
ENGINE TORQUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
ENGINE R.P.M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
TEMPERATURE SENSING EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
PRESSURE GAUGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
ENGINE VIBRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
FUEL GAUGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
REMOTE (SIGNAL) TRANSMISSION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
FLIGHT HOUR METER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

589

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

590

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGINE INSTRUMENTS

Just as it would be impossible to fly a large modern aircraft safely without the flight instruments,
so would it also be impossible to fly it safely without the engine and aircraft systems
instruments.

The engine instruments are divided basically into two categories, Performance Indicators or
Engine Condition Indicators.

Performance Indicators are thrust indicating instruments such as the Engine Pressure Ratio
(E.P.R.) gauge or the Fan Speed (N1) gauge.

Engine Condition Indicators include the Exhaust Gas Temperature (E.G.T.) gauge, Compressor
Speed, Oil Pressure and Oil Temperature gauges. We will be discussing these and others in the
following text.

Figure 41.1 shows some of the parameters previously mentioned and the position of the sensors
that are required to measure them.

Figure 41.1. Some of the Parameters Required to be Displayed

591

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

TYPES OF DISPLAY

There are two types of cockpit display, the analogue display (clockwork cockpit), or the electronic
display (glass cockpit). This is covered in Chapter 22.

In the former, there are a multitude of gauges displaying information, in the latter the display
is shown on cathode ray tubes (C.R.T.s) or liquid crystal display panels (L.C.D.s) with light
emitting diodes (L.E.D.s) for digital displays. A small number of conventional gauges are
retained in case of failure of the electronic displays.

Both types of display convey essentially the same information to the pilot, but the flexibility of
the Glass Cockpit system means that it is now taking over as the preferred means of showing
both flight and engine instrumentation.

THRUST AND POWER MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.

Thrust measuring instruments are of two basic types:

¾¾ the type that measures the jet pipe pressure, the P7 gauge.

¾¾ the type that measures the ratio of two parameters, the jet pipe pressure and the engine
air intake pressure, the E.P.R. gauge. (Figure 41.2)

¾¾ propeller driven aircraft measurer and indicate Torque. This is an indication of engine
power. The propeller converts power into thrust.

On some large turbo-fan engines the integrated turbine discharge pressure and fan outlet
pressure is compared to the compressor inlet pressure to produce what is called ‘integrated’
E.P.R.

Pitot tubes, suitably positioned, sense the pressures which are required to work the system, the
tubes can either be connected directly to the indicator in the cockpit or to a pressure transmitter
which is electrically connected to the indicator.

The P7 system gauge can be marked in inches of mercury (in Hg), pounds per square inch
(p.s.i.), or a percentage of the engine’s maximum thrust.

Although E.P.R. can be indicated by either mechanical or electronic means, it is more normal
to find the electronic system in use. This system uses two transducers which sense the relevant
air pressures and vibrate at frequencies proportional to these pressures. A computer works out
the electrical signal appropriate to the pressures and that signal is sent to the E.P.R. gauge in the
cockpit and to the engine management system.

592

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

Figure
Figure41.21.2The Engine
The Pressure
Engine Ratio
Pressure (E.P.R.)
Ratio Indicating
(E.P.R.) System
Indicating
System.
The engine intake pressure will vary with changing ambient pressure and also with changing
airspeed. An increase in forward airspeed during take off will cause a drop in the reading on the
E.P.R. gauge. This is only an ‘apparent drop’ because it is only the ratio of two pressures, engine
intake pressure and the jet pipe pressure, which is changing.

This apparent change is caused by a relative increase of the engine intake pressure with forward
airspeed during take off. The jet pipe pressure being unaffected at low airspeeds, which causes
the ratio between the two pressures to fall.

This will be seen as a reduction in E.P.R. on the gauge, which might cause the inexperienced
engine operator to open the throttles further in an attempt to restore the loss, having eyes for
only the one parameter, while the other parameters, (N1, N2, N3 & E.G.T.) are in danger of
exceeding their limits without his knowledge.

In an attempt to prevent this happening, most operators require that E.P.R. is set before the
aircraft has reached approximately 60 knots, no increase in engine power being allowed unless
in emergency after this speed.

After take off, as the airspeed increases beyond V2, the increase in engine intake pressure is
passed through the engine to the jet pipe, so changing the ratio back to that set on take-off.

593

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

ENGINE TORQUE

Turbo-props and turbo-shaft engines produce torque rather than thrust. The systems that
produce indications of thrust for turbo-jet engines and turbo-fan engines are vastly different to
those which produce indications of torque for turbo-prop and turbo-shaft engines. The Torque
meter measures, and its indicator displays the power being produced by the engine. Torque by
definition is a force applied at a distance to a turning point. If applied to the PLANE formula
given in piston engines chap 1, the turning force is the product of the mean effective pressure
P acting on the area of the piston A at distance L (the stroke is twice the throw of the crank)
Therefor P, L & A can be replaced by the word Torque. N represents the number of cylinders
and will remain constant, the only other variable is E the number of effective power strokes or
RPM of the engine. Power can therefore also be expressed as Torque x RPM.

There are two main methods employed in measuring the torque of the engine. One uses oil
pressure and the second is an electronic device. The units of measurement vary from system
to system. The indicator gauges may be calibrated to read, P.S.I., Inch or Foot pounds, Newton
metres, Brake or Shaft Horsepower. Torque is measured between the engine and the reduction
gearbox.

The oil torque meter system makes use of a phenomenon that axial thrust (movement) is
generated when helically cut gears are used to transfer power from one shaft to another. Figure
41.3 shows how this end thrust can be utilised to provide an indication of the torque output of
a turbo-prop or turbo-shaft engine.

As the gears in the propeller reduction gearbox rotate to drive the propeller, the amount of
torque that they are transmitting attempts to move them axially, this axial force is proportional
to the torque that is producing it.

The gears cannot be allowed to move axially because this would cause the teeth to no longer
mesh with each other and the drive would fail, the axial force has to be counteracted to maintain
the gears in alignment. The force comes from passing engine oil through a filter and then to a
torquemeter pump which enables its pressure to be boosted to (in some cases) as much as 800
p.s.i.. This high pressure is allowed into cylinders which form the bearings within which the
helical gear shafts rotate.

A small bleed hole in the wall of the cylinder will be covered by the gear shaft if it moves into
the cylinder under increasing axial load, this will cause the oil pressure within the cylinder to
build up until it can move the gear shaft back to its original position. Conversely, if the load on
the helical gear shaft decreases, the existing oil pressure will force its shaft slightly out of the
cylinder. This uncovers the bleed hole allowing the balancing oil pressure to be reduced and so
the gear shaft moves back into correct position within the cylinder.

If the oil pressure balancing the axial force is measured, it can be compared with reference
figures which take into account the ambient pressure and temperature and the performance of
the engine, its power output, can be judged.

594

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

Figure 41.3 The Torquemeter System

Figure 1.3. The Torquemeter System.
The Electronic system comprises of two concentric shafts. One, the Torque Shaft, is connected
to both the engine and the propeller’s reduction gear box. The second shaft, the Reference
Shaft, is connected only to the engine. An exciter wheel (toothed gear) is formed at the forward
end of each shaft. The exciter wheels rotate past an electro magnetic pick-up and produce an
AC voltage. The exciter wheels are aligned at assembly, but as power is increased the torque
shaft twists, this displaces the phase relationship of the voltages produced. The displacement
is proportional to the change in power, and is used to drive an indicator. This system is simple,
and lighter than other systems and has proven to be very reliable in service. (Figure 41.4)

The torque indicator may indicate negative (windmilling propeller) as well as positive torque.
The torque limits are colour coded and shown on the gauge. A red coloured band or marker
indicating maximum limits. On a FADEC system these limits may be adjusted and set by the
crew, the indication can be presented in a digital readout.

595

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

Figure 1.4 ELECTRONIC TORQUEMETER

Figure 41.4 Electronic Torquemeter

596

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

ENGINE R.P.M.

The measurement of engine speed is of vital importance, since together with other parameters
accurate control, and monitoring of the engine can be achieved. On piston engines it is crankshaft
speed that is measured, whilst on gas turbine engines it is the speed of the compressor. The
RPM indicator is called a Tachometer (Tacho). There are three basic methods of measuring
engine rotational speeds:

¾¾ Mechanical (Magnetic) Tachometer.

¾¾ Electrical Generator System. (Tacho Genny)
¾¾ Inductive Probe System.

There are no firm guidelines as to the application of each of the tachometer system, although
engine and aircraft design will dictate which system can be best utilised.

The Mechanical Tachometer (Figure 41.5) is now only found on older piston aircraft. It consists
of a Flexible Drive Shaft that is connected to the flight deck Tacho Indicator. The input drive
causes a magnet in the indicator to rotate. The magnet rotates inside a copper or aluminium
drag- cup, this induces Eddy Currents in the drag-cup which opposes the magnetic field of the
magnet. A torque is established which turns the drag -cup in the same direction as the permanent
magnet. A shaft extends from the drag-cup and is connected to a pointer. The turning motion
of the pointer is against the tension of a Hairspring which controls the drag cup position and
hence the position of the pointer. The flexible drive is driven at reduced speed, but true speed
will be shown on the indicator. The indicator incorporates compensation devices for change in
temperature.

Figure1.5
Figure 41.5 Mechanical
Mechanical Tacho
Tacho

597

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

The Electrical Generator System (Figure 41.6) is possibly the oldest form of engine speed
measurement still in use on large aircraft. It utilises a small three phase (tacho) generator,
driven by the engine. The output of this generator is then taken to an indicator which consists
of a synchronous motor turning a drag cup assembly which moves a pointer over a scale as in
the mechanical system.

Figure 41.6
Figure Tacho-Generator
1.6 Tacho-Genny
The indicator (Figure 41.7) can either show the actual revolutions per minute (not too common),
or the speed as a percentage of maximum engine speed.

FigFigure 41.7 Percentage

1.7 Percentage Tacho-Indicator
Tacho-Indicator.

On twin or triple spool engines the speed of rotation of the high , intermediate and low pressure
compressors can be displayed. These would be termed N3, N2 and N1. N being the SI symbol
for rotational speed.

An overspeed pointer (Trailing or Limit pointer) can also be fitted concentrically with the main
pointer, and is initially positioned at the appropriate max RPM graduation. If the main pointer
exceeds this position, the limit pointer is carried with it. When speed is reduced the limit pointer
will remain at the maximum speed reached. It can be reset by applying a separate 28V DC
supply to a solenoid in the indicator.

Although there would always be provision on the H.P. compressor spool for driving a tacho-
generator through the high speed gear box. Facilities may not always be available for driving
tacho-generators from the intermediate and low pressure compressor shafts. If this is the case,
a Speed Probe, shown in Figures 41.8 and 41.9, can be used to very good effect.

598

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

Figure 41.8 Measuring Engine Speed With a Phonic Wheel and a Speed Probe
Figure 1.8 Measuring Engine Speed With a Phonic Wheel and a
Speed Probe.
The speed probe is positioned on the compressor casing in line with either a phonic wheel
(Figure 41.8), or the actual fan blades (Figure 41.9). As the spool rotates, the magnetic flux in
the probe or sensor head is altered. This changes the current flowing in the coil fitted inside
the probe and the frequency with which it changes is directly related to the spool speed. This
frequency is fed to an indicator in the cockpit to show the spool rotational speed.

In addition to providing an indication of spool speed, the tacho-generator or speed probe can
both be used to provide a signal which will illuminate a warning lamp on the engine start
control panel. This can tell the pilot not only that the engine is turning, but also whether the
engine is turning in the correct direction. This is particularly important during engine start as
it is used to inform the pilot when to open the H.P. Fuel Cock. This lamp is only illuminated
during the start cycle.

An advantage of this system is the reduction in moving parts required in the engine, and that a
number of separate electrical outputs additional to those required for speed indications can be
provided, e.g. automatic power control and flight data acquisition systems.

599

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

Figure 41.9
Figure The Use
1.9 The Useofofa aSpeed
SpeedProbe to Measure
Probe Fan Speed
to Measure Fan
Speed.
The Tacho indicators mentioned in the text above receive their speed signals directly from speed
sensors or via servo operated systems. These indicators require a power source from the aircraft
airborne power supply. In the event of power supply or signal failure, the indicator is returned
to an Off Scale position, and a Power Off Flag may be displayed.

As previously stated, presentation of speed is now usually displayed as a percentage figure. It is

only piston engine aircraft where the actual speed of rotation is displayed. Gas turbine engines
have dial displays which show percentage speed, with 100% corresponding to the optimum
turbine speed. Two scales are displayed, a main scale calibrated 0 to 100% in 10% increments. A
second pointer or digital counter displays speed in 1% increments. As well as digital read out
vertical ribbon displays are used.

In line with other instruments, coloured arcs or indicators lines are used to show ranges and
limits of engine speed. Green representing normal operating range, with Amber denoting
caution. Red arcs show maximum or minimum speed, and ranges that are restricted because of
excessive vibration.. On a piston engine the reference RPM should also be placarded.

On multi-engine aircraft, to reduce structural vibration and noise the speed of all engines must
be synchronised. It is impractical to have the pilot adjust the throttle of each engine manually
to synchronise the speed, and individual indicators may vary in accuracy. In order to facilitate
manual adjustment of speed an additional instrument known as a Synchroscope (Figure 41.10)
is used. The instrument was designed at the outset for operation from the AC generated by the
tachometer system. The instrument provides qualitative indication of the difference in speeds
between two or more engines. One engine is selected as a master, the others are slaves to it. The
instrument shows clearly whether a slave engine is running faster or slower than the master.
An example of the dial presentation for synchroscopes for a Twin and Four-engine aircraft, and
Combined tacho and Synchroscope are shown.

600

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

Figure
Figure 41.10
1.10 Synchroscopes
Synchroscopes

TEMPERATURE SENSING EQUIPMENT

Piston and gas turbine aero engines are heat engines. The power they produce is directly
proportional to the heat released during combustion of fuel. Engine components and systems are
designed to withstand certain temperatures. If their limits are exceeded they may fail. To allow
safe operation the engine temperatures must be monitored. The effect of ambient temperatures
as well as combustion must be considered. The following temperatures are monitored on piston
and gas turbine engines: Air Inlet, Piston Cylinder Heads, Piston Exhaust Gas, Gas Turbine
Compressor outlets, Turbines Oil and Fuel systems and Internal Air system.

The temperatures monitored may range from -56°c to +1,200°c. Different sensors are used
depending on the temperature range to be monitored. They fall broadly into two categories,
High temperatures and low temperatures.

601

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

There are four major types of measuring devices. They are:

Expansion Type
This relies on the principle that most solids, liquids and gases expand and contract with
temperature changes. e.g. The mercury Thermometer and Bi-metallic strip.

Vapour Pressure Type

Liquids when subjected to a rise in temperature change their state from liquid to vapour. Therefore
by measuring the pressure of the vapour an indication of temperature can be gained.

Electrical Type
A change in temperature of an electrical conductor can cause a change in resistance of the
conductor. Thus measuring the change in resistance can indicate the temperature of the
conductor. This sensor is called the Resistance Type (Temperature Bulb.. In addition, two
dissimilar metals when joined together at their ends (a junction) can produce an electrical
potential called a thermo EMF(Seebeck Effect). This is dependant on the temperature difference
between the junctions. This is known as a ‘Thermo-Electric Type’ or ‘Thermo-couple’. This
system is explained in detail later.

Radiation type
The radiation emitted by any body at any wavelength is dependant upon the temperature of
that body. This is termed its ‘emissivity’. If the radiation is measured and the emissivity is
know the temperature of the body can be determined. Such a measuring technique is known
as Pyrometry.

Generally the Expansion and Vapour Pressure sensors are used to indicate lower temperatures.
They are direct reading. e.g Thermometer. The Electrical and Radiation sensors are used to
measure higher temperatures and can be direct reading to a moving coil Indicator. e.g. Piston
Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature. However most systems today use remote sensors that feed
to servo-operated indicators after the signal from the sensor has been amplified. A Ratiometer-
Type indicating system can be used to obtain the greater accuracy required when indicating the
temperature of critical component (Turbines).

The temperature of the gas passing through the turbine in a gas turbine engine is the most
important parameter of those displayed on the engine instruments. Operation of the engine
beyond the limits of turbine temperature, even for only a moment, is liable to cause excessive
turbine blade creep which can be catastrophic if the rotating blades touch the casing of the
engine.

The gas temperature must be monitored closely and automatic temperature limiting equipment
is fitted to most gas turbine engines operating today. To enable this monitoring to be achieved
temperature probes are inserted in the gas stream.

Temperature probes are formed from the junction of two dissimilar metals, when heated the
junction generates a small voltage which is proportional to the actual temperature which
produced it. The voltage can be measured on a milli-voltmeter and displayed in the cockpit as
the temperature at the rear of the engine. A Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument used to
indicate these low voltages. The galvanometer uses a basic Wheatstone Bridge Balancing circuit
that alters the magnetic field in a coil, this change produces a torque to drive an indicator.

602

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

Figure 41.11 The1.11

Figure Gas Flow Over Flow
The Gas the Probes
Over and
the Their
ProbesElectrical Connections
and Their
Electrical Connections.
Figure 41.11 shows how the probes, the hot junctions, are connected and also how the gas flows
over them. The output from the probes is sent to the cockpit engine instrument, which is the
cold junction, where the e.m.f. is measured on a very sensitive milli-voltmeter to display the
engine gas temperature.

Just one probe would obviously not supply enough information to accurately tell the pilot
what was going on in the whole turbine, it could only inform him about the small part of the
turbine that it was monitoring. It is therefore necessary to place a number of probes, electrically
connected in parallel, all around the periphery of the engine or the exhaust system, this means
that the gas stream is sampled in many more places and that the output is the average of all
of the probes. This has an added advantage that if one probe is damaged, the temperature
reading on the gauge is virtually unaffected.

The actual position of the probes depends upon two things, the anticipated maximum
temperature of the gas, and the ability of the probe material to withstand that temperature.

The industry standard for the material used in the temperature probes in gas turbine engines is
chromel (nickel chromium), and alumel (nickel aluminium). These two materials may not have
the highest milli-voltage output of the materials available, but their ability to withstand very
high temperatures coupled with a reasonable volts / degree ratio makes them ideal for the job.

603

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

Fig 1.12 Thermocouple indicating System.

Figure 41.12 Thermocouple indicating System

Note: The system requires no power supply to indicate temperature.

However if the signal is to be used to supply a temperature limiting system the voltage will
need to be amplified. This will be supplied by the aircraft’s electrical system.

In the case of a system that supplies both a temperature limiting system (top temperature
control) and a temperature indicating system, the probes will contain two hot junctions, one to
feed the limiter and one to feed the indicator. As illustrated in Figure 41.11.

The positioning of the probes within the engine depends on the temperature of the gas and the
ability of the metal they are made of to withstand it. On engines where the temperature of the
gas within the turbine is too high for the metal of the probes to stand it, they may be positioned
after the turbine and the gauge calibrated to read ‘exhaust gas temperature’ (E.G.T). On other
engines, it may be found convenient to combine the temperature probes with the pitot probes
which measure exhaust gas pressure (P7), in this case the gauges will read ‘jet pipe temperature’
(J.P.T.).

Obviously it would be ideal if the temperature could be sampled either before the turbine,
called either ‘turbine inlet temperature’ (T.I.T.), or ‘turbine entry temperature’ (T.E.T.), or inside
the turbine, called ‘turbine gas temperature’ (T.G.T.), in every case the position of the probes is
dependent upon their ability to withstand the temperatures they encounter.

Actual blade temperature can be measured by the radiation method, with the use of an Optical
of Pyrometer.

604

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

Air temperature is one of the basic parameters used to establish data vital to the performance
monitoring of aircraft engines. e.g thrust settings, fuel/air ratios settings etc. The temperature
ideally required is that sensed at static conditions at various flight levels. This is called Static Air
Temperature (SAT). However this is not possible for all types of aircraft or, in many instances,
for one type of aircraft, for the measurements can be effected by the adiabatic compression with
increase speed. Below 0.2 Mach the temperature is very close to SAT, but at higher Mach Nos
an increase in skin friction will raise the air temperature. This increase is commonly referred
to as ‘Ram Rise’, and the temperature indicated called Ram Air Temperature (RAT) i.e. SAT
plus the ram rise. The ram rise can be calculated mathematically as a function of Mach No, and
for each type of aircraft tables or graphs can be included in flight manuals, or computed by air
data computers to correct the indicators to SAT. The proportion of ram rise dependant on the
ability of the sensor to sense or recover the temperature rise. The sensitivity in this case being
expressed as a percentage and termed Recovery Factor. If for example , a sensor has a recovery
factor of 0.80, it will measure SAT plus 80% of the ram rise.

For use at high Mach Nos Total Air Temperature (TAT) is measured. The air is brought to rest
(or nearly so) without addition or removal of heat. The temperature probes used have a high
recovery factor (approximately 100%). TAT is equal to SAT+Ram Rise.

Temperature indicators use coloured arcs to show their operating range. Green for normal,
Amber for caution and Red upper or lower limits.

PRESSURE GAUGES

In many of the systems associated with the operation of the aircraft and its engines, liquids
and gases are used the pressures of which must be measured and indicated. The gauges and
indicating systems fall into two categories: Direct Reading and Remote Indicating. Remote
indicating is where a separate sensing element is connected to a pressure source at some remote
point.

Pressure, is defined as force per unit area. It is normally indicated either as Pounds Per Square
Inch (PSI) or Inches of Mercury (in Hg). In connection with pressure measurement we are
concerned with the following terms: Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure. Most pressure
gauges measure the difference between absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure. This
is gauge pressure.

To actually measure pressure in a system Elastic Pressure Sensing Elements are used in
which forces can be produced by applied pressures and converted to mechanical movement.
The movement can then operate a direct reading gauge or electrical transmitter. The sensing
elements commonly used are Diaphragms, Capsules, Bellows and Bourdon tubes.

Diaphragms (Figure 41.13) consist of corrugated circular metal discs which are secured at their
edge, and when pressure is applied they are deflected. Diaphragms are used to measure low
pressures.

605

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

Figure 41.13 A Diaphragm Pressure Sensor

Figure 1.13 A Diaphragm Pressure Sensor
Capsules (Figure 41.14) are made up of two diaphragms placed together and joined at their
edges to form a chamber which may be sealed, called an Aneroid, or open to a pressure source
and called a Pressure capsule. Like diaphragms they are used to measure low pressure, but
they are more sensitive to small pressure changes.

Figure 41.14 Pressure and Aneroid Capsules

Figure 1.14 Pressure and Aneroid Capsules
The bellows (Figure 41.15) type element can be considered as an extension of the corrugated
diaphragm principle. It may be used for High, Low or differential pressure measurement. It is
typically used to measure pressures like the aircraft’s LP Booster pump output.

The Manifold Absolute Pressure Gauge or MAP (Figure 41.17) of a piston engine measures
both pressure and differential pressure. Note this gauge measures Absolute Pressure and
indicates inches of mercury (in Hg.). When the engine is running this gauge can indicate less
than atmospheric pressure. Earlier versions of this gauge were calibrated to read Boost in PSI
and called Boost Gauges. Under standard conditions the Boost Gauge will read ‘Zero’ and the
MAP gauge will read 30 in Hg. This indication is called Static Boost.

Figure1.15
Figure 41.15 Bellows
Bellows Sensors
Sensors.

606

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

The Bourdon tube (Figure 41.16) is about the oldest of the pressure-sensing element. The
element is essentially a length of metal tube with an elliptical cross section, and shaped into
a letter C. One end of the tube is sealed, and called the free end. The other end is connected
to the pressure source and fixed. When pressure is applied the tube tries to straighten, this
movement is magnified to drive and indicator pointer. The Bourdon tube can be manufactured
to indicate high or low pressures, but is normally associated with higher pressures such as
engine oil pressure.

Figure 41.16 The Bourdon Tube

Figure 1.16 The Bourdon Tube

Figure
Figure 1.1741.17 Manifold
Manifold AbsolutePressure
Absolute Pressure Gauge
Gauge.

607

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

It would be impractical to run an oil feed pipe from the outer engine of a Boing 747 to a flight
deck pressure indicator of the Bourdon tube type. To overcome this problem remote- indicating
systems are used. They consist of two main components, a transmitter unit located at the pressure
source, and an indicator mounted on the appropriate panel. They have distinct advantages
over direct-reading gauges; for example, the pressure of hazardous fluids can be measured at
their source and not brought into the cockpit. Also weight can be saved by reducing the length
of pipelines. The transmitters feed varying current to an indicator and can be AC or DC in
operation. These systems are covered later.

As well as indicating actual pressures, warnings can be displayed to the pilot by pressure
operated switches. These switches can operate for Low, High or incorrect Differential pressures.
A differential Switch or gauge is subjected to pressure on both sides of its sensor.

Coloured arcs of Green, Amber or Red are used to indicate the range and limits of the system.

ENGINE VIBRATION

Vibration monitoring equipment (V.M.E.) is fitted to almost all commercial jet engined aircraft.
Although gas turbine engines have an extremely low vibration level, any change in that level is
usually indicative of damage which may lead to failure.

Warnings will be given in the cockpit if the vibration levels are exceeded and some systems
have a continuous readout of vibration levels.

The latest engines have the facility whereby the vibration level of each rotating assembly is
monitored so that the source of the vibration can be pin pointed.

The principle upon which V.M.E. works requires either an input from a Piezo electric crystal
mounted strategically on the engine, or an input from a coil which will be affected by the
movement of a Magnet mounted loosely within it. In either case, the frequency of the incoming
vibrations will be filtered so that only those frequencies that are indicative of damage occurring
will affect the output.

These systems utilise the principle that the magnet and piezo crystal which are suspended
within a fixed coil carrying 115 volts at 400 Hertz, will move in sympathy with any vibration
suffered by the engine. This will affect the current flowing through the coil into the amplifier
and filter. The filter will erase any output which is normal to the engine, and allow through to
the amplifier any frequency that is considered to be harmful to the engine.

The result of this amplification is sent to the instrument via the rectifier and warning circuit. The
needle will show the appropriate deflection for the amount of vibration being suffered by the
engine at that time. If the level of vibration exceeds a predetermined amount, a warning light
on the instrument illuminates. Vibration is measured and displayed in ‘Relative Amplitude’
(Rel Ampl).

608

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

Figure 41.18 The Circuitry of a Vibration Monitoring System

Figure 1.18 The Circuitry of a Vibration Monitoring System.

FUEL GAUGE

The measurement of the quantity of fuel in the tanks of an aircraft fuel system is an essential
requirement, and in conjunction with measurements of the rate at which the fuel flows to the
engine or engines permits an aircraft to be flown at maximum efficiency.

There are two principle methods of indicating the quantity of fuel carried. Either the Volume
(e.g. Gallons) or Mass (kg or lbs) are measured. The former is now only used on light aircraft
as the Mass of the fuel is of more interest to the pilot. This assists the pilot in calculating the
aircraft’s ‘all-up-weight ‘ and also gives a better indication of the energy that can be released by
the fuel. One pound of fuel has the same number of energy molecules regardless of temperature
and volume.

The simplest form of volume indication is a float system. Early aircraft had a float which sat
on the level of fuel. Attached to the float was a piece of wire that protruded out the top of the
fuel tank. As the fuel level reduced so the wire disappeared from view. There have been many
variations of this system. The most common of these is where the float moves to reposition a
wiper on a variable resistor which alters the current to an indicator moving a pointer over a
scale calibrated in volume. This is a DC powered system. (Figure 41 .19)

609

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

The disadvantage of this system is that the indication is not linear, and there is no provision
for making adjustments for system accuracy. The gauge is set to be accurate at the low and
empty positions. The system is also subject to errors whenever the aircraft manoeuvres and the
attitude changes.

Figure 41.19 DC Float Type System

figure 1.19 DC Float Type System
Capacitance Type Fuel Gauge System
In its basic form a capacitance system (Figure 41.20) consists of a variable AC capacitor located
in the fuel tank (Tank Unit Figure 41.21) an amplifier and a indicator. This system will indicate
volume without the errors of the float system. If a correction voltage due to change in volume
or temperature change is fed to the circuit, Mass of fuel will be indicated. A tank unit consists
of two concentric aluminium alloy tubes which are held apart by pairs of insulating pins. The
electrical connections are insulated and the unit is insulated from the tank. Co-axial connectors
are used throughout.

Incorporated in the system are Reference units, which improve indication errors that would
occur if the permittivity of the fuel changes from its normal value. The reference unit is located
on the lower end of a tank unit and is always totally submerged in the unusable fuel level in
the tank.

610

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

Figure 1.20
Figure 41.20

The principle of operation of the capacitance system is based on the use of fuel and air as the
dielectric between parallel- plate capacitors of fixed area and a fixed distance between the plates.
The only variable then being the ratio of fuel and air, which is determined by the quantity of
fuel in the tank. Capacitance is measured in Farads, the standard unit being the Picofarad (10-12
F). The capacitance depends on the following .
Area of plates A
Capacitance = Relative Permittivity x or C = Er x
Distance between Plates D

Figure
Figure 41.21Capacitance
1.21 Capacitance Tank
TankUnit
Unit

611

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

The Relative Permittivity (Er) is a number given as a ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor
having a certain material as a dielectric to the capacitance of the same capacitor with a vacuum
(or air) as its dielectric.

In an aircraft fuel system, the area of the plates and their distance apart remain constant, but the
capacitance of the tank units will vary depending upon the level of fuel within the tanks.

The value of capacitance of a tank can be considered as two components. Ca (air) and Cf (fuel)
and at any instance Tank Capacitance (Ct) =Ca + Cf. (Figure 41.22).

Typical Dielectric Values

Material Relative Permittivity

Impure water 0

Vacuum 1.0

Air 1.0006

Gasolene 1.95

Kerosene 2.10

Distilled Water 81.00

Figure 41.22
Fig 1.22

The pointer in the fuel quantity system measuring fuel by volume is directly related to:

¾¾ The change in fuel level.

¾¾ the ER- 1 value.

In an AC Capacitance circuit the Current is equal to the voltage over the capacitive reactance.
V (Voltage)
I (current) =
Xc (Capacitive Reactance)

The capacitive reactance Xc is equal to 1/(2π f c). Since the voltage, frequency and 2π are
constants, as the fuel level and capacitance change current in the circuit changes.

612

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

Changes in temperature of the fuel will affect its density, volume and dielectric value (Er). A
decrease in temperature would cause a decrease in volume, increase in density and increase in
Er. The circuit is compensated for changes in temperature and can now indicate Mass of fuel
which is of more value to the pilot.

TANK
UNITS
R R
V
EMPTY SENSING
TRIMMER LOOP
TEST

R
BALANCING SIGNAL DEVELOPER
115V
400Hz POTENTIOMETER
R BALANCING
V LOOP IB
REFERENCE
CAPACITOR
R
V
FULL
TRIMMER

COMPENSATING Fuel 08A

CAPACITOR
2 PHASE
INDICATOR MOTOR

CONTROL
PHASE

FAIL SAFE
REFERENCE PHASE SUPPLY

Figure 1.23
Figure Capacitance
41.23 FuelIndicating
Capacitance Fuel Indicating Circuit
Circuit

The system consists of a sensing and balancing loop circuit connected together by a signal
developing resistor. When the fuel quantity is stable the current in the two loops are equal
but anti-phase. No signal voltage is produced. As the fuel is consumed the capacitance and
therefore the current in the sensing loop will decrease. The current in the balancing loop will
then be greater and a signal voltage is produced across the signal developing resistor. The
voltage is phase detected and amplified to drive an indicator. The system can be calibrated by
the addition of trimming resistors.

As previously stated a more useful way of indicating fuel quantity is measurement by weight.
For the calibration of gauges in terms of mass, an assumption is made that there is a constant
relationship Er value and density (ρ) for a given sample of fuel at a given temperature.
Temperature of course is not a constant and a Compensating Capacitor circuit is incorporated
in the system. This is fitted to the reference unit. The system will now sense changes in Specific
Gravity (SG) of the fuel and so indicate mass.

The indicating system can incorporate an additional indicator know as the ‘Fuel Totaliser’
which will indicate the sum of all the tank gauges. In the event of failure, the system will fail
safe and drive the indicator slowly to the zero position. A test circuit is incorporated that when
selected will simulate the emptying of the tank. When the switch is released the pointer should
return to its original position.

If water is present in the tanks it will cause errors with the indicating system. The capacitors in
the sensing units are effectively shorted, and the indicator is driven beyond the full scale.

613

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

If the unusable fuel supply for any tank exceeds one gallon, or 5% of the tank capacity, whichever
is greater, a Red Arc must be marked on its indicator extending from the calibrated zero reading
to the lowest reading obtainable in flight.

As well as the quantity of fuel measured, the rate of fuel consumed and the instantaneous rate
of fuel flow can be shown. The Fuel Flowmeter can display volume flow or mass flow. Flow
is proportional to the square root of pressure drop across an orifice. A simple flowmeter can
be a adaption of a pressure gauge. This is used on many light piston engine injection systems.
Most modern engines use an electrical sensor, which utilise the change in torque or speed of
a turbine (impeller). Typical construction consists of a light alloy casting with guide vanes
and an electrical ‘pick off ‘coil. Inside the casting there is a helical vane impeller which has a
magnet embedded in it. When the impeller rotates due to fuel flow, the pick off coils will have
a sinusoidal signal induced in it, at a frequency proportional to the speed of the rotor, which
is proportional to the rate of volume flow. To measure mass flow the signal is corrected for
temperature. (Figure 41.24)

The total consumption is obtained by integrating the rate of fuel consumption over time,
this time is one hour. Units used for volume flow are Gallons and for mass flow Pounds or
Kilogrammes. A flow meter that displays fuel consumed as well as fuel flow is broadly defined
as a Integrated Flowmeter. The flow meter is located in the High Pressure fuel line to the fuel
spray nozzles (burners).

Figure1.24
Figure 41.24AAtypical
typical Fuel
Fuel Flowmeter
Flowmeter

REMOTE (SIGNAL) TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

To control an aircraft system may require the movement of a valve, flap or lever on the
engine, the pilot may need to know the position of the control. Early systems had Mechanical
Feedback to a position indicator in the flight deck. Most of the aircraft flying today employ
remote indicating systems that can be either D.C or A.C operated. Whichever system is used
each data transmission system employs a Transmitter located at the source to be measured and
a Receiver, which acts on the information received.

614

Aviation ebooks Company

Engine Instrumentation Chapter 41

The D.C. systems are called Desynn indicators. The desynn system is available in 24 or 12v
aircraft systems. The indicating accuracy is approximately 2.5%, which is not good by modern
standards. The desynn is an old British design and will only be found on British built aircraft.
This system may take one of three forms, namely; Rotary Motion, Linear Motion and Slab -
Desynn. The rotary motion arrangement may be considered as the basic system from which the
others have been developed. These transmitter’s can be used to indicate contents, pressures or
movement. The system consists of a Transmitter, Transmission Leads and a Receiver.

The transmitter consist of a wiper arm which is supplied with D.C. and is positioned on a
toroidal resistance. Three pick-offs are taken from the resistance positioned at 120 degrees
apart. The current which flows from each pick-off is proportional to the relative position of the
wiper arm on the toroidal resistance. The receiver consist of a magnetised pointer and three
coils positioned 120 degrees to each other. Each coil is in series with one of the pick-offs on the
toroidal resistance in the transmitter. The flow of current through each coil is therefore relative
to the position of the wiper arm on the toroidal resistance. Each coil will produce a magnetic
field, the strength and polarity of the field is dependant upon the amount and direction of the
current flowing through the coil. The three magnetic fields will combine to form one resultant
field. The magnetised pointer will align itself with this resultant field and thus the receiver can
be calibrated to remotely reproduce the position of the wiper arm on the toroidal resistance.
(See Figure 41.25).

The desynn system has inherent errors caused by the wiper arm being in physical contact with
the resistor, this causes inaccuracies due to friction and carbon contamination. The scale is also
non-linear.

Figure 41.25 Desynn Data Transmission System

Figure 1.25 Desynn Data Transmission System

The AC systems are collectively called Synchros , and work on the principle of a variable
transformer. The AC voltage used is 26 volt. In the illustration below (Figure 41.26), as the input
shaft is rotated the induce signal in the secondary winding can be varied in two ways:

¾¾ The magnitude of the induced signal will vary in direct relationship to the angle be-
tween the primary and secondary windings.

¾¾ The phasing of the induced signal will vary twice for one complete rotation of the pri-
mary winding.

615

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 41 Engine Instrumentation

The synchro device works on the principle described above, but to obtain more precise
information it is necessary to modify the transformer design so that we have one rotor coil
(primary), and three stator coils to produce the output (secondaries). It is much more accurate
than the desynn system. For this reason it is used when precise position information is
required.

The transmitter consist of three secondary coils positioned at 120 degrees to each other and a
fourth primary coil placed within them. An A.C. current is passed through the primary coil
which produces an alternating magnetic field. This alternating magnetic field causes an EMF
to be induced in the three secondary coils. The value of the EMF induced in any one of the
secondary coil is dependant upon its relative position to the primary coil.

The receiver also consists of three secondary coils positioned at 120 degrees to each other and
a fourth primary coil placed within them. The receiver secondary coils are in series with the
secondary coils of the transmitter. This closed circuit causes a current to flow through the
coils.

Figure 41.26 AC Synchro System

Figure 1.26 AC Synchro System
The value of the current is proportional to the value of the induced EMF in the associated
transmitter secondary coil. The three magnetic fields produced by the secondary coils combine
to produce a resultant field. The receiver primary coil is in series with the transmitter primary
coil. This causes the receiver primary coil to align itself in the resultant magnetic field produced
by the receiver secondary coils and thus remotely reproduce the position of the input.

FLIGHT HOUR METER

Some aircraft indicate and record usage of the engines in flight. This information is used to
determine engine condition. The flight hour meter can be coupled to an airborne sensor which
becomes active at certain speeds.

616

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

CHAPTER FORTY TWO

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION

Contents
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS FOR ENGINE AND
AIRFRAME SYSTEMS CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
EICAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
DISPLAY UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
DISPLAY MODES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
OPERATIONAL MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
STATUS MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
MAINTENANCE MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
DISPLAY SELECT PANEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
ALERT MESSAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
DISPLAY UNIT FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
DISPLAY SELECT PANEL FAILURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
STANDBY ENGINE INDICATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
MAINTENANCE CONTROL PANEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED AIRCRAFT MONITORING (ECAM) . . . . . . . . . 629
DISPLAY UNITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
DISPLAY MODES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
THE FLIGHT PHASE-RELATED MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
ADVISORY (MODE AND STATUS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
FAILURE-RELATED MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
THE FOURTH MODE (MANUAL), THE AIRCRAFT SYSTEM DISPLAY MODE . . . 633
THE ‘ECAM’ CONTROL PANEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
SYSTEM TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640

617

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

618

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS FOR ENGINE AND AIRFRAME SYSTEMS CONTROL

The display of the parameters associated with engine performance and airframe systems control
by means of Cathode Ray Tube type display units has, like those of flight instrument systems,
become a standard feature of many types of aircraft.

The display units form part of two principal systems designated as Engine Indicating and Crew
Alerting System (EICAS), and Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM) system. These
systems were first introduced in Boeing 757 and 767 aircraft and the Airbus A310 respectively.

At the time of their introduction there were differing views on the approach to such operating
factors as flight deck layouts and crews’ controlling functions, the extent to which normal, alerting
and warning information should be displayed, and in particular, whether engine operating data
was required to be displayed for the whole of a flight, or only at various phases.

In respect of EICAS, engine operating data is displayed on its CRT units, thereby eliminating
the need for traditional instruments.

This data, as well as that relevant to other systems, is not necessarily always on display but in
the event of malfunctions occurring at any time, the flight crew’s attention is drawn to them by
an automatic display of messages in the appropriate colours.

The ECAM system, on the other hand, displays systems’ operation in checklist and schematic
form, and as this was a concept based on the view that engine data needed to be displayed
during the whole of a flight, traditional instruments were retained in the Airbus A310.

It is of interest to note, however, that in subsequent types produced by this manufacturer, e.g.
A320, the ECAM system is developed to include the display of engine data in one of its display
units.

EICAS

The basic EICAS system comprises two display units, a control panel, and two computers
supplied with analog and digital signals from engine and system sensors as shown in the
schematic functional diagram of Figure 42.1.

The computers are designated ‘Left’ and ‘Right’, and only one is in control at a time; the other is
on ‘standby’, and in the event of failure it may be switched in either manually or automatically.
Operating in conjunction with the EICAS system are discrete caution and warning lights, standby
engine indicators and a remotely-located panel for selecting maintenance data displays.

The system provides the flight crew with information on primary engine parameters (full-time),
with secondary engine parameters and advisory / caution / warning alert messages displayed
as required.

619

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

Figure 2.1.
Figure 42.1The
TheEICAS Functional
EICAS Functional Diagram.
Diagram

DISPLAY UNITS

The display units provide a wide variety of information relevant to engine operation, and
operation of other automated systems, and they utilize colour shadow mask CRTs and associated
card modules whose functions are identical to those of the EFIS units. The units are mounted
one above the other as shown in Figure 42.2.

The upper unit displays the primary engine parameters, N1 speed, EGT, and warning and
caution messages.

In some cases this unit can also display EPR, depending on the type of engines installed and on
the methods used to process data by the thrust management control system.

The lower unit displays secondary engine parameters, i.e. N2 speed, fuel flow, oil quantity,
pressure and temperature, and engine vibration. In addition, the status of non-engine systems,
e.g. flight control surface positions, hydraulic system, APU, etc., can also be displayed together
with aircraft configuration and maintenance data.

The rows of ‘V’s shown on the upper display unit only appear when secondary information is
being displayed on the lower unit.

620

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

Seven colours are produced by the CRTs and they are used as follows:

White All scales, normal operating range of pointers, digital readouts.

Red Warning messages, maximum operating limit marks on scales, and digital
readouts.

Green Thrust mode readout and selected EPR / N1 speed marks or target cursors.

Blue Testing of system only.

Yellow Caution and advisory messages, caution limit marks on scales, digital
readouts.

Magenta During in-flight engine starting, and for cross-bleed messages.

Cyan Names of all parameters being measured (e.g. N1 oil pressure, TAT etc. and
status marks or cues.

The displays are selected according to an appropriate display selection mode.

Figure 2.2. EICAS Engine Data Displays.

Figure 42.2 EICAS Engine Data Displays

621

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

DISPLAY MODES

EICAS is designed to categorize displays and alerts according to function and usage, and for
this purpose there are three modes of displaying information: (i) operational, (ii) status and (iii)
maintenance.

Modes (i) and (ii) are selected by the flight crew on the display select panel, while mode (iii) is
selected on the maintenance panel which is for the use of ground engineering staff only.

OPERATIONAL MODE

The operational mode displays the engine operating information and any alerts required to be
actioned by the crew in flight. Normally only the upper display unit presents information, the
lower one remains blank and can be selected to display secondary information as and when
required.

STATUS MODE

When selected, the status mode displays data to determine the dispatch readiness of an aircraft,
and is closely associated with details contained in an aircraft’s Minimum Equipment List.
The display shows positions of the flight control surfaces in the form of pointers registered
against vertical scales, selected sub-system parameters, and equipment status messages on the
lower display unit. Selection is normally done on the ground either as part of pre-flight checks
of dispatch items, or prior to shut-down of electrical power to aid the flight crew in making
entries in the aircraft’s Technical Log.

MAINTENANCE MODE

This mode provides maintenance engineers with information in five different display formats
to aid them in trouble-shooting and verification testing of the major sub-systems. The displays,
which are presented on the lower display unit, are not available in flight.

Figure 42.3 EICAS Display Select Panel

Figure 2.3. EICAS Display Select Panel.
DISPLAY SELECT PANEL

This panel, as indicated in Figure 42.3, permits control of EICAS functions and displays and
can be used both in flight and on the ground. It is normally located on the centre pedestal of an
aircraft’s flight deck, and its controls are as follows:

¾¾ Engine Display Switch. This is of the momentary-push type for removing or present-
ing the display of secondary information on the lower display unit.

622

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

¾¾ Status Display Switch. Also of the momentary-push type, this is used to display the
status mode information referred to earlier, on the lower display unit. The display is
known as a ‘status page’, an example of which is shown in Figure 42.4.

¾¾ Event Record Switch. This is of the momentary-push type and is used in the air or on
the ground, to activate the recording of fault data relevant to the environment control
system, electrical power, hydraulic system, performance and APU. Normally if any
malfunction occurs in a system, it is recorded automatically (called an ‘auto event’) and
stored in a non-volatile memory of the EICAS computer. The push switch also enables
the flight crew to record a suspected malfunction for storage, and this is called a ‘manu-
al event’. The relevant data can only be retrieved from memory and displayed when the
aircraft is on the ground and by operating switches on the maintenance control panel.

Figure 2.4. Status Mode Display.

Figure 42.4 Status Mode Display

¾¾ Computer Select Switch. In the ‘AUTO’ position it selects the left, or primary, computer
and automatically switches to the other computer in the event of failure. The other posi-
tions are for the manual selection of left or right computers.

¾¾ Displays Brightness Control. The inner knob controls the intensity of the displays, and
the outer knob controls brightness balance between displays.

¾¾ Thrust Reference Set Switch. Pulling and rotating the inner knob positions the refer-
ence cursor on the thrust indicator display (either EPR or N1) for the engine(s) selected
by the outer knob.

623

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

¾¾ Maximum Indicator Reset Switch. If any one of the measured parameters e.g. oil pres-
sure, EGT, should exceed normal operating limits, this will be automatically alerted on
the display units. The purpose of the reset switch is to clear the alerts from the display
when the excess limits no longer exist.

ALERT MESSAGES

The system continuously monitors a large number of inputs (typically over 400) from engine
and airframe systems’ sensors and will detect any malfunctioning of systems.

If this should occur, then appropriate messages are generated and displayed on the upper
display unit in a sequence corresponding to the level of urgency of action to be taken.
Up to 11 messages can be displayed, and at the following levels:

Level A - Warning requiring immediate corrective action. They are displayed in red. Master
warning lights are also illuminated, and aural warnings (eg fire bell) from a central warning
system are given.

Level B - Cautions requiring immediate crew awareness and possible action. They are displayed
in amber, and also by message caution lights. An aural tone is also repeated twice.

Level C - Advisories requiring crew awareness. Also displayed in amber. No caution lights or
aural tones are associated with this level.

The messages appear on the top line at the left of the display screen as shown in Figure 42.5.

Figure
Figure2.5.
42.5 Alert
AlertMessage
Message Levels.
Levels

624

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

In order to differentiate between a caution and an advisory, the latter is always indented one
space to the right.

The master warning and caution lights are located adjacent to the display units together with
a ‘CANCEL’ switch and a ‘RECALL’ switch. Pushing the ‘CANCEL’ switch removes only the
caution and advisory messages from the display; the warning messages cannot be cancelled.
The ‘RECALL’ switch is used to bring back the caution and advisory messages into the display.
At the same time, the word ‘RECALL’ appears at the bottom of the display.

A message is automatically removed from the display when the associated condition no longer
exists. In this case, messages which appear below the deleted one each move up a line.

When a new fault occurs, its associated message is inserted on the appropriate line of the display.
This may cause older messages to move down one line. For example, a new caution message
would cause all existing caution and advisory messages to move down one line.

If there are more messages than can be displayed at one time, the whole list forms what is
termed a ‘page’, and the lowest message is removed and a page number appears in white on
the lower right side of the list.

If there is an additional page of messages it can be displayed by pushing the ‘Cancel’ switch.
Warning messages are carried over from the previous page.

DISPLAY UNIT FAILURE

If the lower display unit should fail when secondary information is being displayed on it, an
amber alert message appears at the top left of the upper display unit, and the information is
transferred to it as shown in Figure 42.6.

Figure 42.6
Figure 2.6. The
The ‘Compact Format’
'Compact Format' Display
Display.

625

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

The format of this display is referred to as ‘compact’, and it may be removed by pressing the
‘ENGINE’ switch on the display select panel. Failure of a display unit causes the function of the
panel ‘STATUS’ switch to be inhibited so that the status page format cannot be displayed.

DISPLAY SELECT PANEL FAILURE

If this panel fails the advisory message ‘EICAS CONTROL PANEL’ appears at the top left of
the upper display unit together with the primary information, and the secondary information
automatically appears on the lower display unit. The ‘CANCEL / RECALL’ switches do not
operate in this failure condition.

STANDBY ENGINE INDICATOR

This indicator provides primary engine information in the event that a total loss of EICAS
displays occurs.

As shown in Figure 42.7, the information relates to N1 and N2 speeds and EGT and the displays
are of the LCD type. Operating limit values are also displayed.

Figure 2.7.
Figure 42.7The
TheStandby Engine
Standby Engine Indicator.
Indicator

The display control switch has two positions, ‘ON’ and ‘AUTO’.

In the ‘ON’ position the displays are permanently on. In the ‘AUTO’ position the internal circuits
are functional, but the displays will be automatically presented when the EICAS displays are
lost due to failure of both display units or both computers.

626

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

The test switch has three positions, and is spring-loaded to a centre off position. It is screwdriver-
operated and when turned to the left or right, it changes over power supply units within the
indicator to ensure that they each provide power for the displays. The test can be performed
with the display control switch in any position.

MAINTENANCE CONTROL PANEL

The maintenance control panel is for use by maintenance engineers for the purpose of displaying
maintenance data stored in system computer memories during flight or ground operations.
The layout of the panel and the principal functions of each of the controls are shown in Figure
42.8.

Figure 2.8.42.8The
Figure Maintenance
The Control
Maintenance Control Panel.
Panel

The five display select switches are of the momentary-push type, and as each one is activated, a
corresponding maintenance display page appears on the lower display unit screen. The pages
are listed together with two example displays in Figure 42.9.

627

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

Figure
Figure 2.9.42.9 ExamplesofofMaintenance
Examples Maintenance Mode
ModeDisplays
Displays.
The upper display unit displays data in the ‘compact’ format (see Figure 42.6.) with the message
‘PARKING BRAKE’ in the top left of the screen.

System failures which have occurred in flight and have been automatically recorded (‘auto
event’) in computer memory, and also data entered as a ‘manual event’, can be retrieved for
display by means of the ‘event record’ switch on the panel.A self-test of the whole system,
which can only be activated when an aircraft is on the ground and the parking brake set, is
performed by means of the ‘TEST’ switch on the maintenance control panel.

When the switch is momentarily pressed, a complete test routine of the system, including
interface and all signal-processing circuits, and power supplies, is automatically performed.
For this purpose an initial test pattern is displayed on both display units with a message in
white to indicate the system being tested i.e. ‘L or R EICAS’ depending on the setting of the
selector switch on the display select panel.

During the test, the master caution and warning lights and aural devices are activated, and the
standby engine indicator is turned on if its display control switch is at ‘AUTO’.

The message ‘TEST IN PROGRESS’ appears at the top left of display unit screens and remains
in view while testing is in progress.

On satisfactory completion of the test, the message ‘TEST OK’ will appear.

If a computer or display unit failure has occurred, the message ‘TEST FAIL’ will appear followed
by messages indicating which of the units has failed.

628

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

A test may be terminated by pressing the ‘TEST’ switch a second time or, if it is safe to do so, by
releasing an aircraft’s parking brake.

Test termination will allow the display units to revert to showing their normal primary and
secondary information displays.

ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED AIRCRAFT MONITORING (ECAM)

The units comprising this system, and as originally developed for the Airbus A310, are shown
in the functional diagram of Figure 42.10.

Figure 42.10. ECAM System Functional Diagram.

Figure 2.10. ECAM System Functional Diagram.

As far as the processing and display of information are concerned, the ECAM system differs
significantly from EICAS in that data relates essentially to the primary systems of the aircraft,
and is displayed in check-list and pictorial or synoptic format.

Engine operating data is displayed by conventional types of instruments as noted in the

introduction to this chapter. Other differences relate to display locations and selection of system
operating modes.

629

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

DISPLAY UNITS

These units may be mounted side-by-side; the left-hand unit is dedicated to information on the
status of systems, warnings and corrective action in a sequenced check-list format, while the
right-hand unit is dedicated to associated information in pictorial or synoptic format.

Figure 2.11.
Figure Pre-Flight
42.11 Phase-Related
Pre-Flight Mode
Phase-Related Mode Display.
Display

DISPLAY MODES

There are four display modes, three of which are automatically selected and referred to as:

¾¾ Flight Phase-related
¾¾ Advisory (mode and status)
¾¾ Failure-related modes.

The fourth mode is manual

¾¾ Aircraft System Display.

630

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

THE FLIGHT PHASE-RELATED MODE

In normal operation the automatic ‘flight phase-related mode’ is used, and in this case the
displays are appropriate to the current phase of aircraft operation, i.e. pre-flight, take-off, climb,
cruise, descent, approach, and after landing.

An example of a pre-flight phase is shown in Figure 42.11, the left-hand display unit displays
an advisory memo mode, and the right-hand unit displays a diagram of the aircraft’s fuselage,
doors, and arming of the escape slides deployment system.

Figure 2.12.
Figure 42.12AnAn
Example
Example of the
theStatus
Status Display.
Display

ADVISORY (MODE AND STATUS)

Status messages, which are also displayed on the left-hand display unit, provide the flight crew
with an operational summary of the aircraft’s condition, possible downgrading of autoland
capability, and as far as possible, indications of the aircraft status following all failures except
those that do not affect the flight. The contents of an example display are shown in Figure
42.12.

631

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

FAILURE-RELATED MODE

The failure-related mode takes precedence over the other two automatic modes and the manual
mode.

An example of a display associated with this mode is shown in Figure 40.13.

Figure
Figure 42.13
2.13. TheFailure-Related
The Failure-Related Mode
ModeDisplay
Display.
In this case, while taxying out for take-off, the temperature of the brake unit on the rear right
wheel of the left main landing gear bogie has become excessive.

A diagram of the wheel brake system is immediately displayed on the right-hand display unit,
and simultaneously the left-hand unit displays corrective action to be taken by the flight crew.
In addition, an aural warning is sounded, and a light (placarded ‘L/G WHEEL’) on a central
warning light display panel is illuminated.

As the corrective action is carried out, the instructions on the left-hand display are replaced by a
message in white confirming the result of the action. The diagram on the right-hand display unit
is appropriately ‘redrawn’.In the example above, the ‘failure related mode’ displaces warning
relates to a single system, and by convention such warnings are signified by underlining the
system title displayed.

In cases where a failure can affect other sub-systems, the title of the sub-system is shown ‘boxed’,
as for instance in the display shown in Figure 42.14.

Warnings and the associated lights are cleared by means of ‘CLEAR’ push-button switches on
either the ECAM control panel or a warning light display panel.

632

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

Figure 42.14 A Display Showing How a Failure Affects a Sub- System

Figure 2.14. A Display Showing How a Failure Affects a Sub-
System.
THE FOURTH MODE (MANUAL), THE AIRCRAFT SYSTEM DISPLAY MODE

This mode permits the selection of diagrams related to any one of 12 of the aircraft’s systems
for routine checking, and also the selection of status messages provided no warnings have been
triggered’ for display. The selections are made by means of illuminated push-button switches
on the system control panel.

THE ‘ECAM’ CONTROL PANEL

The layout of the ‘ECAM’ control panel is shown in Figure 42.15, all switches, with the exception
of those for display control, are of the push-button, illuminated caption type.

SGU Selector Switches. These control the respective symbol generator units, and the lights
are off in normal operation of the system. The ‘FAULT’ caption is illuminated amber if a failure
is detected by an SGU’s internal self-test circuit. Releasing a switch isolates the corresponding
SGU, and causes the ‘FAULT’ caption to extinguish, and the ‘OFF’ caption to illuminate white.

Synoptic Display Switches. These permit individual selection of synoptic diagrams

corresponding to each of 12 systems, and illuminate white when pressed. A display is
automatically cancelled whenever a warning or advisory occurs.

633

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

Figure 42.15 The ECAM Control Panel

Figure 2.15. The ECAM Control Panel.
CLR Switch. The light in the switch is illuminated white whenever a warning or status message
is displayed on the left-hand display unit. The Switch is pressed to clear messages.

STS Switch. The Status Switch permits manual selection of an aircraft status message if no
warning is displayed; illuminated white. Pressing the switch also causes the ‘CLR’ switch
to illuminate. A status message is suppressed if a warning occurs or if the ‘CLR’ switch is
pressed.

RCL Switch. The Recall Switch enables previously cleared warning messages to be recalled
provided the failure conditions which initiated them still exist. Pressing the switch also causes
the CLR switch light to illuminate. If a failure no longer exists the message ‘NO WARNING
PRESENT’ is displayed on the left-hand display unit.

634

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

Figure 42.16 The ECAM Maintenance Panel

Figure 2.16. The ECAM Maintenance Panel.
SYSTEM TESTING

Each flight warning computer of the system is equipped with a monitoring module which
automatically checks data acquisition and processing modules, memories, and the internal
power supplies as soon as the aircraft’s main power supply is applied to the system.

A power-on test routine is also carried out for correct operation of the symbol generator units.
During this test the display units remain blank.

In the event of failure of the data acquisition and processing modules, or of the warning light
display panel, a ‘failure warning system’ light on the panel is illuminated. Failure of a computer
causes a corresponding annunciator light on the maintenance panel, captioned ‘FWC FAULT’,
to illuminate.

A symbol generator unit failure causes a ‘FAULT’ caption on the appropriate push-button
switch on the system control panel to illuminate.

Manual self-test checks for inputs and displays are carried out from a maintenance panel shown
in Figure 42.16.

When the ‘INPUTS’ switch is pressed, a ‘TEST’ caption is illuminated white and most of the
inputs to each computer are checked for continuity.

Any incorrect inputs appear in coded form on the left-hand display unit. The right-hand display
unit presents a list of defective parameters at the system’s date analog converter.

635

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

The diagrams of systems appear on the right-hand display unit with the caption ‘TEST’ beside
the system title, as each corresponding push-button switch is pressed. Calibrated outputs from
the data analog converter are also displayed.

Any defective parameters are identified by a flag display.

A ‘DISPLAY’ push-button switch is provided on the maintenance panel. When pressed it

initiates a check for correct operation of the Symbol Generator Units (SGU’s), and the optical
qualities of the display units by means of a test pattern display.

The ‘LOAD’ caption is illuminated each time a failure is memorized in the relevant test circuits
of the SGUs.

The annunciator lights on the maintenance panel illuminate white simultaneously with a
failure warning system light on the central warning light display panel when a corresponding
computer fails.

The ‘INHIB OVRD’ switch enables inhibited warnings to be displayed.

636

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

QUESTIONS

1. With an Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System:

a. the secondary display will show continuously the engine primary instruments.
b. the primary display unit will continuously show the engine primary instruments such
as N1 N2 N3 and maybe oil pressure.
c. the primary engine display will continuously show the engine primary instruments
such as N1 EGT and maybe EPR.
d. the primary engine instruments are N1 EGT and EPR and are on the primary and
secondary display units.

2. The electronic engine display system with three automatic modes is:

a. the Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor, with the fourth mode manual.
b. the Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor, with the fourth mode flight phase related
or manual.
c. the Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System, with the fourth mode manual
d. the Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System, with the fourth mode a manual cross
over from the Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor System.

3. The display modes for the Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System are:

a. operational, status and maintenance of which status and maintenance are automatic.
b. flight phase related, advisory and failure related.
c. operational, status and maintenance.
d. operational, flight phase related and status.

4. With an Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System lower display unit failure:

a. a compact message will only appear on the upper display unit.

b. a compact message will only appear on the central display unit.
c. a compact message will appear both on the upper display unit and the captains
Electronic Flight Instrument System.
d. a compact message will appear on the upper display unit when the status button is
pressed on the control panel.

5. With an Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring type of system:

a. the display units have two control panels and with any system failure the control will
be from the port control box only.
b. the left display unit shows warning and corrective action in a check list format.
c. the two display units are only fitted side by side.
d. the left display unit shows the synoptic format and the right or lower unit shows the
corrective format.

6. The Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System alert messages are shown on the upper display
unit in three forms:

a. Level ‘C’ are warnings that require immediate corrective action.

b. Level ‘A’ are cautions that require immediate crew awareness and possible action.
c. Level ‘B’ are advisories requiring crew awareness.
d. and these messages appear on the top left of the upper display unit.

637

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

7. The electronic engine display system will have:

a. one primary and one secondary display unit for an EICAS and a change over selector
to change to the ECAM mode if necessary.
b. two display units for ECAM and three display units for EICAS.
c. either EICAS or ECAM but not both.
d. an interconnect to the EFIS symbol generators in an emergency.

8. In an Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System if both displays fail then the following
information is displayed on the standby engine indicator:

a. N1, EGT, N2.

b. N1, EGT, EPR.
c. N2, EGT, EPR.
d. N4, EGT, EPR.

9. The Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) type of system shows a:

a. checklist format on the left display panel and schematic form always automatically on
the right display unit.
b. checklist format on the left display unit and the right, or lower display unit , a diagram
or synoptic format.
c. synoptic format on the left display unit and a warning and corrective action display on
the right or lower display unit.
d. continuous primary engine display on the primary display unit.

10. The electronic display system that has three automatic modes plus one manual is the:

a. Electronic Management and Control Section.

b. Electronic Indication and Fail Safe system.
c. Electronic Indication and Crew Alert system.
d. Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor.

11. A boxed message shown as an electronic engine display system fault is one that:

a. affects other sub-systems and is used in the Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting
System.
b. does not affect any other system.
c. does not affect any other system and is used in the Engine Indicating and Aircraft
Monitor system.
d. affects other sub-systems and is used in the Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitor
type of system.

12. An engine fire indication on an electronic engine display is shown:

a. on the primary display panel in red.

b. on the secondary display panel in amber.
c. on both the Electronic Flight Instrument System and Engine Indicating and Crew
Alerting System secondary panels.
d. only on the Flight Management Computer primary panel.

638

Aviation ebooks Company

Electronic Instrumentation Chapter 42

13. An engine electronic system which in normal conditions of flight shows only the primary engine
instruments is:

a. An EICAS system with EPR, EGT and N2 shown on the primary instruments.
b. An ECAM system with the primary engine instruments displayed on the lower
screen.
c. An EICAS system with the primary engine instruments displayed on the primary
screen, the secondary screen being blank.
d. An ECAM system with the primary engine instruments displayed on the primary
screen, the left screen being blank.

639

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 42 Electronic Instrumentation

ANSWERS

1 C

2 A

3 C

4 A

5 B

6 D

7 C

8 A

9 B

10 D

11 D

12 A

13 C

640

Aviation ebooks Company

Aviation ebooks Company
Chapter 43 Revision Questions

642

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

CHAPTER FORTY THREE

REVISION QUESTIONS

Contents
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
ANSWERS TO FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
ANSWERS TO AUTOFLIGHT QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
WARNING & RECORDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
ANSWERS TO WARNING & RECORDING QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
ENGINE INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
ANSWERS TO ENGINE INSTRUMENTS QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
SPECIMEN QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
EXPLANATIONS TO SPECIMEN QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
SPECIMEN EXAMINTION PAPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
ANSWERS TO SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730

643

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

644

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

1 A 2 axis gyro, measuring vertical changes will have:

a one degree of freedom, vertical axis

b two degrees of freedom, vertical axis
c one degree of freedom, horizontal axis
d two degrees of freedom, horizontal axis

2 The properties of a gyro are:

1. mass
2. rigidity
3. inertia
4. precession
5. rotational speed

a. 1,2, & 3
b. 2&4
c. 2&3
d. 1&3

3 An aircraft fitted with a DRMC upon landing in a northerly direction will indicate:

a no change
b oscillation about north
c a turn towards east
d a turn towards west

4 Which of the following will effect a direct reading compass?

1. ferrous metals
2. non-ferrous metals
3. electrical equipment

a. 1 only
b. 1&3
c. 1&2
d. all 3

5 A vibrator may be fitted to an altimeter to overcome:

a friction
b hysterysis
c lag
d pressure error

6 An aircraft is flying at constant indicated altitude, over a warm airmass. The altimeter reading
will be:

a correct
b greater than the real altitude
c less than the real altitude
d oscillating around the correct altitude

645

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

7 The machmeter consists of:

a an airspeed indicator with mach scale

b an airspeed indicator with an altimeter capsule
c an altimeter corrected for density
d a VSI and altimeter combined

8 CAS is IAS corrected for:

a position and instrument error

b instrument, pressure and density error
c relative density only
d compressibility

9 A DGI has;

a one degree of freedom & a horizontal spin axis

b two degrees of freedom & a vertical spin axis
c two degrees of freedom & a horizontal spin axis
d one degree of freedom & a vertical spin axis

10 An aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 16,000ft. The outside air temperature is –300 C
What is the true altitude of the aircraft?

a 16,200 ft
b 15,200 ft
c 18,600 ft
d 13,500 ft

11 The main cause of error in a DRMC is:

a parallax in the rose

b turning
c magnetic deviation
d latitude

12 QNH is:

a the airfield barometric pressure

b the setting that will give zero indication on the airfield
c the equivalent sea level pressure at the airfield
d the setting that will indicate airfield height

13 What is the Schuler period?

a 21 minutes
b 84 minutes
c 1 oscillation in azimuth
d 63 minutes

646

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

14 The vertical reference of a data generation unit is:

a horizontal axis with 1 degree of freedom

b vertical axis with 1 degree of freedom
c horizontal axis with 2 degree of freedom
d vertical axis with 2 degree of freedom

15 The torque motor of a gyro stabilised magnetic compass:

a precesses the directional gyro

b takes its input from the flux valve
c moves the heading pointer
d moves the Selsyn stator

16 A factor giving an error on a direct indicating compass would be:

a crosswinds – particularly on east/west headings

b parallax due to oscillations of the compass rose
c acceleration on east/west headings
d turning through east/west headings

17 A rate integrating gyro is used in:

1. inertial attitude unit

2. autopilot system
3. stabiliser servo mechanism system
4. inertial navigation unit
5. rate of turn indicator

a 1, 2, 3, 4, & 5
a 1&4
b 2, 3, & 5
c 2, 3, & 4

18 The errors of a DGI are:

1. earth rate
2. transport wander
3. banking when pitched up
4. annual movement of poles
5. mechanical problems

a 2, 3, & 5
b 3, 4, & 5
c 1, 2, 3, & 5
d all 5

19 An Air Data Computer (ADC) obtains altitude from:

a. outside air temperature

b. barometric data from static source
c. time elapsed for signal to travel to and return from the earth
d. difference between absolute and dynamic pressure

647

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

20 If the needle and the ball of a Turn & Slip indicator both show right, what does it indicate:

a. turn to left & too much bank

b. turn to right & too much bank
c. turn to left & too little bank
d. turn to right & too little bank

21 What formula gives the total temperature (TT) from the static temperature (TS):

a TT = TS (1 + 0.2 M2)
b TT = TS (1 + 0.2 KrM2)
c TT = TS / (1 + 0.2 KrM2)
d TT = TS (1 - 0.2 M2)

22 The Inertial Strapdown Unit of an IRS is programmed with co-ordinates during alignment in
order to:

a establish the trihedron with reference to the earth

b establish true or magnetic heading
c check the function of the laser gyros
d compensate for aircraft movement

23 When descending through an isothermal layer at constant CAS, what does the TAS do?

a increase at a linear rate

b increase at an exponential rate
c remain the same
d decrease

24 What is VMO calculated from:

a. CAS
b. TAS
c. COAS
d. EAS

25 Descending from FL390 at maximum groundspeed, what will the pilot be limited by:

a. VMO initially then MMO at a specified altitude

b. MMO initially then VMO at a specified altitude
c. VNE initially then MMO at a specified altitude
d. VNO initially then VNE at a specified altitude

26 At constant weight, regardless of altitude, an aircraft always lifts off at a constant:

a EAS
b TAS
c ground speed
d CAS

648

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

27 VFE is the maximum speed that:

a. the flaps can be operated

b. the flaps may be extended in the take-off configuration
c. the flaps may be extended in the landing configuration
d. the flaps may be extended in a specified configuration

28 The white arc on the ASI indicates:

a. VS1 at the lower end and VLE at the upper end

b. VS0 at the lower end and VLE at the upper end
c. VS0 at the lower end and VFE at the upper end
d. VS1 at the lower end and VFE at the upper end

29 An ASI circuit consists of pressure sensors. The Pitot Probe measures:

a total pressure & static pressure

b dynamic pressure
c static pressure
d total pressure

30 Mach number is defined as the ratio of:

a IAS to LSS
b TAS to LSS
c CAS to LSS
d EAS to LSS

31 If a pitot source is blocked in an ASI, and the drain hole is blocked, but the static source is
open, what will happen?

a ASI reading goes to zero

b ASI under reads
c ASI over reads
d ASI behaves like an altimeter

32. In a turn at constant angle of bank ... the rate of turn is:

a. independent of weight and proportional a to TAS

b. dependant on weight and inversely proportional to TAS
c. independent of weight and inversely proportional a to TAS
d. dependant on weight and proportional to TAS

33. The Turn Indicator is a useful gyroscopic instrument. When used in association with an
attitude indicator will show:

1. angular velocity about the yaw axis

2. direction of turn
3. angular velocity about true vertical axis
4. speed of turn

a 1, & 3
b 2, & 3
c 3, & 4
d 1, & 2

649

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

34 If an aircraft, fitted with a DRMC, takes off on a westerly heading, in the northern hemisphere,
the DRMC will indicate:

a a turn to the north

b oscillates about west
c no turn
d a turn to south

35 When turning through 900 at constant attitude and bank, a classic Artificial Horizon indicates:

a nose up and correct angle of bank

b attitude and bank angle are correct
c nose up and bank angle too low
d nose up and bank angle too high

36 The factors which will affect a Turn Indicator are:

1. angle of bank
2. aircraft speed
3. aircraft weight

a. all 3
b. 1&2
c. 1&3
d. 2&3

37 To obtain heading information from a Gyro Stabilised platform, the gyros should have:

a 1 degree of freedom and a horizontal axis

b 1 degree of freedom and a vertical axis
c 2 degrees of freedom and a horizontal axis
d 2 degrees of freedom and a vertical axis

38 What are the inputs to the ADC?

1. OAT
2. dynamic pressure
3. TAT
4. static pressure
5. electric power
6. pitot pressure
7. AOA

a. 1, 2, 5 & 6
b. all 7
c. 3, 4 & 6
d. 3, 4, 5, 6, & 7

650

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

39 The properties of a Turn Indicator are:

1. One degree of freedom

2. two degrees of freedom
3. two springs connected to the aircraft frame
4. spin axis in the longitudinal plane
5. spin axis parallel to the yaw axis
6. spin axis horizontal

a 1, & 6
b 2, & 5
c 1, & 4
d 2, & 6

40 A gravity erector system corrects errors on a:

a. DGI
b. artificial horizon
c. turn indicator
d. RIMC

41 In a Gyro magnetic Compass the flux gate transmits information to the:

a heading indicator
b amplifier
c error detector
d erecting system

42 VNO is the max. speed which:

a the pilot can fully deflect the controls.

b should only be exceeded in still air and with caution.
c should never be exceeded.
d must not be exceeded for flap/gear extension

43 If while level at FL 270, at a constant CAS, temperature falls, what happens to the Mach No.?

a decreases.
b increases.
c remains constant.
d increases depending on whether temp >ISA or < ISA.

44 If the static vent becomes blocked on an unpressurised a/c, what could you do?

a open the window.

b break the VSI glass.
c compute altitude mathematically.
d Select standby pitot source

45 What does the “barbers pole” on an ASI indicate?

a VMO & altitude.

b VMO & temperature.
c VNO
d VNE

651

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

46 On board a/c, true altitude shown from:

a standard atmosphere.
b pressure altitude.
c density altitude.
d temperature altitude.

47 On a turn and slip indicator, needle to the left and ball to the right indicates:

a turn to the right, not enough bank.

b turn to the left, too much bank.
c turn to the left, not enough bank.
d turn to the right, too much bank.

48 What is density altitude:

a altitude in the standard atmosphere at which the prevailing density is equal to the
density in the standard atmosphere
b pressure altitude corrected for prevailing temp.
c temperature altitude.
d pressure corrected

49 A radio altimeter is:

a ground based and measures true altitude.

b ground based and measures true height.
c a/c based and measures true altitude.
d a/c based and measures true height.

50 An a/c is travelling at 120 kts, what angle of bank would be required for a rate 1(one) turn:

a. 300
b. 120
c. 180
d. 350

51 An a/c is travelling at 100 kts forward speed on a 30 glideslope. What is its rate of descent?

a 500 ft/min.
b 300 ft/min.
c 250 ft/min.
d 600 ft/min.

52 If the pitot tube is leaking (and the pitot drain is blocked) in a non-pressurised a/c, the ASI
will:

a under-read.
b over-read.
c over-read in the climb, under-read in the descent.
d under-read in the climb, over-read in the descent.

652

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

53 An RMI rose is mechanically stuck on 090 degrees. The ADF pointer indicates 225 degrees.
What is the relative bearing to the beacon?

a 225 degrees.
b 135 degrees.
c Cannot be determined.
d 000 degrees.

54 Using a classic Artificial Horizon, the a/c performs a right turn through 270 degrees at a
constant angle of bank and rate of turn. The indication is:

a Nose up, too much bank.

b Nose up, not enough bank.
c Nose up, wings level.
d Bank and pitch correct.

55 In a DGI what error is caused by the gyro movement relative to the earth?

a. Earth Rate
b. Transport Wander
c. real wander
d. latitude error

56 In a right turn while taxiing, the correct indications are:

a Needle left, ball right.

b Needle left, ball left.
c Needle right, ball right.
d Needle right, ball left.

57 An aircraft is taking of on a runway heading 0450, in still air, with a compass having 00
deviation. The runway is on an agonic line. What are the northerly turning errors (northern
hemisphere)?

a. compass moves to less than 0450

b. compass moves to more than 0450
c. compass stays on 0450 if wings are kept level
d. compass remains on 0450

58 True heading can be converted into magnetic heading using a compass and:

a A map with isogonal lines.

b A map with isoclinal lines.
c A deviation card.
d A deviation curve

59 At sea level ISA, TAS:

a Equals CAS
b Is greater than CAS
c Is less than CAS

653

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

60 What will the altimeter read if the layers beneath the aircraft are all colder than standard?

a read lower than the real altitude

b read higher then the real altitude
c read the correct altitude
d readings will fluctuate

61 The flux valve in a RIMC

a is supplied with AC current (usually 487.5 Hz).

b is fed with DC.
c is made of perm-alloy magnetic steel.
d has its own self exciter unit.

62 The indications of a machmeter are independent of:

a Temperature (OAT)
b Static Pressure
c Differential static and dynamic Pressure
d Dynamic Pressure

63 An artificial horizon has:

a 1 degree of freedom and an horizontal axis.

b 2 degree of freedom and an horizontal axis.
c 1 degree of freedom and a vertical axis.
d 2 degree of freedom and a vertical axis.

64 The rigidity of a gyro is improved by:

a Increasing RPM and concentrating the mass on the periphery of the rotor.
b Increasing RPM and concentrating the mass at the hub of the rotor.
c Decreasing RPM and concentrating the mass on the periphery of the rotor.
d Decreasing RPM and concentrating the mass at the hub of the rotor.

65 What is the speed of sound at sea level ISA

a 644kts.
b 661kts.
c 1059 kts
d 583kts.

66 What is the speed of sound at 25,000 ft and -28 degrees C.

a 624kts.
b 618kts.
c 601kts
d 610kts.

67 What is the speed of sound at 30,000 ft and -40 degrees C.

a 562kts.
b 595kts.
c 590kts.
d 661kts.

654

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

68 If a constant CAS is maintained in a climb, what happens to the mach number

a. remains constant
b. increases
c. decreases

69 A compass swing is used to:

a align compass north with magnetic north.

b align compass north with true north.
c align magnetic north with true north.
d get true north and lubber line aligned.

70 The TAT probe measures TAT by:

a TAT = SAT + kinetic heating.

b TAT = SAT - heating due to compressibility.
c TAT = SAT - kinetic heating.
d TAT = SAT + heating due to compressibility.

71 If a pitot tube and drains are blocked at altitude by icing, during a descent the ASI will:

a read constant airspeed.

b under read.
c over read.
d show zero.

72 An IRS is aligned when turned on so as to:

a calculate the computed trihedron.

b establish true and magnetic north.
c establish position relative to true north and magnetic north.
d establish magnetic north.

73 The advantages of an ADC over a traditional pitot - static system (list):

1. Position and compressibility correction.

2. reduced lag
3. ability to supply many instruments
4. ability to act as an altimeter following failure.

a. 1, 2 & 3
b. 1, 2 & 4
c. 2, 3 & 4
d. 1, 3 & 4

74. The frequency band used for a Radio Altimeter is:

a. SHF
b. VHF
c. UHF
d. LF

655

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

75 What is the purpose of the latitude nut in a DGI?

a. to correct for latitude error

b. to correct for transport wander
c. to correct for earth rate
d. to correct for coriolis error

76 Total Air Temp is always _ _ _ _ _ _ than Static Air Temp and the difference varies with _ _ _ _ .

a warmer, altitude.
b colder, altitude.
c warmer, CAS.
d colder, CAS.

77 In a slightly banked turn, the turn needle will indicate:

a roll rate.
b rate of yaw.
c angular velocity about the vertical axis.
d rate of pitch.

78 The Primary Flying Display (PFD) displays information dedicated to:

a. engine data and alarms

b. flight path
c. weather radar
d. aircraft systems

79 What are the inputs to the FMS?

1. Radio Aids
2. Engine Parameters
3. Air Data
4. Route Data
5. Terminal Data
6. Operating Data

a. 1, 3, 4 & 6
b. 2, 3, 4, & 5
c. All of the above
d. 1, 2, 3 & 6

80. What are the upper and lower limits of the yellow arc on an ASI?

a. lower limit VLO and upper limit VNE

b. lower limit VLE and upper limit VNE
c. lower limit VNO and upper limit VNE
d. lower limit VLO and upper limit VLE

656

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

81. What does the blue line on an ASI of a twin propeller engined aircraft indicate?

a. VYSE
b. VNO
c. VFE
d. VMCA

82. The gravity erecting device on a vertical gyro is used on which instrument:

a. directional gyro unit

b. turn indicator
c. artificial horizon
d. gyromagnetic device

83. In a VSI lag error is improved by:

a. bi-metalic strip
b. two
c. use of an accelerometer system
d. return spring

84. An aircraft fitted with a DRMC is landing in a southerly direction, in the Southern
Hemisphere. What indications will be seen on the DRMC?

a. 1800 turn to east

b. no apparent turn
c. turn to west

85. What is the maximum drift of a gyro, due to earth rate:

a. 900 per hour

b. 1800 per hour
c. 150 per hour
d. 50 per hour

86. An aircraft is flying a true track of 3600 from 50 south to 50 north. What is the change in
apparent wander rate:

a. 00 per hour
b. + 50 per hour
c. - 50 per hour
d. depends upon groundspeed

87. When turning through 1800 at constant attitude and bank, a classic Artificial Horizon
indicates:

a nose up and correct angle of bank

b attitude and bank angle are correct
c nose up and bank angle too low
d nose up and bank angle too high

657

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

88. What is the Schuler period?

a. 48 minutes
b. 84 seconds
c. 48 seconds
d. 84 minutes

89. Mach number is defined as:

a. The ratio of pitot pressure to dynamic pressure

b. The ratio of static pressure to dynamic pressure
c. The ratio of dynamic pressure to static pressure
d. The ratio of static pressure to pitot pressure

90. You are flying at a constant FL 290 and constant mach number. The total temperature
increases by 50. The CAS will:

a. remain approximately constant

b. increase by 10 kts
c. decrease by 10 kts
d. will increase or decrease depending on whether you are above or below ISA.

91. An aircraft turns from south-west to south-east when situated at 450N, what heading should
you roll out on if using a DRMC?

a. 1300
b. 1150
c. 1400
d. 1550

92. What is SAT?

a. relative temperature measured in K

b. differential temperature measured in K
c. relative temperature measured in 0C
d. ambient temperature measured in 0C

93. If an aircraft climbs, at constant mach No, in ISA conditions what happens to the TAS and the
CAS?

a. TAS increases and CAS increases

b. TAS remains constant and CAS decreases
c. TAS decreases and CAS increases
d. TAS decreases and CAS decreases

94. Where is the earth rate wander, and the transport wander of a gyro equal to zero?

a. North Pole
b. Equator
c. 450 N
d. 450 S

658

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

95. What happens when the static pressure supply, to an altimeter, becomes blocked during a
descent?

a. reduces to zero
b. over reads
c. under reads
d. indicates altitude at which blockage occurred

96. What happens when the static vent supplying an ASI is blocked, and the ram air inlet remains
clear?

a. ASI acts opposite to an altimeter

b. ASI always over reads / reads a higher value
c. ASI always under reads / reads a lower value
d. ASI acts like an altimeter

97. In a left turn while taxiing, the correct indications are:

a Needle left, ball right.

b Needle left, ball left.
c Needle right, ball right.
d. Needle right, ball left.

98. VLO is defined as:

a. the maximum speed at which to fly with the landing gear retracted
b. the maximum speed at which the landing gear may be retracted or extended
c. the maximum speed at which to fly with the landing gear extended
d. the minimum speed at which to fly with the landing gear extended

99. VNE is defined as:

a. the speed which must not be exceeded in still air, or without caution
b. the speed above which the landing gear may not be extended
c. the speed which must never be exceeded
d. the maximum speed for normal flap extension to be selected

100. In a left turn, the ball of the turn co-ordinator is out to the right, what corrective action is
required?

a. more right rudder

b. less right bank
c. more left bank
d. more left rudder

101. In a gyro magnetic compass, where does the torque motor get its information from?

a. the flux gate

b. error detector
c. the rotor gimbal
d. amplifier

659

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

102. If an aircraft is descending at constant mach number, and the total air temperature remains
constant, what happens to the CAS?

a. remains constant
b. decreases
c. increases
d. increases if the temperature is below standard, and decreases if the temperature is
above standard

103. What are the advantages of a laser gyro compared to a conventional gyro?

a. has a longer cycle life

b. takes longer to set up/ spin up
c. uses more power
d. takes longer to align

104. A machmeter measures the ratio of:

a. pitot pressure to static pressure

b. (pitot pressure minus static pressure) to static pressure
c. pitot pressure times static pressure
d. pitot pressure to (static pressure times pitot pressure)

105. Which instrument has a 2° rotation in the horizontal axis?

a. artificial horizon
b. flux detector
c. directional gyro indicator
d. turn indicator

106. The maximum drift error sensed by an uncompensated DGI will be:

a. 15° per hour

b. 30° per hour
c. 45° per hour
d. 60° per hour

107. The green arc on the ASI is used to identify which speed range:

a. V to V
SO NO
b. V to V
S1 FE
c. V to V
S1 NO
d. V to V
S1 LO

108. Pressure altitude may be defined as:

a. lowest forecast regional pressure

b. pressure measured in the standard atmosphere
c. altitude indicated with QFE set on the altimeter
d. altitude indicated with QNH set on the altimeter

660

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

109. What is the effect on an altimeter reading if variations in static pressure occur near to the
pressure source?

a. a change in hysterysis error

b. a change in the instrument error
c. a change in the position error
d. a change in the compressibility error

110. What is the value of the angle of magnetic dip at the South Pole?

a. 0°
b. 45°
c. 90°
d. 60°

111. A standby artificial horizon must have the following properties:

1. a remote gyro
2. its own power supply
3. only to be used in emergency
4. its own gyro
5. one for each certified pilot

a. all the above
b. 1,3, & 5
c. 2, 3, & 4
d. 2&4

112. During a descent at constant CAS and total temperature, the mach no:

a. increases
b. remains constant
c. increases if SAT is greater than standard temperature and decreases if it is lower
d. decreases

113. The single most significant item which makes a servo altimeter more accurate is:

a. electromagnetic pick-off
b. logarithmic scale
c. temperature compensated spring
d. multiple pointers

114. Which of the following gyro instruments has one degree of freedom?

a. artificial horizon
b. turn indicator
c. directional gyro
d. slaved gyro compass

661

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

115. If a large aircraft is slide slipped to starboard, and the port static vent is blocked, what will the
altimeter read?

a. under read
b. read correctly
c. Over read
d. fluctuate

116. Mach number is determined from: (PT = total pressure, PS = static pressure)

a. (PT + PS) x PT
b. (PT - PS) x PS
c. (PT x PS) x PT
d. (PT - PS) / PS

117 The right static vent is blocked, when the aircraft yaws to the right. Does the altimeter:

a. Over read
b. under read
c. unaffected
d

118 If the radio altimeter fails:

a. height information disappears

b. aural warning given
c. radio alt flag, red lamp, and aural warning given
d. radio alt flag and red lamp activates.

119 During a descent at a constant mach number, there is an increase of total temperature by 50.
What effect does this have on CAS?

a. remains almost constant

b. increases if SAT is more than standard and decreases if SAT is less than standard
c. increases by 10 kts
d decreases by 10 kts

120 VNO is defined as:

a. maximum structural cruising speed

b. never exceed speed
c. manoeuvring speed
d. maximum operating speed

121 If the left static vent is blocked, and the right static vent is clear. What will the altimeter read if
the aircraft maintains constant level?

a. read correctly whatever the situation

b. under read
c. if side slipping to the left, altimeter will over read.
d. if side slipping to the right, altimeter will over read.

662

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

122 An aircraft is flying at constant indicated altitude, over a cold airmass. The altimeter reading
will be:

a. greater than the real altitude

a standard altitude
b same as the real altitude
d. less than the real altitude

123. The machmeter compares: (PT = total pressure, PS = static pressure)

a. (PT - PS) to PT
b. (PT + PS) to PS
c. (PT - PS) to PS
d. PT to PS

124. From where does the air data computer (ADC) obtain aircraft altitude?

a. OAT probe
b. dynamic – absolute ambient pressure
c. absolute barometric sensor on aircraft fuselage
d. IRS

125. An aircraft is accelerating to take-off on a runway with a QDM of 045°. Which way does the
DRMC move, if the aircraft is in the Northern Hemisphere?

a. less than 45°

b. more than 45°
c. correct if wings are level
d. correct

126. When turning right onto north, through 900, what heading on your DIC should you roll out
on, if the aircraft is in the Northern Hemisphere?

a. 020°
b. 360°
c. 340°
d. 320°

127. What does a radio altimeter, for an aircraft in the landing configuration, measure:

a. height of aircraft wheels above the ground

b. height of the aircraft above the ground
c. altitude of the aircraft
d. altitude of the aircraft wheels

128 Why is a servo altimeter better than a sensitive altimeter?

a. it has a pick-off coil

b. it is more accurate at low level
c. it has ambient pressure in the capsule
d. it is fitted with a knocking device

663

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

129. In an altimeter what is fed to: the capsule (i) and to the case (ii)?

a. (i) vacuum (ii) static input

b. (i) static input (ii) vacuum
c. (i) pitot input (ii) static input
d. (i) total input (ii) ambient input

130. What principle does the radio altimeter work on?

a. pulse modulation
b. amplitude modulation
c. pulse modulation and carrier wave
d. frequency modulation and carrier wave

131. What is indicated on the ASI when the static vent blocks during a descent?

a. under reads
b. reads correctly
c. over reads
d. reads zero

132. A rate integrating gyro is used in:

a. inertial attitude unit

b. autopilot system
c. inertial navigation system
d. a rate of turn indicator

133. The error in a Directional Gyro due to the earth’s rotation, at a mean latitude of 450 N, will
cause the spin axis to move by:

a. 10.6° Clockwise
b. 10.60 Anti-clockwise
c. 7.60 Clockwise
d. 7.60 Anti-clockwise

134. What are the components of a Ring Laser Gyro?

a. mirrors and 2 cavities

b. 2 anodes and 2 cathodes
c. 2 beams of laser light
d. horizontal gryo axis and 1 degree of freedom

135 Where on the earth’s surface is the earth rate drift of a DGI equal to 15.040 per hour?

a. 15°
b. 30°
c. 0°
d. 90°

664

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

136. If you maintain the same CAS and Altitude (FL270), and the temperature increases, what
happens to the Mach No?

a. increases at an exponential rate

b. decreases at an exponential rate
c. remains the same
d. increases

137. If CAS is kept constant, what happens to the Mach No?

a. as the altitude increases the mach No will increase

b. as the altitude increases the mach No will decrease
c. as the temperature increases the mach No will increase
d. as the temperature decreases the mach No will decrease

138. The pendulous type correction detector fitted to the DGI provides:

a. torque on the sensitive axis

b. two torque motors on the horizontal axis
c. pendulous internal nozzle on the outer gimbal
d. one torque motor

139. An aircraft is fitted with two altimeters. One is corrected for position error, the other is not
corrected for position error:

a. ATC will receive erroneous information of flight level

b. at high speed the non-compensated altimeter will show a lower altitude
c. provided that the ADC is working normally, there will be no error to either altimeter
d. at high speed the non-compensated altimeter will show a higher altitude

140. Density altitude is defined as:

a. the altitude of the airfield elevation corrected for Lapse Rate

b. the altitude reading on the altimeter which has QNH set on it
c. the altitude corresponding to the standard atmosphere compensated for ambient
density
d. the altitude showing on the altimeter with the lowest regional QNH set

141. The pitot tube of an ASI gives a direct reading of:

a. static pressure
b. total & static pressure
c. total pressure
d. dynamic pressure

142. When descending from FL230 to FL50 at maximum speed, the limitations which apply are:

a. VMO
b. VMO then MMO
c. MMO then VMO
d. MMO

665

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

143. The pressure measured at the forward face of the Pitot probe is:

a. dynamic pressure
b. static pressure
c. total pressure
d. total pressure + static pressure

144. What has inputs from the flux valve:

a. error detector
b. heading indicator
c. amplifier
d. precession motor

145. Machmeter readings are subject to which of the following errors:

a. density error
b. setting error
c. temperature error
d. position/pressure error

146. Sound propagates at a speed which depends only on:

a. density
b. temperature
c. temperature & pressure
d. pressure

147. What aircraft system uses a frequency of 4,400 MHz?

a. SSR
b. radio altimeter
c. weather radar
d. ATC radar

148. A low altitude Radio Altimeter, used in precision approaches, has the following
characteristics:

1. 1540MHz to 1660 MHz range

2. pulse transmissions
3. frequency modulation
4. height range between 0 and 5,000ft
5. an accuracy of +/- 2ft between 0 and 500ft

a. 1, 4 and 5
b. 3 and 4
c. 3 and 5
d. 2, 3 and 5

666

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

149. A modern low altitude Radio Altimeter uses the principle of:

a. pulse modulated waves, with the difference between the transmitted and received waves
displayed on a circular screen.
b. Frequency modulated waves, where the difference between the transmitted wave and the
received wave is measured.
c. Wave modulation, with frequency shift due to Doppler effect of the ground reflected wave
being measured
d. Triangular wave, with the frequency shift of the ground reflected wave being measured

150. The frequencies used in a low altitude Radio Altimeter are:

a. 5 GHz to 6 GHz
b. 5400 MHz and 9400 MHz
c. 4200 MHz to 4400 MHz
d. 2700 MHz to 2900 MHz

151. The difference between Magnetic North and True North can be derived by:

a. deviation curve
b. deviation card
c. map with isoclinic lines
d. map with isogonal lines

152. A direction gyro gets its directional information from:

a. air data computer

b. direct reading magnetic compass
c. flight director
d. flux valve

153. What is the principle of operation of a VSI:

a. differential pressure across a capsule

b. total pressure in a capsule
c. static pressure in a capsule
d. dynamic pressure in a capsule

154. In a Remote Indicating Compass, what component feeds the Amplifier?

a. gyro precession signal

b. flux valve
c. annunciator
d. error detector

155. An aircraft turns right, through 900, onto North, at 48N, using a direct indicating compass. The
aircraft is turning at rate 2. What heading should the aircraft roll out on?

a. 010°
b. 030°
c. 330°
d. 350°

667

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

156. What is the normal operating range of a low altitude Radio Altimeter?

a. 0 to 2,500ft
b. 50ft to 2500ft
c. 0 to 10,000ft
d. 0 to 7,500ft

157. What is a radio altimeter used for?

a. to determine aircraft height above mean sea level

b. to determine aircraft height above ground level
c. to determine pressure altitude
d. to determine aircraft altitude

158. Why must Latitude and Longitude be inserted into an IRS?

a. to determine the aircraft position relative to the earth

b. to check the IRS position with the Flight Management System
c. to enable the levelling procedure to commence
d. to determine the accuracy of the alignment

159. An aircraft is flying a true track of 3600 from 50 south to 50 north. What is the average apparent
wander rate:

a. 0° per hour
b. + 5° per hour
c. - 5° per hour
d. depends upon groundspeed
160 You commence a rate 2 turn from south-east to south-west, in the Northern Hemisphere. On
what heading do you stop the turn?

a. 240°
b. 255°
c. 235°
d. 205°

161 A directional gyro is valid only for a short period of time. The causes of this inaccuracy are:

1. earth rotation
2. longitudinal accelerations
3. a/c motion over the earth
4. mechanical defects
5. gyro mass

a. 1, 3 & 5
b. 1, 3 & 4
c. 1, 2 & 3
d. all of the above

162 A VMO / MMO alarm system, on an airline aircraft, is fitted with an aneroid capsule which is:

a. subjected to static pressure and an anemometer subjected to dynamic pressure

b. subjected to dynamic pressure and an anemometer subjected to static pressure
c subjected to static pressure and an anemometer subjected to static pressure
d subjected to dynamic pressure and an anemometer subjected to dynamic pressure

668

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

163 An aircraft, in the southern hemisphere, is decelerating to land on a westerly heading. The
direct reading magnetic compass will indicate:

a. an apparent turn to north

b. an apparent turn to south
c. correctly
d. an oscillation about west

164. What is the input to a VSI?

a. static pressure
b. differential pressure
c. total pressure
d. dynamic pressure

165. The component(s) used to align an inertial strap-down unit in the horizontal plane is/are:

a. Accelerometers and gyroscopes

b. Accelerometers
c. Flow inductors
d. Gyroscopes

166. A ring laser gyro consists of:

a. A gyro with 2 degrees of freedom

b. Two moving cavities using mirrors
c. A laser split into two beams
d. Two electrodes (anodes and cathodes)

167. The Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) can:

a. not align itself with magnetic north
b can automatically align itself with magnetic north
c have 1° of freedom
d. have 2° of freedom

168. The Pitot tube comprises a mast to position it below the skin of the aircraft for:

a. avoid disturbance from aerodynamic flow about the aircraft

b. position it outside the boundary layer
c. anti-ice protection
d. easy access for maintenance

169. Using a classic Artificial Horizon, the a/c performs a right turn through 360 degrees at a
constant angle of bank and rate of turn. The indication is:

a. Nose up, too much bank.

b. Nose up, not enough bank.
c. Nose up, wings level.
d. Bank and pitch correct.

669

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

ANSWERS TO FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS QUESTIONS

1 b 31 d 61 a 91 b 121 c 151 d
2 b 32 c 62 a 92 d 122 a 152 b
3 a 33 d 63 d 93 d 123 c 153 a
4 b 34 a 64 a 94 b 124 c 154 d
5 a 35 c 65 b 95 d 125 a 155 c
6 c 36 b 66 d 96 a 126 c 156 a
7 b 37 a 67 b 97 a 127 a 157 b
8 a 38 d 68 b 98 b 128 a 158 a
9 c 39 a 69 a 99 c 129 a 159 a
10 b 40 b 70 d 100 c 130 d 160 b
11 b 41 c 71 b 101 d 131 c 161 b
12 c 42 b 72 a 102 c 132 c 162 a
13 b 43 c 73 a 103 a 133 a 163 a
14 d 44 b 74 A 104 b 134 c 164 a
15 a 45 a 75 c 105 a 135 d 165 a
16 c 46 b 76 c 106 a 136 c 166 c
17 b 47 c 77 c 107 c 137 a 167 d
18 c 48 a 78 b 108 b 138 a 168 a
19 b 49 d 79 c 109 c 139 d 169 d
20 b 50 c 80 c 110 c 140 c
21 b 51 a 81 a 111 d 141 c
22 a 52 a 82 c 112 d 142 c
23 d 53 b 83 c 113 a 143 c
24 d 54 a 84 b 114 b 144 a
25 b 55 b 85 c 115 a 145 d
26 d 56 d 86 c 116 d 146 b
27 a 57 a 87 a 117 b 147 b
28 c 58 a 88 d 118 a 148 b
29 d 59 a 89 c 119 c 149 b
30 b 60 b 90 a 120 a 150 c

670

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

AUTOMATIC FLIGHT

1. The flight director command bars on the display shown are commanding:

a fly up and left

b fly down and right
c fly down and left
d fly up and right

2 Where are the flight director modes displayed?

a PFD
b ND
c EICAM
d FD control panel

3 The autopilot is in heading select mode, and the aircraft is flying on a heading of 270°. If you
change heading to 360°, the flight director command bars will:

a. roll command bar goes full deflection right and then doesn’t move until the aircraft
heading is within 30° of the selected heading
b. roll command bar moves to right and centres when AFDS angle of bank to intercept
has been achieved
c. the heading command bar will disappear and the heading hold will disengage
d. roll command bar moves to the right and then progressively returns to the centre as
the deviation from the selected heading reduces

4 What are the basic functions of an autopilot?

1. Maintain pitch attitude

2. Maintain wings level
3. Altitude hold
4. Heading hold
5. Speed hold

a. all 5
b. 1&2
c. 1, 2 & 3
d. 1, 2, 3, & 4

5 At 50 feet agl during an autoland, what happens to the glideslope signal?

a continues to be actioned
b is disconnected
c is factored for range
d is used to flare the aircraft

6 What is the wavelength of an ILS signal?

a.. Centimetric
b. Hectometric
c. Metric
d. Decimetric

671

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

7 A Yaw damper indicator will indicate to the pilot:

a yaw damper movement of rudder position

b rudder position
c rudder position due to pedal displacement
d yaw damper movement on ground only

8 The Autothrottle is set to climb at a constant mach number. If the temperature does not
change, what happens to the CAS?

a Increases
b Decreases
c Increases, but only if the outside air temperature decreases
d Stays the same

9 Autothrottle engaged mode can be checked by the pilot, using:

a primary flight display

b thrust control computer
c position of throttles
d navigation display

10 The interception of the localiser beam by the autopilot is:

a on a constant magnetic course

b a mode using an interception verses range computation
c a mode using an interception verses radio deviation law
d on a constant heading

11 Engagement of the autopilot is not possible when:

1. electrical supply is faulty

2. the turn control knob is not set to centre off
3. there is a synchronisation fault
4. there is a fault in the attitude reference unit

a 1, 2, 3, & 4
b 1, & 4 only
c 1, 3, & 4
d 2 & 4 only

12. On which instrument are the flight director bars normally present?

a. Primary EICAS
b. ADI
c ND
d. EHSI

13. What happens at 50ft whilst carrying out an autolanding?

a. glideslope and localiser disconnect and aircraft continues to land

b. radio altimeter controls the rate of descent
c. radio altimeter controls the angle of attack
d. glideslope disconnects and aircraft continues descent

672

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

14. If you have selected a heading of 180° and are flying aircraft on heading of 160° to intercept
the correct course, the ADI vertical bar be central when?

a. only if aircraft is subject to 20° port drift

b. only if aircraft is subject to 20° starboard drift
c. cannot be centralised
d. will only be central when flying correct attitude to intercept desired heading

15. If the autopilot is selected to VOR mode, what happens if the aircraft flies over the cone of
confusion?

a. Temporarily follows current heading until exiting the cone of confusion

b. VOR disengages and Heading hold engages
c. The pilot must select an alternate roll mode
d. The pilot manually flies the aircraft following flight director roll commands.

16. The autopilot disconnects (or the autoland is completed) at:

a. 100 ft
b. decision height
b. flare
d. roll out

17. The control law in a fly-by-wire system is a relationship between:

a. how the pilot’s control demands are translated into control surface movements.
b. input and output at the amplifier level respectively control the deviation data
c. computer input deviation data and flap position modification
d. the versine signal between the ailerons and elevators

18. What are the autopilot minimum requirements in order to fly single pilot operations in IFR
conditions or at night?

a Two axis autopilot with altitude hold and heading hold.

b Two axis autopilot with altitude hold, heading hold, VOR tracking and Alt acquire
c Single axis autopilot with Altitude hold only
d. Single axis autopilot with Heading select and VS

19. When flying level in the cruise the ……….……. holds height and the …………… holds the
speed:

a Autopilot, Autopilot
b Auto-throttle, Auto-throttle
c Auto-throttle, Autopilot
d Autopilot, Auto-throttle

20. At what height during a semi-automatic landing is the autopilot disengaged:

a 100 ft
b 45 ft
c Decision height
d 14 ft

673

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

21. At the missed approach point the TOGA switch on the throttles is depressed. Which of the
following statements are correct:

1. Autopilot selects max. power

2. GA power selected
3. Aircraft automatically cleans up
4. Autopilot fly’s the GA manoeuvre
5. Pilot manually fly’s manoeuvre

a 2&5
b 1&5
c 1&4
d 2&4

22 If a Go-Around is initiated from an auto-approach:

1. the autothrottle selects thrustas soon as the TOGA switch is pressed

2. the auotpilot carries out the climb
3. the autopilot retracts flap and landing gear to reduce drag
4. the pilot performs the climb
5. the pilot retracts the flap and landing gear to reduce drag

a. 1, 2 & 4
b. 1, 2 & 5
c. 1, 3 & 4
d. 1, 2 & 3

23. An auto-land system which can continue to automatically land the aircraft after a single
failure is called:

a. Fail passive
b. Fail Soft
c. Fail Safe
d. Fail active

24. Where can the pilot look to see the autothrottle mode?

a. PFD
b. overhead panel
c. throttle control panel
a EICAS

25. Where can the pilot look to see the thrust limit mode?

a. PFD
b. Overhead panel
c. Throttle control panel
d. Primary EICAS

674

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

26 The autopilot is engaged with no modes selected. What is the autopilot providing:

a. wing leveling
b. altitude hold
c. Auto-stability with auto-trim
d. LNAV and VNAV

27 When is an Autoland procedure complete?

a. At the markers
b. At the beginning of the ground roll
c. At decision height
d. At the flare

28 During a CAT2 approach, what is providing the height information?

a. Capsule stack
b. Radio Altimeter
c. Captain’s barometric altimeter
d. Central Air Data Computer

29 Autoland Flare is initiated at:

a. 1500 ft
b. 330 ft
c. 50 ft
d. 5 ft

30 An autopilot capable of altitude hold and heading hold is a minimum requirement for:

a. Single pilot operation in VMC and IMC.

b. Single pilot operation under IFR and at night.
c. Aircraft over 5700kg.
d. Dual pilot operation (in IFR).

31 During a fully automatic landing the autopilot:

a. and the auto-throttle control the approach at least until the flare.
b. and the auto-throttle control the approach at least until the roll-out.
c. and the auto-throttle control the approach at least until decision height.
d. controls the approach (at least) until the roll-out, the pilot controls the power.

32 A landing is considered to be Automatic when:

1 autopilot flies the ILS to Decision Height, and then disengages

2 autothrottle maintains speed until Decision Height, and then disengages
3 autothrottle disengages thrust at 50ft
4 autopilot flies the ILS until the flare
5 the flare is automatic

a. 2, 3 & 5
b. 1&2
c. 4&5
d. 1&4

675

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

33 In an autopilot system, modes for stabilising the a/c include which of the following:

1 Yaw damper.
2 Pitch attitude holding.
3 VOR axis holding.
4 ASI & Mach hold.
5 Horizontal wing holding.
6 Altitude holding.

a. 1, 2 & 4
b. 1, 2 & 5
c. 1, 5 & 6
d. 2, 4 & 6

34 In an autopilot system, a/c flight path modes include which of the following:

1 Pitch attitude holding.

2 Horizontal wing holding.
3 VOR axis holding.
4 Inertial heading holding.
5 ASI & Mach hold.
6 Yaw damper.

a. 1, 2 & 4
b. 1, 2 & 5
c. 2, 4 & 6
d. 3, 4 & 5

35 Auto-throttle can hold which of the following:

1 Speed.
2 Mach No.
3 Altitude.
4 N1/EPR.
5 VOR capture.
6 Vertical profile.

a. 1, 2 & 3
b. 1, 2 & 4
c. 1, 2 & 6
d. 1, 3 & 5

36 An autopilot system whereby if one A/P fails cannot carry out an auto-land is called fail_ _ _ _:

a. passive.
b. safe.
c. operational.
d. redundant.

37 In a yaw damper:

a. ailerons are moved in proportion to Mach No.

b. ailerons are moved in proportion to rate of angular velocity.
c. rudder is moved in proportion to Mach No.
d. rudder is moved in proportion to rate of angular velocity.

676

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

38 “LOC ARMED” lights up on the annunciator, this means:

a. localiser beam captured.

b. localiser armed and awaiting capture.
c. localiser alarm is on.
d. ILS is captured

39 What is the most basic function of an autopilot?

a. altitude hold
b. heading hold
c. wing leveller
d. altitude and heading hold

40 What does the autopilot pitch / rotate around?

a. centre of gravity
b. manoeuvre point
c. centre of pressure
d. neutral point

41 During a semi-automatic landing:

a. the A/P is disengaged at DH having followed the ILS.

b. the A/T flies airspeed down to approximately 30 ft and automatically disengages.
c. the A/P flies the approach and flare and roll-out.
d. the A/T flies approach speed and disengages automatically at DH

42 If only a single A/P is used to climb, cruise and approach; following a failure:

a. it is fail passive with redundancy.

b. it is fail operational and will not disconnect.
c. it is fail soft and will not disconnect.
d. it is fail safe and will disconnect.

43 In heading select the autopilot delivers roll commands to the controls to bank the aircraft:

1 proportional to TAS, but not beyond a specified maximum.

2 Set bank of 27 degrees.
3 Set bank of 15 degrees.
4 Proportional to the deviation from the selected heading.

a. 1&2
b. 2&3
c. 3&4
d. 4&1

677

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

44 Regarding autopilot and auto-throttle:

1 A/P holds IAS/MACH when climbing in LVL CHG and A/T controls thrust.
2 A/P holds altitude in cruise with ALT HOLD, A/T controls IAS/Mach.
3 A/P holds pitch in descent in V/S mode, A/T controls thrust.
4 A/P holds alt in climb mode, A/T controls IAS/Mach in speed.

a. 1& 2
b. 3&4
c. 1, 2 & 3
d. 2, 3 & 4

45 Auto-trim is fitted to an autopilot:

a. To provide control about lateral axis.

b. To prevent snatching on disengaging A/P.
c. To prevent snatching on engaging A/P
d. To correct for Mach tuck

46 Auto throttle can hold:

1. speed
2. flight path
3. altitude
4. Mach
5. EPR / N1
6. attitude

a. 1, 2, 6
b. 1, 4, 5
c. 1, 2, 3, 4
d. 3, 4, 5

47. What is the purpose of the synchronisation in an autopilot:

1. Prevents snatch on disengagement.

2. Pevents snatch on engagement.
3. Cancels rudder control inputs.
4. May not allow the autopilot to engage if unserviceable.

a. 1&2
b. 1&3
c. 2&4
d. 3&4

48. When operating with the autopilot in ALT hold mode what happens if the Captain’s
barometric altimeter pressure setting is increased?

a. ALT hold disengages

b. Nothing
c. The aeroplane will climb
a. The aeroplane will descend

678

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

49. TO/GA is engaged:

a. automatically at GS capture
b. automatically when an autopilot fails
c. by the pilot pressing a button on or near the throttles
d. by the pilot selecting flare

50. On crossing the cone of confusion of a VOR when in VOR mode of the autopilot what will
happen to the roll channel:

a. Always coupled to the selected VOR radial

b. Temporarily disconnected
c. Damped by a trim input from the lateral trim system
d. Temporarily switches to heading mode

51. The function of autotrim is:

a. to synchronise the longitudinal loop

b. to relieve forces on the autopilot servomotor prior to hand over
c. to react to altitude changes in ALT HOLD mode
d. to relieve forces on the control column before hand over

52. The Mach Trim system:

a compensates for the rearward movement of the CP due to shockwave formation

b compensates for the forward movement of the CP due to shockwave formation
c controls the aircraft in roll
d is operational at low subsonic speeds

53 The Flight Director horizontal and vertical bars are up and left of aircraft symbol on the ADI,
these indications are directing the pilot to:

a. Increase pitch angle, turn left

b. Decrease pitch angle, turn left
c. Increase pitch angle, turn right

54 What does FADEC do?

1. engine limitation protection

2. automatic engine starting sequence
3. manual engine starting sequence
4. power management

a 1&2
b 4 only
c 1&4
d 1, 2, 3 & 4

55 What does the Mach trim system use to prevent ‘Mach Tuck’?

a elevator
b elevator/rudder
c rudder
d elevator/aileron/rudder

679

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

56 The autosynchronisation system does which of the following?

1. prevents snatching on engagement

2 prevents snatching on disengagement
3 cancels rudder input
4 works in climb, cruise and descent

a 1&2
b 2&3
c 1&4
d 3& 4

57 When turning into a desired radial, FD bars indicate:

a a 45° angle of bank

b a 30° angle of bank
c a 15° angle of bank
d correct attitude to intercept radial

58 If a pilot was to carry out a roll maneuver, on release of CWS what does the AP do?

a Roll wing level and maintain heading only

b Maintain attitude only
c Maintain track and attitude only
d Roll wing level and maintain MCP selected roll

680

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

681

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

ANSWERS TO AUTOFLIGHT QUESTIONS

1 A 21 D 41 A

2 A 22 B 42 D

3 B 23 D 43 D

4 B 24 A 44 A

5 B 25 D 45 B

6 C 26 C 46 B

7 A 27 B 47 C

8 B 28 B 48 B

9 A 29 C 49 C

10 C 30 B 50 D

11 A 31 B 51 B

12 B 32 C 52 A

13 D 33 B 53 A

14 D 34 D 54 D

15 A 35 B 55 A

16 D 36 A 56 C

17 A 37 D 57 D

18 A 38 B 58 B

19 D 39 C
20 C 40 A

682

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

WARNING & RECORDING

1 The input to a basic stall warning system are:

a Angle of attack
b IAS
c Slat/flap position
d Mno

2 Where in the aircraft does JAR require the FDR to be fitted:

a At the back
b At the front
c In the wings
d In the undercarriage bay

3 An FDR fitted to an aircraft of over 5700kgs after Apr 98 must record for:

a 10 hours
b 25 hours
c 30 minutes
d 60 minutes

4 Where is TCAS displayed?

1. On its own screen

2. On the EFIS
3. Weather Radar
4. On VSI

a. All 4
b. 1 ,2 & 4
c. 2&3
d. 1&4

5 The principle that TCAS uses is:

a. Primary radar
b. ATC radar
c. RT communications
d. Transponders in the aircraft

6. When an intruder aircraft has no Altitude Reporting facility, i.e. Mode equipped with ‘A’
transponder only, TCAS can only give:

a. Corrective RA only
b. TA followed by a Preventative RA
c. TA only
d. Preventative RA only

683

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

7. What does a FDR record when combined with a CVR?

1. Cockpit voice
2. Radio
3. Public addresses from the cockpit
4. Cabin voice

a. 1, 2 & 3
b. 1&2
c. All 4
d. 2&4

8. A GPWS system requires:

a Light & bell

b Aural signals only
c Aural signals which may be supplemented by visual signals
d Aural, tactile and visual signals or a combination thereof

9. The Altitude Alert system alerts the pilot:

a At decision height
b At the selected altitude
c When reference altitude equals the selected altitude
d When deviating from the selected altitude

10. The Altitude Alert system:

a. May alert by visual signals when approaching the selected altitude

b. Activates a warning light on reaching selected altitude
c. Engages autotrim on reaching selected altitude
d. Disengages autotrim on reaching selected altitude

11 TCAS II obtains information from:

1 Pressure encoding from mode S transponder

2 Radio altimeter
3 Aircraft specific configurations
4 Inertial reference unit (IRU)

a 1, & 2
b. 1, 2, & 4
b. 1, 2, 3, & 4
c. 1, 2, & 3

12 What does a CVR record?

a. Cabin crew conversations

b. Cabin crew conversation on intercom
c. PA announcements even when not selected on flight deck
d. Radio conversations

684

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

13 A stall warning system fitted to a large aircraft will always include:

a Various inputs including speed brake position, a warning module and a visual or
aural warning
b Various inputs including landing gear micro switch, a warning module and an aural
warning
c Various inputs including EGT, a warning module and an aural warning
d Stick shakers and/or stick push

14 GPWS is active between what heights:

a. 0ft and 2500ft

b. 50ft and 2450 ft
c. 0 ft and 2450 ft
d. 50 ft and 5000 ft

15 What is the correct response to a TCAS RA?

a. Smoothly and immediately follow the climb or descent commands

b. Request permission to manoeuvre from ATC
c. Follow ATC instructions as these override TCAS RAs
d. Turn 900 and smoothly and immediately follow the climb or descent commands

16 What symbol is used to represent a RA on a TCAS PPI?

a. Yellow circle
b. Red lozenge
c. Red square
d. Red circle

17 Which of the following is a preventative RA?

a. Monitor vertical speed
b. Turn left
c. Traffic, traffic
d. Climb, climb now

18 What input is there to TCAS 2?

a Mode ‘A’ transponder which gives TA and RAs

b Mode ‘C’ transponder which co-ordinates avoidance manoeuvres
c Mode ‘C’ and ‘S’ transponders which co-ordinate avoidance manoeuvres
d Mode ‘S’ transponder which co-ordinates avoidance manoeuvres

19 An aircraft registered after the 1 April 1998 requires a CVR which:

a. Records the last 2 hours of flight

b. Records the last 72 hours of flight
c. Records the last 30 minutes of flight
d. Records the last 8 hours of flight

685

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

20 What are the JAR OPS requirements for the CVR to start and stop recording?

a. From the time when the aircraft is first able to move under its own power until it is no
longer able to do so.
b. From the time the first engine is started and stops 5 minutes after the last engine is
shutdown.
c. From the time when the first engine is started and stops 5 minutes after the APU is
shutdown.
d. From the time when the aircraft is first able to move under its own power until 5
minutes after it is no longer able to do so.

21 An altitude alerting system must at least be capable of alerting the crew on:

1 Approaching selected altitude.

2 Excessive deviation from selected altitude.
3 Excessive vertical speed.
4 Excessive terrain closure.
5 Abnormal gear/flap combination.

a. 1&2.
b. 1,2,3&4.
c. 1,2,3,4&5.
d. 1,2&3.

22 An aircraft that weights more than 5,700 kg and was registered after 1 April 1998, the FDR and
CVR must record respectively:

a. 25 hr. and 1 hr.

b. 25 hr. and 2 hr.
c. 10 hr. and 2 hr.
d. 10 hr. and 1hr.

23 “Other traffic” which is assessed as not being a threat will be indicated by a TCAS system as:

a. A solid red square.

b. A solid white or cyan diamond.
c. A hollow cyan diamond.
d. A hollow cyan square.

24 Which of the following are modes of the GPWS?

1 Excessive sink rate.

2 Altitude loss after T/O or go-around.
3 Excessive Glideslope deviation.
4 High climb rate.
5 Flaps in incorrect position.
6 High altitude descent.
7 Stall.

a. All 7
b. 1, 2, 3, & 5
c. 1, 2 & 3
d. 1, 3, 5 & 7

686

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

25. What corrective action is given by TCAS?

a. Turn left or right.

b. Climb or descend.
c. Contact ATC
d. Turn then climb or descend.

26. The Flight Data Recorder actually starts running:

a. At the beginning of the T/O run.

b. Before the a/c starts moving under its own power
c. When the gear is retracted.
d. When a/c lines up on runway.

27. GPWS may indicate (list):

1. Excessive sink rate after T/O.

2. Excessive descent rate.
3. Excessive closure with terrain.
4. Ground proximity not in the landing configuration.
5. Excessive glide-slope deviation.
6. Altitude call-outs.
7. Bank Angle alerting.

a. 1, 4, 5 & 7
b. All 7
c. 1, 2 & 3
a. 1, 3, 6 & 7

28. TCAS 2 when fitted with mode C transponder may give:

a. TA only.
b. TA and RA in horizontal plane.
c. TA and RA in vertical plane.
d. RA only.

29. According to JAR OPS when must the CVR on a 50 seat turbo prop a/c begin recording?

a. Switch on to switch off.

b. From lift off to when the weight on wheels switch is made on landing.
c. From before the a/c is capable of moving under its own power to after the a/c is no
longer capable of moving under its own power.
d. At commencement of the taxy to turning off the runway.

30. What is the GPWS Mode 3 audible alert?

a. DON’T SINK, DON’T SINK followed by WHOOP WHOOP, PULL UP if the sink rate
exceeds a certain value.
b. DON’T SINK, DON’T SINK continuously.
c. DON’T SINK, DON’T SINK followed immediately by WHOOP WHOOP, PULL UP.
d. SINK RATE repeated each 1.5 seconds. Penetrating the second boundary generates an
aural alert of WHOOP, WHOOP PULL UP.

687

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

31. CVR components consist of:

1. Microphone
2. Crash/Fire resistant construction
3. Independent battery
4. A Flight data recorder

a. 1&2
b. 1&4
c. 1, 2, 3 & 4
d. 1, 2 & 4

32 If an aircraft GPWS detects an excessive rate of descent with gear and flaps up, the alert and
warning will be :

a. DON’T SINK, DON’T SINK

b. TOO LOW TERRAIN, TOO LOW TERRAIN followed by TOO LOW GEAR TOO, LOW
GEAR
c. SINK RATE followed by ‘WHOOP WHOOP PULL UP
d. TERRAIN TERRAIN followed by ‘WHOOP WHOOP PULL UP

33 The requirement to carry a GPWS concerns aircraft which are, depending on their age, weight
and passenger capacity:

1. Turbo prop 2. Piston 3. Jet

a. 1, 2 & 3
b. 1, 3
c. 3
d. 1

688

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

689

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

ANSWERS TO WARNING & RECORDING QUESTIONS

1 A 21 A

2 A 22 B

3 B 23 C

4 A 24 B

5 D 25 B

6 C 26 B

7 A 27 B

8 C 28 C

9 D 29 C

10 A 30 B

11 C 31 A

12 D 32 C

13 B 33 B

14 B

15 A

16 C

17 A

18 D

19 A

20 A

690

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

ENGINE INSTRUMENTS

1. What type of sensor is used to measure the output of a low pressure booster pump:

a. bourdon tube
b. aneroid capsule
c. bellows
d. differential capsule

2. A vibration meter measures:

a. frequency in Hz
b. amplitude at a given frequency
c. period in seconds
d. acceleration in g

3. Which of the following are used to measure temperature?

1. thermocouple
2. resistance
3. reactance
4. mercury

a. 1, 2,3 ,4
b. 1, 2, & 4
c. 2, 3, & 4
d. 1, 3, & 4

4. A millivoltmeter measuring electromotive force between a hot and a cold junction of a

thermocouple can be graduated to read temperature if:

a. the hot junction is kept at a constant temperature

b. the cold junction is maintained at 15 degrees C.
c. the hot junction is maintained at 15 degrees C.
d. the cold junction is maintained at a constant temperature

5. If both displays of an EICAS system fail what information will be displayed on the standby
engine indicator:

a. N1,EPR,N2
b. N1,EPR, EGT
c. N2,EPR, EGT
d. EGT,N1, FF

6. A capacitive type gauging system may measure mass due to:

a. fuel dielectric constant being equal to that of air and proportional to density
b. fuel dielectric constant being equal to that of air and proportional to 1/density
c. fuel dielectric constant being twice that of air and proportional to density
d. fuel dielectric constant being twice that of air and proportional to 1/density

691

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

7. If the intake probe of an EPR system becomes blocked with ice this will cause the EPR gauge
to:

a. under-read during take off

b. over-read during take off
c. be unaffected
d. read zero

8. The power output of a turbo-propeller aircraft is measured by the amount of torque being
produced. The indication can be in which of the following units.

1. Newton metres
2. PSI
3. Percentage
4. Pounds feet
5. EPR

a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
b. 1, 2, 3, 5
c. 2, 3, 4, 5
d. 1, 2, 3, 4

9. If one probe of a multi-sensor T.G.T. system failed , the reading would:

a. increase by 20 – 30 degrees C
b. decrease by 20 – 30 degrees C
c. be practically unaffected
d. fall to zero.

10. During the take-off run , the effect of increasing airspeed is to cause the EPR indication to:

a. remain constant
b. increase
c. decrease
d. increase and subsequently decrease

11. An advisory message on the EICAS system screen would be:

a. displayed in amber on the lower screen with associated caution lights and aural tones
b. displayed in red, normally on the upper screen , and requiring immediate corrective
action
c. displayed in amber, normally on the upper screen with aural warnings .
d. displayed in amber, normally on the upper screen, indented one space to the right.

12. A supercharged aircraft is climbing at its maximum permitted boost of 8 psi (16in.Hg) from
sea level to its full throttle height of 10,000 feet. If sea level pressure is 29.92in.Hg , when the
aircraft reaches 5000 feet, where the pressure is 24.72in.Hg, what will be the approximate
indication on the MAP gauge:

a. 18 in Hg
b. 33 in Hg
c. 41 in Hg
d. 46 in Hg

692

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

13 An aircraft has a compensated capacitance fuel contents gauging system and is refuelled so
that the total fuel contents are 76000kg at a temperature of 18 degrees C and an S.G. of 0.81.
Whilst the aircraft is parked the temperature increases to 26 degrees C and the S.G. becomes
0.80. The indicated fuel contents have:

a. increased by 5%
b. increased by 10%
c. decreased by 5%
d. remained the same

14 The working principle of a capacitive fuel contents gauging system is based upon:

a. volume of fuel
b. changes in capacitance
c. height of fuel
d. dielectric value

15 A volumetric fuel flow meter is different to a mass flow meter because the mass flow meter
compensates for:

a. dielectric
b. density
c. volume
d. pressure

16. Cylinder head temperature measurement works on the principle of:

a. differential expansion
b. wheatstone bridge
c. ratiometer
d. thermocouple

17. The electrical tacho generator system uses:

a. single phase a.c. whose frequency varies with the speed of the engine delivered to a
single phase synchronous motor and drag cup.
b. three phase a.c. whose frequency varies with the speed of the engine delivered to a
three phase synchronous motor (squirrel cage) and drag cup.
c. A tacho probe and phonic wheel measuring speed and sending information to a
squirrel cage motor and drag cup
d. Single phase d.c. whose frequency varies with speed of the engine converted to a
square wave pulse delivered to a servo driven instrument

18. Where very accurate temperature indication is required the indicator used will be:

a. galvanometer
b. direct reading
c. moving coil
d. ratiometer

693

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

19 Total Air Temperature (TAT) is equal to:

a. SAT + ram rise

b. RAT + friction rise
c. SAT – RAT
d. RAT + ram rise

20. The principle of the fuel-monitoring device giving the fuel burnt is:

a. multiplying flight time by fuel consumption

b. capacitance variation of a capacitor
c. difference of indication according to departure value
d. integration of instantaneous flow

21. To measure the fuel quantity on a heavy aircraft we use:

1. capacitor gauges
2. electric gauges with round floats
3. the indication can directly be indicated as a mass
4. the indication can not be indicated as a mass

The combination of all correct statements is:

a. 1, 4
b. 2, 3
c. 2, 4
d. 1, 3

22. For a capacitor gauge:

1. the fuel dielectric value is half that of air

2. the fuel dielectric value varies proportionally to the temperature of the fuel
3. the probes are connected in parallel
4. fuel dielectric value varies inversely with the fuel level
5. the gauge accuracy is within 2%

The correct statements are:

a. 3, 5
b. 2, 3
c. 3, 4
d. 1, 2

23. The capacitor gauge principle is based on:

a. variation of capacitance of a capacitor with the nature of the dielectric

b. variation of capacitance by volume measure at the probe
c. variation of the EMF in a wheastone bridge
d. variation of outflow and couple in the system

694

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

24. Among the following parameters:

EGT
EPR
FF
N1
N2
Oil pressure
Fuel pressure

The ones that can be used to monitor a gas turbine thrust setting are:

a. EGT, N1, N2, oil pressure

b. EGT, N1, FF, EPR
c. EGT, EPR, FF, High-pressure fuel
d. fuel pressure, N1, N2, oil pressure

25. The most significant parameters and the most important that express the thrust of a gas
turbine engine are:

a. EGT or N2
b. N2 and FF
c. FF and EGT
d. N1 and EPR

26. On a modern twin spool turbofan, the main handling parameter is:

a. the temperature upstream the turbine or EGT

b. a rotational speed and a temperature
c. the rotational speed of the high-pressure compressor
d. the rotational speed of the low-pressure compressor

27. Two main indications used to evaluate a turbojet thrust are:

a. rotational speed of the fan (N1) or the total pressure at the outlet of the low-pressure
turbine
b. fan rotational speed (N1) or total pressure at the high-pressure compressor outlet
c. fan rotational speed (N1) or EPR
d. high pressure turbine rotational speed or EPR

28. The measure of a torque can be made by measuring:

a. oil pressure at a fixed crown of an epicyclical reduction gear of the transmission box
b. the amount of light through a gear linked to a transmission shaft
c. the frequency of a phonic wheel linked to a transmission shaft
d. the frequency difference between two phonic wheels linked to a transmission shaft

29. Among these instruments, which one uses aneroid capsules?

a. oil thermometer
b. air intake pressure sensor
c. oil pressure sensor
d. fuel pressure sensor

695

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

30. In a three phase tachometer installation:

1. the transmitter is a DC generator

2. we measure an EMF proportional to the driving speed of the transmitter
3. we measure a frequency proportional to the driving speed of the transmitter
4. the receiver is a galvometer
5. the receiver is an synchronised motor driving a magnetic tachometer

The correct statements are:

a. 1, 2
b. 2,.5
c. 1,.4
d. 3, 5

31. The working principle of mass flow meters mostly used now days, is to measure in their
system:

a. the volume and viscosity of the fuel

b. the temperature and pressure of the fuel
c. volume mass and dielectric value of fuel
d. kinetic energy transmitted

32. The advantage of a ratiometer is:

a. doesn’t require an electrical supply

b. does not suffer from errors due to variations of supply voltage
c. is calibrated at sea level and will be inaccurate at high altitudes
d. it requires an ac voltage and therefore has no commutator.

33. What is a synchroscope used for?

a. reducing vibration
b. putting the propellers in phase
c. allowing the pilot to adjust several engines to the same RPM
d. viewing the underside of the aircraft during flight

34. On an EICAS display what does the yellow arc on the temperature gauge signify?

a. Forbidden operating range

b. Exceptional operating range
c. Normal operating range
d. Frequent operating range

35. An RPM gauge has a red line at the upper end of the green arc, in the middle of the green arc
is a smaller red arc. What is the significance of this smaller red arc?

a. it indicates an RPM that must not be used continuously because of the increased
vibration level from the engine/propeller
b. it is maximum continuous RPM
c. it is the RPM at which there is an increased likelihood of oil leakage
d. it indicates an RPM that must not be used continuously because there is insufficient
cooling air for the engine

696

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

36. In an ECAM system if a caution message appears the system will:

a. illuminate the page number that requires to be selected

b. display a diagrammatic view of the affected system
c. will alert the pilot by an audible warning only
d. will cause the relevant buttons to light up

37. A cylinder head temperature measuring system in a piston engine has a sensor:

a. One in each cylinder head to average the temperature

b. One in the coolest running cylinder
c. One in the hottest running cylinder
d. One in each of the two banks of cylinders in a horizontally opposed engine.

38. The principles used in an electrical RPM indicating system are:

1. Tacho probe and phonic wheel

2. DC generator producing AC
3. 3 phase AC generator driving a 3 phase AC motor
4. Single phase AC generator driving a single phase AC motor

a. 1 and 4
b. 1 and 3
c. 2 and 3
d. 2 and 4

39. What does the yellow band on an EICAS generated engine gauge indicate?

a. Precautionary operating range

b. Maximum operating range
c. Warning limit
d. Normal range

40. Advantage of a ratiometer type measuring circuit is:

a. Very Accurate
b. Simple
c. Changes indication if voltage changes
d. No external power supply is required

41. In a Turbojet thrust is measured by:

a. Fan Speed (N1) and Turbine Inlet Pressure

b. N1 and EPR
c. Compressor outlet pressure and jet pipe pressure
d. Compressor inlet pressure and combustion chamber pressure

42. How will a system failure warning be shown to the pilot in the ECAM system:

a. The failure will appear as a wording on the screen

b. The master warning caption will illuminate and the pilot will manually select failure
mode
c. The master warning will illuminate and the primary screen will display a check list
while the secondary shows a graphical display of the problem
d. The Engine parameter displays will be replaced by the Flight Mode screen.

697

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

43. What is used to measure gas turbine inlet pressure?

a. Bourdon Tube
b. Differential capsule
c. Aneroid capsule
d. Bellows

44. What does a bourdon tube measure ?

a. Temperature
b. Quantity
c. Capacitance
d. Pressure

45. What are the disadvantages of an electrical float fuel quantity measuring system

1. Attitude
2. Acceleration
3. Temperature
4. Ambient pressure
5. Needs an AC power supply

a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
b. 1, 2, 3
c. 1, 2, 5
d. 2, 3, 4, 5

46. How can temperature be measured?

1. Resistance
2. Mercury
3. Thermocouple
4. Reactance

a. 1,2,3,4
b. 1,2,4
c. 1,2,3
d. 1,3,4

47. A Thermocouple would normally be used to measure the temperature of the:

a. Turbine
b. Exterior
c. Cabin
d. Oil

48. The Bourdon Tube is used in:

a. Temperature probes in front of the engine

b. Smoke detectors
c. Pressure measurement
d. Vibration detectors

698

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

49. The principle upon which flowmeters (mass flow) most commonly used today work, is to
measure:

a. The Volume and Viscosity of the fuel

b. The Pressure and Temperature of the fuel
c. Density and Dielectric constant of the fuel
d. The Kinetic energy transferred

50. A small turbine placed in the flow of fuel to the burners of a Gas Turbine engine measures:

a. Volume of flow by the measurement of magnetic impulses

b. Mass flow by the measurement of magnetic impulses
c. Mass flow by the measurement of frequency
d. Volume flow by the measurement of reactance

51. The torquemeter is an instrument:

a. Allowing automatic synchronisation of the engines

b. Giving the power available by the engine
c. Giving the power from the propeller by direct reading
d. Allowing the determination of the power from the propeller by using a formula which
is a function of the RPM

52. Torque can be calculated in a torquemeter system by the measurement:

a. Of the oil pressure resisting lateral movement of the gearing in an epicyclic reduction
gearbox
b. Of the amount of light through a gear wheel connected to the transmission
c. Of the frequency of a phonic wheel connected to the planet gears of an epicyclic
gearbox
d. Of the difference between 2 phonic wheels connected to the transmission

699

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

ANSWERS TO ENGINE INSTRUMENTS QUESTIONS

1 C 16 D 31 D 46 C

2 B 17 B 32 B 47 A

3 B 18 D 33 C 48 C

4 D 19 A 34 B 49 D

5 B 20 D 35 A 50 A

6 C 21 D 36 B 51 D

7 B 22 A 37 C 52 A

8 D 23 A 38 B

9 C 24 B 39 A

10 C 25 D 40 A

11 D 26 D 41 B

12 D 27 C 42 C

13 D 28 A 43 D

14 B 29 B 44 D

15 B 30 D 45 B

700

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

SPECIMEN QUESTIONS

1. A modern Radio Altimeter uses the frequency band:

a. VHF 30 - 300 Mhz

b. SHF 3000 Mhz - 30 Ghz
c. UHF 300 Mhz - 3 Ghz
d. HF 3 Mhz - 30 Mhz

2. An aircraft that is assessed as not being a threat would be indicated on a TCAS system as:

a. a solid red square

b. a solid white or cyan diamond
c. a hollow white or cyan diamond
d. a solid yellow circle

3. During descent through a block of airspace of constant temperature and while flying at a
constant mach no will cause the CAS to:

a. increase
b. decrease
c. remain constant
d. increase at a rate of 1·98°/1000 ft

4. The true altitude of an aircraft in flight is shown from:

a. the standard atmosphere

b. pressure altitude
c. density altitude
d. temperature altitude

5. On a Turn and Slip indicator, needle to the left and ball to the right indicates:

a. right turn not enough bank

b. left turn too much bank
c. left turn not enough bank
d. right turn too much bank

6. What is Density Altitude?

a. temperature altitude
b. pressure altitude corrected for the prevailing temperature
c. the altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere at which the prevailing density
would be found
d. pressure altitude corrected for Total Air Temperature

7. A Radio Altimeter is:

a. ground based and measures true altitude

b. ground based and measures true height
c. aircraft based and measures true altitude
d. aircraft based and measures true height

701

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

8. Which of the following are modes of the GPWS?

i. excessive sink rate

ii. altitude loss after take-off or go-around
iii. excessive glideslope deviation
iv. high climb rate
v. flaps in the incorrect position
vi. high altitude descent
vii. stall

a. i ii iii v
b. ii iii v vii
c. i ii iii vii
d. iii iv v vi

9. An aircraft is travelling at 120 kt, what angle of bank would be required for a rate one turn?

a. 30°
b. 12°
c. 19°
d. 35°

10. An aircraft is travelling at 100 kt forward speed on a 3° glideslope. What is its rate of descent?

a. 500 ft/min
b. 300 ft/min
c. 250 ft/min
d. 500 ft/sec

11. What correction is given by TCAS?

a. turn left or right

b. climb or descend
c. contact ATC on receipt of a Resolution Advisory
d. climb or descend at 500 ft/min

12. If the Total Pressure sensor supply line leaks, and with the drain element blocked, in a non-
pressurised aircraft this will cause the ASI to:

a. under - read
b. over - read
c. over - read in the climb and under - read in the descent
d. under - read in the climb and over - read in the descent

13. Using a Classic Attitude Indicator, an aircraft performs a turn through 270° at a constant angle
of bank and rate of turn. The indication is:

a. nose up bank right

b. nose up bank left
c. nose up wings level
d. bank and pitch correct

702

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

14. The needle and ball of a Turn Indicator are both to the left of the datum. This indicates:

a. a left turn with too much bank

b. a left turn with too little bank
c. a right turn with too little bank
d. a right turn with too much bank

15. Under conditions determined by the International Standard Atmosphere, at MSL True Air
Speed is:

a. greater than CAS

b. less than CAS
c. equals CAS
d. is indeterminate due to the variation in temperature

16. In what range is GPWS operative?

a. 2450 - 0 ft
b. 3000 - 50 ft
c. 2450 - 50 ft
d. 3000 - 0 ft

17. Which of the following are inputs to the central processing unit of the GPWS?

i. flaps
ii. landing gear
iii. glideslope
iv. unusual attitudes
v. radio altimeter
vi. VOR

a. i ii vi
b. i ii iii v
c. i ii iv v
d. i ii iii v vi

18. What is another name for fail active?

a. fail soft
b. fail operational
c. fail safe
d. fail passive

19. Why must an autopilot be synchronised when you wish to disconnect?

a. to ensure fail operational landings can continue safely

b. to allow automatic pitch trimming to reset
c. to secure against abrupt changes in aircraft attitude
d. to allow for FD coupling

703

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

20. What is used for EGT measurement?

a. helical bi-metallic strips

b. thermistors
c. radiation pyrometry
d. thermo emf thermocouples

21. When accelerating on a northerly heading what does the Direct Reading Magnetic Compass
indicate?

a. no change
b. north
c. a turn to the west
d. a turn to the east

22. Why is there a vibration device in a pressure altimeter?

i. to prevent hysteresis
ii. to prevent lag in a mechanical system
iii. to keep pilots happy during long flights
iv. to prevent icing
v. to overcome dither

a. i ii iv
b. i ii
c. ii iii v
d. i ii iii

23. What does the white arc on a temperature scale indicate?

a. never exceed
b. maximum start and acceleration temperature
c. normal operating temperature
d. minimum temperature

24. The rate of turn indicator is a very useful gyroscopic instrument. When used in conjunction
with the Attitude Indicator it provides:

a. angle of bank
b. rate of turn about the yaw axis
c. rate of climb
d. rate of turn athwartships

25. With the aircraft weight constant but variations in airfield altitude, take-off will always be at a
constant:

a. equivalent airspeed
b. calibrated airspeed
c. groundspeed
d. true air speed

704

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

26. An inertial reference system is aligned when turned on so as to:

a. calculate the computed trihedron with reference to the earth

b. establish true and magnetic north
c. establish position relative to true and magnetic north
d. establish magnetic north

27. Total Air Temperature is _ _ _ _ _ _ than static air temperature and the difference varies with _
_____?

a. warmer altitude
b. colder altitude
c. warmer CAS
d. colder CAS

28. True heading can be converted into magnetic heading using a compass and:

a. a map with isogonal lines

b. a map with isoclinal lines
c. a map with isobars
d. a deviation card

29. An aircraft flies into a colder airmass. This will cause the altimeter to:

a. over-read
b. under-read
c. read the correct altitude
d. the indication will depend on the hemisphere of operation

30. A gravity-erecting device is utilised in:

a. an artificial horizon
b. a directional gyroscopic indicator
c. vertical speed indicator
d. a turn and slip

31. The rigidity of a gyroscope can be improved by:

a. increasing the angular momentum and concentrating the mass on the periphery of the
rotor
b. increasing the angular momentum and concentrating the mass at the hub of the rotor
c. decreasing the angular momentum and concentrating the mass on the periphery of
the rotor
d. decreasing the angular momentum and concentrating the mass at the hub of the rotor

32. The outputs of a flux valve are initially sent to:

a. an amplifier
b. an error detector
c. a compass card
d. a feedback loop

705

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

33. The period of validity of an FMS data base is:

a. 56 days
b. one week
c. 28 days
d. varies depending on the area of operational cover

34. An IRS differs from an INS in that it:

a. has a longer spin-up (is not affected by vertical accelerations due to gravity)
b. has a shorter spin-up time and suffers from laser lock.
c. does not need to correct for coriolis and central acceleration)
d. does not experience Schuler errors as accelerometers are strapped down and not
rotated by a feedback loop

35. In a solid state gyroscope the purpose of the dither motor is to:

a. enhance the acceleration of the gyro at all rotational rates

b. overcome laser lock
c. compensate for transport wander
d. stabilise the laser frequencies

36. In an IRS:

a. the accelerometers are strapped down but the platform is gyro-stabilised

b. the platform is strapped down but the accelerometers are gyro-stabilised
c. accelerometers and gyros are both gyro-stabilised
d. accelerometers and gyros are both strapped down

37. Which of the following correctly describes the gyroscope of a Rate of Turn Indicator?

i. 1 degree of freedom
ii. 2 degrees of freedom
iii. its frame is held by two springs
iv. its spin axis is parallel to the pitch axis
v. the spin axis is parallel to the yaw axis
vi. the spin axis is horizontal

a. i ii
b. i iv v
c. i iii v
d. i iii vi

38. A blockage occurs in the ram air source and the drain-hole. The ASI in a non-pressurised
aircraft will:

a. read a little low

b. read a little high
c. act like an altimeter
d. freeze at zero

706

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

39. The errors associated with the Directional Indicator are:

i. earth rate
ii. transport wander
iii. banking when pitched up
iv. annual movement of the poles
v. mechanical problems

a. i ii iii
b. i ii iv v
c. i ii iii iv v
d. i ii iii v

40. A rate integrating gyroscope is used in:

i. inertial attitude system

ii. automatic flight control systems
iii. inertial navigation systems
iv. rate of turn indicators

a. i ii
b. i iii
c. i iii iv
d. i ii iii

41. Rate of turn is affected by:

i. aircraft speed
ii. angle of bank
iii. aircraft weight

a. i ii
b. i iii
c. ii iii
d. none of the above

42. The ability of a gyroscope to indicate aircraft heading is based on it having:

a. one degree of freedom in the vertical axis

b. two degrees of freedom in the vertical axis
c. two degrees of freedom in the horizontal
d. one degree of freedom in the horizontal

43. A Vmo/Mmo alerting system contains a barometric aneroid capsule:

a. which is subjected to dynamic pressure and an airspeed capsule which is subjected to

static pressure
b. and an airspeed capsule subjected to static pressure
c. and an airspeed capsule subjected to dynamic pressure
d. which is subjected to static pressure and an airspeed capsule which is subjected to
dynamic pressure

707

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

44. When measuring different pressures (low/med/high) which of the following has the three
types of sensing devices in ascending order of pressure measurement?

i. bourdon tube
ii. bellows type
iii. aneroid capsule

a. i ii iii
b. iii ii i
c. i iii ii
d. ii iii i

45. Sound is propagated at a velocity which is dependent upon:

a. barometric pressure
b. density
c. static pressure
d. temperature

46. The local speed of sound at mean sea level at ISA -10°C is:

a. 661 kt
b. 650 kt
c. 673 kt
d. 680 kt

47. What would the compass heading be given a true heading of 247° in an area where the
variation is 8°W and a compass deviation of 11°E?

a. 255°
b. 244°
c. 247°
d. 266°

48. An aircraft is flying at flight level 350 at a CAS of 290 kt and a temperature deviation of ISA
-10°C. The TAS and MN will be:

a. TAS 498 kt Mach 0·885

b. TAS 520 kt Mach 0·882
c. TAS 481 kt Mach 0·855
d. TAS 507 kt Mach 0·86

49. An aircraft in the northern hemisphere lands and decelerates on a westerly heading. The
compass will indicate:

a. a turn north
b. no turn will be indicated
c. an oscillation
d. a turn south

50. A compass swing is used to:

a. align compass north with magnetic north

b. align compass north with true north
c. align magnetic north with true north
d. get true north and the lubber line aligned

708

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

51. The angle formed between the directive force and the total magnetic force is called:

a. variation
b. deviation
c. dip
d. isoclinal

52. What is the speed of sound at 30,000 ft and -40°C?

a. 562 kt
b. 595 kt
c. 590 kt
d. 661 kt

53. If a constant CAS is maintained under normal conditions in the climb what happens to the
Mach No?

a. it will decrease
b. it will remain constant
c. it will decrease in an isothermal layer
d. it will increase

54. Regarding magnetism; which of the following statements is correct?

i. lines of flux run from blue pole to red pole

ii. like poles repel
iii. unlike poles repel
iv. like poles attract
v. unlike poles attract

a. i ii v
b. i iii v
c. ii v
d. i iii iv

55. The output of a double integration N/S is:

a. velocity
b. departure
c. distance
d. longitude

56. A solid state gyro is:

a. a rate gyro
b. a rate sensor
c. an earth gyro
d. a tied gyro

57. The magnetic heading reference unit has a precession rate of:

a. 1°/min
b. 2°/min
c. 5°/min
d. 3°/min

709

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

58. If the TAS at 40,000 ft is 450 kt the Mach No is:

a. 0·815
b. 0·783
c. 0·76
d. 0·825

59. The EADI and the EHSI of an EFIS installation are also referred to by the manufacturers as:

a. primary display and navigation display respectively

b. navigation display and primary display respectively
c. EICAS and ECAM respectively
d. ECAM and EICAS respectively

60. In which of the following modes may information from the AWR be displayed?

i. plan
ii. expanded ILS
iii. map
iv. full nav
v. full ILS
vi. expanded nav
vii. full VOR
viii. expanded VOR
ix. centre map

a. i ii iv vii
b. i iii vii viii ix
c. ii iii vi viii ix
d. ii iii v vii ix

61. Wind information can be displayed in an EFIS system in which of the following modes?

a. plan map expanded ILS full VOR

b. map centre map plan full ILS
c. full nav full ILS map centre map
d. full ILS full VOR map plan

62. On an EADI radio altitude is displayed:

a. digitally between 2500 ft and 100 ft

b. on an analogue scale below 2500 ft
c. digitally between 2500 ft and 1000 ft and thereafter as an analogue/digital display
d. as an analogue display between 2500 ft and 1000 ft and thereafter as a digital display

63. In FMS fitted aircraft the main interface between pilot and system will be provided by:

a. the automatic flight control system

b. the multi-purpose control and display unit
c. the flight control unit
d. the flight management source selector

710

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

64. In the ILS mode, one dot on the lateral deviation scale on the EHSI indicates:

a. 1 nm
b. 2nm
c. 1°
d. 2°

65. On a standard 2-dot EHSI in the en-route mode each dot represents:

a. 1 nm
b. 2 nm
c. 5 nm
d. 10 nm

66. Given the following information calculate the instrument error of a pre-flight altimeter check:

i. aerodrome elevation: 235 ft

ii. apron elevation: 225 ft
iii. height of altimeter above apron: 20 ft
iv. altimeter reading with QFE set: 40 ft

a. +20 ft
b. +30 ft
c. +40 ft
d. +10 ft

711

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

EXPLANATIONS TO SPECIMEN QUESTIONS

1. A modern radio altimeter operates on the principle of a frequency modulated continuous wave
in the frequency band 4200 - 4400 MHz. This is the SHF band also referred to as the centimetric
(microwave) band of 3 - 30 GHz.

Answer B

2. The symbols in the answers represent the following:

a solid red square - Resolution Advisory

b solid white or cyan diamond (lozenge) - Proximate traffic
c hollow white or cyan diamond (lozenge) - Other traffic
d solid yellow circle - Traffic Advisory

Answer C

3.
Height TAS Mach
CAS

Speed
Answer A

4. True altitude is the exact vertical distance above mean sea level (AMSL). This differs from the
indicated pressure if ambient conditions vary from ISA. True altitude may be calculated from
pressure altitude using the navigation computer.

Navigation Computer Method:

Given:

i. indicated pressure altitude -25,000 ft

ii. ambient temperature -50°C

Method:

i. in the altitude window set pressure altitude of 25,000 ft against the temperature of
-50°C.

ii. Against indicated altitude on the inner logarithmic circular scale read off the true
altitude of 23,400 ft.

Answer B

712

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

5. In the answers the needle and ball indicate the following:

a right turn with skid (insufficient aileron, too much rudder)

b left turn with slip (too much aileron, insufficient rudder)
c left turn with skid (insufficient aileron, too much rudder)
d right turn with slip (too much aileron, insufficient rudder)

Answer B

6. Density altitude is defined as “The altitude in the ISA at which the prevailing density would be
found”.

Density Altitude may be calculated using the navigation computer or by formula.

Example:

i. pressure altitude - 3000 ft

ii. ambient temperature - +20°C

Navigation Computer Method

i. in the airspeed window set the pressure altitude of 3000 ft against the
temperature of +20°C.

ii. read the density altitude over the arrow in the density altitude window.
(4000 ft)

Formula Method

i. density altitude = pressure altitude x (± ISA deviation x 120)

therefore: 3 x (+11 x 120)
= 3960 ft

Note: If the ambient temperature is lower than ISA then density altitude will be lower than pressure
altitude and vice versa.

Answer C

7. Answer D

8. Answer A

9. The formula to calculate angle of bank for a rate one turn is:
A of B = true airspeed/10 + 7°
therefore: 120/10 + 7° = 19°

Answer C

713

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

10. To calculate the rate of descent of an aircraft in feet per minute the Rule of Thumb is:

5 x aircraft groundspeed

therefore: 5 x 100 = 500 ft/min rate of descent

Answer A

11. TCAS I will issue a Traffic Advisory only. Manoeuvre of the aircraft is prohibited.

TCAS II will issue a Corrective Resolution Advisory instructing the pilot to take corrective
action in the vertical plane only.

TCAS III will issue a Corrective Resolution Advisory instructing the pilot to take corrective
action in the vertical and/or horizontal planes.

Note: Do not confuse a “Corrective Resolution Advisory” with a “Preventative Resolution Advisory”
which only provides limitations on aircraft manoeuvres as opposed to a “Corrective Resolution
Advisory” which issues corrective aircraft manoeuvres.

Answer B

12. A leak in the total (pitot) pressure line will exhaust a percentage of that pressure to atmosphere
causing both the ASI and the mach meter to under read. The loss of pressure will cause the
airspeed capsules in both instruments to under - expand.

Answer A

13. A Classic Attitude Indicator is referring to an Air Driven Artificial Horizon.

During a standard 360° the following indications will be apparent:

PITCH ROLL
Roll in: 360° normal normal
90° high (nose up) too low
180° high (nose up) normal
270° high (nose up) too high
Roll out: 360° normal normal

This error is used by the application of compensation tilt.

Answer A

14. See answers to question 6

Answer A

15. This can be proved on the navigation computer. Set all parameters for ISA at mean sea level.
Read off CAS on the inner scale against TAS on the outer scale. They are the same.

Answer C

16. This is based on radio altimeter height above terrain.

Answer C

714

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

17. inputs to GPWS are as follows:

i. radio altimeter
ii. vertical speed
iii. ILS glideslope deviation
iv. undercarriage position
v. flap position
vi. mach number

Answer B

18. A system that can withstand at least one failure but leaves the system capable of completing the
landing and roll is described as ‘fail operational’. An alternative term is ‘fail active’.

Answer B

19. The auto-pilot synchronisation system prevents ‘snatching’ of the flying controls on engagement
of the auto-pilot. The auto-trim system adjusts the trim of the aircraft during automatic flight to
prevent ‘snatching’ of the controls on disengagement of the auto-pilot.

Answer C

20. EGT is measured using a number of thermocouples connected in parallel to minimize the effect
of failure of one of them.

Answer D

21. Newton’ third law: ‘to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction’.
In this case the forces cancel out and the compass will continue to indicate North.

N Acceleration

Pivot

Centre of Mass

Reaction
Force/

Answer B

22. Answer B

23. Answer C

24. Answer B

25. Answer B

715

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

26. A trihedron is defined as figure having three sides. Additionally, the IRS establishes True
North. Magnetic indications are obtained by the application of variation, which, in the case of
the Boeing 737-400 is stored in each IRS memory. The range covered for variation is from 73°
North to 60° South latitude.

Answer A

27. Total Air Temperature (TAT) is warmer than Static Air Temperature due to the effect of
compressibility. The faster the aeroplane flies the greater the TAT.

Answer C

28. Isoclinal lines refer to magnetic dip, isobars refer to atmospheric pressure lines on a meteorological
chart and a ‘deviation card’ is a compass correction card positioned along side the compass in
the aircraft.

Answer A

29. If the actual temperature of the column of air in which the aircraft is flying is COLDER than ISA
then the True Altitude of the aircraft above mean sea level will be LOWER than the Indicated
Altitude. If the actual temperature is WARMER than ISA the True Altitude will be higher.

Answer A
30. The air driven artificial horizon is also known as the ‘classic attitude indicator’.

Answer A

31. Angular momentum means speed of rotation (RPM).

Answer A

32. The error detector is also known as a signal selsyn.

Answer B

33. Answer C

34. The question refers to a ring laser gyro.

Answer B

35. Answer B

36. Answer D

37. Answer C

38. Answer C

39. Answer D

40. Answer B

41. Answer A

716

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

42. Vertical axis means horizontal plane. The two are at 90° to each other. It follows, therefore,
that heading information only requires one degree of freedom in the horizontal plane about the
vertical axis of the gyroscope.

Answer A

43. Answer D

44. Answer B

45. LSS = 38.94 x √temp in °K.

Or, on the CRP 5

Answer D

46. The first thing to remember is that the local speed of sound is dependent on AMBIENT
temperature not ISA. In this case, applying the temperature deviation to the ISA temperature
at mean sea level gives an ambient temperature of +5°C. There are two methods of calculating
the local speed of sound.

The first is to use the formula in question 51 as follows:

LSS = 38.94 x √278°K

LSS = 649.26 kt

The second method is to use the CRP 5 navigation computer as follows:

i in the airspeed window set the ambient temperature of +5°C against the
mach number index.

ii against 10 on the inner (CAS/Mach number) scale read off the LSS on the
outer (TAS) scale. 650 kt

Answer B

47. C ± D = M ± V = T
244° + 11° = 255° - 8° = 247°

Answer B

48. On the CRP 5 first calculate the TAS from the information given. Don’t forget compressibility!
This will give a TAS of 481 kt. Now in the airspeed window set the ambient temperature of
-65°C against the mach number index. Against the TAS of 481 on the outer scale read off the
mach number on the inner scale, in this case 0.855M.

Answer C

49. During a deceleration the direct reading compass will indicate an apparent turn towards the
further pole. In the northern hemisphere it will give an apparent turn towards the south whereas
in the southern hemisphere it will indicate an apparent turn towards the north. Accelerations
are exactly opposite indicating apparent turns towards the nearer pole.

Answer D

50. Answer A

717

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

51. Variation is the angular difference between True North and Magnetic North

Deviation is the angular difference between Magnetic North and Compass North ‘Dip’ is the
angle formed between the horizontal component (H or Directive Force) of the earth’s magnetic
field and the Total Magnetic Force (Intensity) of the earth’s magnetic field.

An isoclinal is a line joining lines on a chart of equal ‘dip’. The aclinic line is a line indicating
zero ‘dip’ and is also referred to as the Magnetic Equator.

Answer C

52. In this question the altitude is of no consequence. Use the same techniques as shown in question
52

Answer B

53. Owing to density error the TAS will increase dramatically in the climb even at a constant CAS.
The LSS, being controlled by temperature, will also reduce. It can be seen from the formula
that where Mach No = TAS ÷ LSS an increase in TAS and a decrease in LSS must result in a
marked increase in Mach No. A descent would mean a reversal of the speed changes seen in
the climb.

Answer D

54. This question refers to the basic rules of magnetism; like poles repel, unlike poles attract and
the lines of flux run from the red north seeking pole to the blue south seeking pole.

Answer C

55. Double integration means the second stage of integration, in this case distance along the local
meridian.

Answer C

56. A solid state gyro refers to the ring laser gyro as used in Inertial Reference (‘Strapdown’)
systems. It is also referred to as a rate sensor.

Answer B

57. Answer B

58. The ISA temperature at 40,000 ft is -56.5°C. Using the airspeed window of the CRP 5 set the
temperature of -56.5° against the Mach number index. Now against the TAS of 450 kt on the
outer scale read off the Mach number on the inner, 0.783.

Answer B

59. Answer A

60. Answer C

61. In an EFIS system wind information can be displayed in every mode except PLAN.

Answer C

718

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

62. Answer C

63. Answer B

64. In the NAV mode 1 dot = 2 nm, in the VOR mode 1 dot = 5° and in the ILS mode 1 dot = 1°

Answer C

65. Answer B

66. The apron is 10 ft below the stated aerodrome elevation, so assuming the QFE to be for the
aerodrome level, an altimeter on the apron should read (–10) ft. However, the instrument is
positioned in the aircraft 20 ft above the apron so it should show (–10) + 20 = +10 ft. Its actual
reading is +40 ft so it is over-reading by 30 ft, an instrument error of +30 ft.

Answer B

719

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

SPECIMEN EXAMINTION PAPER

55 QUESTIONS TIME 1hr 30mins

1. An aircraft maintaining a constant CAS and altitude is flying from a cold airmass into
warmer air. The effect of the change of temperature on the speed will be:

1 Mark a. CAS will increase

b. EAS will decrease
c. TAS will increase
d. TAS will decrease

2. Select the correct statement:

1 Mark a. EAS = CAS corrected for compressibility error

b. EAS = IAS corrected for position error
c. CAS = TAS corrected for density error
d. TAS = EAS corrected for compressibility error

3. VLO is defined as:

1 Mark a. the maximum speed at which to fly with the landing gear retracted
b. the maximum speed at which the landing gear may be retracted or extended
c. the maximum speed at which to fly with the landing gear extended
d. the minimum speed at which to fly with the landing gear extended

4. An aircraft taking off from an airfield with QNH set in the altimeter has both
static vents blocked by ice. As the aircraft climbs away the altimeter will:

1 Mark a. Read the airfield elevation

b. Indicate the aircraft height amsl
c. Read the height of the aircraft above the airfield
d. Show only a very small increase in height

5. In an inertial-lead VSI the source of the most pronounced error is:

1 Mark a. Instrument
b. Position
c. Steep turn
d. Missed approach manoeuver

6. An aircraft is descending at a constant mach number. If the aircraft is

descending through an inversion layer, the CAS will:

1 Mark a. Remain constant

b. Increase
c. Decrease
d. Decrease then decrease more slowly

720

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

7. The combined Machmeter/ASI is subject to the following errors:

1 Mark a. Position, density, instrument, compressibility, manoeuvre induced

b. Those of the Machmeter only
c. Instrument, pressure and temperature only
d. Instrument and compressibility only

8. You are flying at a constant FL 290 and constant mach number. The total
temperature increases by 5°. The CAS will:

1 Mark a. remain approximately constant

b. increase by 10 kts
c. decrease by 10 kts
d. will increase or decrease depending on whether you are above or below ISA.

9. A factor giving an error on a direct indicating compass would be:

1 Mark a. crosswinds - particularly on east/west headings

b. parallax due to oscillations of the compass rose
c. acceleration on east/west headings
d. turning through east/west headings

10. If an aircraft, fitted with a DRMC, takes off on a westerly heading, in the northern
hemisphere, the DRMC will indicate:

1 Mark a. a turn to the north

b. oscillates about west
c. no turn
d. a turn to south

11. To improve the horizontality of a compass, the magnet assembly is suspended

from a point:

1 Mark. a. On the centre line of the magnet

b. Below the centre of gravity
c. Above the centre of gravity
d. Varying with magnetic latitude

12. Which of the following will effect a direct reading compass?

1. ferrous metals
2. non-ferrous metals
3. electrical equipment

2 Marks a. 1 only
b. 1&3
c. 1&2
d. all 3

721

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

13. The rigidity (gyroscopic interia. of a gyroscope may be increased by:

1 Mark a. Increasing the number of gimbals and decreasing the number of planes of
rotation
b. Increasing the speed of rotation and decreasing the mass of the rotor
c. Increasing the speed of rotation and increasing the mass of the rotor
d. Decreasing the speed of rotation and increasing the speed of the rotor.

14. The gravity erecting device on a vertical gyro is used on which instrument;

1 Mark a. directional gyro unit

b. turn indicator
c. artificial horizon
d. gyromagnetic device

15. If the rpm of the rotor in a turn and slip indicator is higher than normal, the turn
indicator will:

1 Mark a. Overread the correct rate of turn

b. Underread the correct rate of turn
c. Not indicate due to the increased rigidity
d. Indicate correctly

16. When the pointer of a rate of turn indicator shows a steady rate of turn:

2 Marks a. The calibrated spring is exerting a force about the lateral axis equal to the rate of
turn
b. The force produced by the spring is producing a precession equal to but
c. The spring is providing a force which produces a precession equal to the rate of
turn (in the opposite direction to the turn)
d. The spring is providing a force which produces a precession equal to the rate of
turn (in the same direction as the turn)

17. With reference to the flux valve of a remote indicating compass:

1 Mark a. The flux valve is pendulously mounted and is free to turn to remain aligned
with the earth magnetic field
b. The flux valve is not subject to acceleration errors
c. The flux valve is pendulously mounted and so it is not subject to or affected by the
earth’s magnetic field
d. The flux valve is fixed to the aircraft and so turns with the aircraft to measure the
angle between the aircraft and the earth’s magnetic field

18. In a Schuler tuned INS, the largest unbounded errors are:

1 Mark a. Due to acceleration errors

b. Track errors due to initial misalignment
c. Due to real wander of the platform gyroscopes
d. Created at the first stage of integration

722

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

19. The amber ALERT sign is on an INS control and display unit:

1 Mark a. Illuminates steadily for 2 minutes before reaching the next waypoint
b. Start flashing 2 minutes before reaching the next waypoint and goes out at 30
seconds to run
c. Illuminates if power from the aircraft bus bar has been lost and the system is
operating on standby battery
d. Illuminates steadily after passing a waypoint in manual mode, until the next leg
is programmed in

20. To obtain heading information from a Gyro Stabilised platform, the gyros should
have:

1 Mark a. 1 degree of freedom and a horizontal axis

b. 1 degree of freedom and a vertical axis
c. 2 degrees of freedom and a horizontal axis
d. 2 degrees of freedom and a vertical axis

21. What are the advantages of an IRS compared to an INS?

2 Marks a. Reduce spin-up time and a dither motor to prevent “lock-out”.

b. Reduce spin-up time and accuracy not adversely affect by “g”
c. Increase accuracy and a dither motor to prevent “lock-out”.
d. Insensitively to “g” and reduced wander of the gyroscope.

22. What errors can the Air Data Computer correct for?

1. instrument error & ram rise

2. compressibility & density error
3. lag & density error
4. position & temperature error
5. temperature & instrument error
6. manoeuvre error & ram rise
7. manoeuvre & position errors

2 Marks a. 2&4
b. 1&6
c. 3&7
d. 3&5

23. Which of the following is the FMS normal operating condition in the cruise?

1 Mark a. L NAV only

b. V NAV only
c. L NAV or V NAV
d. L NAV and V NAV

24. Weather Radar returns can be displayed in which of the following EFIS Modes:

3 Marks a. Plan Exp ILS Exp VOR

b. Plan Exp ILS Map
c. Map Exp ILS Exp VOR
d. Map ILS VOR

723

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

25. What are the colours used on an EFIS display to show a tuned navigation aid and an
airport?

2 Marks a. green & white

b. white & magenta
c. green & cyan
d. white & yellow

26. WXR display is on:

1 Mark a. The captains CRT only

b. The co-pilots CRT only
c. A special screen
d. On both the captains and co-pilots CRTs

27. Altitude select and altitude hold are examples of:

1 Mark a. Inner loop functions in pitch

b. Manometric functions from the ADC
c. Interlocking functions
d. Outer loop functions in roll

28. An autopilot delivers roll commands to the ailerons to achieve a bank angle:

1 Mark a. proportional to TAS, but below a specified maximum

b. set bank of 25 degrees
c. set bank of 30 degrees
d. proportional to the deviation from the desired heading, but not exceeding a
specified maximum

29. At 200ft on an auto-land:

1 Mark a. The LOC mode is engaged in the roll channel and the G/S mode is engaged in
pitch.
b. The LOC mode is engaged in the roll channel and the FLARE mode is
engaged in the pitch channel
c. The ROLL OUT mode is engaged in the Roll channel and the G/S mode is
engaged in pitch.
d. The auto-throttle is maintaining the speed and the pitch channel is maintaining
the height.

30. During a CAT 1 ILS approach, height is indicated by:

1 Mark a. GPS
b. Radio Altimeter
c. Marker
d. Barometric

724

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

31. During an approach to autoland at 1500 feet:

2 Marks a. Off line channels are manually engaged, flare mode is armed
b. Localiser is controlling the roll channel, off line channels are automatically
engaged and flare mode is armed
c. Localiser is controlling the roll channel, stabiliser is trimmed nose up and roll
out is armed
d. Provided both localiser and glideslope signals are valid LAND 3 will

32. During an autoland the caption LAND 2 is illuminated. The system is:

1 Mark a. Fail active or fail operational

b. Fail passive
c. Approaching decision height
d. Requiring a crew input

33. If only a single A/P is used to climb, cruise and approach; following a failure:

1 Mark a. it is fail passive with redundancy

b. it is fail operational and will not disconnect
c. it is fail soft and will not disconnect
d. it is fail safe and will disconnect

34. “LOC ARMED” lights up on the FMA part of the PFD, this means:

1 Mark a. localiser beam captured

b. localiser beam armed and awaiting capture
c. localiser alarm is on
d. a/c is on localiser centerline

35. What is the purpose of the auto-synchronisation system in an A/P:

1. Prevents snatching on disengagement

2. Prevents snatching on engagement
3. Cross feeds rudder and aileron inputs for co-ordination
4. May not allow the A/P to engage if unserviceable
5. Displays the control positions
6. Removes standing demands from the autopilot system prior to the CMD
button being selected

1 Mark a. 2, 4 & 6
b. 1, 3 & 5
c. 2, 3 & 5
d. 1, 4 & 6

36. What type of autoland system would be required for the landing to continue
following a single failure below alert height?

1 Mark a. Fail soft

b. Fail passive
c. Fail operation or fail active
d. Land 2 system

725

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

37. Which of the following apply to the a Yaw damper :

1. May aid the pilot in the event of asymmetric thrust after engine failure
2. Applies measured amounts of aileron to counter dutch roll
3. Increases lateral stability to stop dutch roll
4. Is required at high altitude
5. Can automatically help in turn co-ordination
6. May deflect the rudder to counteract the natural oscillating frequency of
the aircraft.

1 Mark a. 1, 4 & 6
b. 2, 3 & 6
c. 2, 3 & 4
d. 1, 4 & 5

38. A stall warning system fitted to a large aircraft will always include:

1 Mark a. Various inputs including speed brake position, a warning module and a visual or
aural warning
b. Various inputs including landing gear micro switch, a warning module and an
aural warning
c. Various inputs including EGT, a warning module and an aural warning
d. Stick shakers and/or stick push

39. TCAS 2 when fitted with mode C transponder may give:

1 Mark a. TA only.
b. TA and RA in horizontal plane.
c. TA and RA in vertical plane.
d. RA only.

40. The Altitude Alert system alerts the pilot:

1 Mark a. At decision height

b. At the selected altitude
c. When reference altitude equals the selected altitude
d. When deviating from the selected altitude

41. The GPWS uses inputs from;:

1 Mark a. The radio altimeter, static pressure monitor, ILS receiver and the landing gear
and flap position monitors
b. The radio altimeter and the ILS receiver only
c. The radio altimeter, ILS receiver, static pressure monitor, and the landing gear
position monitor only
d. The radio altimeter, static pressure monitor, landing gear position monitor,
and the flap position monitor only

726

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

42. What are the components of a CVR?

1 Microphone
2 Crash/Fire resistant construction
3 Independent battery
4 A Flight data recorder

2 Marks a. 1 & 2
b. 1 & 4
c. 1, 2, 3 & 4
d. 1, 2 & 4

43. What corrective action is given by TCAS?

1 Mark a. Turn left or right.

b. Climb or descend.
c. Contact ATC
d. Turn then climb or descend.

44. What input is there to TCAS 2?

1 Mark a. Mode ‘A’ transponder which gives TA and RAs

b. Mode ‘C’ transponder which co-ordinates avoidance manoeuvres
c. Mode ‘C’ and ‘S’ transponders which co-ordinate avoidance manoeuvres
d. Mode ‘S’ transponder which co-ordinates avoidance manoeuvres

45. When an intruder aircraft has no Altitude Reporting facility, i.e. Mode equipped
with ‘A’ transponder only, TCAS can only give:

1 Mark a. Corrective RA only

b. TA followed by a Preventative RA
c. TA only
d. Preventative RA only

46. Which of the following are modes of the GPWS?

1. Excessive sink rate.

2. Altitude loss after T/O or go-around.
3. Excessive Glideslope deviation.
4. High climb rate.
5. Flaps in incorrect position.
6. High altitude descent.
7. Stall.

2 Marks a. All 7
b. 1, 2, 3, & 5
c. 1, 2 & 3
d. 1, 3, 5 & 7

727

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

47. A warning message on the EICAS system screen would be:

1 Mark a. displayed in amber on the lower screen with associated caution lights and
aural tones
b. displayed in amber, normally on the upper screen with aural warnings .
c. displayed in red, normally on the upper screen , and requiring immediate
corrective action
d. displayed in amber, normally on the upper screen, indented one space to the
right.

48. An aircraft equipped with digital avionics includes an ECAM system.

This centralised system, if a failure in one of the monitored systems is displayed, the
crew must:

2 Marks a. cancel the warning

b. analyse initially the failure and only respond to a level 1 warning
c. reset the warning display after noting the failure on the left screen
d. apply the immediate actions as directed by the checklist on the left of the two
screens

49. An aircraft has a compensated capacitance fuel contents gauging system and is refuelled
so that the total fuel contents are 76000kg at a temperature of 18°C and an S.G. of 0.81.
Whilst the aircraft is parked the temperature increases to 26°C and the S.G. becomes
0.80. The indicated fuel contents have:

1 Mark a. increased by 10%

b. remained the same
c. increased by 5%
d. decreased by 5%

50. EPR is the ratio of:

1 Mark a. The compressor outlet pressure to the compressor inlet pressure

b. Jet pipe pressure to compressor inlet pressure on a turbo-prop engine only
c. Jet pipe pressure to the compressor inlet pressure on a gas turbine engine
d. Jet pipe pressure to the compressor outlet pressure on a gas turbine engine

51. If one probe of a multi-sensor EGT system became disconnected, the reading
would:

1 Mark a. Increase by between 20°C to 30°C

b. Decrease by between 20°C to 30°C
c. Fall to zero
d. Be largely unaffected

52. The principle of the fuel-monitoring device giving an indication of the total fuel burnt
is:

1 Mark a. multiplying flight time by fuel consumption

b. capacitance variation of a capacitor
c. difference of indication according to departure value
d. integration of instantaneous flow

728

Aviation ebooks Company

Revision Questions Chapter 43

53. The red arc in the middle of the green band of a piston engine RPM indicator
signifies:

1 Mark a. Maximum RPM

b. Minimum RPM
c. RPM at which a greater level of vibration is encountered
d. RPM that must never be exceeded in the cruise

54. Torque meters provide a reliable measure of power output from:

1 Mark a. A turbo-jet engine

b. A noise suppression unit
c. A turbo-propeller engine
d. An APU

55. Which of the following types of pressure gauge would be best suited to a high
pressure input?

1 Mark a. aneroid capsule

b. bourdon tube
c. bellows
d. dynamic probe

729

Aviation ebooks Company

Chapter 43 Revision Questions

ANSWERS TO SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPER

(w = weighting/marks allocated for the question)

1 C w1 21 B w2 41 A w1

2 A w1 22 A w2 42 A w2

3 B w1 23 D w1 43 B w1

4 A w1 24 C w3 44 D w1

5 C w1 25 C w2 45 C w1

6 B w1 26 D w1 46 B w2

7 A w1 27 B w1 47 C w1

8 A w1 28 D w1 48 D w2

9 C w1 29 A w1 49 B w1

10 A w1 30 B w1 50 C w1

11 C w1 31 B w2 51 D w1

12 B w2 32 B w1 52 D w1

13 C w1 33 D w1 53 C w1

14 C w1 34 B w1 54 C w1

15 A w1 35 A w1 55 B w1

16 D w2 36 C w1

17 D w1 37 A w1

18 C w1 38 B w1

19 A w1 39 C w1

20 A w1 40 D w1

730

Aviation ebooks Company

 FIFTH
EDITION

This book, Number 5 in the series of 14, entitled Aircraft

General Knowledge Part 4 - Instrumentation,
comprehensively covers the JAA/EASA ATPL syllabus and
Learning Objectives for this subject and also includes
specimen revision and test questions and answers.

It deals with Flight Instruments, Warning and Recording

Equipment and Automatic Flight Control Systems. Each of
these sections aims to pass on, in a flowing, easily-read
style, all the theory the student pilot will need to
understand the instrumentation of any aircraft in which he
or she may fly.

For further information about all

our products, contact us at:
OAAmedia, Oxford Aviation Academy,
Oxford Airport, Kidlington, Oxford,
OX5 1QX, England.
Tel: +44 (0)1865 844290
Fax: +44 (0)1865 840376
Email: [email protected]