1

MODULE – 3
3.1 LISTS
A list is an ordered sequence of values. It is a data structure in Python. The values inside
the lists can be of any type (like integer, float, strings, lists, tuples, dictionaries etc) and are
called as elements or items. The elements of lists are enclosed within square brackets. For
example,
ls1=[10,-4, 25, 13]
ls2=[‚Tiger‛, ‚Lion‛, ‚Cheetah‛]

Here, ls1 is a list containing four integers, and ls2 is a list containing three strings. A list
need not contain data of same type. We can have mixed type of elements in list. For
example,
ls3=[3.5, ‘Tiger’, 10, [3,4]]

Here, ls3 contains a float, a string, an integer and a list. This illustrates that a list can be
nested as well.

An empty list can be created any of the following ways –

>>> ls =[]
>>> type(ls)
<class 'list'>
or
>>> ls =list()
>>> type(ls)
<class 'list'>

In fact, list() is the name of a method (special type of method called as constructor –
which will be discussed in Module 4) of the class list. Hence, a new list can be created
using this function by passing arguments to it as shown below –

>>> ls2=list([3,4,1])
>>> print(ls2)
[3, 4, 1]

3.1.1 Lists are Mutable

The elements in the list can be accessed using a numeric index within square-brackets. It is
similar to extracting characters in a string.

>>> ls=[34, 'hi', [2,3],-5]

>>> print(ls[1])
hi
>>> print(ls[2])
[2, 3]
 2

Observe here that, the inner list is treated as a single element by outer list. If we would like
to access the elements within inner list, we need to use double-indexing as shown below –

>>> print(ls[2][0])
2
>>> print(ls[2][1])
3

Note that, the indexing for inner-list again starts from 0. Thus, when we are using double-
indexing, the first index indicates position of inner list inside outer list, and the second index
means the position particular value within inner list.

Unlike strings, lists are mutable. That is, using indexing, we can modify any value within list.
In the following example, the 3rd element (i.e. index is 2) is being modified –

>>> ls=[34, 'hi', [2,3],-5]

>>> ls[2]='Hello'
>>> print(ls)
[34, 'hi', 'Hello', -5]

The list can be thought of as a relationship between indices and elements. This relationship
is called as a mapping. That is, each index maps to one of the elements in a list.

The index for extracting list elements has following properties –

 Any integer expression can be an index.
>>> ls=[34, 'hi', [2,3],-5]
>>> print(ls[2*1])
'Hello'
 Attempt to access a non-existing index will throw and IndexError.
>>> ls=[34, 'hi', [2,3],-5]
>>> print(ls[4])
IndexError: list index out of range
 A negative indexing counts from backwards.
>>> ls=[34, 'hi', [2,3],-5]
>>> print(ls[-1])
-5
>>> print(ls[-3])
hi

The in operator applied on lists will results in a Boolean value.

>>> ls=[34, 'hi', [2,3],-5]
>>> 34 in ls
True
>>> -2 in ls
False
 3

3.1.2 Traversing a List

A list can be traversed using for loop. If we need to use each element in the list, we can use
the for loop and in operator as below –
>>> ls=[34, 'hi', [2,3],-5]
>>> for item in ls:
print(item)

34
hi
Hello
-5
List elements can be accessed with the combination of range() and len() functions as well –

ls=[1,2,3,4]
for i in range(len(ls)):
ls[i]=ls[i]**2

print(ls) #output is [1, 4, 9, 16]

Here, we wanted to do modification in the elements of list. Hence, referring indices is

suitable than referring elements directly. The len() returns total number of elements in the
list (here it is 4). Then range() function makes the loop to range from 0 to 3 (i.e. 4-1). Then,
for every index, we are updating the list elements (replacing original value by its square).

3.1.3 List Operations

Python allows to use operators + and * on lists. The operator + uses two list objects and
returns concatenation of those two lists. Whereas * operator take one list object and one
integer value, say n, and returns a list by repeating itself for n times.

>>> ls1=[1,2,3]
>>> ls2=[5,6,7]
>>> print(ls1+ls2) #concatenation using +
[1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7]

>>> ls1=[1,2,3]
>>> print(ls1*3) #repetition using *
[1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]

>>> [0]*4 #repetition using *

[0, 0, 0, 0]

3.1.4 List Slices

Similar to strings, the slicing can be applied on lists as well. Consider a list t given below,
and a series of examples following based on this object.
 4

t=['a','b','c','d','e']

 Extracting full list without using any index, but only a slicing operator –
>>> print(t[:])
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']

 Extracting elements from 2nd position –

>>> print(t[1:])
['b', 'c', 'd', 'e']

 Extracting first three elements –

>>> print(t[:3])
['a', 'b', 'c']

 Selecting some middle elements –

>>> print(t[2:4])
['c', 'd']

 Using negative indexing –

>>> print(t[:-2])
['a', 'b', 'c']

 Reversing a list using negative value for stride –

>>> print(t[::-1])
['e', 'd', 'c', 'b', 'a']

 Modifying (reassignment) only required set of values –

>>> t[1:3]=['p','q']
>>> print(t)
['a', 'p', 'q', 'd', 'e']

Thus, slicing can make many tasks simple.

3.1.5 List Methods

There are several built-in methods in list class for various purposes. Here, we will discuss
some of them.

 append(): This method is used to add a new element at the end of a list.
>>> ls=[1,2,3]
>>> ls.append(‘hi’)
>>> ls.append(10)
>>> print(ls)
[1, 2, 3, ‘hi’, 10]
 5

 extend(): This method takes a list as an argument and all the elements in this list
are added at the end of invoking list.
>>> ls1=[1,2,3]
>>> ls2=[5,6]
>>> ls2.extend(ls1)
>>> print(ls2)
[5, 6, 1, 2, 3]

Now, in the above example, the list ls1 is unaltered.

 sort(): This method is used to sort the contents of the list. By default, the function
will sort the items in ascending order.

>>> ls=[3,10,5, 16,-2]

>>> ls.sort()
>>> print(ls)
[-2, 3, 5, 10, 16]

When we want a list to be sorted in descending order, we need to set the argument
as shown –

>>> ls.sort(reverse=True)
>>> print(ls)
[16, 10, 5, 3, -2]

 reverse(): This method can be used to reverse the given list.

>>> ls=[4,3,1,6]
>>> ls.reverse()
>>> print(ls)
[6, 1, 3, 4]

 count(): This method is used to count number of occurrences of a particular value

within list.
>>> ls=[1,2,5,2,1,3,2,10]
>>> ls.count(2)
3 #the item 2 has appeared 3 tiles in ls

 clear(): This method removes all the elements in the list and makes the list empty.
>>> ls=[1,2,3]
>>> ls.clear()
>>> print(ls)
[]
 6

 insert(): Used to insert a value before a specified index of the list.

>>> ls=[3,5,10]
>>> ls.insert(1,"hi")
>>> print(ls)
[3, 'hi', 5, 10]

 index(): This method is used to get the index position of a particular value in the list.
>>> ls=[4, 2, 10, 5, 3, 2, 6]
>>> ls.index(2)
1
Here, the number 2 is found at the index position 1. Note that, this function will give
index of only the first occurrence of a specified value. The same function can be
used with two more arguments start and end to specify a range within which the
search should take place.

>>> ls=[15, 4, 2, 10, 5, 3, 2, 6]

>>> ls.index(2)
2
>>> ls.index(2,3,7)
6

If the value is not present in the list, it throws ValueError.

>>> ls=[15, 4, 2, 10, 5, 3, 2, 6]
>>> ls.index(53)
ValueError: 53 is not in list

Few important points about List Methods:

1. There is a difference between append() and extend() methods. The former adds the
argument as it is, whereas the latter enhances the existing list. To understand this,
observe the following example –
>>> ls1=[1,2,3]
>>> ls2=[5,6]
>>> ls2.append(ls1)
>>> print(ls2)
[5, 6, [1, 2, 3]]

Here, the argument ls1 for the append() function is treated as one item, and made as
an inner list to ls2. On the other hand, if we replace append() by extend() then the
result would be –
>>> ls1=[1,2,3]
>>> ls2=[5,6]
>>> ls2.extend(ls1)
>>> print(ls2)
[5, 6, 1, 2, 3]
 7

2. The sort() function can be applied only when the list contains elements of compatible
types. But, if a list is a mix non-compatible types like integers and string, the comparison
cannot be done. Hence, Python will throw TypeError. For example,

>>> ls=[34, 'hi', -5]

>>> ls.sort()
TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'

Similarly, when a list contains integers and sub-list, it will be an error.

>>> ls=[34,[2,3],5]
>>> ls.sort()
TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'list' and 'int'

Integers and floats are compatible and relational operations can be performed on them.
Hence, we can sort a list containing such items.

>>> ls=[3, 4.5, 2]

>>> ls.sort()
>>> print(ls)
[2, 3, 4.5]

3. The sort() function uses one important argument keys. When a list is containing tuples,
it will be useful. We will discuss tuples later in this Module.

4. Most of the list methods like append(), extend(), sort(), reverse() etc. modify the list
object internally and return None.
>>> ls=[2,3]
>>> ls1=ls.append(5)
>>> print(ls)
[2,3,5]
>>> print(ls1)
None

3.1.6 Deleting Elements

Elements can be deleted from a list in different ways. Python provides few built-in methods
for removing elements as given below –
 pop(): This method deletes the last element in the list, by default.
>>> ls=[3,6,-2,8,10]
>>> x=ls.pop() #10 is removed from list and stored in x
>>> print(ls)
[3, 6, -2, 8]
>>> print(x)
10
 8

When an element at a particular index position has to be deleted, then we can give
that position as argument to pop() function.
>>> t = ['a', 'b', 'c']
>>> x = t.pop(1) #item at index 1 is popped
>>> print(t)
['a', 'c']
>>> print(x)
b

 remove(): When we don‟t know the index, but know the value to be removed, then
this function can be used.

>>> ls=[5,8, -12,34,2]

>>> ls.remove(34)
>>> print(ls)
[5, 8, -12, 2]

Note that, this function will remove only the first occurrence of the specified value,
but not all occurrences.
>>> ls=[5,8, -12, 34, 2, 6, 34]
>>> ls.remove(34)
>>> print(ls)
[5, 8, -12, 2, 6, 34]

Unlike pop() function, the remove() function will not return the value that has been
deleted.

 del: This is an operator to be used when more than one item to be deleted at a time.
Here also, we will not get the items deleted.

>>> ls=[3,6,-2,8,1]
>>> del ls[2] #item at index 2 is deleted
>>> print(ls)
[3, 6, 8, 1]

>>> ls=[3,6,-2,8,1]
>>> del ls[1:4] #deleting all elements from index 1 to 3
>>> print(ls)
[3, 1]

Deleting all odd indexed elements of a list –

>>> t=[‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’, ‘e’]
>>> del t[1::2]
>>> print(t)
['a', 'c', 'e']
 9

3.1.7 Lists and Functions

The utility functions like max(), min(), sum(), len() etc. can be used on lists. Hence most of
the operations will be easy without the usage of loops.
>>> ls=[3,12,5,26, 32,1,4]
>>> max(ls) # prints 32
>>> min(ls) # prints 1
>>> sum(ls) # prints 83
>>> len(ls) # prints 7

>>> avg=sum(ls)/len(ls)
>>> print(avg)
11.857142857142858

When we need to read the data from the user and to compute sum and average of those
numbers, we can write the code as below –

ls= list()
while (True):
x= input('Enter a number: ')
if x== 'done':
break

x= float(x)
ls.append(x)

average = sum(ls) / len(ls)

print('Average:', average)

In the above program, we initially create an empty list. Then, we are taking an infinite while-
loop. As every input from the keyboard will be in the form of a string, we need to convert x
into float type and then append it to a list. When the keyboard input is a string „done‟, then
the loop is going to get terminated. After the loop, we will find the average of those
numbers with the help of built-in functions sum() and len().

3.1.8 Lists and Strings

Though both lists and strings are sequences, they are not same. In fact, a list of characters
is not same as string. To convert a string into a list, we use a method list() as below –
>>> s="hello"
>>> ls=list(s)
>>> print(ls)
['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']

The method list() breaks a string into individual letters and constructs a list. If we want a list
of words from a sentence, we can use the following code –
 10

>>> s="Hello how are you?"

>>> ls=s.split()
>>> print(ls)
['Hello', 'how', 'are', 'you?']

Note that, when no argument is provided, the split() function takes the delimiter as white
space. If we need a specific delimiter for splitting the lines, we can use as shown in
following example –

>>> dt="20/03/2018"
>>> ls=dt.split('/')
>>> print(ls)
['20', '03', '2018']

There is a method join() which behaves opposite to split() function. It takes a list of strings
as argument, and joins all the strings into a single string based on the delimiter provided.
For example –
>>> ls=["Hello", "how", "are", "you"]
>>> d=' '
>>> d.join(ls)
'Hello how are you'

Here, we have taken delimiter d as white space. Apart from space, anything can be taken
as delimiter. When we don‟t need any delimiter, use empty string as delimiter.

3.1.9 Parsing Lines

In many situations, we would like to read a file and extract only the lines containing required
pattern. This is known as parsing. As an illustration, let us assume that there is a log file
containing details of email communication between employees of an organization. For all
received mails, the file contains lines as –

From [email protected] Fri Jan 5 09:14:16 2018

From [email protected] Sat Jan 6 06:12:51 2018
………………
Apart from such lines, the log file also contains mail-contents, to-whom the mail has been
sent etc. Now, if we are interested in extracting only the days of incoming mails, then we
can go for parsing. That is, we are interested in knowing on which of the days, the mails
have been received. The code would be –

fhand = open(„logFile.txt‟)
for line in fhand:
line = line.rstrip()
if not line.startswith('From '):
continue
words = line.split()
print(words[2])
 11

Obviously, all received mails starts from the word From. Hence, we search for only such
lines and then split them into words. Observe that, the first word in the line would be From,
second word would be email-ID and the 3rd word would be day of a week. Hence, we will
extract words[2] which is 3rd word.

3.1.10 Objects and Values

Whenever we assign two variables with same value, the question arises – whether both the
variables are referring to same object, or to different objects. This is important aspect to
know, because in Python everything is a class object. There is nothing like elementary data
type.

Consider a situation –
a= “hi”
b= “hi”

Now, the question is whether both a and b refer to the same string. There are two
possible states –

a hi a
hi
b hi b

In the first situation, a and b are two different objects, but containing same value. The
modification in one object is nothing to do with the other. Whereas, in the second case,
both a and b are referring to the same object. That is, a is an alias name for b and vice-
versa. In other words, these two are referring to same memory location.

To check whether two variables are referring to same object or not, we can use is operator.

>>> a= “hi”
>>> b= “hi”
>>> a is b #result is True
>>> a==b #result is True

When two variables are referring to same object, they are called as identical objects.
When two variables are referring to different objects, but contain a same value, they are
known as equivalent objects. For example,
>>> s1=input(“Enter a string:”) #assume you entered hello
>>> s2= input(“Enter a string:”) #assume you entered hello

>>> s1 is s2 #check s1 and s2 are identical

False
>>> s1 == s2 #check s1 and s2 are equivalent
True
Here s1 and s2 are equivalent, but not identical.
 12

If two objects are identical, they are also equivalent, but if they are equivalent, they are not
necessarily identical.

String literals are interned by default. That is, when two string literals are created in the
program with a same value, they are going to refer same object. But, string variables read
from the key-board will not have this behavior, because their values are depending on the
user‟s choice.

Lists are not interned. Hence, we can see following result –

>>> ls1=[1,2,3]
>>> ls2=[1,2,3]
>>> ls1 is ls2 #output is False
>>> ls1 == ls2 #output is True

3.1.11 Aliasing
When an object is assigned to other using assignment operator, both of them will refer to
same object in the memory. The association of a variable with an object is called as
reference.

>>> ls1=[1,2,3]
>>> ls2= ls1
>>> ls1 is ls2 #output is True

Now, ls2 is said to be reference of ls1. In other words, there are two references to the
same object in the memory.

An object with more than one reference has more than one name, hence we say that object
is aliased. If the aliased object is mutable, changes made in one alias will reflect the other.

>>> ls2[1]= 34
>>> print(ls1) #output is [1, 34, 3]

Strings are safe in this regards, as they are immutable.

3.1.12 List Arguments

When a list is passed to a function as an argument, then function receives reference to this
list. Hence, if the list is modified within a function, the caller will get the modified version.
Consider an example –

def del_front(t):
del t[0]

ls = ['a', 'b', 'c']

del_front(ls)
print(ls) # output is ['b', 'c']
 13

Here, the argument ls and the parameter t both are aliases to same object.

One should understand the operations that will modify the list and the operations that
create a new list. For example, the append() function modifies the list, whereas the +
operator creates a new list.

>>> t1 = [1, 2]
>>> t2 = t1.append(3)
>>> print(t1) #output is [1 2 3]
>>> print(t2) #prints None

>>> t3 = t1 + [5]
>>> print(t3) #output is [1 2 3 5]
>>> t2 is t3 #output is False

Here, after applying append() on t1 object, the t1 itself has been modified and t2 is not
going to get anything. But, when + operator is applied, t1 remains same but t3 will get the
updated result.

The programmer should understand such differences when he/she creates a function
intending to modify a list. For example, the following function has no effect on the original
list –

def test(t):
t=t[1:]

ls=[1,2,3]
test(ls)
print(ls) #prints [1, 2, 3]

One can write a return statement after slicing as below –

def test(t):
return t[1:]

ls=[1,2,3]
ls1=test(ls)
print(ls1) #prints [2, 3]
print(ls) #prints [1, 2, 3]

In the above example also, the original list is not modified, because a return statement
always creates a new object and is assigned to LHS variable at the position of function call.
 14

3.2 DICTIONARIES
A dictionary is a collection of unordered set of key:value pairs, with the requirement that
keys are unique in one dictionary. Unlike lists and strings where elements are accessed
using index values (which are integers), the values in dictionary are accessed using keys. A
key in dictionary can be any immutable type like strings, numbers and tuples. (The tuple
can be made as a key for dictionary, only if that tuple consist of string/number/ sub-tuples).
As lists are mutable – that is, can be modified using index assignments, slicing, or using
methods like append(), extend() etc, they cannot be a key for dictionary.

One can think of a dictionary as a mapping between set of indices (which are actually keys)
and a set of values. Each key maps to a value.

An empty dictionary can be created using two ways –

d= {}
OR
d=dict()

To add items to dictionary, we can use square brackets as –

>>> d={}
>>> d["Mango"]="Fruit"
>>> d["Banana"]="Fruit"
>>> d["Cucumber"]="Veg"
>>> print(d)
{'Mango': 'Fruit', 'Banana': 'Fruit', 'Cucumber': 'Veg'}

To initialize a dictionary at the time of creation itself, one can use the code like –
>>> tel_dir={'Tom': 3491, 'Jerry':8135}
>>> print(tel_dir)
{'Tom': 3491, 'Jerry': 8135}

>>> tel_dir['Donald']=4793
>>> print(tel_dir)
{'Tom': 3491, 'Jerry': 8135, 'Donald': 4793}

NOTE that the order of elements in dictionary is unpredictable. That is, in the above
example, don‟t assume that 'Tom': 3491 is first item, 'Jerry': 8135 is second item
etc. As dictionary members are not indexed over integers, the order of elements inside it
may vary. However, using a key, we can extract its associated value as shown below –

>>> print(tel_dir['Jerry'])
8135

Here, the key 'Jerry' maps with the value 8135, hence it doesn‟t matter where exactly it
is inside the dictionary.
 15

If a particular key is not there in the dictionary and if we try to access such key, then the
KeyError is generated.

>>> print(tel_dir['Mickey'])
KeyError: 'Mickey'

The len() function on dictionary object gives the number of key-value pairs in that object.
>>> print(tel_dir)
{'Tom': 3491, 'Jerry': 8135, 'Donald': 4793}
>>> len(tel_dir)
3

The in operator can be used to check whether any key (not value) appears in the dictionary
object.
>>> 'Mickey' in tel_dir #output is False
>>> 'Jerry' in tel_dir #output is True
>>> 3491 in tel_dir #output is False

We observe from above example that the value 3491 is associated with the key 'Tom' in
tel_dir. But, the in operator returns False.

The dictionary object has a method values() which will return a list of all the values
associated with keys within a dictionary. If we would like to check whether a particular value
exist in a dictionary, we can make use of it as shown below –

>>> 3491 in tel_dir.values() #output is True

The in operator behaves differently in case of lists and dictionaries as explained

hereunder–
 When in operator is used to search a value in a list, then linear search algorithm is
used internally. That is, each element in the list is checked one by one sequentially.
This is considered to be expensive in the view of total time taken to process.
Because, if there are 1000 items in the list, and if the element in the list which we are
search for is in the last position (or if it does not exists), then before yielding result of
search (True or False), we would have done 1000 comparisons. In other words,
linear search requires n number of comparisons for the input size of n elements.
Time complexity of the linear search algorithm is O(n).
 The keys in dictionaries of Python are basically hashable elements. The concept of
hashing is applied to store (or maintain) the keys of dictionaries. Normally hashing
techniques have the time complexity as O(log n) for basic operations like insertion,
deletion and searching. Hence, the in operator applied on keys of dictionaries works
better compared to that on lists. (Hashing technique is explained at the end of this
Section, for curious readers)
 16

3.2.1 Dictionary as a Set of Counters

Assume that we need to count the frequency of alphabets in a given string. There are
different methods to do it –
 Create 26 variables to represent each alphabet. Traverse the given string and
increment the corresponding counter when an alphabet is found.
 Create a list with 26 elements (all are zero in the beginning) representing alphabets.
Traverse the given string and increment corresponding indexed position in the list
when an alphabet is found.
 Create a dictionary with characters as keys and counters as values. When we find a
character for the first time, we add the item to dictionary. Next time onwards, we
increment the value of existing item.

Each of the above methods will perform same task, but the logic of implementation will be
different. Here, we will see the implementation using dictionary.

s=input("Enter a string:") #read a string

d=dict() #create empty dictionary

for ch in s: #traverse through string

if ch not in d: #if new character found
d[ch]=1 #initialize counter to 1
else: #otherwise, increment counter
d[ch]+=1

print(d) #display the dictionary

The sample output would be –

Enter a string: Hello World

{'H': 1, 'e': 1, 'l': 3, 'o': 2, ' ': 1, 'W': 1, 'r': 1, 'd': 1}

It can be observed from the output that, a dictionary is created here with characters as keys
and frequencies as values. Note that, here we have computed histogram of counters.

Dictionary in Python has a method called as get(), which takes key and a default value as
two arguments. If key is found in the dictionary, then the get() function returns
corresponding value, otherwise it returns default value. For example,

>>> tel_dir={'Tom': 3491, 'Jerry':8135, 'Mickey':1253}

>>> print(tel_dir.get('Jerry',0))
8135
>>> print(tel_dir.get('Donald',0))
0
In the above example, when the get() function is taking 'Jerry' as argument, it returned
corresponding value, as 'Jerry' is found in tel_dir . Whereas, when get() is used with
'Donald' as key, the default value 0 (which is provided by us) is returned.
 17

The function get() can be used effectively for calculating frequency of alphabets in a string.
Here is the modified version of the program –

s=input("Enter a string:")
d=dict()

for ch in s:
d[ch]=d.get(ch,0)+1

print(d)

In the above program, for every character ch in a given string, we will try to retrieve a
value. When the ch is found in d, its value is retrieved, 1 is added to it, and restored. If ch
is not found, 0 is taken as default and then 1 is added to it.

3.2.2 Looping and Dictionaries

When a for-loop is applied on dictionaries, it will iterate over the keys of dictionary. If we
want to print key and values separately, we need to use the statements as shown –
tel_dir={'Tom': 3491, 'Jerry':8135, 'Mickey':1253}
for k in tel_dir:
print(k, tel_dir[k])

Output would be –
Tom 3491
Jerry 8135
Mickey 1253

Note that, while accessing items from dictionary, the keys may not be in order. If we want to
print the keys in alphabetical order, then we need to make a list of the keys, and then sort
that list. We can do so using keys() method of dictionary and sort() method of lists.
Consider the following code –

tel_dir={'Tom': 3491, 'Jerry':8135, 'Mickey':1253}

ls=list(tel_dir.keys())
print("The list of keys:",ls)
ls.sort()
print("Dictionary elements in alphabetical order:")
for k in ls:
print(k, tel_dir[k])

The output would be –

The list of keys: ['Tom', 'Jerry', 'Mickey']
Dictionary elements in alphabetical order:
Jerry 8135
Mickey 1253
Tom 3491
 18

Note: The key-value pair from dictionary can be together accessed with the help of a
method items() as shown –

>>> d={'Tom':3412, 'Jerry':6781, 'Mickey':1294}

>>> for k,v in d.items():
print(k,v)
Output:
Tom 3412
Jerry 6781
Mickey 1294

The usage of comma-separated list k,v here is internally a tuple (another data structure in
Python, which will be discussed later).

3.2.3 Dictionaries and Files

A dictionary can be used to count the frequency of words in a file. Consider a file myfile.txt
consisting of following text –
hello, how are you?
I am doing fine.
How about you?

Now, we need to count the frequency of each of the word in this file. So, we need to take
an outer loop for iterating over entire file, and an inner loop for traversing each line in a file.
Then in every line, we count the occurrence of a word, as we did before for a character.
The program is given as below –

fname=input("Enter file name:")

try:
fhand=open(fname)
except:
print("File cannot be opened")
exit()

d=dict()

for line in fhand:

for word in line.split():
d[word]=d.get(word,0)+1

print(d)

The output of this program when the input file is myfile.txt would be –

Enter file name: myfile.txt

{'hello,': 1, 'how': 1, 'are': 1, 'you?': 2, 'I': 1, 'am': 1,
'doing': 1, 'fine.': 1, 'How': 1, 'about': 1}
 19

Few points to be observed in the above output –

 The punctuation marks like comma, full point, question mark etc. are also
considered as a part of word and stored in the dictionary. This means, when a
particular word appears in a file with and without punctuation mark, then there will be
multiple entries of that word.
 The word „how‟ and „How‟ are treated as separate words in the above example
because of uppercase and lowercase letters.

While solving problems on text analysis, machine learning, data analysis etc. such kinds of
treatment of words lead to unexpected results. So, we need to be careful in parsing the text
and we should try to eliminate punctuation marks, ignoring the case etc. The procedure is
discussed in the next section.

3.2.4 Advanced Text Parsing

As discussed in the previous section, during text parsing, our aim is to eliminate
punctuation marks as a part of word. The string module of Python provides a list of all
punctuation marks as shown –

>>> import string

>>> string.punctuation
'!"#$%&\'()*+,-./:;<=>?@[\\]^_`{|}~'

The str class has a method maketrans() which returns a translation table usable for another
method translate(). Consider the following syntax to understand it more clearly –

line.translate(str.maketrans(fromstr, tostr, deletestr))

The above statement replaces the characters in fromstr with the character in the same
position in tostr and delete all characters that are in deletestr. The fromstr and
tostr can be empty strings and the deletestr parameter can be omitted.

Using these functions, we will re-write the program for finding frequency of words in a file.

import string

fname=input("Enter file name:")

try:
fhand=open(fname)
except:
print("File cannot be opened")
exit()

d=dict()
 20

for line in fhand:

line=line.rstrip()
line=line.translate(line.maketrans('','',string.punctuation))
line=line.lower()

for word in line.split():

d[word]=d.get(word,0)+1

print(d)

Now, the output would be –

Enter file name:myfile.txt
{'hello': 1, 'how': 2, 'are': 1, 'you': 2, 'i': 1, 'am': 1,
'doing': 1, 'fine': 1, 'about': 1}

Comparing the output of this modified program with the previous one, we can make out that
all the punctuation marks are not considered for parsing and also the case of the alphabets
are ignored.

3.2.5 Debugging
When we are working with big datasets (like file containing thousands of pages), it is
difficult to debug by printing and checking the data by hand. So, we can follow any of the
following procedures for easy debugging of the large datasets –
 Scale down the input: If possible, reduce the size of the dataset. For example if the
program reads a text file, start with just first 10 lines or with the smallest example you
can find. You can either edit the files themselves, or modify the program so it reads only
the first n lines. If there is an error, you can reduce n to the smallest value that
manifests the error, and then increase it gradually as you correct the errors.
 Check summaries and types: Instead of printing and checking the entire dataset,
consider printing summaries of the data: for example, the number of items in a
dictionary or the total of a list of numbers. A common cause of runtime errors is a value
that is not the right type. For debugging this kind of error, it is often enough to print the
type of a value.
 Write self-checks: Sometimes you can write code to check for errors automatically. For
example, if you are computing the average of a list of numbers, you could check that the
result is not greater than the largest element in the list or less than the smallest. This is
called a sanity check because it detects results that are “completely illogical”. Another
kind of check compares the results of two different computations to see if they are
consistent. This is called a consistency check.
 Pretty print the output: Formatting debugging output can make it easier to spot an
error.
 21

Hashing Technique (For curious minds – Only for understanding, not for
Exams!!)
Hashing is a way of representing dictionaries (Not a Python data structure Dictionary!!).
Dictionary is an abstract data type with a set of operations searching, insertion and deletion
defined on its elements. The elements of dictionary can be numeric or characters or most
of the times, records. Usually, a record consists of several fields; each may be of different
data types. For example, student record may contain student id, name, gender, marks etc.
Every record is usually identified by some key. Hashing technique is very useful in
database management, because it is considered to be very efficient searching technique.

Here we will consider the implementation of a dictionary of n records with keys k1, k2 …kn.
Hashing is based on the idea of distributing keys among a one-dimensional array
H[0…m-1], called hash table.

For each key, a value is computed using a predefined function called hash function. This
function assigns an integer, called hash address, between 0 to m-1 to each key. Based
on the hash address, the keys will be distributed in a hash table.

For example, if the keys k1, k2, …., kn are integers, then a hash function can be
h(K) = K mod m.

Let us take keys as 65, 78, 22, 30, 47, 89. And let hash function be,
h(k) = k%10.

Then the hash addresses may be any value from 0 to 9. For each key, hash address will
be computed as –
h(65) = 65 %10 = 5
h(78) = 78%10 = 8
h(22)= 22 % 10 =2
h(30)= 30 %10 =0
h(47) = 47 %10 = 7
h(89)=89 % 10 = 9

Now, each of these keys can be hashed into a hash table as –

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
30 22 65 47 78 89

In general, a hash function should satisfy the following requirements:

 A hash function needs to distribute keys among the cells of hash table as evenly as
possible.
 A hash function has to be easy to compute.
 22

Hash Collisions: Let us have n keys and the hash table is of size m such that m<n. As
each key will have an address with any value between 0 to m-1, it is obvious that more than
one key will have same hash address. That is, two or more keys need to be hashed into the
same cell of hash table. This situation is called as hash collision.

In the worst case, all the keys may be hashed into same cell of hash table. But, we can
avoid this by choosing proper size of hash table and hash function. Anyway, every hashing
scheme must have a mechanism for resolving hash collision. There are two methods for
hash collision resolution, viz.
 Open hashing
 closed hashing

Open Hashing (or Separate Chaining): In open hashing, keys are stored in linked lists
attached to cells of a hash table. Each list contains all the keys hashed to its cell. For
example, consider the elements
65, 78, 22, 30, 47, 89, 55, 42, 18, 29, 37.

If we take the hash function as h(k)= k%10, then the hash addresses will be –
h(65) = 65 %10 = 5 h(78) = 78%10 = 8
h(22)= 22 % 10 =2 h(30)= 30 %10 =0
h(47) = 47 %10 = 7 h(89)=89 % 10 = 9
h(55)=55%10 =5 h(42)=42%10 =2
h(18)=18%10 =8 h(29)=29%10=9
h(37)=37%10 =7

The hash table would be –

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

30 22 65 47 78 89

42 55 37 18 29
Operations on Hashing:
 Searching: Now, if we want to search for the key element in a hash table, we need
to find the hash address of that key using same hash function. Using the obtained
hash address, we need to search the linked list by tracing it, till either the key is
found or list gets exhausted.
 Insertion: Insertion of new element to hash table is also done in similar manner.
Hash key is obtained for new element and is inserted at the end of the list for that
particular cell.
 Deletion: Deletion of element is done by searching that element and then deleting it
from a linked list.
 23

Closed Hashing (or Open Addressing): In this technique, all keys are stored in the
hash table itself without using linked lists. Different methods can be used to resolve hash
collisions. The simplest technique is linear probing.

This method suggests to check the next cell from where the collision occurs. If that cell is
empty, the key is hashed there. Otherwise, we will continue checking for the empty cell in a
circular manner. Thus, in this technique, the hash table size must be at least as large as
the total number of keys. That is, if we have n elements to be hashed, then the size of hash
table should be greater or equal to n.

Example: Consider the elements 65, 78, 18, 22, 30, 89, 37, 55, 42
Let us take the hash function as h(k)= k%10, then the hash addresses will be –
h(65) = 65 %10 = 5 h(78) = 78%10 = 8
h(18)=18%10 =8 h(22)= 22 % 10 =2
h(30)= 30 %10 =0 h(89)=89 % 10 = 9
h(37)=37%10 =7 h(55)=55%10 =5
h(42)=42%10 =2

Since there are 9 elements in the list, our hash table should at least be of size 9. Here we
are taking the size as 10.

Now, hashing is done as below –

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
30 89 22 42 65 55 37 78 18

Drawbacks:
 Searching may become like a linear search and hence not efficient.
 24

3.3 TUPLES
A tuple is a sequence of items, similar to lists. The values stored in the tuple can be of any
type and they are indexed using integers. Unlike lists, tuples are immutable. That is, values
within tuples cannot be modified/reassigned. Tuples are comparable and hashable objects.
Hence, they can be made as keys in dictionaries.

A tuple can be created in Python as a comma separated list of items – may or may not be
enclosed within parentheses.

>>> t='Mango', 'Banana', 'Apple' #without parentheses

>>> print(t)
('Mango', 'Banana', 'Apple')

>>> t1=('Tom', 341, 'Jerry') #with parentheses

>>> print(t1)
('Tom', 341, 'Jerry')

Observe that tuple values can be of mixed types.

If we would like to create a tuple with single value, then just a parenthesis will not suffice.
For example,

>>> x=(3) #trying to have a tuple with single item

>>> print(x)
3 #observe, no parenthesis found
>>> type(x)
<class 'int'> #not a tuple, it is integer!!

Thus, to have a tuple with single item, we must include a comma after the item. That is,

>>> t=3, #or use the statement t=(3,)

>>> type(t) #now this is a tuple
<class 'tuple'>
An empty tuple can be created either using a pair of parenthesis or using a function tuple()
as below –
>>> t1=()
>>> type(t1)
<class 'tuple'>

>>> t2=tuple()
>>> type(t2)
<class 'tuple'>

If we provide an argument of type sequence (a list, a string or tuple) to the method tuple(),
then a tuple with the elements in a given sequence will be created –
 25

Create tuple using string:

>>> t=tuple('Hello')
>>> print(t)
('H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o')

Create tuple using list:

>>> t=tuple([3,[12,5],'Hi'])
>>> print(t)
(3, [12, 5], 'Hi')

Create tuple using another tuple:

>>> t=('Mango', 34, 'hi')

>>> t1=tuple(t)
>>> print(t1)
('Mango', 34, 'hi')
>>> t is t1
True

Note that, in the above example, both t and t1 objects are referring to same memory
location. That is, t1 is a reference to t.

Elements in the tuple can be extracted using square-brackets with the help of indices.
Similarly, slicing also can be applied to extract required number of items from tuple.

>>> t=('Mango', 'Banana', 'Apple')

>>> print(t[1])
Banana
>>> print(t[1:])
('Banana', 'Apple')
>>> print(t[-1])
Apple

Modifying the value in a tuple generates error, because tuples are immutable –
>>> t[0]='Kiwi'
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

We wanted to replace „Mango‟ by „Kiwi‟, which did not work using assignment. But, a tuple
can be replaced with another tuple involving required modifications –

>>> t=('Kiwi',)+t[1:]
>>> print(t)
('Kiwi', 'Banana', 'Apple')
 26

3.3.1 Comparing Tuples

Tuples can be compared using operators like >, <, >=, == etc. The comparison happens
lexicographically. For example, when we need to check equality among two tuple objects,
the first item in first tuple is compared with first item in second tuple. If they are same, 2 nd
items are compared. The check continues till either a mismatch is found or items get over.
Consider few examples –

>>> (1,2,3)==(1,2,5)
False
>>> (3,4)==(3,4)
True

The meaning of < and > in tuples is not exactly less than and greater than, instead, it
means comes before and comes after. Hence in such cases, we will get results different
from checking equality (==).

>>> (1,2,3)<(1,2,5)
True
>>> (3,4)<(5,2)
True
When we use relational operator on tuples containing non-comparable types, then
TypeError will be thrown.

>>> (1,'hi')<('hello','world')
TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'int' and 'str'

The sort() function internally works on similar pattern – it sorts primarily by first element, in
case of tie, it sorts on second element and so on. This pattern is known as DSU –
 Decorate a sequence by building a list of tuples with one or more sort keys
preceding the elements from the sequence,
 Sort the list of tuples using the Python built-in sort(), and
 Undecorate by extracting the sorted elements of the sequence.

Consider a program of sorting words in a sentence from longest to shortest, which

illustrates DSU property.

txt = 'Ram and Seeta went to forest with Lakshman'

words = txt.split()
t = list()
for word in words:
t.append((len(word), word))

print(„The list is:‟,t)

t.sort(reverse=True)
res = list()
 27

for length, word in t:

res.append(word)
print(„The sorted list:‟,res)

The output would be –

The list is: [(3, 'Ram'), (3, 'and'), (5, 'Seeta'), (4, 'went'),
(2, 'to'), (6, 'forest'), (4, 'with'), (8, 'Lakshman')]

The sorted list: ['Lakshman', 'forest', 'Seeta', 'went', 'with',

'and', 'Ram', 'to']

In the above program, we have split the sentence into a list of words. Then, a tuple
containing length of the word and the word itself are created and are appended to a list.
Observe the output of this list – it is a list of tuples. Then we are sorting this list in
descending order. Now for sorting, length of the word is considered, because it is a first
element in the tuple. At the end, we extract length and word in the list, and create another
list containing only the words and print it.

3.3.2 Tuple Assignment

Tuple has a unique feature of having it at LHS of assignment operator. This allows us to
assign values to multiple variables at a time.

>>> x,y=10,20
>>> print(x) #prints 10
>>> print(y) #prints 20

When we have list of items, they can be extracted and stored into multiple variables as
below –

>>> ls=["hello", "world"]

>>> x,y=ls
>>> print(x) #prints hello
>>> print(y) #prints world

This code internally means that –

x= ls[0]
y= ls[1]

The best known example of assignment of tuples is swapping two values as below –
>>> a=10
>>> b=20
>>> a, b = b, a
>>> print(a, b) #prints 20 10
 28

In the above example, the statement a, b = b, a is treated by Python as – LHS is a

set of variables, and RHS is set of expressions. The expressions in RHS are evaluated and
assigned to respective variables at LHS.

Giving more values than variables generates ValueError –

>>> a, b=10,20,5
ValueError: too many values to unpack (expected 2)

While doing assignment of multiple variables, the RHS can be any type of sequence like
list, string or tuple. Following example extracts user name and domain from an email ID.

>>> email='[email protected]'
>>> usrName, domain = email.split('@')
>>> print(usrName) #prints chetanahegde
>>> print(domain) #prints ieee.org

3.3.3 Dictionaries and Tuples

Dictionaries have a method called items() that returns a list of tuples, where each tuple is a
key-value pair as shown below –

>>> d = {'a':10, 'b':1, 'c':22}

>>> t = list(d.items())
>>> print(t)
[('b', 1), ('a', 10), ('c', 22)]

As dictionary may not display the contents in an order, we can use sort() on lists and then
print in required order as below –
>>> d = {'a':10, 'b':1, 'c':22}
>>> t = list(d.items())
>>> print(t)
[('b', 1), ('a', 10), ('c', 22)]
>>> t.sort()
>>> print(t)
[('a', 10), ('b', 1), ('c', 22)]

3.3.4 Multiple Assignment with Dictionaries

We can combine the method items(), tuple assignment and a for-loop to get a pattern for
traversing dictionary:
d={'Tom': 1292, 'Jerry': 3501, 'Donald': 8913}
for key, val in list(d.items()):
print(val,key)

The output would be –

1292 Tom
3501 Jerry
8913 Donald
 29

This loop has two iteration variables because items() returns a list of tuples. And key,
val is a tuple assignment that successively iterates through each of the key-value pairs in
the dictionary. For each iteration through the loop, both key and value are advanced to the
next key-value pair in the dictionary in hash order.

Once we get a key-value pair, we can create a list of tuples and sort them –

d={'Tom': 9291, 'Jerry': 3501, 'Donald': 8913}

ls=list()
for key, val in d.items():
ls.append((val,key)) #observe inner parentheses

print("List of tuples:",ls)
ls.sort(reverse=True)
print("List of sorted tuples:",ls)

The output would be –

List of tuples: [(9291, 'Tom'), (3501, 'Jerry'), (8913, 'Donald')]
List of sorted tuples: [(9291, 'Tom'), (8913, 'Donald'), (3501,
'Jerry')]

In the above program, we are extracting key, val pair from the dictionary and appending
it to the list ls. While appending, we are putting inner parentheses to make sure that each
pair is treated as a tuple. Then, we are sorting the list in the descending order. The sorting
would happen based on the telephone number (val), but not on name (key), as first
element in tuple is telephone number (val).

3.3.5 The Most Common Words

We will apply the knowledge gained about strings, tuple, list and dictionary till here to solve
a problem – write a program to find most commonly used words in a text file.

The logic of the program is –

 Open a file
 Take a loop to iterate through every line of a file.
 Remove all punctuation marks and convert alphabets into lower case (Reason
explained in Section 3.2.4)
 Take a loop and iterate over every word in a line.
 If the word is not there in dictionary, treat that word as a key, and initialize its value
as 1. If that word already there in dictionary, increment the value.
 Once all the lines in a file are iterated, you will have a dictionary containing distinct
words and their frequency. Now, take a list and append each key-value (word-
frequency) pair into it.
 Sort the list in descending order and display only 10 (or any number of) elements
from the list to get most frequent words.
 30

import string
fhand = open('test.txt')
counts = dict()
for line in fhand:
line = line.translate(str.maketrans('', '',string.punctuation))
line = line.lower()

for word in line.split():

if word not in counts:
counts[word] = 1
else:
counts[word] += 1

lst = list()
for key, val in list(counts.items()):
lst.append((val, key))

lst.sort(reverse=True)
for key, val in lst[:10]:
print(key, val)

Run the above program on any text file of your choice and observe the output.

3.3.6 Using Tuples as Keys in Dictionaries

As tuples and dictionaries are hashable, when we want a dictionary containing composite
keys, we will use tuples. For Example, we may need to create a telephone directory where
name of a person is Firstname-last name pair and value is the telephone number. Our job
is to assign telephone numbers to these keys. Consider the program to do this task –

names=(('Tom','Cat'),('Jerry','Mouse'), ('Donald', 'Duck'))

number=[3561, 4014, 9813]

telDir={}

for i in range(len(number)):
telDir[names[i]]=number[i]

for fn, ln in telDir:

print(fn, ln, telDir[fn,ln])

The output would be –

Tom Cat 3561
Jerry Mouse 4014
Donald Duck 9813
 31

3.3.7 Summary on Sequences: Strings, Lists and Tuples

Till now, we have discussed different types of sequences viz. strings, lists and tuples. In
many situations these sequences can be used interchangeably. Still, due their difference in
behavior and ability, we may need to understand pros and cons of each of them and then
to decide which one to use in a program. Here are few key points –

1. Strings are more limited compared to other sequences like lists and Tuples.
Because, the elements in strings must be characters only. Moreover, strings are
immutable. Hence, if we need to modify the characters in a sequence, it is better to
go for a list of characters than a string.
2. As lists are mutable, they are most common compared to tuples. But, in some
situations as given below, tuples are preferable.
a. When we have a return statement from a function, it is better to use tuples
rather than lists.
b. When a dictionary key must be a sequence of elements, then we must use
immutable type like strings and tuples
c. When a sequence of elements is being passed to a function as arguments,
usage of tuples reduces unexpected behavior due to aliasing.
3. As tuples are immutable, the methods like sort() and reverse() cannot be applied on
them. But, Python provides built-in functions sorted() and reversed() which will take
a sequence as an argument and return a new sequence with modified results.

3.3.8 Debugging
Lists, Dictionaries and Tuples are basically data structures. In real-time programming, we
may require compound data structures like lists of tuples, dictionaries containing tuples and
lists etc. But, these compound data structures are prone to shape errors – that is, errors
caused when a data structure has the wrong type, size, composition etc. For example,
when your code is expecting a list containing single integer, but you are giving a plain
integer, then there will be an error.

When debugging a program to fix the bugs, following are the few things a programmer can
try –

 Reading: Examine your code, read it again and check that it says what you meant
to say.
 Running: Experiment by making changes and running different versions. Often if
you display the right thing at the right place in the program, the problem becomes
obvious, but sometimes you have to spend some time to build scaffolding.
 Ruminating: Take some time to think! What kind of error is it: syntax, runtime,
semantic? What information can you get from the error messages, or from the output
of the program? What kind of error could cause the problem you‟re seeing? What did
you change last, before the problem appeared?
 Retreating: At some point, the best thing to do is back off, undoing recent changes,
until you get back to a program that works and that you understand. Then you can
start rebuilding.