1.

0 Introduction

The purpose of this experiment is to determine the strength of materials of metals and alloys
through tensile testing. In this experiment, we will be performing tensile testing on three specimens
which are mild steel, aluminium and brass. Tensile Testing is a form of testing where a sample is
chosen and pulled until it reaches its breaking point to determine the ultimate tensile strength of the
material. It can used to find Stress, Strain, Yield Strength, Ultimate Tensile Strength, Ductility, and
Modulus of Elasticity of a specimen.

Tensile testing is usually conducted using a universal testing machine. A specimen of a certain
material is first chosen then clamped. Load will be added slowly and the specimen will be pulled more
and more as more load is added until the specimen breaks.

Figure 1.0 shows an example of a stress-strain diagram plotted after the experiment is conducted.

Figure 1.0 Stress-Strain Diagram of a metal

From this diagram, we are able to determine some properties such as

Yield Strength

The yield strength is the stress-induced plastic deformation point. Extensometers are used to
determine this during testing across a measured gauge length. During non-contact is a need, such as
when testing at elevated temperatures, the devices can be mechanical clip on or video.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

The highest stress that a specimen is subjected to during testing is called Ultimate Tensile
Strength. If the specimen is brittle, ductile, or has properties of both, this may differ from the
specimen's breaking strength. These material qualities can shift based on the environment, for as when
temperatures are extremely hot or cold.

Ductility
Ductility refers to a material's ability to deform plastically without cracking. Ductility is
determined by calculating the percent of elongation and the percent reduction of area on a specimen
during a tensile test in the materials commonly machined in our shops.This can be calculated with the
formula below.

Modulus of Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity, commonly known as Young's modulus, is a measurement of a

specimen's stiffness after the load is removed and the material returns to its original state. Hooke's
Law no longer applies if the material has been stretched to the point where it no longer returns to its
original length and permanent deformation is visible. The elastic or proportonal limit is what it's called
(also the yield strength).
2.0 Experiment Setup

A. INSTRON 50kN
B. Caliper
C. Test Specimen (Mild Steel, Aluminium, Brass)

Figure 2.0 INSTRON 50kN

Figure 2.1 Specimen

Material Length(L0) Cross-section Area(A0)

Mild Steel 68.1 31.40

Aluminium 70.5 37.72

Brass 73.9 38.40

Table 1: Specimen Dimension

3.0 Theory

3.1 Tensile Test

A tensile test involves clamping a sample of a material between two fixtures known as
"clamps." The length and cross-sectional area of the material are determined beforehand. Then we
start putting pressure on the material that is grabbed at one end while the other is fixed. While
measuring the change in length of the sample, we continue to increase the weight (also known as the
load).

Tensile testing is used in a variety of sectors such as Aerospace industry, Construction,

Electrical and Electronic industry, and Automotive industry to ensure the quality of components,
materials, and finished products. The following sections illustrate common tensile testing applications.

3.2 Stress

Stress is defined as the force per unit area generated within materials as a result of externally
applied forces, unequal heating, or persistent deformation, and it allows for accurate description and
prediction of elastic, plastic, and fluid behaviour.

Stress is given by the following formula:

𝐹
σ=
𝐴
where, σ is the stress applied, F is the force applied and A is the area of force application.
The unit of stress is N/m2
3.3 Strain

Strain is the amount of deformation experienced by the body in the direction of force applied,
divided by the initial dimensions of the body.

The following equation gives the relation for deformation in terms of the length of a solid:
δl
ϵ=
𝐿
where, ϵ is the strain due to stress applied, δl is the change in length and L is the original length of the
material.

3.4 Brittle and Ductile Material

Brittleness is a quality of a material that cracks when stressed yet has a small tendency to
distort before breaking. Brittle materials have a limited deformation capacity, a low capacity to resist
impact and vibration, a high compressive strength, and a low tensile strength. Most of inorganic non-
metallic materials are brittle materials.

Ductility is the ability to pull out or plastically deform a material without breaking it.
Therefore, this shows how soft or malleable the material is. The ductility of steel depends on the type
and level of alloying elements present. For example, increasing carbon increases strength but
decreases ductility.
When external tensile load is applied on a material, initially it undergoes elastic deformation
and then plastic deformation starts. An elastic deformation is recoverable, while a plastic deformation
is permanent. Ability of a material to exhibit plastic deformation before fracture is the indication of
ductility. Materials that show substantial plastic deformation under external loading are called ductile
materials; while brittle materials exhibit negligible plastic deformation
4.0 Experiment Procedure

1. The “IX series” icon on the computer is clicked twice.

2. The specimen which are mild steel, aluminium and brass are then loaded into the lower and upper
grip.
3. The “Method” icon and clicked and the specimen parameter and crosshead speed is set.
4. The “Test” icon is clicked and the sample file name followed by operator’s name are entered.
5. The test method is chosen according to the application
6. The load and strain are resetted
7. The “Start Test” is clicked
8. The utilities in the main screen are clicked when the test is finished to view the result of the
experiment.
9. Table is then filled with the data of load and displacement from the Instron output. These data are
converted to stress and strain and the stress-strain diagram is plotted.
10. The experiment is repeated for the other materials.
5.0 Results

5.1 Results for Mild Steel

Table 2.0 and Figure 3.0 shows the results obtained for tensile test with mild steel as the specimen

Extension
Load (N) Stress (m²) Strain
(mm)
650.5 0 20.716561 0
2124.5 0.149 67.659236 0.00219
7779 0.954 247.73885 0.01401
12598 1.50775 401.21019 0.02214
23106 2.46275 735.85987 0.03616
26582 2.09625 846.05605 0.03078
28330 9.90725 902.22930 0.14548
30086 12.874 958.15287 0.18905
31946 22.38 1017.3885 0.32863
28126 27.603 895.73248 0.40533
26563 28.131 845.95541 0.41308
25737 28.307 819.64968 0.4157

Table 2.0: Results for Mild Steel as specimen

Mild Steel Stress-Strain Curve

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45

Mild Steel Stress-Strain Curve

Figure 3.0: Stress-Strain Curve of Mild Steel

5.2 Results for Aluminium

Table 2.1 and Figure 3.1 shows the results obtained for tensile test with aluminium as the specimen

Extension
Load (N) Stress (m²) Strain
(mm)
135.232034 0.015986564 3.5851547 0.0002268
617.8784453 0.048710633 16.3806587 0.0006909
2929.527265 0.144684437 77.665092 0.0020523
4948.948195 0.224565704 131.202232 0.0031853
6562.992985 0.33518895 173.992391 0.0047545
6891.563749 0.812661694 182.703175 0.0115283
7005.951541 1.795436751 185.736725 0.0254671
7146.175343 2.798779976 189.453217 0.0396990
7293.186528 4.26029673 193.350650 0.0604297
7362.985024 5.7051983 195.201088 0.0809248
6730.468189 7.098431804 179.432349 0.1006870
0 7.388394204 0.000000 0.1049992
Table 2.1: Results for Aluminium as specimen

Aluminium Stress-Strain Curve

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

Aluminium Stress-Strain Curve

Figure 3.1: Stress-Strain Curve of Aluminium

5.1 Results for Brass

Table 2.2 and Figure 3.2 shows the results obtained for tensile test with brass as the specimen

Extension
Load (N) Stress (m²) Strain
(mm)
62.948868 0 1.63929 0
1671.732237 0.025235 43.53469 0.00034147
2981.429651 0.681345 77.64140 0.00921982
4583.274288 3.930892 119.35610 0.05319204
7285.057652 10.801301 189.71504 0.1461610
9896.016319 19.645087 259.46556 0.26583338
8971.052038 42.559909 225.80865 0.575912165
7504.854154 42.779093 195.43891 0.5788781
5913.890228 43.15185 154.007560 0.58392219
2773.565964 44.673881 72.22828 0.60451801
1531.037583 45.904628 39.87077 0.6211722
231.508739 48.366843 6.028870 0.65449043
Table 2.2: Results for Brass as specimen

Brass Stress-Strain Curve

300

250

200
Stress (m²)

150

100

50

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Strain

Figure 3.2: Stress-Strain Curve of Brass

6.0 Summary of Properties obtained from stress-strain diagram

Properties Material
Mild Steel Aluminium Brass
Modulus of elasticity, E 19777.19 43135.74 5000.00
Proportional limit,  pl 715 148 207
Yield strength,  y 277 173 234

Ultimate strength (max stress), ut 1017 195 259

Breaking strength (fracture point) 815 170 195

Table 3.0: Summary of Properties obtain from the stress-strain diagram

7.0 Discussion

7.1 Discuss the elastic & plastic behavior for each graph. Attach picture of the failure
specimen

For the graph for specimen mild steel, elastic behaviour can be seen when a load of 26582N is
applied with an extension of 2.09625mm. For the graph for aluminium as specimen, elastic behaviour
when a load of 6562.992985N is applied to the specimen with an extension of 0.33518895mm.. For
the graph for brass as specimen, elastic behaviour when a load of 259.46556N is applied to the
specimen with an extension of 0.26583338mm.

7.2 Calculate the modulus of elasticity and yield strength based on 0.2% offset.

For Mild steel,

We refer to Figure 3.0 and take the difference of 2 points on the slope to determine the modulus of
elasticity and we draw a seperate line at 0.02 and find the intersecting point to find the yield strength.

735.85987−20.716591
Modulus of Elasticity, E = = 19777.19N/mm2
0.03616−0
Yield Strength. σy = 277N/mm2

For Aluminium,
We refer to Figure 3.1 and take the difference of 2 points on the slope to determine the modulus of
elasticity and we draw a seperate line at 0.02 and find the intersecting point to find the yield strength.

131.202232−3.5851547
Modulus of Elasticity, E = = 43135.74N/mm2
0.0031853−0.0002268
Yield Strength. σy = 173N/mm2
For Brass,
We refer to Figure 3.2 and take the difference of 2 points on the slope to determine the modulus of
elasticity and we draw a seperate line at 0.02 and find the intersecting point to find the yield strength.

149.03322−1.63929
Modulus of Elasticity, E = = 1619.57N/mm2
0.09100796−0
Yield Strength. σy = 234N/mm2
7.3 Determine the permanent strain that remains in the specimen when the load is released

Let l0 = permanent strain

For Mild Steel,

σy
E =
l0
277
19777.19 =
l0
l0 = 1.4006 x 10-4mm

For Aluminium,
σy
E =
l0
173
43135.74 =
l0
l0 = 4.01069 x 10-5mm

For Brass,
σy
E =
l0
234
1619.57 =
l0
l0 = 1.44 x 10-3mm
7.4 Compute the modulus of resilience

For Mild Steel,

σ2pl
Modulus of Resistance, Ur =
2𝐸
277x277
Ur = 2(19777.19)

Ur = 1.94 Jm-3

For Aluminium,

σ2pl
Modulus of Resistance, Ur =
2𝐸
173𝑥173
Ur = 2(43135.74)

Ur =0.34 Jm-3

For Brass,

σ2pl
Modulus of Resistance, Ur =
2𝐸
234x234
Ur = 2(1619.57)

Ur = 16.9Jm-3
7.5 Compute the modulus of toughness

We can calculate the modulus of toughness by calculating the area under the curve for each graph

For Mild Steel,

1 1
Modulus of toughness = (0.05x846) + (0.42-0.05)(846+895)
2 2
= 343.235 Jm-3

For Aluminium,

1 1
Modulus of toughness = (0.005x174) + {(174+179)x(0.1-0.005)} + (0.05)(179)
2 2
= 264.75 Jm-3

For Brass,

1 1
Modulus of toughness = (0.265x234) + {(234+259)x(0.576-0.265)} + (0.65-0.576)(259)
2 2
= 193.911Jm-3
8.0 Conclusion

In conclusion, we have achieved the objective of this experiment which is to determine the
strength of materials of metals and alloys through tensile testing. From the results of the specimen, we
were able to determine the Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity, yield strength, permanent
strain,modulus of resilience and modulus of toughness for three specimens which are mild steel,
aluminium and brass. An error in this experiment are we are not able to get an average data for each
reading as the specimen permanently breaks after each test. This results in the graph sketched and
calculation to not be accurate as the theoretical values.
9.0 References

1. “What is tensile testing?”, TWI. https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/what-is-

tensile-testing.

2. “Tension Testing/Tensile Testing”, ADMET.https://www.admet.com/testing-applications/test-

types/tension-testing/.

3. “Ductility=As Measured In Tensile Testing”, Miles Free.

https://pmpaspeakingofprecision.com/2014/12/11/ductility-as-measured-by-tensile-testing/

4. “Stress and Strain”, BYJU. https://pmpaspeakingofprecision.com/2014/12/11/ductility-as-measured-

by-tensile-testing/.

5. “Brittleness”, NuclearPower. https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/materials-

science/material-properties/brittleness/.