4 UNIT ONE Science, Chemistry, and Cells

1.1 | What Is Life?

Biology is the scientific study of life. The second half of
this chapter explores the meaning of the term scientific, but
first we will consider the question, “What is life?” We all have an
intuitive sense of what life is. If we see a rabbit on a rock, we
know that the rabbit is alive and the rock is not. But it is difficult
to state just what makes the rabbit alive. Likewise, in the instant
after an individual dies, we may wonder what invisible essence
has transformed the living into the dead.
One way to define life is to list its basic components. The
cell is the basic unit of life; every organism, or living individual,
consists of one or more cells. Every cell has an outer membrane
that separates it from its surroundings. This membrane encloses
the water and other chemicals that carry out the cell’s functions.
One of those biochemicals, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), is the
informational molecule of life (figure 1.1). Cells use genetic
instructions—as encoded in DNA—to produce proteins, which
enable cells to carry out specialized functions in tissues, organs,
and organ systems.
A list of life’s biochemicals, however, provides an unsatisfy- Figure 1.1 Informational Molecule of Life. All cells contain
ing definition of life. After all, placing DNA, water, proteins, and DNA, a series of “recipes” for proteins that each cell can make.
a membrane in a test tube does not create artificial life. And a
crushed insect still contains all of the biochemicals that it had that not all cells contain organelles). Many organisms consist of
immediately before it died. single cells. In multicellular organisms such as the tree illustrated
In the absence of a concise definition, scientists have settled in figure 1.2, however, the cells are organized into specialized
on five qualities that, in combination, constitute life (table 1.1). tissues that make up organs such as leaves. Multiple organs are
An organism is a collection of structures that function together linked into an individual’s organ systems.
and exhibit all of these qualities. Note, however, that each of the Organization in the living world extends beyond the level of
traits listed in table 1.1 may also occur in nonliving objects. A the individual organism. A population includes members of the
rock crystal is highly organized, but it is not alive. A fork placed same species living in the same place at the same time. A com-
in a pot of boiling water absorbs heat energy and passes it to the munity includes the populations of different species in a region,
hand that grabs it, but this does not make the fork alive. A fire can and an ecosystem includes both the living and nonliving compo-
“reproduce” and grow very rapidly, but it lacks most of the other nents of an area. Finally, the biosphere refers to all parts of the
characteristics of life. planet that can support life.
Biological organization is apparent in all life. Humans, eels,
A. Life Is Organized and evergreens, although outwardly very different, are all orga-
Just as the city where you live belongs to a county, state, and na- nized into specialized cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
tion, living matter also consists of parts organized in a hierarchi- Single-celled bacteria, although less complex than animals or
cal pattern (figure 1.2). At the smallest scale, all living structures plants, still contain DNA, proteins, and other molecules that in-
are composed of particles called atoms, which bond together to teract in highly organized ways.
form molecules. These molecules form organelles, which are An organism, however, is more than a collection of succes-
compartments that carry out specialized functions in cells (note sively smaller parts. When those components interact, they create

Table 1.1 Characteristics of Life: A Summary

Characteristic Example
Organization Atoms make up molecules, which make up cells, which make up tissues, and so on.
Energy use A kitten uses the energy from its mother’s milk to fuel its own growth.
Maintenance of internal constancy Your kidneys regulate your body’s water balance by adjusting the concentration of your urine.
Reproduction, growth, and An acorn germinates, develops into an oak seedling, and, at maturity, reproduces sexually to produce
development its own acorns.
Evolution Increasing numbers of bacteria survive treatment with antibiotic drugs.

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 CHAPTER 1 The Scientific Study of Life 5

CELL
ORGANELLE The fundamental
A membrane-bounded unit of life.
structure that has a specific Example: Leaf cell
function within a cell. TISSUE
Example: Chloroplast A collection of specialized
cells that function in a
coordinated fashion.
MOLECULE Example: Epidermis of leaf
A group of joined atoms.
Example: DNA
ORGAN
A structure consisting
of tissues organized to
interact and carry
ATOM out specific functions.
The smallest chemical ORGANISM Example: Leaf
unit of a type of pure A single living individual.
substance (element). Example: One acacia tree
Example: Carbon atom

ORGAN SYSTEM
POPULATION Organs connected
A group of the same species of organism physically or chemically
living in the same place and time. that function together.
Example: Multiple acacia trees Example: Aboveground
part of a plant

BIOSPHERE
COMMUNITY The global ecosystem;
All populations that occupy the parts of the planet
the same region. ECOSYSTEM and its atmosphere
Example: All populations The living and nonliving where life is possible.
in a savanna components of an area.
Example: The savanna

Figure 1.2 Levels of Biological Organization. Atoms arranged into molecules make up the parts of a cell. Multiple cells are organized into
tissues, which make up organs and, in turn, organ systems. An individual organism may consist of one or many cells. A population consists
of individuals of the same species, and communities are multiple populations sharing the same space. Communities interact with the
nonliving environment to form ecosystems, and the biosphere consists of all places on Earth where life occurs.

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 6 UNIT ONE Science, Chemistry, and Cells

Endothelial that obtain energy and nutrients from wastes or dead organisms.
cell Fungi and many bacteria are decomposers.
Within an ecosystem, organisms are linked into elaborate
food webs, beginning with producers and continuing through
several levels of consumers (including decomposers). But energy
Sheet of transfers are never 100% efficient; some energy is always lost in
Figure 1.3 endothelial the form of heat (see figure 1.4). Because no organism can use
An Emergent cells heat as an energy source, it represents a permanent loss from the
Property—From Tiles cycle of life. All ecosystems therefore depend on a continuous
to Tubes. Endothelial stream of energy from an outside source, usually the sun.
cells look like tiles
that stick together to
form a sheet. This
C. Life Maintains Internal Constancy
sheet folds to form a An important characteristic of life is the ability to sense and react
tiny capillary, which is to stimuli. The conditions inside cells must remain within a con-
the smallest type of stant range, even if the surrounding environment changes. For
blood vessel. The example, a living cell must maintain a certain temperature—not
blood-carrying function too high and not too low. The cell must also take in nutrients,
of these cells does excrete wastes, and regulate its many chemical reactions to pre-
not “emerge” until Capillary vent a shortage or surplus of essential substances. Homeostasis
they interact in a is the process by which a cell or organism maintains this state of
specific way. For an internal constancy, or equilibrium.
emergent property, the Endothelial Your body, for example, has several mechanisms that main-
whole is greater than Red blood cell tain your internal temperature at about 37°C. When you go out-
the sum of the parts. cell side on a cold day, you may begin to shiver; heat from these
involuntary muscle movements warms the body. In severe cold,

new, complex functions called emergent properties (figure 1.3).

Energy
These characteristics arise from physical and chemical interac- from
Heat
tions among a system’s components, much like flour, sugar, but- sunlight
ter, and chocolate can become brownies—something not evident
from the parts themselves.
Emergent properties explain why structural organization is
closely tied to function. Disrupt a structure, and its function
ceases. Shaking a fertilized hen’s egg, for instance, disturbs crit- Heat
ical interactions and stops the embryo from developing. Like-
wise, if a function is interrupted, the corresponding structure
eventually breaks down, much as unused muscles begin to waste
away. Biological function and form are interdependent.
Consumers obtain
B. Life Requires Energy energy and nutrients by
Inside each living cell, countless chemical reactions sustain life. eating other organisms.
These reactions, collectively called metabolism, allow organ- Producers extract energy
isms to acquire and use energy and nutrients to build new struc- and nutrients from the
nonliving environment.
tures, repair old ones, and reproduce.
Biologists divide organisms into broad categories, based on
their source of energy and raw materials (figure 1.4). Producers, Heat
also called autotrophs, make their own food by extracting energy
and nutrients from nonliving sources. The most familiar produc- Heat
Decomposers are consumers
ers are the plants and microbes that capture light energy from the that obtain nutrients from dead
sun, but some bacteria can derive chemical energy from rocks. organisms and organic wastes.
Consumers, in contrast, obtain energy and nutrients by eating
other organisms, living or dead; consumers are also called het- Figure 1.4 Life Is Connected. All organisms extract energy and
erotrophs. You are a consumer, using energy and atoms from nutrients from the nonliving environment or from other organisms.
food to build your body, move your muscles, send nerve signals, Decomposers recycle nutrients back to the nonliving environment. At
and maintain your temperature. Decomposers are heterotrophs every stage along the way, heat is lost to the system.

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 Spore

a. SEM (false color) 5 μm b. c.

Figure 1.5 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction. (a) This fungus, Pencillium, asexually produces identical cells called spores on brushlike
structures. (b) A coconut tree seedling and (c) a newborn deer are products of sexual reproduction.

your lips and fingertips may turn blue as your circulatory system E. Life Evolves
diverts blood away from your body’s surface. Conversely, on a One of the most intriguing questions in biology is how organisms
hot day, sweat evaporating from your skin helps cool your body. become so well-suited to their environments. A beaver’s enor-
mous front teeth, which never stop growing, are ideal for gnawing
D. Life Reproduces Itself, Grows, wood. Tubular flowers have exactly the right shapes for the beaks
and Develops of their hummingbird pollinators. Some organisms have color pat-
Organisms reproduce, making other individuals similar to them- terns that enable them to fade into the background (figure 1.6).
selves (figure 1.5). Reproduction transmits DNA from genera-
tion to generation; this genetic information defines the inherited
characteristics of the offspring. Figure 1.6 Blending In. (a) The superb
Reproduction occurs in two basic ways: asexually and sexu- camouflage of the adder snake, Bitis
ally. In asexual reproduction, genetic information comes peringueyi, makes it virtually
from only one parent, and all offspring are virtually identical. undetectable buried in the sand in
One-celled organisms such as bacteria reproduce asexually the Namib Desert, Namibia. (b) It is
by doubling and then dividing the contents of the cell. Many little wonder that the sand lizard,
Aporosaura anchietae, soon became
multicellular organisms also reproduce asexually. For exam-
the meal of the snake.
ple, a strawberry plant’s “runners” can sprout leaves and
roots, forming a new plant identical to the parent. The green,
white, or black powder on moldy bread or cheese is made of the
countless asexual spores of fungi (figure 1.5a). Some animals, in-
cluding sponges, reproduce asexually when a fragment of the a.
parent animal detaches and develops into a new individual.
In sexual reproduction, genetic material from two parent
individuals unites to form an offspring, which has a new combi-
nation of inherited traits. By mixing genes at each generation,
sexual reproduction results in tremendous diversity in a popula-
tion. Genetic diversity, in turn, enhances the chance that some
individuals will survive even if conditions change. Sexual repro-
duction is therefore a very successful strategy, especially in an
environment where conditions change frequently; it is extremely
common among plants and animals (figure 1.5b,c).
If each offspring is to reproduce, it must grow and develop to
adulthood. The fawn in figure 1.5c, for example, started as a single
fertilized egg inside its mother. That cell divided over and over,
developing into an embryo. Continued cell division and special-
ization yielded the newborn fawn, which will eventually mature
into an adult that can also reproduce—just like its parents. b.

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 8 UNIT ONE Science, Chemistry, and Cells

These examples, and countless others, illustrate adapta- success of individuals with those traits improves. Notice, how-
tions. An adaptation is an inherited characteristic or behavior ever, that this outcome depends on variability within the popula-
that enables an organism to survive and reproduce successfully tion. If no individual can reproduce in the new environment, the
in its environment. species may go extinct.
Where do these adaptive traits come from? The answer lies Natural selection is one mechanism of evolution, which is a
in natural selection. The simplest way to think of natural selec- change in the genetic makeup of a population over multiple gen-
tion is to consider two facts. First, resources such as food and erations. Although evolution can also occur in other ways, natu-
habitat are limited, so populations produce many more offspring ral selection is the mechanism that selects for adaptations.
than will survive to reproduce. A single mature oak tree may pro- Charles Darwin became famous in the 1860s after the publication
duce thousands of acorns in one season, but only a few are likely of his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selec-
to germinate, develop, and reproduce. The rest die. Second, no tion, which introduced the theory of evolution by natural
organism is exactly the same as any other. Genetic mutations— selection; another naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, indepen-
changes in an organism’s DNA sequence—generate variability in dently developed the same idea at around the same time.
all organisms, even those that reproduce asexually. Evolution is the single most powerful idea in biology. As
Of all the offspring in a population, which will survive unit 3 describes in detail, evolution has been operating since life
long enough to reproduce? The answer is those with the best began, and it explains the current diversity of life. In fact, the
adaptations to the current environment; poorly adapted organ- similarities among existing organisms strongly suggest that all
isms are most likely to die before reproducing. A good defini- species descend from a common ancestor. Evolution has molded
tion of natural selection, then, is the enhanced reproductive the life that has populated the planet since the first cells formed
success of certain individuals from a population based on in- almost 4 billion years ago, and it continues to act today.
herited characteristics (figure 1.7). Over time, individuals with
the best combinations of genes survive and reproduce, while
those with less suitable characteristics fail to do so. Over many 1.1 | Mastering Concepts
generations, individuals with adaptive traits make up most or
1. What characteristics distinguish the living from the
all of the population. nonliving?
But the environment is constantly changing. Continents 2. List the levels of life’s organizational hierarchy from
shift, sea levels rise and fall, climates warm and cool. What hap- smallest to largest, starting with atoms and ending
pens to a population when the selective forces that drive natural with the biosphere.
selection change? Only some organisms survive: those with the 3. What are the roles of natural selection and mutations
“best” traits in the new environment. Features that may once in evolution?
have been rare become more common as the reproductive

Generation 1 Generation 2 Multiple generations later

Hair Antibiotic present

Time Time

Bacterial
cell
Reproduction
and
Selection
Staphylococcus aureus Mutation Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
before mutation occurs (red) are most successful

a. SEM (false color) 10 μm b.

Figure 1.7 Natural Selection. (a) Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterium that causes skin infections. (b) By chance, some S. aureus
bacteria are resistant to the antibiotic methicillin (the commonly used abbreviation MRSA refers to methicillin-resistant S. aureus).
The presence of the antibiotic increases the reproductive success of the resistant cells, which pass this trait to the next generation.

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 CHAPTER 1 The Scientific Study of Life 9

gests that all species fall into one of three domains, the broadest
1.2 The Tree of Life Includes
|
Three Main Branches
(most inclusive) taxonomic category. Figure 1.8 depicts the
three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Species in do-
mains Bacteria and Archaea are superficially similar to one an-
Biologists have been studying life for centuries, documen- other; all are single-celled prokaryotes, meaning that their DNA
ting the existence of everything from bacteria to blue whales. is free in the cell and not confined to an organelle called a nucle-
An enduring problem has been how to organize the ever-growing us. Major differences in DNA sequences separate these two do-
list of known organisms into meaningful categories. Taxonomy is
the biological science of naming and classifying organisms./tæksnmi/ noun mains from each other. Domain Eukarya, on the other hand,
contains all species of eukaryotes, which are unicellular or mul-
The basic unit of classification is the species, which desig- ticellular organisms whose cells contain a nucleus.
nates a distinctive “type” of organisms. Closely related species, The species in each domain are further subdivided into king-
in turn, are grouped into the same genus. Together, the genus and doms; figure 1.8 shows the kingdoms within domain Eukarya.
species denote the unique scientific name of each type of organ- Three of these kingdoms—Animalia, Fungi, and Plantae—are
ism. A human, for example, is Homo sapiens (note that scientific familiar to most people. Within each one, organisms share the same
names are always italicized). By assigning each type of organism general strategy for acquiring energy. For example, plants are auto-
a unique scientific name, taxonomists help other biologists com- trophs. Fungi and animals are consumers, although they differ in the
municate with one another. details of how they obtain food. But the fourth group of eukaryotes,
But taxonomy involves more than simply naming species. the Protista, contains a huge collection of unrelated species. Protista
Taxonomists also strive to classify organisms according to what we is a convenient but artificial “none of the above” category for the
know about evolutionary relationships; that is, how recently one many species of eukaryotes that are not plants, fungi, or animals.
type of organism shared an ancestor with another type of organism.
The more recently they diverged from a shared ancestor, the more
1.2 | Mastering Concepts
closely related we presume the two types of organisms to be.
Researchers infer these relationships by comparing anatomical, 1. What are the goals of taxonomy?
behavioral, cellular, genetic, and biochemical characteristics. 2. How are domains related to kingdoms?
Section 13.6 describes the taxonomic hierarchy in more 3. List and describe the four main groups of eukaryotes.
detail. For now, it is enough to know that genetic evidence sug-

Figure 1.8 Life’s Diversity. The three domains of life (Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya) arose from a hypothetical common ancestor.
DOMAIN BACTERIA DOMAIN ARCHAEA DOMAIN EUKARYA
• Cells lack nuclei (prokaryotic) • Cells lack nuclei (prokaryotic) • Cells contain nuclei (eukaryotic)
• Unicellular • Unicellular • Unicellular or multicellular

Protista (multiple kingdoms) Kingdom Animalia

• Unicellular or multicellular • Multicellular
• Autotrophs or heterotrophs • Heterotrophs (by ingestion)

TEM (false color) 1 μm SEM (false color) 1 μm

LM 200 μm
Prokaryotes DOMAIN EUKARYA

Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Plantae

Animals
• Most are multicellular • Multicellular
DOMAIN DOMAIN Fungi
BACTERIA ARCHAEA • Heterotrophs (by external • Autotrophs
digestion)
Plants

Protista

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 50 UNIT ONE Science, Chemistry, and Cells

3.2 Different Cell Types rod-shaped, round, or spiral (figure 3.6b, c, d). Many antibiotic

|
Characterize Life’s
Three Domains
drugs, including penicillin, halt bacterial infection by interfering
with the microorganism’s ability to construct its protective cell wall.
In some bacteria, polysaccharides on the cell wall form a capsule
that adds protection or enables the cell to attach to surfaces.
Until recently, biologists recognized just two types of cells, Many bacteria can swim in fluids. Flagella (singular: flagellum)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotes, the simplest and are tail-like appendages that enable these cells to move. One or more
most ancient forms of life, are organisms whose cells lack a nu- flagella are anchored in the cell wall and underlying cell membrane.
cleus (pro = before; karyon = kernel, referring to the nucleus). Bacterial flagella rotate like a propeller, moving the cell forward or
About 2.7 billion years ago, prokaryotes gave rise to eukaryotes, backward.
whose cells contain a nucleus and other membranous organelles
(eu = true). B. Domain Archaea Includes
In 1977, however, microbiologist Carl Woese studied key Prokaryotes with Unique
molecules in many cell types and detected differences that sug-
gested that some prokaryotes represented a completely different Biochemistry
form of life. Biologists subsequently divided life into three do- Archaean cells resemble bacterial cells in many ways (figure 3.7).
mains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya (figure 3.5). This section Like bacteria, they are smaller than most eukaryotic cells, and they
describes them briefly. lack a membrane-bounded nucleus and other organelles. Most have
cell walls, and flagella are also common. Because of these similari-
ties, Woese first named his newly recognized group Archaebacteria.
A. Domain Bacteria Contains Earth’s The name later changed to Archaea when genetic sequences
Most Abundant Organisms revealed that the resemblance to bacteria was only superficial.
Bacteria are the most abundant and diverse organisms on Earth. Archaea have their own domain because they build their cells out
Some species, such as Streptococcus and Escherichia coli, can of biochemicals that are different from those in either bacteria or
cause illnesses, but others living on your skin and inside your eukaryotes. Their phospholipids, cell walls, and flagella are all
intestinal tract are essential for good health. Bacteria are also chemically unique. Their ribosomes, however, are more similar
very valuable in research, food and beverage processing, and to those of eukaryotes than to those of bacteria. Archaea may
pharmaceutical production. In ecosystems, bacteria play critical therefore be the closest relatives of eukaryotes.
roles as decomposers and producers. The first members of Archaea to be described were meth-
Bacterial cells are structurally simple (figure 3.6a). The anogens, microbes that use carbon dioxide and hydrogen from
nucleoid is the area where the cell’s circular DNA molecule con- the environment to produce methane. Archaea subsequently be-
gregates. Unlike a eukaryotic cell’s nucleus, the bacterial nucle- came famous as “extremophiles” because scientists discovered
oid is not bounded by a membrane. Located near the DNA in the many of them in habitats that are extremely hot, acidic, or salty.
cytoplasm are the enzymes, RNA molecules, and ribosomes This characterization is somewhat misleading, however, because
needed to produce the cell’s proteins. bacteria also occupy the same environments. Moreover, research-
A rigid cell wall surrounds the cell membrane of most bacteria, ers have now discovered archaea in a variety of moderate habi-
protecting the cell and preventing it from bursting if it absorbs tats, including soil, swamps, rice paddies, oceans, and even the
too much water. This wall also gives the cell its shape: usually human mouth.

Membrane-
Membrane Cell Wall Typical
Cell Type Nucleus bounded
Chemistry Chemistry Size
Organelles

Domain Peptidoglycan
Bacteria Prokaryotic Absent Absent Fatty acids 1-10 μm
(if present)

Domain Nonfatty Pseudopeptidoglycan

Prokaryotic Absent Absent 1-10 μm
Archaea acid lipids or protein

Usually cellulose
Common Domain
Eukaryotic Present Present Fatty acids or chitin 1-100 μm
ancestor Eukarya
(if present)

Figure 3.5 The Three Domains of Life. Biologists distinguish domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya based on unique features of cell
structure and biochemistry. The small evolutionary tree shows that archaea are the closest relatives of the eukaryotes.

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 CHAPTER 3 Cells 51

Figure 3.6 Anatomy of a Ribosomes

Bacterium. (A) Bacterial cells lack
internal compartments. (b) Rod-
shaped cells of E. coli inhabit
human intestines. (c) Spherical
Staphylococcus aureus cells cause
infections that range from mild to
deadly. (d) The corkscrew-shaped
Campylobacter jejuni lives in the
Cytoplasm
digestive tract of many animals.
Nucleoid Cell Cell wall Capsule Flagellum
a. (DNA) membrane

b. SEM (false color) 2 μm c. SEM (false color) 2 μm d. SEM (false color) 2 μm

C. Domain Eukarya Contains

Figure 3.7 An Archaeon. Organisms with Complex Cells
Sulfolobus acidocaldarius An astonishing diversity of other organisms, including humans,
thrives in hot springs, at a
belong to domain Eukarya. Our fellow animals are eukaryotes,
temperature of 80°C and a
as are yeasts, mushrooms, and other fungi. Plants are also eu-
pH of 2.0. Note the
karyotes, and so are one-celled protists such as Amoeba and
prominent flagella.
Paramecium.
SEM (false color) 1 μm

Burning Question
What is the smallest living organism? Some scientists consider “nanobes” to be the world’s smallest mi-
croorganisms, at about 20 to 150 nanometers long (figure 3.A). Other
Since the invention of microscopes, investigators have wondered just researchers are skeptical. These minuscule filaments are hard to analyze
how small an organism can be and still sustain life. This seemingly sim- for hallmarks of life such as DNA, RNA, ribosomes, and protein. Their
ple question is hard to answer; life is hard to define. status remains controversial.
Some people consider viruses alive because For now, the smallest certifiable living organisms are bacteria
they share some, but not all, characteristics called mycoplasmas. Besides their small size (150 nanometers and
with cells (see chapter 15). Viruses are in- larger), these microorganisms are unusual among bacteria because they
50 nm deed miniscule: The smallest are less lack cell walls. Biologists have studied mycoplasmas in detail for two
SEM than 20 nanometers in diameter (see reasons. First, some cause human disease such as urinary tract infec-
(false color)
figure 3.2). Yet most biologists do not tions and pneumonia. Second, with only 482 genes, mycoplasmas have
consider them alive, in part because the smallest amount of genetic material of any known free-living cell.
viruses do not consist of cells or repro- Studies on mycoplasmas are helping to reveal which genes are mini-
duce on their own. mally required to sustain life.
Submit your burning question to:
Figure 3.A Nanobes. Alive or not? [email protected]

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 52 UNIT ONE Science, Chemistry, and Cells

Despite their great differences in external appearance, all cells. The other main difference is that the cytoplasm of a eukary-
eukaryotic organisms share many features on a cellular level. otic cell is divided into organelles (“little organs”), compartments
Figures 3.8 and 3.9 depict generalized animal and plant cells. that carry out specialized functions. An elaborate system of internal
Although both of the illustrated cells have many structures in common, membranes creates these compartments.
there are some differences. Most notably, plant cells have chloroplasts In general, organelles keep related biochemicals and struc-
and a cell wall, which animal cells lack. tures close enough to make them function efficiently. At the
One obvious feature that sets eukaryotic cells apart is their same time, they keep potentially harmful substances away from
large size, typically 10 to 100 times greater than prokaryotic other cell contents. Compartmentalization also saves energy be-

Figure 3.8 An Animal Cell. The large, generalized view shows the relative sizes and
locations of a typical animal cell’s components. The electron micrograph at right shows a
human white blood cell with a prominent nucleus and many mitochondria. Nucleus

Mitochondria
Nucleus

Nuclear Nuclear DNA Nucleolus

pore envelope

Ribosome
Centrosome Centriole
1 μm
Peroxisome TEM (false color)

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Cell membrane

Lysosome

Cytoplasm

Microtubule Intermediate Microfilament Golgi apparatus

filament

Cytoskeleton Mitochondrion Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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 CHAPTER 3 Cells 53

cause the cell maintains high concentrations of each biochemi- 3.2 | Mastering Concepts
cal only in certain organelles, not throughout the entire cell.
1. How do prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells?
The rest of this chapter describes the structure of the eukaryotic
cell in greater detail, and the illustrated table at the end of the chap- 2. How are bacteria and archaea similar to and different
from each other?
ter summarizes the functions of the eukaryotic organelles (see
3. How do organelles contribute to efficiency in
table 3.2 on page 66).
eukaryotic cells?

Figure 3.9 A Plant Cell. The large, generalized view Mitochondrion

illustrates key features of a typical plant cell. The
electron micrograph at right shows a leaf cell; note
the prominent nucleus, vacuole, chloroplasts, and Chloroplast
cell wall.

Nucleus
Nucleus
Nuclear Nuclear Nucleolus
Golgi
pore envelope apparatus
DNA 5 μm
Rough
endoplasmic TEM (false color)
reticulum

Ribosome

Cytoplasm

Central
vacuole

Microtubule

Smooth
Chloroplast
endoplasmic
reticulum Peroxisome
Intermediate
filament Microfilament

Cell Cell wall

membrane
Plasmodesma Mitochondrion

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