Engineering Materials

Engineering materials refer to the group of materials that are used in the construction of manmade
structures and components. The primary function of an engineering material is to withstand applied
loading without breaking and without exhibiting excessive deflection. The major classifications of
engineering materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, and composites. The important
characteristics of the materials within each of these classes are discussed on this page, and tables of
material properties are also provided.

Metals
Metals are the most commonly used class of engineering material. Metal alloys are especially common,
and they are formed by combining a metal with one or more other metallic and/or non-metallic
materials. The combination usually occurs through a process of melting, mixing, and cooling. The goal of
alloying is to improve the properties of the base material in some desirable way.

Metal alloy compositions are described in terms of the percentages of the various elements in the alloy,
where the percentages are measured by weight.

Ferrous Alloys
Ferrous alloys have iron as the base element. These alloys include steel and cast irons. Ferrous alloys are
the most common metal alloys in use due to the abundance of iron, ease of production, and high
versatility of the material. The biggest disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is low corrosion resistance.

Carbon is an important alloying element in all ferrous alloys. In general, higher levels of carbon increase
strength and hardness and decrease ductility and weldability.

Carbon Steel
Carbon steels are basically just mixtures of iron and carbon. They may contain small amounts of other
elements, but carbon is the primary alloying ingredient. The effect of adding carbon is an increase in
strength and hardness.

Most carbon steels are plain carbon steels, of which there are several types.

Low-Carbon Steel
Low-carbon steel has less than about 0.30% carbon. It is characterized by low strength but high ductility.
Some strengthening can be achieved through cold working, but it does not respond well to heat
treatment. Low-carbon steel is very weldable and inexpensive to produce. Common uses for low-carbon
steel include wire, structural shapes, machine parts, and sheet metal.

Medium-Carbon Steel
Medium-carbon steel contains between about 0.30% to 0.70% carbon. It can be heat treated to increase
strength, especially with higher carbon contents. Medium-carbon steel is frequently used for axles,
gears, shafts, and machine parts.
High-Carbon Steel
High-carbon steel contains between about 0.70% to 1.40% carbon. It has high strength but low ductility.
Common uses include drills, cutting tools, knives, and springs.

Low-Alloy Steel
Low-alloy steels, also commonly called alloy steels, contain less than about 8% total alloying ingredients.
Low-alloy steels are typically stronger than carbon steels and have better corrosion resistance.

Some low-alloy steels are designated as high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels. What sets HSLA steels
apart from other low-alloy steels is that they are designed to achieve specific mechanical properties
rather than to meet a specific chemical composition.

Tool Steel
Tool steels are primarily used to make tooling for use in manufacturing, for example cutting tools, drill
bits, punches, dies, and chisels. Alloying elements are typically chosen to optimize hardness, wear
resistance, and toughness.
Stainless Steel
Stainless steels have good corrosion resistance, mostly due to the addition of chromium as an alloying
ingredient. Stainless steels have a chromium composition of at least 11%. Passivation occurs with
chromium content at or above 12%, in which case a protective inert film of chromic oxide forms over the
material and prevents oxidation. The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is a result of this passivation.

Austenitic Stainless Steel

Austenitic stainless steel is the most common form of stainless steel. It has the highest general corrosion
resistance among stainless steel. It is also the most weldable of the stainless steels due to its low carbon
content. It can only be strengthened through cold work. Austenitic stainless steels are generally more
expensive than other stainless steels due to nickel content. Austenitic stainless steels are not magnetic,
although ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are. Common applications include fasteners, pressure
vessels, and piping.

Ferritic Stainless Steel

Ferritic stainless steel has high chromium content and medium carbon content. It has good corrosion
resistance rather than high strength. It generally cannot be strengthened through heat treatment and
can only be strengthened via cold work.

Martensitic Stainless Steel

Martensitic stainless steel has high carbon content (up to 2%) and low chromium content. This higher
carbon content is the primary difference between ferritic and martensitic stainless steels. Due to the
high carbon content, it is difficult to weld. It can be strengthened through heat treatment. Common
applications include cutlery and surgical instruments.

Duplex Stainless Steel

Duplex stainless steel contains both austenitic and ferritic phases. It can have up to twice the strength of
austenitic stainless steel. It also has high toughness, corrosion resistance, and wear resistance. Duplex
stainless steel is generally as weldable as austenitic, but it has a temperature limit.
Precipitation-Harden able Stainless Steel
Precipitation-hardenable stainless steel can be strengthened through precipitation hardening, which is
an age-hardening process. These materials have high strength as well as high resistance to corrosion and
temperature.

Cast Iron
Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing high levels of carbon, generally greater than 2%. The carbon
present in cast iron can take the form of graphite or carbide. Cast irons have a low melting temperature
which makes them well-suited to casting.

Gray Cast Iron

Grey cast iron is the most common type. The carbon is in the form of graphite flakes. Grey cast iron is a
brittle material, and its compressive strength is much higher than its tensile strength. The fracture
surface of grey cast iron has a grey colour, which is how it got its name.
Ductile Cast Iron (Nodular Cast Iron)
The addition of magnesium to grey cast iron improves the ductility of the material. The resulting
material is called nodular cast iron because the magnesium causes the graphite flakes to form into
spherical nodules. It is also called ductile cast iron. Nodular cast iron has good strength, ductility, and
machinability. Common uses include crankshafts, gears, pump bodies, valves, and machine parts.

White Cast Iron

White cast iron has carbon in the form of carbide, which makes the material hard, brittle, and difficult to
machine. White cast iron is primarily used for wear-resisting components as well as for the production
of malleable cast iron.

Malleable Cast Iron

Malleable cast iron is produced by heat-treating white cast iron. The heat treatment improves the
ductility of the material while maintaining its high strength.

Aluminium Alloys
Pure aluminium is soft and weak, but it can be alloyed to increase strength. Pure aluminium has good
corrosion resistance due to an oxide coating those forms over the material and prevents oxidation.
Alloying aluminium tends to reduce its corrosion resistance.

Aluminium is a widely used material, particularly in the aerospace industry, due to its lightweight and
corrosion resistance. Even though aluminium alloys are generally not as strong as steel, they
nevertheless have a good strength-to-weight ratio.

Nickel Alloys
Nickel alloys have high temperatures and corrosion resistance. Common alloying ingredients include
copper, chromium, and iron. Common nickel alloys include Monel, K-Monel, Inconel, and Hastelloy.
Copper Alloys
Copper alloys are generally characterized as being electrically conductive, having good corrosion
resistance, and being relatively easy to form and cast. While they are a useful engineering material,
copper alloys are also very attractive and are commonly used in decorative applications.

Copper alloys primarily consist of brasses and bronzes. Zinc is the major alloying ingredient in brass. Tin
is a major alloying element in most bronzes. Bronzes may also contain aluminium, nickel, zinc, silicon,
and other elements. The bronzes are typically stronger than the brasses while still maintaining good
corrosion resistance.

The aluminium bronze alloys are very hard and have good wearing properties, so are commonly used in
bearing applications. The beryllium copper alloys have good strength and fatigue properties, and good
wear resistance when lubricated properly. Beryllium copper is commonly used for springs, bearings, and
bushings.

Titanium Alloys
Titanium alloys are light, strong, and have high corrosion resistance. Their density is much lower than
steel, and their strength-to-weight ratio is excellent. For this reason, titanium alloys are used commonly,
especially in the aerospace industry. One primary downside of titanium alloys is the high cost.

There are three categories of titanium alloys: alpha alloys, beta alloys, and alpha-beta alloys. Alpha
alloys do not respond to heat treatment and are instead strengthened through solid solution
strengthening processes. The beta and alpha-beta alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment,
primarily through precipitation hardening.

Polymers
Polymers are materials that consist of molecules formed by long chains of repeating units. They may be
natural or synthetic. Many useful engineering materials are polymers, such as plastics, rubbers, fibres,
adhesives, and coatings. Polymers are classified as thermoplastic polymers, thermosetting polymers
(thermosets), and elastomers.

Thermoplastic Polymers
The classification of thermoplastics and thermosets is based on their response to heat. If heat is applied
to a thermoplastic, it will soften and melt. Once it is cooled, it will return to solid form. Thermoplastics
do not experience any chemical change through repeated heating and cooling (unless the temperature
is high enough to break the molecular bonds). They are therefore very well suited to injection moulding.

Thermosetting Polymers
Thermosets are typically heated during initial processing, after which they become permanently hard.
Thermosets will not melt upon reheating. If the applied heat becomes extreme, however, the thermoset
will degrade due to the breaking of the molecular bonds. Thermosets typically have greater hardness
and strength than thermoplastics. They also typically have better dimensional stability than
thermoplastics, meaning that they are better at maintaining their original dimensions when subjected to
temperature and moisture changes.

Elastomers
Elastomers are highly elastic polymers with mechanical properties like rubber. Elastomers are commonly
used for seals, adhesives, hoses, belts, and other flexible parts. The strength and stiffness of rubber can
be increased through a process called vulcanization, which involves adding sulphur and subjecting the
material to high temperature and pressure. This process causes cross-links to form between the polymer
chains.

Ceramics
Ceramics are solid compounds that may consist of metallic or non-metallic elements. The primary
classifications of ceramics include glasses, cement, clay products, refractories, and abrasives.

Ceramics generally have excellent corrosion and wear resistance, high melting temperature, high
stiffness, and low electrical and thermal conductivity. Ceramics are also very brittle materials.

Glass
Glasses are common materials and are seen in applications including windows, lenses, and containers.
Glasses are amorphous, whereas the other ceramics are mainly crystalline. The primary advantages of
glasses include transparency and ease of fabrication. The base element of most glasses is silica, and
other components can be added to modify their properties. Common processes used to form glass
include:

 heating until melting, then pouring into moulds to cast into useful shapes
 heating until soft, then rolling
 heating until soft, then blow into desired shapes

Cement
Cement are materials that, after mixing with water, form a paste that then hardens. Because of this
characteristic, cement can be formed into useful shapes while in paste form before they harden into
rigid structures. Plaster of Paris is one common cement. The most common cement is called Portland
cement, which is made by mixing clay and limestone and then firing at high temperatures. Portland
cement is used to form concrete, which is made by mixing it with sand, gravel, and water. It can also be
mixed with sand and water to form mortar. Like other ceramics, cement are weak in tension but strong
in compression. Cement is very inexpensive to produce, and it is used widely in the construction of
buildings, bridges, and other large structures.

Clay Products
Clay is a very common ceramic material. It can be mixed with water, shaped, and then hardened
through firing at high temperatures. The two primary classifications of clay products include structural
clay products and whiteware. Structural clay products see applications including bricks, tiles, and piping.
Whitewares see applications including pottery and plumbing fixtures.

Refractories
Refractory ceramics can withstand high temperatures and extreme environments. They can also provide
thermal insulation. Brick is the most common refractory ceramic.
Abrasives
Abrasive ceramics are hard materials that are used to cut, grind, and wear away other softer materials.
Typical properties of abrasives include high hardness, wear resistance, and temperature resistance.
Abrasives can either be bonded to a surface (e.g., grinding wheels and sandpaper), or can be used as
loose grains (e.g., sandblasting). Common abrasives include cemented carbide, silicon carbide, tungsten
carbide, aluminium oxide, and silica sand. Diamond is also an excellent abrasive, but it is expensive.

Composites
A composite material is a material in which one or more mutually insoluble materials are mixed or
bonded together. The primary classes of composites are particulate composites, fibrous composites, and
laminated composites.

Particulate Composites
Particulate composites are created by adding particles of one material to a matrix (the filler material).
The particles will typically account for less than 15% of the total material volume. The particles are
added to improve upon some shortcomings of the matrix material.

Fibrous Composites
A fibrous composite is a material in which fibres of one material are embedded within a matrix. The
fibres carry most of the stress, and the matrix serves to hold the fibres in place and transmit stress
between the fibres. The fibres can be short and randomly oriented, or they can be long and continuous.

Laminated Composites
Laminated composites are created by combining layers of composite materials. The layers will typically
differ in the orientation of the fibres, or they will differ in the material itself. Sandwich materials are
common, in which a lightweight material (such as foam or a honeycomb) will be placed in between
layers of strong, stiff material.

Testing of Engineering Materials

Testing materials is necessary for many reasons. The tests are: -

1. Tensile Test
2. Compression Test
3. Ductility Testing
4. Impact Testing
5. Creep Testing
6. Hardness Testing
7. Non-Destructive Testing.

Tensile Test:
The main principle of the tensile test denotes the resistance of a material to a tensile load applied axially
to a specimen. It is very important for the tensile test to be considered if the standard dimensions and
profiles are adhered to. The typical progress of the tensile test can be seen in the figure.
Let’s now look at another figure. In this figure, the gauge length (L0) is the length over which the
elongation of the specimen is measured. The minimum parallel length (Lc) is the minimum length over
which the specimen must maintain a constant cross-sectional area before the test load is applied. The
lengths L0, Lc. Li and the cross-sectional area (A) are all specified in BS 18.

The elongation obtained for a given force depends upon the length and area of the cross-section of the
specimen or component, since-

Elongation = Applied Force × L/E × A

where, L = Length, A = Cross-sectional area E = Elastic modulus.

Therefore, if the ratio [L/A] is kept constant (as it is in a proportional test piece), and E remains constant
for a given material, then comparisons can be made between elongation and applied force for
specimens of different sizes.
Compression Test:
Because of the presence of sub microscopic cracks, brittle materials are often weak in tension, as tensile
stress tends to propagate those cracks which are oriented perpendicular to the axis of tension. The
tensile strengths they exhibit are low and usually vary from sample to sample.

These same materials can never be quite strong in compression. Brittle materials are chiefly used in
compression, where their strengths are much higher. A schematic diagram of a typical compression test
is shown in the figure.

Figure shows a comparison of the compressive and tensile strengths of gray cast iron and concrete, both
of which are brittle materials.
Because the compression, increases the cross-sectional area of the sample, necking never occurs.
Extremely ductile materials are seldom tested in compression because the sample is constrained by
friction at the points of contact with the plants of the apparatus. This constraint gives rise to a
complicated stress distribution which can only be analysed in an approximate fashion.

Ductility Testing:
The percentage elongation, as determined by the tensile test is a measure of ductility test that can also
be performed by a simple bend test.

There are several ways in which this test can be done, as shown in the figure. The test chosen will
depend upon the ductility of the material and the severity of the test required.

This also applies to the following tests:

i. Close Bend Test:

The specimen is bent over on itself and flattened. No allowance is made for spring back, and the
material is satisfactory if the test can be completed without the metal tearing or fracturing.

ii. Angle Bend Test:

The material is bent over a former and the nose radius of the former and the angle of bend (θ°) are fixed
by the specification. Again, no allowance is made for spring back.

iii. 180° Bend Test:

This is a development of the angle bend test using a flat former as shown. Only the nose radius of the
former is specified.
Impact Testing (Toughness Testing):
Impact tests consist of striking a suitable specimen with a controlled blow and measuring the energy
absorbed in bending or breaking the specimen. The energy value indicates the toughness of the material
under test.

The below figure shows how a piece of high carbon steel rod will bend when in the annealed condition,
after hardening and tempering, the same piece of steel will fracture when hit with a different hammer.

There are several types of impact tests, and the most famous type is the Izod test.

In the Izod test, a 10mm square, notched specimen is used, it is preferred to use a specimen that have a
more than one or two and even three notched in the same specimen. The striker of the pendulum hits
the specimen with a kinetic energy of 162.72 J at a velocity of 3.8 m/s. Figure shows details of the
specimen and the manner in which it is supported.

Since the test uses a notched specimen, useful information can be obtained regarding the resistance of
the material to the spread of a crack which can originate from a point of stress concentration such as
sharp corners, undercuts, sudden changes in section, and machining marks in stressed components.
Such points of stress concentration should be eliminated during design and manufacture. Izod test is
suitable for room and high temp. The angle of (α): α < 90°, normally 90°.

It needs adjustment in the location of the specimen. The second type of impact test is the Charpy test.
While in the Izod test the specimen is supported as a cantilever, in the Charpy test, it is supported as a
beam. It is struck with a kinetic energy of 298.3 J at a velocity of 5m/s. The Charpy impact test is used for
testing the toughness of polymers. The figure shows details of the Charpy test- the way it is supported.

The Charpy test is better for the low-temperature test (-29°C strike to – 186°) α < 90° , normally 160°, α
= angle of the strike.

The Effect of Temperature on the Material’s Mechanical Properties:

i. The embrittlement of low-carbon steels at refrigerated temperatures, and hence they are
unsuitable for use in refrigeration plants and space vehicles.
ii. The nature of ductile material to behave as brittle material is called notch sensitivity. It
causes stress concentration and lowers the properties of the material.
iii. The impact test is also useful as a production tool in comparing manufactured materials
with others which have shown satisfactory service.
iv. Steels, like most other BCC metals and alloys, absorb more energy when they fracture in a
ductile fashion rather than in a brittle fashion.
v. Due to this the impact test is often used to assess the temperature of the transition from
the ductile to brittle state which occurs as the temperature is lowered.
vi. The transition temperature is also dependent on the shape of the notch in the specimen.
For identical materials, the sharper the notch, the higher the transition temperature.
Creep Test:
Creep testing is done in the tensile mode, and the type of test piece used is like the normal tensile test
piece. Generally, creep testing is carried out under constant-load conditions and utilizes dead weights
acting through a simple lever system.

In the creep testing, extensometer readings are noted at regular time intervals until the required
amount of data has been obtained, or until the test-piece is fractured, depending on whether the object
of the test is to determine the creep rate or to determine the total creep strain.

One of the difficulties in creep testing is that a single test takes a very long time to complete (10000
hours is 417 days), and there are serious difficulties in attempting to extrapolate from the results of
comparatively short-term tests to evaluate the probable behaviour of a material over a 10- or 20-year
period of service.

Creep is sensitive to both the applied load and the testing temperature, as shown in the figure-
increasing stress raises the level of the creep curve, and increasing temperature, which accelerates
recovery processes, increases the creep rate.

Creep deformation strength: the highest stress that a material can bear for a specific duration at a
certain temperature without excessive deformation which is redecided.

Creep rupture strength- The highest stress that a material can bear for a specific duration at a certain
temp, without rupture.

Hardness Testing:
It is done by indentation. A hard indenter is pressed into the specimen by a standard load, and the
magnitude of the indentation (either area or depth) is taken as a measure of hardness. Hardness tests
are in practice used for assessing material properties because they are quick and convenient. The most
well-known hardness tests are Brinell and Rockwell.

i. Brinell Hardness Test:

In this test, hardness is measured by pressing a hard steel ball into the surface of the test piece, using a
known load. It is important to choose the combination of load and bail size carefully so that the
indentation is free from distortion and suitable for measurement. The relationship of the Brinell
hardness [HB] which is between load P (kg), the diameter D (mm) of the hardened ball indenter and the
diameter d (mm) of the indentation on the surface is given by the expression-

For different materials, the ratio P/D2 has been standardized in order to obtain accurate and
comparative results such as-

K = P/D2

where K is a constant; typical values of K are-

Ferrous metals K = 30

Copper and copper alloys K = 10

Aluminium and aluminium alloys K = 5

Lead, tin and white-bearing metals K = 1

The figure shows how the Brinell hardness value is determined. The diameter of the indentation is
measured in two directions at right angles and the average was taken. The diameter is measured either
by using a microscope scale or by a projection screen with micrometre adjustment.

To ensure consistent results, the following precautions should be made:

a. To thickness of the specimen should be at least seven times the depth of the indentation to allow
unrestricted plastic flow below the indenter.

b. The edge of the indentation should be at least three times the diameter of the indentation from the
edge of the test piece.

c. The test is unsuitable for materials whose hardness exceeds 500 HE, as the ball indenter tends to
flatten.

d. There are a definite relationship between strength and hardness so it is possible to measure the
tensile strength from the hardness test.
Drawback:

a. Sinking effect found in manganese steel and austenitic steel.

b. Piling-up effect- in lead, Sn, Mg

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT):

NDT is the method of detection and measurement of properties or condition of materials, structures,
machines without damaging or destroying their operational capabilities.

Examples of NDT are: magnetic dust method, penetrating liquid method, ultrasonic test and
radiography. All NDTs are used to detect various types of flaws on the surface of material or internal
inclusions of impurities and these techniques are also very useful during preventive maintenance and
repair. There are few techniques which do not require any special apparatus and are quite simple to
handle and only a moderate skill being required.

Some of the applications of NDTs are detecting:

(i) Surface cracks

(ii) Material composition

(iii) Internal inclusions

(iv) Internal voids and discontinuities and

(v) Condition of internal stresses.

Ultrasonic Test:

High frequency ultrasonic (sound) waves are applied to the test piece by a piezoelectric crystal. If the
test piece is free from cracks, or flawless, then it reflects ultrasonic waves without distortion.

If there are any flaws in the specimen, the time taken by the ultrasonic waves will be less as the
reflection of these waves will be from flaw points and not from the bottom of the specimen.

Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is used to receive the sound signals, whose time base circuit is
connected to it. This test is a very fast method used to test aerospace components and automobiles.
This test is generally used to detect internal cracks like shrinkage cavities, hot tears, zones of corrosion
and non-metallic inclusions.

Liquid-Penetration Test:
This test is used for detection of small defects which are very small to detect with the naked eye. This
test is used to detect surface cracks or flaws in non-ferrous metals. This test employs a visible colour
contrast dye penetrant technique for the detection of open surface flaws in metallic and non-metallic
objects. The penetrants are applied by spraying over the surface of material to be inspected. The excess
penetrant is then washed or cleaned. Absorbent powder is then applied to absorb the penetrants in the
cracks, voids which reveals the flaws.

This test reveals flaws such as shrinkage cracks, porosity, fatigue cracks, grinding cracks, forging cracks,
seams, heat treatment cracks and leaks etc., on castings, weldings, and machined parts, cutting tools,
pipes and tubes. If the fluorescent penetrant is used, the developed surface must be examined under
ultra violet light to see the presence of defects. This technique is used for non-porous and non-
absorbent materials.

Radiography:

Done in/on radiographic film by x-rays to know about crack or flaws in welding etc. to have better
results. Radiography technique is based upon exposing the components to short wavelength radiations
in the form of X-rays (wave length less than 10-11 cm to about 40 × 10-8 cm) or gamma (γ) rays
(wavelength about 0.005 × 10-8 to 3 × 10-8 cm) from a suitable source such as an X-ray tube or cobalt
60.

These tests are used to detect defects such as blow holes, cracks, shrinkage cavities and slag inclusions.
These defects are of special importance in components designed to withstand high temperatures and
pressure employed in power plant atomic reactors, chemical and pressure vessels and oil refining
equipments, because then (i.e., defects) cause stress concentration which may frequently lead to part
failure.

In X-ray radiography, the portion of the casting where defects are suspected is exposed to X-rays
emitted from the X-ray tube. A cassette containing X-ray film is placed behind and in contact with the
casting perpendicular to the rays. During exposure, X-rays penetrate the casting and thus affect the X-
ray film.

Since most defects (such as blow holes, porosity, cracks, etc.) possess less density than the sound metal
of the casting, they transmit X-rays better than the sound metal does; therefore film appears to be more
dark where defects are in line of X-ray beam. The exposed and developed X-ray film showing light and
dark areas is termed as Radiograph (or Exograph).