Class 10 Maths

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Revision Notes

Class - 10 Maths

Chapter 1 - Real Numbers


● Real numbers:
- All rational and irrational numbers taken together make the real
numbers. On the number line, any real number can be plotted.

● Euclid’s Division Lemma:


- A lemma is a verified statement that is utilised to prove another.
Euclid’s Division Lemma states that for any two integers a and b ,
there exists a unique pair of integers q and r such that a = b × q + r
where 0r < b.
- The lemma can be simply stated as :
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
- For any pair of dividend and divisor, the quotient and remainder
obtained are going to be unique.

● Euclid’s Division Algorithm:


- An algorithm is a set of well-defined steps that describe how to solve a
certain problem. The Highest Common Factor (HCF) of two positive
integers is computed using Euclid's division algorithm.
- Follow the steps below to find the HCF of two positive integers, say c
and d , with c > d:
Step 1: We apply Euclid’s Division Lemma to find two integers q
and r such that c = d × q + r where 0r <d .
Step 2: If r = 0, the H.C.F is d , else, we apply Euclid’s division
Lemma to d (the divisor) and r (the remainder) to get another pair of
quotient and remainder.
Step 3: Repeat Steps 1–3 until the remainder is zero. The needed HCF
will be the divisor at the last step.

● The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic:


The process of expressing a natural number as a product of prime
numbers is known as prime factorization.
Apart from the sequence in which the prime components occur, the
prime factorisation for a given number is unique.

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Example: 12=223, here 12 is represented as a product of its
prime factors 2 and 3 .

● Finding LCM and HCF:


- HCF is the product of the smallest power of each common prime
factor in the given numbers.
- LCM is the product of the greatest power of each prime factor,
involved in the given numbers.
- For any two positive integers a and b ,
HCF ( a, b ) × LCM ( a, b ) = a × b
- L.C.M can be used to find common occurrence sites. For instance, the
time when two people running at different speeds meet, or the ringing
of bells with various frequencies.

● Rational and Irrational numbers:


- If a number can be expressed in the form p /q where p and q are
integers and q  0 , then it is called a rational number.
- If a number cannot be expressed in the form p /q where p and q are
integers and q  0 , then it is called an irrational number.

● Number Theory:
- If p (a prime number) divides a2 , then p divides a as well. For
example, 3 divides 62 , resulting in 36, implying that 3 divides 6 .
- The sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is
irrational
- A non-zero rational and irrational number's product and quotient are
both irrational.
- p is irrational when p is a prime number. For example, 7 is a prime
number and 7 is irrational. The preceding statement can be proven
by the process of “Proof by contradiction”.

● Decimal Expansions of Rational Numbers:


p
- Let x = be a rational number with the prime factorization 2 n 5m ,
q
where n and m are non-negative integers. The decimal expansion of
x then comes to an end. Then x has a non-terminating repeated
decimal expansion (recurring).

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a
- If is a rational number, then its decimal expansion would terminate
b
if both of the following conditions are satisfied :
a) The H.C.F of a and b is 1 .
b) b can be expressed as a prime factorisation of 2 and 5 i.e in
the form 2 n 5m where either m or n , or both can be zero.
- If the prime factorisation of b contains any number other than 2 or 5 ,
then the decimal expansion of that number will be recurring

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Revision Notes

Class 10 – Maths

Chapter 2 – Polynomials

● If p ( x ) is a polynomial in x , the degree of the polynomial p ( x ) is the


largest power of x in p ( x ) .

● Types of Polynomials:
a) A linear polynomial is a polynomial with degree one.
b) A quadratic polynomial is a polynomial with degree two.
c) A cubic polynomial is a polynomial with degree three.

● Zeros of a Polynomial:
If p ( x ) is a polynomial in x and k is any real number, the value obtained
by substituting k for x in p ( x ) is known as the value of p ( x ) when x = k
and is denoted by p ( k ) . If p ( k ) = 0 , a real number k is said to be a zero
of a polynomial p ( x ) .

● The Geometrical Meaning of Polynomial Zeros:

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● The equation ax 2 + bx + c can have three cases for the graphs
a) Case (i):
Here, the graph cuts x- axis at two distinct points A and A' .

b) Case (ii): Here, the graph cuts the x- axis at exactly one point.

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c) Case (iii): Here, the graph is either completely above the x- axis or
completely below the x- axis.

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● If α and β are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial
p ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c, a  0 , then it is known that x - α and x - β are the
factors of p ( x ) .
b
a) Α + β = -
a
c
b) αβ =
a

● Division Algorithm for Polynomials:


- If p ( x ) and g ( x ) are any two polynomials with g ( x )  0 , then
polynomials q ( x ) and p ( x ) = g ( x ) × q ( x ) + r(x) r ( x ) can be found
such that , where r ( x ) = 0 or degree of r ( x )  degree of g ( x ) .
- This result is known as the Division Algorithm for polynomials.

● An example would make it easier to understand. So, consider a cubic


polynomial x3 - 3x 2 - x + 3 .

● Assuming that one of its zeroes is 1 , it is clear that x - 1 is a factor of


x3 - 3x 2 - x + 3 .

● So, x3 - 3x 2 - x + 3 can be divided by x - 1. Taking out this factor,


(x - 1)(x 2 - 2x - 3) .
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● Next, get the factors of x 2 - 2x - 3 by splitting the middle term.
( x + 1)( x - 3) .
x 3 − 3x 2 − x + 3 = ( x − 1)( x + 1)( x − 3)

● So, all the three zeroes of the cubic polynomial are 1, − 1, 3.

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Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables

Linear Equation
 An equation which can be put in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers
and both a and b are nonzero is called a linear equation in two variables.
Solution of an Equation
 Each solution (x, y) of a linear equation in two variables.
ax + by + c = 0, corresponds to a point on the line representing the equation, and vice-versa.
Pair of Linear Equations in Two Variables
 The general form for a pair of linear equations in two variables x and y is a1 x  b1 y  c1  0
And a2 x  b2 y  c2  0
 Geometrically they look like the following:

Graphical Method of Solutions


 x – 2y = 0
3x + 4y = 20
The solution is (4, 2), the point of intersection.
 To summarize the behavior of lines representing a pair of linear equations in two variables:
 The lines may intersect in a single point. In this case, the pair of equations has a unique solution
(consistent pair of equations).
 The lines may be parallel. In this case, the equations have no solution (inconsistent pair of
equations).
 The lines may be coincident. In this case, the equations have infinitely many solutions
[dependent (consistent) pair of equations]

Substitution Method
The following are the steps:
 Find the value of one variable, say y in terms of the other variable, i.e., x from either equation,
whichever is convenient.
 Substitute this value of y in the other equation, and reduce it to an equation in one variable,
i.e., in terms of x, which can be solved. Sometimes, you can get statements with no variable.
If this statement is true, you can conclude that the pair of linear equations has infinitely many
solutions. If the statement is false, then the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
 Substitute the value of x (or y) obtained in Step 2 in the equation used in Step 1 to obtain the
value of the other variable.

Elimination Method
 Steps in the elimination method:
 First multiply both the equations by some suitable non-zero constants to make the coefficients
of one variable (either x or y) numerically equal.
 Then add or subtract one equation from the other so that one variable gets eliminated. If you
get an equation in one variable, go to Step 3.
If in Step 2, we obtain a true statement involving no variable, then the original pair of equations
has infinitely many solutions.
If in Step 2, we obtain a false statement involving no variable, then the original pair of
equations has no solution, i.e., it is inconsistent.
 Solve the equation in one variable (x or y) so obtained to get its value.
 Substitute this value of x (or y) in either of the original equations to get the value of the other
variable.

Cross Multiplication Method


Steps:
Write the given equations in the form
a1 x  b1 y  c1  0
And a2 x  b2 y  c2  0
Taking the help of the diagram

Write Equations as

Find x and y, provided a1b2  a2b1  0


Revision Notes
Class - 10 Maths
Chapter 4 - Quadratic Equation
Definition of quadratic equation:
● A quadratic equation in the variable x is an equation of the form
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , where a,b,c are real numbers, a 0.
● For example, 2x 2 + x − 300 = 0 is a quadratic equation

Standard form of quadratic equation:


● Any equation of the form p ( x ) = 0 , where p ( x ) is a polynomial of degree 2
, is a quadratic equation.
● When we write the terms of p ( x ) in descending order of their degrees, then
we get the standard form of the equation.
● That is, ax 2 + bx + c, a  0 is called the standard form of a quadratic
equation.

Roots of quadratic equation:


● A solution of the equation p(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0 , with a 0 is called a root
of the quadratic equation.
● A real number  is called a root of the quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a  0 if a 2 + b + c = 0 .
● It means x= satisfies the quadratic equation or x= is the root of
quadratic equation.
● The zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax 2 + bx + c and the roots of the
quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are the same.

Method of solving a quadratic equation:


1. Factorization method
a. Factorize the quadratic equation by splitting the middle term.

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b. After splitting the middle term, convert the equation into linear factors by
taking common terms out.
c. Then on equating each factor to zero the roots are determined.
d. For example:
 2x 2 − 5x + 3 (Split the middle term)
 2x − 2x − 3x + 3 (Take out common terms to determine linear factors)
2

 2x ( x − 1) − 3 ( x − 1)
 ( x − 1)( 2x − 3) (Equate to zero)
 ( x − 1)( 2x − 3) = 0
When ( x − 1) = 0 , x = 1
3
When ( 2x − 3 ) = 0 , x =
2
3
So, the roots of 2x 2 − 5x + 3 are 1 and
2

2. Method of completing the square


a. The solution of quadratic equation can be found by converting any quadratic
equation to perfect square of the form ( x + a ) − b2 = 0 .
2

b. To convert quadratic equation x 2 + ax + b = 0 to perfect square equate b i.e.,


the constant term to the right side of equal sign then add square of half of a
i.e., square of half of coefficient of x both sides.
c. To convert quadratic equation of form ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a  0 to perfect square
first divide the equation by a i.e., the coefficient of x 2 then follow the above-
mentioned steps.
d. For example:
 x 2 + 4x − 5 = 0 (Equate constant term 5 to the right of equal sign)
 x 2 + 4x = 5 (Add square of half of 4 both sides)
2 2
4 4
 x + 4x +   = 5 +  
2

2 2
 x 2 + 4x + 4 = 9
 ( x + 2) = 9
2

 ( x + 2 ) − ( 3) = 0
2 2

It is of the form ( x + a ) − b2 = 0
2

Now,

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 ( x + 2 ) − ( 3) = 0
2 2

 ( x + 2) = 9
2

 ( x + 2 ) = 3
x =1 and x =−5
So, the roots of x 2 + 4x − 5 = 0 are 1 and −5

3. By using quadratic formula


a. The root of a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 is given by formula
− b  b 2 − 4ac
x= , where b2 − 4ac is known as discriminant.
2a

b. If b2 − 4ac  0 then only the root of quadratic equation is given by


− b  b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
c. For example:
 x 2 + 4x + 3
On using quadratic formula, we get
−4  ( 4) − 4 1 3
2

x=
2 1
−4  16 − 12
x=
2
−4  4
x=
2
−4  2
x=
2

−4 + 2
x = , x = −1
2
−4 − 2
x = , x =−3
2
So, the roots of x 2 + 4x + 3 = 0 are −1 and −3
Nature of roots based on discriminant:

a. If b2 − 4ac = 0 then the roots are real and equal

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b. If b2 − 4ac  0 then the roots are real and distinct
c. If b2 − 4ac  0 then the roots are imaginary

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Revision Notes
Class - 10 Maths
Chapter 5 - Arithmetic Progression

Definition of Arithmetic Progression

● An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers, obtained by adding a fixed


number to the preceding term starting from the first term such that the difference
between each consecutive term remains the same.

● Each of the numbers in the list is called a term and the fixed number is called the
common difference of the AP which can be any integer.

For example: 2,5,8,11.... having common difference of 3 .

General term of an AP

1. The general form of an AP is:

a ,a  d ,a  2d ,a  3d ,....,a  (n  1)d

2. An AP with finite number of terms is called a finite AP having a  (n  1)d as


the last term. An AP which neither has a finite number of terms nor has a last
term is called an infinite AP.

For example:

a) Finite AP: 1,3,5,7,....,25

b) Infinite AP: 2,4,6,8.....

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3. The n th term of the AP: an  a  (n  1)d , where a is the first term of the
sequence and d is the common difference.

The Second term: a 2  a  (2  1)d  a  d

Similarly, the third term a 3  a  (3  1)d  a  2d

The fourth term a 4  a  (4  1)d  a  3d and so on till the last term.

Example 1:

An AP has a first term 3 , common difference 4 . Find the third and fifth term of
the AP.

Solution:

a  3, d  4

a 3  3  (3  1)4

a 3  11

Similarly,

a 5  3  (5  1)4

a 5  19

4. n th term of an AP from the end: tn  L  (n  1)d , where L is the last term of


the AP.

Example 2:

An AP has a common difference 2 and last term 24 . Find the fourth term of the
AP from the end.

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Solution:

d  2, L  24

t 4  24  (4  1)2

t 4  18

Sum of the terms of an AP

1. Sum of n terms of an AP if first term and common difference is given:

n
S  (2a  (n  1)d)
2

2. Sum of n terms of an AP if first term and last term l is given:

n
S  (a  l)
2

Example 3:

Find the sum of first 10 terms of the AP 1,4,7,10.....34.

Solution:

10
S (2 1  (10  1)3)
2
 5(2  27)

 5  29

 145

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Triangles

Similar Figures

The above are similar figures.


 All congruent figures are similar but similar figures need not be congruent.
 Two regular polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if
(i) their corresponding angles are equal and
(ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).

Similarity of Triangles:
 Two triangles are similar, if
a) their corresponding angles are equal and
b) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).

 Criterion of similarity:
In ABC and DEF, if
(i) if A = D, B = E, C = F and
AB BC CA
(ii) = = , then the two triangles are similar.
DE EF FD
Theorems in similarity (SSS, AA, SAS, BPT)
AA criterion of similarity or AAA criterion:
If in two triangles, the corresponding angles are equal, then their corresponding sides are in the
same ratio (or proportion) and hence the two triangles are similar.

This criterion is referred to as the AAA (Angle-Angle-Angle) criterion of similarity of two


triangles.

This theorem can be proved by taking two triangles ABC and DEF such that A = D, B = E,
C = F.

Cut DP = AB and DQ = AC and join PQ.


So, ABC  DPQ
This gives B = P = E and PQ EF
DP DQ
Therefore, 
PE QF
AB AC
i.e. 
DE DF
AB BC
Similarly,  and so
DE EF
AB BC AC
 =
DE EF DF

SSS criterion of similarity:


If in two triangles, the sides of one triangle are proportional to (i.e. in the same ratio of) the sides
of the other triangle, then their corresponding angles are equal and hence the two triangles are
similar.

This criterion is referred to as the SSS (Side-Side-Side) similarity criterion for two triangles.
This theorem can be proved by taking two triangles ABC and DEF such that
AB BC CA
= = (< 1)
DE EF FD

Cut DP = AB and DQ = AC and join PQ.


DP DQ
It can be seen that  and
PE QF
PQ EF
So, P = E and Q = F
DP DQ PQ
Therefore,  
DE DF EF

DP DQ BC
So,  
DE DF EF
So, BC = PQ

SAS criterion of similarity:


If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of the other triangle and the sides including these
angles are proportional, then the two triangles are similar.

This criterion is referred to as the SAS (Side-Angle-Side) similarity criterion for two triangles.

As before, this theorem can be proved by taking two triangles ABC and DEF such that
AB AC
= (< 1) and A = D.
DE DF
Cut DP = AB, DQ = AC and join PQ.
Now, PQ EF and ABC  DPQ
So, A = D, B = P and C = Q
Therefore, ABC  DEF

Basic Proportionality theorem:


If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in distinct points,
the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.

Proof: We are given a triangle ABC in which a line parallel to side BC intersects the other two
sides AB and AC at D and E respectively.

AD AE
We need to prove that 
DB EC
Let us join BE and CD and then draw
DM  AC and EN  AB
1
Now, area of ADE =  base  height
2
1
=  AD  EN
2
Recall from Class IX, that area of ADE is denoted as ar(ADE).
1
So, ar(ADE) =  AD  EN
2
1
Similarly, ar(BDE) =  DB  EN
2
1
ar(ADE) =  AE  DM and
2
1
ar(DEC) =  EC  DM
2
1
 AD  EN
ar ( ADE ) 2
Therefore, 
ar ( BDE ) 1
 DB  EN
2
AD
= ... (1)
DB
1
 AE  DM
ar ( ADE ) 2
and 
ar ( DEC ) 1
 EC  DM
2
AE
= …(2)
EC

Note that BDE and DEC are on the same base DE and between the same parallels BC and DE.
So, ar(BDE) = ar(DEC)...(3)
Therefore, from (1), (2) and (3), we have:
AD AE
=
DB EC

Areas of Similar Triangles:


The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of their
corresponding sides.

Proof: We are given two triangles ABC and PQR such that ABC  PQR

We need to prove that


2 2
ar( ABC )  AB   BC 
2
 CA 
        
ar( PQR )  PQ   QR   RP 
For finding the areas of the two triangles, we draw altitudes AM and PN of the triangles.
1
Now, ar(ABC) =  BC  AM
2
1
and ar(PQR) =  QR  PN
2
1
 BC  AM
ar ( ABC ) 2
So,  … (1)
ar ( PQR ) 1
 QR  PN
2
Now, in ABM and PQN,
B = Q (As ABC  PQR)
and M = N (Each is 90°)
So, ABM  PQN (AA similarity criterion)
AM AB
Therefore,  … (2)
PN PQ
Also, ABC  PQR (Given)
AB BC CA
So,   … (3)
PQ QR RP
ar ( ABC ) AB AM
Therefore,  
ar ( PQR ) PQ PN
[From (1) & (3)]
AB AB
=  [From (2)]
PQ PQ
2
 AB 
=  
 PQ 
Now using (3) we get:
2 2
 AB   BC   CA 
2
ar ( ABC )
=   =   =  
ar ( PQR )  PQ   QR   RP 

Proof of Pythagoras Theorem Using Similarity

You may note that in ADB and ABC


A = A
and ADB = ABC
So, ADB  ABC
Similarly, BDC  ABC
From (1) and (2), triangles on both sides of the perpendicular BD are similar to the whole triangle
ABC.
Also, since ADB  ABC
and BDC  ABC
So, BDC  BDC

If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle to the hypotenuse,
then the triangles on both sides of the perpendicular are similar to the whole triangle and to each
other.

Let us now apply this theorem in proving the Pythagoras Theorem:


In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides.

Proof: We are given a right triangle ABC right angled at B.

We need to prove that AC2 = AB2 + BC2


Let us draw BD  AC.
Now, ADB  ABC
AD AB
So,  (Sides are proportional)
AB AC
or AD  AC = AB2 … (1)
Also, BDC  ABC
CD BC
So, 
BC AC
or CD  AC = BC2 … (2)
Adding (1) and (2),
AD  AC + CD  AC = AB2 + BC2
Or AC (AD + CD) = AB2 + BC2
Or AC  AC = AB2 + BC2
Or AC2 = AB2 + BC2
Converse of Pythagoras Theorem:
In a right triangle, if the square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides,
then the angle opposite the first side is a right angle.

Proof: Here we are given a triangle ABC in which AC2 = AB2 + BC2
We need to prove that B = 90°
To start with, we construct a PQR right angled at Q such that PQ = AB and QR = BC

Now, from PQR, we have:


PR2 = PQ2 + QR2 (Pythagoras Theorem, as Q = 90°)
Or PR2 = AB2 + BC2 (By construction). (1)
But AC2 = AB2 + BC2 (Given)… (2)
So, AC = PR [From (1) and (2)] … (3)
Now, in ABC and PQR,
AB = PQ (By construction)
BC = QR (By construction)
AC = PR [Proved in (3) above]
So, ABC  PQR (SSS congruence)
Therefore, B = Q (CPCT)
But Q = 90° (By construction)
So, Q = 90°
Revision Notes
Class 10 Mathematics
Chapter 7 – Co-ordinate Geometry

Important Terms and Concepts:

 “The coordinate axes are of perpendicular lines " XOX " and " YOY "
intersecting at O .”
 The plane is divided into four quadrants by the axes.
 The Cartesian plane is the plane that contains the axes.
 The lines " XOX " and " YOY " are known as the x -axis and y -axis,
respectively, and are commonly drawn horizontally and vertically as seen in the
picture.
 O , is the Point of Intersection of the axes which is known as origin.
 Abscissae are the values of x measured along the x -axis from O . x has positive
values along OX , but negative values along OX' .
 Similarly, ordinate refers to the values of y measured along the y axis from O .
 y has positive values along OY , but negative values along OY' .
 The coordinates of a point are the ordered pair containing the abscissa and
ordinate of a point.

Distance Formula:
 To find the distance two points A  x1 , y1  and B  x 2 , y 2 

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 1


 From The Figure,
AC = x 2 - x1
BC = y2 - y1
Therefore, In ABC ,
By using the Pythagoras Theorem, we get
AB2 = AC2 + BC2
AB2 =  x 2 - x1  +  y 2 - y1 
2 2

 x 2 - x1  +  y 2 - y1 
2 2
AB =

Section Formula:
 To find the coordinates of a point which divides the line segment joining two
given points in a given ratio (internally).

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 2


 Let P  x , y  divide the join of A  x1 , y1  and B  x 2 , y 2  in the Ratio m:n .
Here,
 PAC =  BPD
 PCA =  BDP  900
Therefore, by using AA similarity method, we get
AC  x  x1
PD  x 2  x
From Similarity Property, we get
AC m
=
PD n
x-x1
=
x 2 -x
m
=
n

Now, make x the subject of the formula,


nx - nx1 = mx 2 - mx
Mx + nx = mx 2 + nx1
X  m + n  = mx 2 + nx1
Therefore,
mx 2 + nx1
X=
m+n
Similarly, we can show that
my 2 + ny1
Y=
m+n
 mx 2 + nx1 my 2 + ny1 
Thus, the Co-ordinate of P are  , .
 m+n m+n 

Mid−Point Formula:
 If P is the mid−point of AB , then m : n ,
Therefore, the ratio becomes 1:1
And hence,

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 3


mx 2 + nx1
X=
m+n
x + x1
X= 2
1+1
x + x1
X= 2
2
Similarly, we get
y + y2
Y= 1
2
 x + x 2 y1 + y 2 
Thus, the Co-ordinate of P are  1 , 
 2 2 
 Note:
When the point P divides the line joining AB in the ration m : n externally then,
 mx 2 - nx1 my 2 - ny1 
The Co-ordinate of P are  , 
 m-n m-n 

Centroid of a Triangle:
 Centroid is the point of intersection of three medians.
 It is the point of intersection of a median
 AG : GD is 2 :1

To find the coordinates of the centroid of a triangle:


Let the coordinates of the vertices of ABC be A  x1 ,y1  , B  x 2 ,y 2  and C  x 3 ,y3 

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 4


Let G  x,y  be the centroid of the ABC
Here, D is the midpoint of BC , and hence
By applying the mid−point formula, we get
x +x y +y
a = 2 3 and b = 2 3
2 2
We know that,
In a 2 :1 ratio, point G splits the median.

Therefore, by applying the section formula, we get


mx 2 + nx1
X=
m+n
2  a  + 1 x1 
X=
2+1
 x + x3 
2 2  + x1
X=  2 
3
x  x2 + x3
X= 1
3
Similarly,
2  b  + 1 y1 
Y
2+1
 y + y3 
2 2  + y1
Y=  2 
3
y + y3 + y3
Y= 1
3
 x + x 2  x 3 y1 + y 2  y3 
Therefore, Coordinates of the centroid are  1 , 
 3 3 

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 5


Area of the Triangle:
To find the area of triangle whose vertices are  x1 ,y1  ,  x 2 ,y 2  and  x 3 ,y3 

Let, A  x1 ,y1  , B  x 2 ,y 2  and C  x 3 ,y3  be the vertices of a triangle ABC


Area of ABC
= Area of Trapezium ABML + Area of Trapezium ALNC
- Area of Trapezium BMNC
1 1 1
= ML  MB  LA   LN  LA  NC   MN  MB  NC 
2 2 2
1 1 1
  x1  x 2  y 2  y1    x 3  x1  y1  y3    x 3  x 2  y 2  y3 
2 2 2
1
  x1  y 2  y3   x 2  y3  y1   x 3  y1  y 2  
2

Arrow Method:
It is to obtain the formula for the area of the triangle
x1 y1 1
1
x 2 y2 1
2
x 3 y3 1
1
  x1  y 2  y3   x 2  y3  y1   x 3  y1  y 2  
2

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 6


Note:
1. If the points A, B and C we take in the anticlockwise direction, then the area
will be positive.
2. If the points we take in clockwise direction, the area will be negative.
3. So we always take the absolute value of the area calculated.
Therefore,
Area of triangle
1
  x1  y2  y3   x 2  y3  y1   x 3  y1  y 2   .
2
4. If the area of a triangle is zero, then the three points are collinear.

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 7


Trigonometry

Introduction
Trigonometry is based on the right triangle. It is the study of the relationship between the sides
and angles of a triangle. The height of a building, tree, tower, width of a river etc. can be
determined with the help of trigonometry.

Trigonometric Ratios:
There are six t-ratios.
Reciprocal Ratios:

Trigonometric Identities:
Proof 3:

Trigonometric Ratios of Standard Angles


00, 300, 450, 600 and 900 are called standard angles.

Trigonometric ratios of 450


Trigonometric ratios of 300 and 600
Let A = 600 and C= 300

In a 300 – 600- 900 triangle, it can be proved that the hypotenuse is double the side opposite to 300.
Trigonometric ratios of 00

ABC is a right-angled triangle with B = 900. A is an acute angle and is made smaller and
smaller till it becomes zero (fig v). As A gets smaller and smaller, the length of the side BC
keeps decreasing. The point ‘C’ gets closer to the point B and at one time it coincides with ‘B’, so
that A becomes zero.
If A = 0, BC = 0
BC 0
sin A =  =0
AC AC
 sin 0 = 0
AB AB
cos A =  =1
AC AB
 cos 0 = 1
sin 0 0
tan 0 =  =0
cos 0 1
1 1
cot 0 =  = not defined
tan 0 0
1 1
sec 0 =  =1
cos 0 1
1 1
and cosec 0 =  = not defined
sin 0 0
Trigonometric ratios of 900

In right-angled triangle ABC, A is made larger and larger till it becomes 900 (fig v). As A gets
larger and larger, C gets smaller and smaller and the length of the side AB keeps decreasing. The
point ‘A’ gets closer to the point B and at one time it coincides with ‘B’, so that C becomes zero.
Line of Sight
 It is an imaginary line drawn from the eye of the observer to the point of the object viewed by
the observer.

Angle of Elevation
 It is the angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when the object is above the
horizontal level. It is the case when we look up to see the object.

Angle of Depression
 It is the angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when the object is below the
horizontal level. It is the case when we look down to see the object.
Revision Notes

Class 10 Maths
Chapter 9 - Applications of Trigonometry

Angles of Elevation and Depression:


● The line of sight is a line drawn from an observer's eye to a point in the
thing being observed.
● Angle of Elevation:
When the point being observed is above the horizontal level, the angle
created by the line of sight with the horizontal is called the angle of
elevation of the point being viewed.
● Let O and P be two points, with P being the greater level. Assume that
OA and PB are horizontal lines that pass through O and P , respectively.
● If the observer is at O and the object is at P , the line OP is known as the
line of sight of Point P , and the angle AOP between the line of sight and
the horizontal line OA is known as the angle of elevation of Point P as
seen from O .

● Angle of Depression:
The angle created by the line of sight with the horizontal when the point is
below the horizontal level is known as the angle of depression of a point
on the object being viewed.
● The angle BPO is known as the angle of depression of O as seen from P
if the observer is at P and the object under examination is at O .
● From the diagram, it is obviously clear that the angle of elevation of a point
P when viewed from a point O is equal to the angle of depression of O
when viewed from P .

Class X Science www.vedantu.com 1


Example:
From the top of a 7 m high building, the angle of elevation of the top of a
cable tower is 600 and the angle of depression of its foot is 450 . Determine
the height of the tower.

Answer:

● Given Data:
Given height of building = 7 m
Angle of the elevation of top of a tower from the top of building = 600
Angle of the depression of the foot of a tower = 450

● To find:
We need to calculate the height of the tower, that is AE

● Solution:
From the given data, we have
Angle of elevation, that is
ACB = 600
Angle of depression, that is
BCE = 450
Here,
BE = CD
=7m
In the right angled triangle ABC ,
Opposite Side
tanθ =
Adjacent Side

Class X Science www.vedantu.com 2


Therefore,
Opposite Side
tan 600 =
Adjacent Side
h
tan 600 =
CB
Thus,
h = CB×tan 600
Since,
tan 600 = 3
Therefore,
h = CB× 3
h = 3 CB ------ (1)

In the right angled triangle CBE ,

Opposite Side
tanθ =
Adjacent Side

Therefore,

Opposite Side
tan 450 =
Adjacent Side
7
tan 450 =
CB
Since,
tan 450 = 1
Therefore,
7 = CB×1
CB = 7 ------ ( 2 )
By putting the equation ( 2 ) in the equation (1) , we get
h = 7× 3
AB = 7 3
Therefore, total height of the tower can be calculated as,

Total height of the tower,


AE = AB + BE

Class X Science www.vedantu.com 3


AE = 7 3 + 7
AE = 7 ( )
3 +1

Therefore, the total height of the tower is 7 ( )


3 + 1 unit.

Class X Science www.vedantu.com 4


Revision Notes
Class 10 Maths
Chapter 10 – Circles

1. Tangent to a Circle
A tangent to a circle is a straight line that only touches the circle once. The point
of tangency is the name given to this location. At the point of tangency, the
tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius.

2. Non-intersecting lines are made up of two or more lines that do not intersect,
fig (i): the circle and the line AB have no common point. It's worth noting that:

i. Lines that do not intersect can never meet.


ii. The parallel lines are another name for them.
iii. They stay at the same distance from one another at all times.

3. A secant is a line that crosses a curve at two or more separate locations. A


secant intersects a circle at exactly two locations in the case of a circle, in fig (ii):
the line AB intersects the circle at two points A and B. AB is the secant of the
circle.

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 1


4. Figure (iii): The line AB only touches the circle at one place. P denotes a point
on a line and a point on a circle. The point of contact is denoted by the letter P.
The tangent to the circle at P is AB.

5. Number of Tangents from a Point on a Circle

There are no tangents to the circle that can be made from a point inside the circle.

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 2


Only one tangent to a circle can be traced from a point on the circle.
P is a point on the circle in this illustration. At P, there is just one tangent. The
point of contact is denoted by the letter P.

Two tangents to a circle can be made from a point outside the circle. P is the
exterior point in this diagram. The tangents to the circle at points Q and R are PQ
and PR, respectively. The length of a tangent is the distance between the exterior
point and the point of contact of the tangent's segment. PQ and PR are the lengths
of the two tangents in this diagram.

1. Theorem 1:
The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point
of contact.

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 3


Given:
A tangent to the circle with centre O is AB. The point of contact is denoted by
the letter P. The radius of the circle is denoted by OP.
To prove:
OP ⊥ AB
Proof:
Let Q be any point on the tangent AB other than P, outside the circle.
For any tangent point Q that is not P.
The shortest distance between point O and line AB is OP.
The theorem is therefore proved by
OP ⊥ AB
(The shortest line segment drawn from a point to a given line is perpendicular to
the line).
As a result of the preceding theorem,
I. The point of contact is crossed by the perpendicular drawn from the centre to
the tangent of a circle.
II. OP is the radius of the circle with centre O. The tangent to the circle at P is the
perpendicular OP which is drawn at P.

2. Theorem2:
The lengths of tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal.

Given:
P is the outermost point of a circle with the centre O. The tangents from P to the
circle are PA and PB. The points of contact are A and B.
To prove:
PA=PB

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 4


Construction:
Join OA, OB, OP.
Proof:
In
 APO and  BPO ,
OA=OB , radius of the same circle.
OP=OP , common side
PA=PB
by CPCT theorem, third side of the triangles
According to the following theorem,
i. (CPCT) This indicates that near the circle's centre, the two tangents subtend
equal angles.
ii. (CPCT) The tangents to the line connecting the point and the circle's centre are
both equally inclined.
Alternatively, the circle's centre can be found on the angle bisector of APB ,
hence, PA=PB .

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 5


Revision Notes
Class - 10 Mathematics
Chapter 11 - Constructions

Division of a Line Segment :

To divide a line segment internally in a given ratio m:n, where both m and
n are positive integers.

Steps:
Step 1: Draw a line segment AB of a given length using a ruler.
Step 2: Draw any ray AX making an acute angle with AB .
Step 3: Along AX mark off ( m + n ) points, namely
A1,A2,....,Am,Am+1,...Am+n
Step 4: Join B to Am+n
Step 5: Through the point Am draw a line parallel to Am+nB at Am . Let this
line meet AB at ' C ' which divides AB internally in the ratio m:n.

Proof:

In ABAm+n , CAm is parallel to BAm+n .


By basic proportionality theorem, we get,
Here ' C ' divides AB internally in the ratio m:n.

Class X Mathematics www.vedantu.com 1


To Construct a Triangle Similar To a Given Triangle as Per the Given
Scale Factor:
Construct a ABC in which BC=4cm, B = 600 and C = 450 . Also,
4
construct a triangle whose sides are times the corresponding sides of
3
ABC.

Steps of construction:
Step 1: Construct a triangle ABC with the given data that are BC=4cm,
B = 600 and C = 450
Step 2: Construct an acute angle CBX downwards.
Step 3: On BX , make four equal parts and mark them as B, 1 B2, B3, B4
.
Step 4: Join ' C ' to B3 and draw a line through B4 parallel to B3C,
intersecting the extended line segment BC at C' .
Step 5: In the same way draw C'A' parallel to CA. Thus A'BC' is the
4
required triangle similar to ABC whose sides are times the
3
corresponding sides of ABC.

Construction of Tangents to a Circle:


To construct the tangents to a circle from a point outside it
Given: A circle with center ' O' and a point ' P ' outside it
Required: To construct the tangents to the circle from P .

Class X Mathematics www.vedantu.com 2


Steps of construction:
Step 1: Draw a circle with center ' O'
Step 2: Join OP.
Step 3: Draw the perpendicular bisector OP. It meets OP at ' M '.
Step 4: Taking ' M ' as center and OM as radius draw arcs which cut the
circle with center ' O' at two points. Name them as Q and R .
Step 5: Join PQ and PR .
Step 6: PQ and PR are the required tangents to the circle with center ' O'
from an external point ' P '.

Note:
We can prove that the length of PQ and PR are equal.

Class X Mathematics www.vedantu.com 3


Revision Notes
Class 10 Mathematics
Chapter 12 – Areas Related to Circles

Circles:
The path of a point moving in such a way that its distance from a fixed point is
always the same is called a circle. That fixed point is called the centre of that
circle and that path is called the locus of that point. The fixed distance between
the centre and path is called the radius of that circle. We can see many examples
of circles around us like bangles, round chapatis, dial watch, sun, etc.

● Perimeter of a circle – Perimeter is the circumferential length of a closed


shape or a polygon. In case of circle, if we travel once around a circle, then
the length covered gives us the perimeter of circumference. Circumference of
a circle always bears a constant ratio with its diameter, which is denoted by a
Greek letter  . Mathematically,
Circumference
=
Diameter
 Circumference =  diameter
 Circumference =  d
 Circumference =  2r (Where r is the radius of circle and d = 2r ).

● Area of a circle – The space covered or occupied by a polygon in a two-


dimensional plane is called the area. In case of a circle, it is the space
occupied withing its boundary or the perimeter. If, r is the radius of a given
circle, then the formula for finding the area is given as;
Area =  r 2

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 1


Pi (  ):
The value of  was given by the great Indian mathematician Aryabhatta. He
62832
gave an approximate value of  as  = which is almost equal to 3.1416 .
20000
It should be noted that  is an irrational number as its value is non-terminating
22
and non-recurring. For calculation purposes, we often take the value of  as
7
which in turn is a rational number.

Semicircle:
When a circle is cut into half along a diameter, semicircle is formed as shown
below. Its perimeter consists of length of half a circle and the length of a diameter.
If the semicircle is open, then diameter length is not added. If the length of
diameter is given by d and radius is given by r then perimeter is given by,
Perimeter = r + d (For closed semicircle)
Perimeter = r (For open semicircle)

And the area of a semicircle is just half the area of a circle and is mathematically
r 2
given as .
2
r 2
Similarly, area of a quadrant of a circle is given by .
4

Sector of a circle:
The portion of a circle enclosed within an arc and two radii of that circle is called
as sector.

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 2


Let us take the central angle between the radii is  which is 360 for a complete
circle. Now let the length of that arc be l . Then the length l can be found out
using the following relation,
l = 360  2r .
Now, perimeter of sector is given as 2r + l .

Similarly, area of sector is given by  r 2 .
360

Segment of a circle:
The part of the circular region enclosed between a chord and the corresponding
arc of that circle is called the segment of a circle. The chord having centre of the
circle as a point on it is the diameter and also the longest chord of the circle and
divides the circle into two equal halves. When the chord is not the diameter, then
the portion consisting the centre of circle is called the major segment and the
other region is called the minor segment.

In the diagram above the chord, BC divides the circle in two segments. Such as;
Area of minor segment = Area of sector ABDC − Area of ABC .
And area of major segment = Area of circle − Area of minor segment.
1
Here, area of ABC can be found out using the formula r 2 sin  .
2

And the area od sector ABDC is given by  r 2 .
360
   1 
Hence, the area of segment ACB =   r 2  −  r 2 sin  
 360  2 
  sin  
= r2  − .
 360 2 

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 3


Area of a ring:
Ring is the region between two concentric circles having different radii. Let the
radius of larger circle be R and radius of smaller circle be r .

Hence the area of the ring is given by;


R 2 − r 2

= (R 2 − r2 ) .

Class X Maths www.vedantu.com 4


Surface Areas and Volumes

Cuboid

Total surface area = 2 (lb + bh + hl) Sq. units


Lateral surface area = Area of 4 walls = 2h (l + b) Sq. units
Volume = lbh Cu. units

Cube

Let each side be 'a' units


Total surface area = 6a2 Sq. units
Lateral surface area = 4a2 Sq. units
Volume = a3 Cu. units

Cylinder

C.S.A = Sq. units


T.S.A = ( ) Sq. units
Volume = Cu. units
Cone

C.S.A = sq. units


T.S.A = ( )sq. units
Volume = cu. units

Sphere

Area = Sq. units


Volume = Cu. units

Hemisphere

C.S.A = Sq. units


T.S.A = Sq. units
Volume = Cu. units
Surface Area of a Combination of Solids

Total surface area of such a combined solid is found by adding the curved surface areas of the
individual parts.

Volume of a Combination of Solids


Volume of the new solid formed by the combination of solids is the sum of the volumes of the
individual solids.

Conversion of solid from one Shape to another


When one solid is converted into other solid, then their volumes are the same.

Frustum of a Cone
Frustum of a cone is a solid obtained from a cone. It is a part of a cone. When we cut the cone by
a plane parallel to its base and remove the top portion of the cone, the portion left over is called
frustum of a cone.
' r1 ' is the radius of the bigger circular portion. 'r2 ' is the radius of the smaller circular portion. 'h'
is the perpendicular distance between two centres. It is height of the frustum.
1. Volume of a frustum = [ ]
2. Curved surface area of a frustum
( )
Where √ ( )
3. Total surface area of a frustum = ( )

Derivation of a formula to find the volume and surface area of a frustum of a cone

Let 'h' be the height, 'l' the slant height and r1 and r2 be the radii of the bases of the frustum of a
cone and r1 > r2 . Now complete the conical portion OCD. Volume of frustum of the right circular
cone is the difference in the volumes of the two right circular cones OAB and OCD.
Let the height of the cone OAB be 'h1 ' and its slant height be 'l1 '
OP = h1 , OA = OB = l1
The height of the cone OCD = h1 - h
∆OQD ~ ∆OPB (AA similarity)

…… (1)

Height of the cone OCD =

= …… (2)
Volume of the frustum of cone = volume of the cone OAB Volume of the cone OCD
= ( )
= [ ]
From (1) and (2)
( )( )
= [ ] { }

Volume = [ ]
In the same way we can find the C.S.A and T.S.A of a frustum.
C.S.A = ( ) √ ( )
T.S.A = ( )
Relations among l, h, r1 and r2

In a right angled triangle ABC,


AB2 = AC2 + BC2
l2 = h2 + (r1 – r2 )2
Statistics

Mean of Grouped Data


Mean is that value of central tendency which is the average of the observations.
There are three methods to find mean for a frequency distribution.
(i) Direct method

where x is the mid-interval


f is the frequency
M is the mean
(ii) (ii) Assumed Mean method

where A = assumed mean


d=x-A
(iii) (iii) Step-deviation method

where i = class size

Mode of Grouped Data


Mode is that value among the observations which has the maximum frequency.
In a grouped frequency distribution, we locate the modal class and find the mode using the
following formula.
 f1  f 0 
Mode = l     h
 2 f1  f 0  f 2 
l - lower limit of the modal class
h - size of the class interval
f1 - frequency of the modal class
f0 - frequency of the class preceding the modal class
f2 - frequency of the class succeeding the modal class

Median of Grouped Data


Median is a measure of central tendency which gives the value of the middle-most observation in
the data.
In a grouped frequency distribution, we locate the median class and find the median using the
following formula.
N 
 c
Median = l   2  h
 f 
 
 
l - Lower limit of the median class
c - Cumulative frequency preceding the median class frequency
h - Width of the class interval
N = Sum of the frequencies

Working rule
Step 1: Prepare the table containing less than the cumulative frequency with the help of the given
frequencies.
N
Step 2: Find out the cumulative frequency to which belongs. Class interval of this cumulative
2
frequency is the median class interval.
Step 3: Find out the frequency f and lower limit l of this median class.
Step 4: Find the width 'h' of the median class interval.
Step 5: Find the cumulative frequency c of the class preceding the median class.
Step 6: Apply the formula
N 
 c
Median = l   2   h , to find the median.
 f 
 
 

Graphs in Statistics
Graphical Representation of Cumulative Frequency Distribution
Cumulative frequency is obtained by adding the frequency of a class interval and the frequencies
of the preceding intervals up to that class interval.

Ogive (Cumulative Frequency Curve)


There are two ways of constructing an Ogive or cumulative frequency curve. (Ogive is pronounced
as O-jive). The curve is usually of 'S' shape.

To Plot an Ogive:
(i) We plot the points with coordinates having abscissae as actual limits and ordinates as the
cumulative frequencies
(ii) Join the plotted points by a smooth curve.
(iii) An Ogive is connected to a point on the X-axis representing the actual lower limit of the first
class.
Probability

A Theoretical Approach
Here, we try to predict what will happen without actually performing the experiment. We assume
that the outcomes of an experiment are equally like ly. We find that the experimental probability
of an event approaches its theoretical probability if the number of trials of an experiment is very
large.

Random Experiment
When an experiment is repeated several times the result may not be the same. These repetitions
are called trials.
The theoretical probability (classical probability) of an event 'E' written as P(E) is defined as, P
(E)

Compound Event
An event connected to a random experiment is a compound event if it is obtained by combining
two or more elementary events connected to the random experiment.

Occurrence of an event
An event corresponding to a random experiment is said to occur if any one of the elementary
events corresponding to the event is the outcome.

Impossible events
The event which never occurs is an impossible event. So the probability of an impossible event is
always zero.

Sure event
The event which certainly occurs is a sure event.
In general, it is true that for an event E,
( ̅) ( )
Here the event E is representing "not E". This is called the compound of the event 'E'. So 'E' and
E are complementary events.
Cards: A pack of cards consists of four suits.
They are
Spades ,
Hearts ,
Diamond and
Clubs
Each suit consists of 13 cards, nine cards numbered 2, 3, 4 ….10, an ace a jack, a queen, and a
king. Spades and Clubs are black in colour. Hearts and Diamonds are red in colour. So there are
26 black cards and 26 red cards. King, queen and jack are called face cards. There are totally 12
(4 x 3) face cards in a pack of 52 cards. I.e. in each suit we have 3 face cards.
Coins: A coin has two sides namely head and tail. In the experiment o f tossing a coin once, there
are 2 possible outcomes - 1 head, 1 tail.
1
P (Head) = = P (Tail)
2

Die: A die is a well balanced cube with six faces numbered from 1 to 6. Dice is the plural form.
There are six equally likely outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 in a single throw.

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