Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Systems analysis and design is a step-by-step process for developing high-

quality information systems. An information system combines technology, people, and

data to provide support for business functions such as order processing, inventory

control, human resources, accounting, and many more. Some information systems

handle routine day-to-day tasks, while others can help managers make better decisions,

spot marketplace trends, and reveal patterns that might be hidden in stored data.

Talented people, including a mix of managers, users, network administrators,

web designers, programmers, and systems analysts, typically develop information

systems. Capable IT professionals like these are always in demand, even in a slow

economy. Information Technology

Information technology (IT) refers to the combination of hardware, software, and

services that people use to manage, communicate, and share information. Companies

use information as a way to increase productivity, deliver quality products and services,

maintain customer loyalty, and make sound decisions. In a global economy with intense

competition, information technology can mean the difference between success and

failure.

More than ever, business success depends on information technology. IT is

driving a new digital economy, where advances in hardware, software, and connectivity

can provide enormous benefits to businesses and individuals. Although economic trends

affect IT spending levels, most companies give IT budgets a high priority, in good rimes

or bad. The reason is simple: during periods of growth, companies cannot afford lag
behind the IT curve. Conversely, when the economy slows down, firms often use IT to

reduce operating costs and improve efficiency.

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IT Department

The IT department develops and maintains information systems. The IT group

provides technical support, which includes seven main functions: application

development, systems support and security, user support, database administration,

network administration, web support, and quality assurance. These functions overlap

considerably and often have different names in different companies.

The structure of the IT department varies among companies, as does its name

and placement within the organization. In a small firm, one person might handle computer

support activities and services, whereas a large corporation might require many people

with specialized skills to provide information system support.

Figure 1-1. Typical IT organization in a company

Application Development. The IT application development group typically

provides leadership and overall guidance, but teams consisting of users, managers, and

IT staff members develop the systems themselves. A popular model for information

systems development is a project-oriented team with IT professionals providing overall

coordination, guidance, and technical support.

 System Support and Security. Systems support and security provides vital

protection and maintenance services for system hardware and software, including

enterprise computing

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systems, networks, transaction processing systems, and corporate IT infrastructure. The

systems support and security group implements and monitors physical and electronic

security hardware,

software, and procedures. This group also installs and supports operating

systems, telecommunications software, and centralized database management

systems. In addition, systems support and security technicians provide technical

assistance to other groups in the IT department. If a site has a large number of remote

clients, the systems support group often

includes a deployment team that installs and configures the workstations. User

Support. User support provides users with technical information, training,

and productivity support. The user support function usually is called a help desk. A help

desk’s staff trains users and managers on application software such as email, word

processing, spreadsheets, and graphics packages. User support specialists answer

questions, troubleshoot problems, and serve as a clearinghouse for user problems and

solutions. Database Administration. Database administration involves data design,

management, security, backup, and access. In small- and medium-sized companies, an

IT support person performs those roles in addition to other duties. Regardless of

company size, mission-critical database applications require continuous attention and

technical support. Network Administration. Business operations depend on networks

that enable company-wide information systems. Network administration includes

hardware and software maintenance, support, and security. In addition to controlling

user access, network administrators install, configure, manage, monitor, and maintain

network applications.

Web Support. Web support is a vital technical support function. Web support

specialists design and construct web pages, monitor traffic, manage hardware and

software, and link web based applications to the company’s information systems.

Reliable, high-quality web support is especially critical for companies engaged in e-

commerce.

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Quality Assurance. Many large IT departments also use a quality assurance

(QA) team that reviews and tests all applications and systems changes to verify

specifications and software

quality standards. The QA team usually is a separate unit that reports directly to IT
management.

The Systems Analyst

A systems analyst investigates, analyzes, designs, develops, installs, evaluates,

and maintains a company’s information systems. To perform those tasks, a systems

analyst constantly interacts with users and managers within and outside the company.

A systems analyst helps develop IT systems that support business requirements.

To succeed, analysts often must act as translators. For example, when they describe

business processes to programmers, they must speak a language that programmers

will understand clearly. Typically, the analyst builds a series of models, diagrams, and

decision tables and uses other descriptive tools and techniques. Similarly, when

communicating with managers, the analyst often must translate complex technical
issues into words and images that nontechnical people can grasp. To do this, the

analyst uses various presentation skills, models, and communication methods.

A successful systems analyst needs technical knowledge, oral and written

communication skills, an understanding of business operations, and critical thinking

skills.

WHAT IS INFORMATION SYSTEM?

A system is a set of related components that produces specific results. For

example, specialized systems route Internet traffic, manufacture microchips, and control

complex entities like the Hubble telescope, which took the amazing image shown in

Figure 1-2. A mission-critical system is one that is vital to a company’s operations. An

order processing system, for example, is mission-critical because the company cannot

do business without it.

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 Figure 1-2. (a) Hubble telescope that
capture this (b) image

Every system requires input data. For example, a

computer receives data when a key is pressed or when a menu

command is selected. In an information system, data consists of

basic facts that are the system’s raw material. Information is data

that has been transformed into output that is valuable to users.

An information system has five key components, as shown in

Figure 1-3: hardware, software, data, processes, and people.

Figure 1-3. Components of a

system.

Hardware. Hardware consists of everything in the physical layer of the

information system. For example, hardware can include servers, workstations,

networks, telecommunications equipment, fiber-optic cables, mobile devices, scanners,

digital capture devices, and other technology-based infrastructure. A large

concentration of networked computers working together is called a data center.

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Large businesses with thousands or millions of sales transactions require

company-wide information systems and powerful servers, which are often now in the

cloud, such as those shown in Figure 1-4.

 Figure 1-4. Cloud computing provides the enormous storage and speed that modern IT
systems need.
Software. Software refers to the programs that control the hardware and

produce the desired information or results. Software consists of system software and

application software. System software manages the hardware components, which can

include a single computer or a global network with many thousands of clients. Either the

hardware manufacturer supplies the system software or a company purchases it from a

vendor. Examples of system software include the operating system, security software

that protects the computer from intrusion, device drivers that communicate with

hardware such as printers, and utility programs that handle specific tasks such as data

backup and disk management. System software also controls the flow of data, provides

data security, and manages network operations. In today’s interconnected business

world, network software is vitally important.

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Application software consists of programs that support day-to-day business

functions and provide users with the information they need. Examples of company-wide
applications, called enterprise applications, include order processing systems, payroll

systems, and company communications networks. On a smaller scale, individual users

can boost productivity with tools such as spreadsheets, presentation software, and

database management systems.

Data. Data is the raw material that an information system transforms into

useful information. For example, an information system using a relational database can

store data in various locations, called tables. By linking the tables, the system can display

the specific information that the user needs—no more and no less. Figure 1-5 shows a

payroll system that stores data in four separate tables. Notice that the linked tables work

together to supply 19 different data items. A user can display any or all data items and

filter the data to fit defined limits. In this example, the user requested a list of employees

who live in a certain city and worked more than 40 hours in the last pay period. Jane

Doe’s name was the first to display.

Figure 1-5. In a typical payroll system using a relational model, data is stored on separate
tables that are linked to form an overall database.
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Process. Processes describe the tasks and business functions that users,

managers, and IT staff members perform to achieve specific results. Processes are the

building blocks of an information system because they represent actual day-to-day

business operations. To build a successful information system, analysts must

understand business processes and document them carefully.

People. People who have an interest in an information system are called

stakeholders. Stakeholders include the management group responsible for the system,

the users (sometimes called end users) inside and outside the company who will

interact with the system, and IT staff members, such as systems analysts,

programmers, and network administrators, who develop and support the system.

Each stakeholder group has a viral interest in the information system, but

most experienced IT professionals agree that the success or failure of a system usually

depends on whether it meets the needs of its users. For that reason, it is essential to

understand user requirements and expectations throughout the development process.

INTERNET BUSINESS STRATEGIES

To design successful systems, systems analysts must understand a company’s

business operations. Each situation is different. For example, a retail store, a medical

practice, and a hotel chain all have unique information systems requirements. As the

business world changes, systems analysts can expect to work in new kinds of

companies that will require innovative IT solutions.

Business today is being shaped by three major trends: rapidly increasing

globalization, technology integration for seamless information access across a wide

variety of devices such as laptops and smartphones, and the rapid growth of cloud-
based computing and software services. These trends are being driven by the immense

power of the Internet.

The Internet Model. Internet-based commerce is called e-commerce

(electronic commerce). Internet-based systems involve various hardware and software

designs, but a typical

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model is a series of web pages that provides a user interface, which communicates with

database management software and a web-based data server. On mobile devices, the

user interacts with the system with an app, but the same back-end services are accessed.

As Internet-based commerce continues to grow, career opportunities will expand

significantly for IT professionals such as web designers, database developers, and

systems analysts.

Business-to-Customer (B2C). Using the Internet, consumers can go online to

purchase an enormous variety of products and services. This new shopping environment

allows customers to do research, compare prices and features, check availability,

arrange delivery, and choose payment methods in a single convenient session. Many

companies, such as airlines, offer incentives for online transactions because web-based

processing costs are lower than traditional methods. By making flight information available

online to last-minute travelers, some airlines also offer special discounts on seats that

might otherwise go unfilled.

B2C (business-to-consumer) is changing traditional business models and creating

new ones. For example, a common business model is a retail store that sells a product

to a customer. To carry out that same transaction on the Internet, the company must

develop an online store and deal with a totally different set of marketing, advertising, and

profitability issues.
 Some companies have found new ways to use established business models. For

example, Airbnb and VRBO have transformed the traditional hospitality service industry

into a popular and successful way for individuals to rent their properties. Other retailers

seek to enhance the online shopping experience by offering gift advisors, buying guides,

how-to clinics, and similar features. In the e-commerce battles, the real winners are online

consumers, who have more information, better choices, and the convenience of shopping

at home.

Business-to-Business (B2B). Although the business-to-consumer (B2C) sector

is more familiar to retail customers, the volume of B2B (business-to-business)

transactions is many times

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greater. Industry observers predict that B2B sales will increase sharply as more firms

seek to improve efficiency and reduce costs.

Initially, electronic commerce between two companies used a data sharing

arrangement called electronic data interchange (EDI). EDI enabled computer-to-

computer data transfer, usually over private telecommunications lines. Firms used EDI

to plan production, adjust inventory levels, or stock up on raw materials using data from

another company’s information system. As B2B volume soared, company-to-company

transactions migrated to the Internet, which offered standard protocols, universal

availability, and low communication costs. The main advantage of the web is that it

offers seamless communication between different hardware and software environments,

anywhere and anytime.

 Figure 1-6. EDI replaces the manual processes involved in ordering and distribution, creating
seamless electronic trading between both buyer and supplier

Business-to-Business-to-Customer (B2B2C). Business to business to

consumer or B2B2C, is an e-commerce model that combines business to business (B2B)

and business to consumer (B2C) for a complete product or service transaction. B2B2C

is a collaboration process that, in theory, creates mutually beneficial service and product

delivery channels.

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Lazada is an example of a B2B2C model, business owners approach Lazada for

users, leads or sales generated by Lazada’s business or website. Business owners then

uses Lazada’s channels to locate prospective customers. Lazada provides its customers

with new and relevant products, facilitating an increased customer base and earned

commissions for sold products.

 Figure 1-7. Lazada homepage

MODELING BUSINESS OPERATIONS

Systems analysts use modeling to represent company operations and

information needs. Modeling produces a graphical representation of a concept or

process that systems developers can analyze, test, and modify. A systems analyst can

describe and simplify an information system by using a set of business, data, object,

network, and process models.

A business profile is an overview of a company’s mission, functions, organization,

products, services, customers, suppliers, competitors, constraints, and future direction.

Although much of this information is readily available, a systems analyst usually needs

to do additional research and fact-finding to fill out missing or incomplete information. A

business profile is the

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starting point for the modeling process, and a systems analyst can describe and simplify

an information system by using a set of business models and business process models.

A business model describes the information that a system must provide. Analysts
also create models to represent data, objects, networks, and other system components.

Although the models might appear to overlap, they actually work together to describe

the same environment from different points of view.

Business process modeling involves a business profile and a set of models that

document business operations. Model-based systems engineering (MBSE) is one of the

leading methods used by systems analysts to develop information systems. A business

process is a specific set of transactions, events, and results that can be described and

documented. A business process model (BPM) graphically displays one or more

business processes, such as handling an airline reservation, filling a product order, or

updating a customer account. The sales order example in Figure 1-8 shows a simple

model that includes an event, three processes, and a result.

Figure 1-8. A simple business model might consist of an event, three processes, and a result.

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BUSINESS INFORMATION SYSTEMS
 In the past, IT managers identified an information system based on its primary

users. For example, administrative staff used office systems, operational people used

operational systems, middle managers used decision support systems, and top

managers used executive information systems.

Today, those traditional labels no longer apply. For example, all employees,

including top managers, use office productivity systems to do their jobs. Similarly,

operational users often require decision support systems to do their jobs. As business

changes, information use also changes, and now it makes more sense to identify a

system by its functions and features, rather than by its users. A new set of system

definitions includes enterprise computing systems, transaction processing systems,

business support systems, knowledge management systems, user productivity systems,

digital assistants, and systems integration.

Enterprise Computing Systems. Enterprise computing refers to information

systems that support company-wide operations and data management requirements.

Walmart’s inventory control system, Boeing’s production control system, and Hilton

Hotels’ reservation system are examples of enterprise computing systems. The main

objective of enterprise computing is to integrate a company’s primary functions (such as

production, sales, services, inventory control, and accounting) to improve efficiency,

reduce costs, and help managers make key decisions. Enterprise computing also

improves data security and reliability by imposing a company-wide framework for data

access and storage.

Also called enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems that provide cost-

effective support for users and managers throughout the company. SAP is a leading

vendor of ERP solutions that can boost productivity. SAP is a Germany company that is

a market leader in enterprise application software.

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Transaction Processing. Transaction processing (TP) systems process data

generated by day-to-day business operations. Examples of TP systems include customer

order processing, accounts receivable, and warranty claim processing.

TP systems perform a series of tasks whenever a specific transaction occurs. In

the example shown in Figure 1-11, a TP system verifies the customer’s data, checks the

customer’s credit status, checks the stock status, posts to accounts receivable, adjusts

the inventory level, and updates the sales file. TP systems typically involve large amounts

of data and are mission

critical systems because the enterprise cannot function without them.

Figure 1-9. A single sales transaction consists of six separate tasks, which the TP system
processes as a group.

Business Support. Business support systems provide job-related information

support to users at all levels of a company. These systems can analyze transactional

data, generate information needed to manage and control business processes, and

provide information that leads to better decision making.

A business support system can work hand in hand with a TP system. For example,

when a company sells merchandise to a customer, a TP system records the sale,

updates the customer’s balance, and makes a deduction from inventory. A related

business support system

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highlights slow or fast-moving items, customers with past-due balances, and inventory

levels that need adjustment.

To compete effectively, firms must collect production,

sales, and shipping data and update the company-wide

business support system immediately. Automated data

acquisition is possible Using technology such as radio

frequency identification (RFID), which uses high-frequency

radio waves to track physical objects, such as the shirt shown in Figure 1-10.

Figure 1-10. With an RFID tag, items can be tracked and monitored throughout
the retail process.

Knowledge Management. Knowledge management systems use a large

database called knowledge base that allows users to find information by entering

keywords or questions in normal English phrases. A knowledge management system

uses inference rules, which are logical rules that identify data patterns and

relationships.
 Figure 1-11. WolframAlpha describes itself as a “computational knowledge
engine.”

The WolframAlpha website, shown in Figure 1-11, describes itself as a

“computational knowledge engine.” It has a sophisticated natural language front end

that understands user

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queries in several domains. As shown in the figure, these domains include mathematics,

science and technology, society and culture, and everyday life. WolframAlpha relies upon

a large knowledge base spanning multiple website and its own proprietary algorithms to

provide users with detailed answers to their questions on many different topics. The

results are displayed using a mix of multimedia, including mathematical equations if

appropriate.

User Productivity. Companies provide employees at all levels with technology

that improves productivity. Examples of user productivity systems include email, voice

mail, video and web conferencing, word processing, automated calendars, database

management, spreadsheets, desktop publishing, presentation graphics, company

intranets, and integrated mobile computing systems. User productivity systems also

include groupware, which enables users to share data, collaborate on projects, and
work in teams. One popular groupware product is Slack, shown in Figure 1-12. Slack

provides common app integration and unified communication channels for distributed

teams.

Figure 1-12. Slack is a popular groupware application

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Digital Assistant. Rapid advances in natural language processing have made a new type

of business information system possible: the personal digital assistant. These systems are

combinations of knowledge management systems and user productivity systems, enhanced

with artificial intelligence and machine learning capabilities. They are typically cloud based and

can be embedded in hardware devices of various sizes and types. Digital assistants are

exemplified by products
Figure 1-13. Amazon.com’s Echo Dot, a digital assistant embedded in a smart speaker powered

by Alexa.

such as Amazon.com’s Alexa, Apple’s Siri, and Google Assistant. Users speak to

these applications just as they would speak to a real person. The device replies in a

human-sounding voice. These services increase their capabilities over time. They can

integrate with other software applications and actual hardware, such as controlling lights

at home or the temperature at the

office. An image of the Amazon Echo Dot, which is a smart speaker powered by Alexa,

is shown in Figure 1-13.

Systems Integration. Most large companies require systems that combine

transaction processing, business support, knowledge management, and user productivity

features. For example, suppose an international customer makes a warranty claim. A

customer service representative enters the claim into a TP system, which updates two

other systems: a knowledge management system that tracks product problems and

warranty activity and a quality control system with decision support capabilities. A quality

control engineer uses what-if analysis to determine if the firm should make product design

changes to reduce warranty claims. In this example, a TP system is integrated with a

knowledge management system and a business support system with decision support

features.
 ORGANIZATIONAL INFORMATION MODELS

Corporate organizational structure has changed considerably in recent years. In

an effort to increase productivity, many companies reduced the number of management

levels and delegated responsibility to operational personnel. Although modern

organization charts tend to be flatter, an organizational hierarchy still exists in most firms.

Functions and Organization. A typical organizational model identifies business

functions and organizational levels, as shown in Figure 1-14. Within the functional areas,

operational personnel report to supervisors and team leaders. The next level includes

middle managers and knowledge workers, who, in turn, report to top managers. In a

corporate structure, the top

managers report to a board of directors elected by the company’s shareholders.

Figure 1-14. Typical organizational model identifies business functions and organizational
levels
A systems analyst must understand the company’s organizational model to

recognize who is responsible for specific processes and decisions and to be aware of

what information is required by whom.

 Top Manager. Top managers develop long-range plans, called strategic plans,

which define the company’s overall mission and goals. To plot a future course, top

managers ask questions such as “How much should the company invest in information

technology?”, “How much will Internet sales grow in the next five years?”, or “Should the

company build new factories or contract out production functions?”

Strategic planning affects the company’s future survival and growth, including

long-term IT plans. Top managers focus on the overall business enterprise and use IT to

set the company’s course and direction. To develop a strategic plan, top managers also

need information from outside the company, such as economic forecasts, technology

trends, competitive threats, and governmental issues.

Middle Manager and Knowledge Worker. Middle managers provide

direction, necessary resources, and performance feedback to supervisors and team

leaders. Because they focus on a somewhat shorter time frame, middle managers need

more detailed information than top managers but somewhat less than supervisors who

oversee day-to-day operations. For example, a middle manager might review a weekly

sales summary for a three-state area, whereas a local sales team leader would need a

daily report on customer sales at a single location.

In addition to middle managers, every company has people called knowledge

workers. Knowledge workers include systems analysts, programmers, accountants,

researchers, trainers, human resource specialists, and other professionals. Knowledge

workers also use business support systems, knowledge management systems, and user

productivity systems. Knowledge workers provide support for the organization’s basic

functions. Just as a military unit requires logistical support, a successful company needs

knowledge workers to carry out its mission.

 Supervisor & Team Leader. Supervisors, often called team leaders, oversee

operational employees and carry out day-to-day functions. They coordinate operational

tasks and people, make necessary decisions, and ensure that the right tools, materials,

and training are available.

Like other managers, supervisors and team leaders need decision support information,

knowledge management systems, and user productivity systems to carry out their

responsibilities. Operational Employee. Operational employees include users who rely

on transaction processing systems to enter and receive data they need to perform their

jobs. In many companies, operational users also need information to handle tasks and

make decisions that were assigned previously to supervisors. This trend, called

empowerment, gives employees more responsibility and accountability. Many

companies find that empowerment improves employee motivation and increases

customer satisfaction.
 Chapter 2: SYSTEMS PLANNING

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a common methodology for

systems development in many organizations; it features several phases that mark the

progress of the systems analysis and design effort.

The life cycle can be thought of as a circular process in which the end of the

useful life of one system leads to the beginning of another project that will develop a new

version or replace an existing system altogether (see Figure 2-1). Software is the most

obvious end product of the life cycle; other essential outputs include documentation

about the system and how it was developed, as well as training for users.

Figure 2-1. Systems development life cycle (SDLC)

The SDLC is a phased approach to analysis and design based on the

assumption that systems are best developed using a specific cycle of analyst and user

activities. It has also been

called the waterfall method because the system analysis completes the first phase,

then moves down to the next, and so on, like water flowing steadily downward from

one rock to another. Analysts disagree on exactly how many phases there are in the

SDLC, but they generally laud its organized approach. Here are seven phases of

SDLC, as shown in Figure 2-2. Although each phase is presented discretely, it is never

accomplished as a separate step. Instead, several activities may occur simultaneously,

and activities may be repeated.

Figure 2-2. The seven phases of the systems development life cycle (SDLC).

Systems Planning. The systems planning phase usually begins with a formal

request to the IT department, called a systems request, which describes problems or

desired changes in an information system or a business process. In many companies,

IT systems planning is an integral part of overall business planning. When managers

and users develop their business plans, they usually include IT requirements that

generate systems requests. A systems request can come from a top manager, a

planning team, a department head, or the IT department itself. The request can be very

significant or relatively minor. A major request might involve a new information system
or the upgrading of an existing system. In contrast, a minor request might ask for a new

feature or a change to the user interface.

The purpose of this phase is to perform a preliminary investigation to evaluate

an IT related business opportunity or problem. The preliminary investigation is a critical

step because the outcome will affect the entire development process. A key part of the

preliminary investigation is a feasibility study that reviews anticipated costs and benefits

and recommends a course of action based on operational, technical, economic, and time

factors. Suppose a systems analyst receives a request for a system change or

improvement. The first step is to determine whether it makes sense to launch a

preliminary investigation at all. Before a conclusion can be reached, more information

about the business operations may be needed. After an investigation, the systems

analyst might determine that the information system functions properly, but users

need more training. In some situations, a business process review may be

recommended rather than an IT solution. In other cases, a full-scale systems review may

be necessary. If the development process continues, the next step is the systems

analysis phase.

Systems Analysis. The purpose of the systems analysis phase is to build a

logical model of the new system. The first step is requirements engineering, where the

analyst investigates business processes and documents what the new system must do

to satisfy users. Requirements engineering continues the investigation that began during

the systems planning phase. To understand the system, fact-finding using techniques

such as interviews, surveys, document review, observation, and sampling is performed.

The fact-finding results are used to build business models, data and process models,

and object models.

 The deliverable for the systems analysis phase is the system requirements

document. The system requirements document describes management and user

requirements, costs, and benefits and outlines alternative development strategies.

Systems Design. The purpose of the systems design phase is to create a

physical model that will satisfy all documented requirements for the system. At this

stage, the user interface is designed, and necessary outputs, inputs, and processes are

identified. In addition, internal and

external controls are designed, including computer-based and manual features, to

guarantee that the system will be reliable, accurate, maintainable, and secure.

During the systems design phase, the application architecture is also determined,

which programmers will use to transform the logical design into program modules and

code. The deliverable for this phase is the system design specification, which is

presented to management and users for review and approval. Management and user

involvement are critical to avoid any misunderstanding about what the new system will

do, how it will do it, and what it will cost.

Systems Implementation. During the systems implementation phase, the new

system is constructed. Whether the developers use structured analysis or O-O methods,

the procedure is the same—programs are written, tested, and documented, and the

system is installed. If the system was purchased as a package, systems analysts

configure the software and perform any necessary modifications. The objective of the

systems implementation phase is to deliver a completely functioning and documented

information system. At the conclusion of this phase, the system is ready for use. Final

preparations include converting data to the new system’s files, training users, and

performing the actual transition to the new system.

 The systems implementation phase also includes an assessment, called a

systems evaluation, to determine whether the system operates properly and if costs

and benefits are within expectations.

Systems Support and Security. During the systems support and security

phase, the IT staff maintains, enhances, and protects the system. Maintenance changes

correct errors and adapt to changes in the environment, such as new tax rates.

Enhancements provide new features and benefits. The objective during this phase is to

maximize return on the IT investment. Security controls safeguard the system from both

external and internal threats. A well-designed system must be secure, reliable,

maintainable, and scalable. A scalable design can expand to meet new business

requirements and volumes. Information systems development is always a work

in progress. Business processes change rapidly, and most information systems need to

be updated

significantly or replaced after several years of operation. For example, a web-based

system may need more servers added to cope with increased workload.

Waterfall Methodology
 Originally develop by W. W.

Royce,

traditionally, one phase ended and another

began once a milestone had been reached.

The milestone usually took the form of

some deliverable or prespecified output

from the phase. For example, the design

deliverable is the set of detailed physical

design specifications. Once the milestone

had been reached and the new phase

initiated, it became difficult to go back.

Figure 2-3. Waterfall SDLC

The V-Model
 The V-model is a type of SDLC

model

where process executes in a sequential manner in

V-shape. It is also known as Verification and

Validation model. It is based on the association of a

testing phase for each corresponding development

stage. Development of each step directly associated with the

testing phase. The next phase starts only after completion of

the previous phase i.e. for each development activity, there is a

orGeeks
Prototyping Model

Prototyping model is a software development model in which prototype is built,

tested, and reworked until an acceptable prototype is achieved. It also creates base to

produce the final system or software. It works best in scenarios where the project’s

requirements are not known in detail. It is an iterative, trial and error method which takes

place between developer and client.

 Figure 2-5. Prototyping model
Source: Guru99

Requirements gathering and analysis. A prototyping model starts with

requirement analysis. In this phase, the requirements of the system are defined in detail.

During the process, the users of the system are interviewed to know what is their

expectation from the system.

Quick design. The second phase is a preliminary design or a quick design. In

this stage, a simple design of the system is created. However, it is not a complete design.

It gives a brief idea of the system to the user. The quick design helps in developing the

prototype.

Build a Prototype. In this phase, an actual prototype is designed based on the

information gathered from quick design. It is a small working model of the required

system. Initial user evaluation. In this stage, the proposed system is presented to the

client for an initial evaluation. It helps to find out the strength and weakness of the

working model. Comment and suggestion are collected from the customer and

provided to the developer. Refining prototype. If the user is not happy with the current

prototype, you need to refine the prototype according to the user’s feedback and

suggestions. This phase will not over until all

the requirements specified by the user are met. Once the user is satisfied with the

developed prototype, a final system is developed based on the approved final

prototype. Implement Product and Maintain. Once the final system is developed

based on the final prototype, it is thoroughly tested and deployed to production. The
system undergoes routine maintenance for minimizing downtime and prevent large-

scale failures.

Agile Modeling

Agile methods are a collection of innovative, user-centered approaches to

systems development. Agile methods attempt to develop a system incrementally by

building a series of prototypes and constantly adjusting them to user requirements. As

the agile process continues, developers revise, extend, and merge earlier versions into

the final product. An agile approach emphasizes continuous feedback, and each

incremental step is affected by what was learned in the prior steps.

Four Values of Agile Modeling. Four values create an environment in which

both developers and businesses can adequately be served. Because there is often

tension between what developers do in the short term and what is commercially

desirable in the long term, it is important that analysts knowingly espouse values that

will form a basis for acting together on a software project. The four values are

communication, simplicity, feedback, and courage, as shown

in Figure 2-6.

Figure 2-6. Values are crucial to

 the agile

approach.
Typical agile practices such as pair programming, tasks estimation, and unit

testing rely heavily on good communication. Problems are fixed rapidly, holes are

closed, and weak thinking is quickly strengthened through interaction with others on the

team.

A second value of the agile approach is simplicity. When we are working on a

software development project, our first inclination is to become overwhelmed with the

complexity and bigness of the task. However, you cannot run until you know how to walk,

nor walk until you know how to stand. Simplicity for software development means

beginning with the simplest possible thing we can do.

Feedback is the third basic value that is important when taking an extreme

programming approach. When you think of feedback in this context, it is good to consider

that feedback is wrapped up with the concept of time. Good, concrete feedback that is

useful to the programmer, analyst, and customer can occur within seconds, minutes,

days, weeks, or months, depending on what is needed, who is communicating, and what

will be done with the feedback.

Courage has to do with the level of trust and comfort that must exist in a

development team. It means not being afraid to throw out an afternoon or a day of coding

and begin again if all is not right. It means being able to stay in touch with one’s instincts

(and test results) concerning what is working and what is not.

The Basic Principles of Agile Modeling. Agile principles are the reflections

and specifications of agile values. They serve as guidelines for developers to follow

when developing systems. They also serve to set agile methodologies apart from the

more traditional plan-driven methodologies such as the systems development life cycle

(SDLC) or object-oriented methodologies. Agile principles were first described by Beck

(2000) and have evolved ever since. These principles can be expressed in a series of

sayings:

1. Satisfy the customer through delivery of working software.

2. Embrace change, even if introduced late in development.

3. Continue to deliver functioning software incrementally and

frequently. 4. Encourage customers and analysts to work

together daily.

5. Trust motivated individuals to get the job done.

6. Promote face-to-face conversation.

7. Concentrate on getting software to work.

8. Encourage continuous, regular, and sustainable development.

9. Adopt agility with attention to mindful design.

10. Support self-organizing teams.

11. Provide rapid feedback.

12. Encourage quality.

13. Review and adjust behavior occasionally.

14. Adopt simplicity.

Among the Agile approaches are Scrum, Lean, Kanban, Crystal, Extreme

Programming, Feature Driven Development, and Dynamic System Development

Method.

ANALYZING THE BUSINESS CASE

Strategic Planning Overview

Strategic planning is the process of identifying long-term organizational goals,

strategies, and resources. A strategic plan looks beyond day-to-day activities and
 focuses on a horizon that is three, five, ten, or more years in the future. The IT team

must deliver IT resources to support the firm’s long-term strategic goals. Therefore, IT

managers and systems analysts must understand and participate in strategic planning

activities. IT managers must prepare for long range needs, such as a new data

warehouse, even as they handle immediate problems, such as a logic bug in the

payroll system. In most companies, the IT team reviews each IT-related

proposal, project, and systems request to determine if it presents a strong business

case, or justification.

Strategic planning starts with a mission statement that reflects the firm’s vision,

purpose, and values. Mission statements usually focus on long-term challenges and

goals, the importance of the firm’s stakeholders, and a commitment to the firm’s role

as a corporate citizen.

SWOT Analysis. The letters SWOT stand for strengths, weaknesses,

opportunities, and threats. A SWOT analysis can focus on a specific product or project,

an operating division, the entire company, or the mission statement itself. The overall

aim is to avoid seeking goals that are unrealistic, unprofitable, or unachievable.

An enterprise SWOT analysis usually begins with these questions:

• What are our strengths, and how can we use them to achieve our business

goals? • What are our weaknesses, and how can we reduce or eliminate them?

• What are our opportunities, and how do we plan to take advantage of them? •

What are our threats, and how can we assess, manage, and respond to the

possible risks?
 Figure 2-7. SWOT analysis
THE BUSINESS CASE

During the systems planning phase, the IT team reviews a request to determine

if it presents a strong business case. The term business case refers to the reasons, or

justification, for a proposal. To perform the review, the analyst must consider the

company’s overall mission, objectives, and IT needs. A business case should be

comprehensive yet easy to understand. It should describe the project clearly, provide

the justification to proceed, and estimate the project’s

financial impact. Specifically, the business case should answer questions such as the

following: • Why are we doing this project?

• What is the project about?

• How does this solution address key business issues?

• How much will it cost and how long will it take?

• Will we suffer a productivity loss during the transition?

• What is the return on investment and payback period?

• What are the risks of doing the project? What are the risks of not doing the

project? • How will we measure success?

• What alternatives exist?

SYSTEMS REQUEST

The starting point for most information systems projects is called a systems

request, which is a formal way of asking for IT support. A systems request might propose

enhancements for an existing system, the correction of problems, the replacement of an

older system, or the development of an entirely new information system that is needed

to support a company’s current and future business needs.

As Figure 2-8 shows, the six main reasons for systems requests are stronger

controls, reduced cost, more information, better performance, improved service to

customers, and more support for new products and services.

Figure 2-8. Six main reasons for systems requests

Stronger Controls. A system must have effective controls to ensure that data is

secure and accurate. This is becoming increasingly important given the number of data

breaches that seem to occur daily. Some common security controls include passwords,

various levels of user access, and encryption, or coding data to keep it safe from

unauthorized users. Hardware-based security controls include biometric devices that

can identify a person by a retina scan or by mapping a fingerprint pattern. The

technology uses infrared scanners that create images with thousands of measurements

of personal physical characteristics.

In addition to being secure, data also must be accurate. Controls should

minimize data entry errors whenever possible. For example, if a user enters an invalid

customer number, the order processing system should reject the entry immediately

and prompt the user to enter a valid number. Data entry controls must be effective

without being excessive. If a system requires users to confirm every item with an “Are

you sure? Y/N” message, internal users and customers might complain that the system

is not user-friendly.

Reduced Cost. The current system could be expensive to operate or maintain

as a result of technical problems, design weaknesses, or the changing demands of the

business. It might be

possible to adapt the system to newer technology or upgrade it. On the other hand, cost-

benefit analysis might show that a new system would be more cost effective and provide

better support for long-term objectives.

More Information. The system might produce information that is insufficient,

incomplete, or unable to support the company’s changing information needs. For

example, a system that tracks customer orders might not be capable of analyzing and

predicting marketing trends. In the face of intense competition and rapid product

development cycles, managers need the best possible information to make major

decisions on planning, designing, and marketing new products and services.

Better Performance. The current system might not meet performance

requirements. For example, it might respond slowly to data inquiries at certain times, or

it might be unable to support company growth. Performance limitations also result when
a system that was designed for a specific hardware configuration becomes obsolete

when new hardware is introduced.

Improved Service. Systems requests often are aimed at improving service to

customers or users within the company. For instance, allowing mutual fund investors to

check their account balances on a website, storing data on rental car customer

preferences, or creating an online college registration system are all examples of

providing valuable services and increased customer satisfaction.

More Support for New Products and Services. New products and services

often require new types or levels of IT support. For example, a software vendor might

offer an automatic upgrade service for subscribers; or a package delivery company

might add a special service for RFID-tagged shipments. In situations like these, it is most

likely that additional IT support will be required. At the other end of the spectrum, product

obsolescence can also be an important factor in IT planning. As new products enter the

marketplace, vendors often announce that they will no longer provide support for older

versions. A lack of vendor support would be an important consideration in deciding

whether to upgrade or not.

Factors Affecting Systems Request

Internal and external factors affect every business decision that a company

makes, and IT projects are no exception. Figure 2-9 shows internal and external factors

that shape corporate IT choices.

 Figure 2-9. Internal and external factors that affect IT projects

Internal Factors. Internal factors include the strategic plan, top managers, user

requests, information technology department, existing systems and data, and company

finances.

• Strategic Plan: A company’s strategic plan sets the overall direction for the firm

and has an important impact on IT projects. Company goals and objectives that

need IT support will generate systems requests and influence IT priorities. A

strategic plan that stresses technology tends to create a favorable climate for IT

projects that extends throughout the organization.

• Top Managers: Because significant resources are required, top management

usually initiates large-scale projects. Those decisions often result from strategic

business goals that require new IT systems, more information for decision

making processes, or better support for mission-critical information systems.

• User Requests: As users rely more heavily on information systems to perform

their jobs, they are likely to request even more IT services and support. For

example, sales reps might request improvements to the company’s website, a

more powerful sales analysis report, a network to link all sales locations, or an

online system that allows customers to obtain the status of their orders instantly.
 Or, users might not be satisfied with the current system because it is difficult to

learn or lacks flexibility. They might want information systems support for

business requirements that did not even exist when the system was first

developed.

• Information Technology Department: Systems project requests come also from

the IT department itself. IT staff members often make recommendations based

on their knowledge of business operations and technology trends. IT proposals

might be strictly technical matters, such as replacement of certain network

components, or suggestions might be more business oriented, such as

proposing a new reporting or data collection system.

• Existing Systems and Data: Errors or problems in existing systems can

trigger requests for systems projects. When dealing with older systems, analysts

sometimes spend too much time reacting to day-to-day problems without looking

at underlying causes. This approach can turn an information system into a

patchwork of corrections and changes that cannot support the company’s overall

business needs. This problem typically occurs with legacy systems, which are

older systems that are less technologically advanced. When migrating to a new

system, IT planners must plan the conversion of existing data.

• Company Finances: A company’s financial status can affect systems projects. If

the company is going through a difficult time, the project may be postponed

until there is

more cash available to finance the effort. On the other hand, if the company

is enjoying financial success, the decision to embark on a new project may

be easier to make.
 External Factors. External factors include technology, suppliers, customers,

competitors, the economy, and government.

• Technology: Changing technology is a major force affecting business and society

in general. For example, the rapid growth of telecommunications, coupled with

increased computing power and continuous miniaturization of electronic

components, has created entire new industries and technologies, including the

proliferation of smartphones and the app ecosystem.

• Suppliers: With the growth of electronic data interchange (EDI), relationships

with suppliers are critically important. For example, an automobile company

might require that suppliers code their parts in a certain manner to match the

auto company’s inventory control system. EDI also enables just-in-time (JIT)

inventory systems that rely on computer-to-computer data exchange to

minimize unnecessary inventory. The purpose of a JIT system is to provide

the right products at the right place at the right time.

• Customers: Customers are vitally important to any business. Information

systems that interact with customers usually receive top priority. Many

companies implement customer relationship management (CRM) systems

that integrate all customer-related events and transactions, including

marketing, sales, and customer service activities. Vendor-oriented CRM

systems often interconnect with supply chain management (SCM) systems.

CRM components can provide automated responses to sales inquiries,

online order processing, and inventory tracking. Another RFID application is

called electronic proof of delivery (EPOD). Using EPOD, a supplier uses

RFID tags on each crate, case, or shipping unit to

 create a digital shipping list. The customer receives the list and scans the

incoming shipment. If a discrepancy is detected, it is reported and

adjusted automatically. Because they would be expensive to investigate

manually, small shipping inconsistencies might not otherwise be traced.

This is an example of technology

related cost control.

• Competitors: Competition drives many information systems decisions.

For example, if one cellular telephone provider offers a new type of digital

service, other firms must match the plan in order to remain competitive. New

product research and development, marketing, sales, and service all require

IT support.

• The Economy: Economic activity has a powerful influence on

corporate information management. In a period of economic expansion, firms

need to be ready with scalable systems that can handle additional volume

and growth. Predicting the business cycle is not an exact science, and careful

research and planning are important.

• Government: Federal, state, and local government regulations directly affect

the design of corporate information systems. For example, up-to-date IRS

reporting requirements must be designed into a payroll package.

Assessing Request Feasibility

A systems request must pass several tests to see whether it is worthwhile to

proceed further. The first step is to identify and weed out systems requests that are not

feasible. For example, a request would not be feasible if it required hardware or software

that the company already had rejected.

 Even if the request is feasible, it might not be necessary. For example, a request

for multiple versions of a report could require considerable design and programming

effort. A better alternative might be to download the server data to a personal computer-

based software package

and show users how to produce their own reports. In this case, training users would be

a better investment than producing reports for them.

Sometimes assessing request feasibility is quite simple and can be done in a few

hours. If the request involves a new system or a major change, however, extensive fact-

finding and investigation in the form of feasibility studies are required.

Feasibility Study. A feasibility study uses four main yardsticks to measure a

proposal: operational feasibility, economic feasibility, technical feasibility, and schedule

feasibility.

Figure 2-10. A feasibility study

examines
 operational, technical, economic, and
schedule factors.

• Operational feasibility means that a proposed system will be used

effectively after it has been developed. If users have difficulty with a new

system, it will not produce the expected benefits. Organizational culture can

also affect operational feasibility. For instance, a system that works well in a

highly structured workplace might be very unpopular in a more relaxed

corporate culture. Operational feasibility is difficult to measure with precision

but must be studied very carefully.

• Economic feasibility means that the projected benefits of the proposed

system outweigh the estimated costs usually considered the total cost of

ownership (TCO), which includes ongoing support and maintenance costs,

as well as acquisition costs. Tangible cost and intangible must be

considered. Tangible benefits are benefits that can be measured in dollars.

Tangible benefits result from a decrease in expenses, an increase in

revenues, or both. Examples of tangible benefits include the following: a new

scheduling system that reduces overtime, an online package tracking system

that improves service and decreases the need for clerical staff, and a

sophisticated inventory control system that cuts excess inventory

and eliminates production delays. Intangible benefits are advantages that

are difficult to measure in dollars but are important to the company. Examples
 of intangible benefits include the following: a user-friendly system that

improves employee job satisfaction, a sales tracking system that supplies

better information for marketing decisions, and a new website that enhances

the company’s image.

• Technical feasibility refers to the technical resources needed to

develop, purchase, install, or operate the system. The systems requests that

are not currently technically feasible can be resubmitted as new hardware,

software, or expertise becomes available. Development costs might

decrease, or the value of benefits might increase enough that a systems

request eventually becomes feasible. Conversely, an initially feasible project

can be rejected later.

• Schedule feasibility means that a project can be implemented in an

acceptable time frame. When assessing schedule feasibility, a systems

analyst must consider the interaction between time and costs.

For

example, speeding up a project schedule

might make a project feasible, but much

 more expensive.

Figure 2-11. Model of a preliminary

investigation

THE PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION

A systems analyst conducts a preliminary investigation to study the systems

request and recommend specific action. After obtaining an authorization to proceed, the

analyst interacts with managers, users, and other stakeholders, as shown in the model

in Figure 2-11. The analyst gathers facts about the problem or opportunity, project scope

and constraints, project benefits, and estimated development time and costs. The

product of the preliminary investigation is a report to management.

Planning the Investigation. Before starting a preliminary investigation, it is

important to let people know about the investigation and explain the role of the system

analyst. Meetings with key managers, users, and other stakeholders such as the IT staff

should be scheduled, to describe the project, explain roles and responsibilities, answer

questions, and invite comments. Interactive communication with users starts at this point

and continues throughout the development process.

When interacting with users, use the word problem carefully, because it has a

negative meaning. When users are asked about problems, some will stress current

system limitations rather than desirable new features or enhancements. Instead of

focusing on difficulties, question users about additional capability they would like to

have. This approach highlights ways to improve the user’s job, provides a better

understanding of operations, and builds better, more positive relationships with users.
 Performing the Preliminary Investigation. During a preliminary investigation,

a systems analyst typically follows a series of steps. The exact procedure depends on

the nature of the request, the size of the project, and the degree of urgency.

1. Understand the problem or opportunity.

2. Define the Project Scope and Constraints

3. Perform Fact-Finding

a. Analyze organization chart

b. Conduct interview

• Determine the people to interview.

• Establish objectives for the interview.

• Develop interview questions.

• Prepare for the interview.

• Conduct the interview.

• Document the interview.

• Evaluate the interview.

c. Review documentation

d. Observe operations

e. Conduct survey

f. Analyze the data

4. Analyze project usability, cost, benefit, and schedule data

5. Evaluate feasibility

Summarizing the preliminary investigation. The final task in the

preliminary investigation is to summarize the results and recommendations, which can

be conveying to management in a report and/or in a presentation. The written report and

the oral presentation are examples of the need for systems analysts to develop strong
communications skills. The report includes an evaluation of the systems request, an

estimate of costs and benefits, and a case for

action, which is a summary of the project request and a specific recommendation. The

specific format of a preliminary investigation report varies. A typical report

might consist of the following sections: Introduction, Systems Request Summary,

Findings, Recommendations, Project Roles, Time and Cost Estimates, Expected

Benefits, and Appendix.

 Chapter 3. Systems Analysis

CLASS DIAGRAM

When the analyst has identified the object classes from the use case diagram, a

logical model in a form of class diagram is produced to how the association between them. A

class association is used to represent the relationship between two classes. It has a descriptive

label and shows multiplicity. Multiplicity describes how many instances of one class in the

relationship relates to instances of the other class. This is also sometimes referred to as

cardinality.

In a class diagram, each class (Figure 6.6) appears as a rectangle, with the class

name at the top, followed by the class’s attributes and methods.

Figure 6.6. Sample UML class diagram

The Student class is a group of Student objects that share a common structure and

a common behavior. Each object knows to which class it belongs; for example, the Mary

Jones object knows that it belongs to the Student class. Objects belonging to the same class

may also participate in similar relationships with other objects; for example, all students register
for courses and, therefore, the Student class can participate in a relationship called “registers-

for” with another

class called Course (see the section Representing Associations). An operation, such as calc-

gpa in Student (see Figure 6.6), is a function or a service that is provided by all the instances of

a class to invoke behavior in an object by passing a message. It is only through such

operations that other objects can access or manipulate the information stored in an object. The

operations, therefore, provide an external interface to a class; the interface presents the

outside view of the

class without showing its internal structure or how its operations are implemented. Lines show

relationships between classes and have labels identifying the action that relates the two

classes. To create a class diagram, review the use case and identify the classes that

participate in the underlying business process. The class diagram also includes a concept called

cardinality, which describes how instances of one class relate to instances of another class. For

example, an employee might have earned no vacation days or one vacation day or

many vacation days. Similarly, an employee might have no spouse or one spouse. Figure 6.7

shows various UML notations and cardinality examples. Notice that in 6.7, the first column

shows a UML notation symbol that identifies the relationship shown in the second column. The

third column provides a typical example of the relationship, which is described in the last

column. In the first row of the figure, the UML notation 0..* identifies a zero or many relation.

The example is that an employee can have no payroll deductions or many deductions.
 Figure 6.7. Examples of UML notations that indicate the nature of the relationship between instances
of one class and instances of another class.
In the following class diagram, the binary relationship between MODULE and

LECTURER would be read from right to left as one LECTURER delivers one or many MODULEs

(1..*) and read left to right, one module is delivered by zero or one lecturer (0..1). the implication

here could be either that a module may not yet have a lecturer assigned to deliver it, or that it is

a self-study module.

Now let us consider the many-to-many relationship between STUDENT and MODULE.

As a student can study one or many modules (1..*) and a module may be studied by zero, one

or many students (0..*) there will be a need to store additional data generated by this relationship

– the assessment mark and grade for each student taking a module. Whilst you may

consider storing this information in either of the classes, this would not be a practical solution due

to the potentially large number of items of data, so the data is held in new association class

named STUDIES, which is shown linked to the initial relationship with a dashed line. This

approach resolves the many-to-many relationship in an effective implementation that can cope

with any number of students taking any number of modules.

Figure 6.8. Example of class diagram