Principles of Flight

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

- 081 04 Stability
• Static and Dynamic Stability
• Longitudinal Static Stability

23/06/2020 1
 Principles of Flight

This Presentation
• Static and Dynamic Stability
– Basics and Definitions
– Precondition for Static Stability
– Sum of Forces
– Sum of Moments

• Longitudinal Stability
– Static Longitudinal Stability
– Elevator Position vs Speed
– Neutral Point
– Static Margin

23/06/2020 2
 Principles of Flight

Syllabus Progress

POF 1-3 POF 4-6 POF 7-9 POF 10-12 POF 13-15

POF 16-18 POF 19-21 POF 22-24 POF 25-27 POF 28-30

POF 31-33 POF 34-36 POF 37-39 POF 40-42 POF 43-45

POF 46-48 POF 49-51 POF 52-54 OPS 55-57 OPS 58-60

23 June 2020 3
 Principles of Flight

Stability
Stability is the tendency of an aircraft to return to a steady state of flight without any help from
the pilot, after being disturbed by an external force.

An aircraft must have the following qualities:

• Adequate stability to maintain a uniform flight condition;

• The ability to recover from various disturbing influences;

• Sufficient stability to minimize the workload of the pilot.

Proper response to the controls so that it may achieve its design performance with adequate
manoeuvrability.

There are two broad categories of stability, Static and Dynamic.

23 June 2020 4
 Principles of Flight

Static Stability
An aircraft is in a state of equilibrium (trim) when the sum of all forces is zero and the sum of
all moments is zero. There are no accelerations and the aircraft will continue in steady flight.

If equilibrium is disturbed by a gust, or deflection of the controls, the aircraft will experience
accelerations due to an unbalance of moments or forces.

The type of Static Stability an aircraft possesses is defined by its initial tendency, following the
removal of some disturbing force:

• Positive static stability (or static stability) exists if an aircraft is disturbed from equilibrium
and has the tendency to return to equilibrium.

• Neutral static stability exists if an aircraft is subject to a disturbance and has neither the
tendency to return nor the tendency to continue in the displacement direction.

• Negative static stability (or static instability) exists if an aircraft has a tendency to continue
in the direction of disturbance.
23 June 2020 5
 Principles of Flight

Positive Static Stability

When the disturbing force is removed, the initial tendency of the ball is to return towards the
equilibrium condition. The ball may roll back and forth through the point of equilibrium but
displacement to either side creates the initial tendency to return.

23 June 2020 6
 Principles of Flight

Neutral Static Stability

The ball encounters a new equilibrium at any point of displacement and has no tendency to
return to its original equilibrium.

23 June 2020 7
 Principles of Flight

Negative Static Stability

Displacement from equilibrium at the hilltop gives a tendency for greater displacement.

23 June 2020 8
 Principles of Flight

Dynamic Stability
While static stability is concerned with the initial tendency of an aircraft to return to
equilibrium, dynamic stability is defined by the resulting motion with time.

If an aircraft is disturbed from equilibrium, the time history of the resulting motion indicates its
dynamic stability.

In general, an aircraft will demonstrate positive dynamic stability if the amplitude of motion
decreases with time.

The various conditions of possible dynamic behaviour are illustrated in the following six history
diagrams. The non-oscillatory modes shown in diagrams A, B and C depict the time histories
possible without cyclic motion. In diagrams D, E and F, the cyclic modes are illustrated.

The existence of static stability does not guarantee the existence of dynamic stability. However,
the existence of dynamic stability implies the existence of static stability.

If an aircraft is Statically Unstable, it cannot be Dynamically Stable.

23 June 2020 9
 Principles of Flight

Dynamic Stability - Subsidence

A system which is given an initial disturbance and the motion simply subsides without
oscillation is termed “subsidence” or “dead beat return.” Such a motion indicates positive static
stability by the initial tendency to return to equilibrium and positive dynamic stability since the
amplitude decreases with time.

23 June 2020 10
 Principles of Flight

Dynamic Stability - Divergence

The “divergence” mode is defined by a non-cyclic increase of amplitude with time. The initial
tendency to continue in the displacement direction is evidence of static instability and the
increasing amplitude is proof of dynamic instability.

23 June 2020 11
 Principles of Flight

Dynamic Stability – Neutral Dynamic Stability

If the original disturbance creates a displacement which then remains constant, the lack of
tendency for motion and the constant amplitude indicate neutral static and neutral dynamic
stability. This is called the mode of pure neutral stability.

23 June 2020 12
 Principles of Flight

Dynamic Stability – Damped Oscillation

The reduction of amplitude with time indicates there is resistance to motion and that energy is
being dissipated. Dissipation of energy or damping is necessary to provide positive dynamic
stability. Damped oscillation mode is characterized by amplitude decreases with time.

23 June 2020 13
 Principles of Flight

Dynamic Stability – Undamped Oscillation

If there is no damping in the system, the resulting mode is an undamped oscillation. Without
damping, the oscillation continues with no reduction of amplitude with time. While such an
oscillation indicates positive static stability, neutral dynamic stability exists. Positive damping is
necessary to eliminate the continued oscillation.

23 June 2020 14
 Principles of Flight

Dynamic Stability – Divergent Oscillation

This motion is statically stable since it tends to return to the equilibrium position. However,
each subsequent return to equilibrium is with increasing velocity such that amplitude continues
to increase with time. Thus, dynamic instability exists. This mode is called divergent oscillation.

23 June 2020 15
 Principles of Flight

Aeroplane Reference Axis

To visualize the forces and moments on the aircraft, it is necessary to establish a set of
reference axes passing through the centre of gravity:

• The Longitudinal Axis passes through the CG from nose to tail. A moment about this axis is a
rolling moment, L, and a roll to the right is a positive rolling moment.

• The Normal Axis passes vertically through the CG at 90° to the longitudinal axis. A moment
about the normal axis is a yawing moment, N, and a positive yawing moment would yaw the
aircraft to the right.

• The Lateral Axis is a line passing through the CG, parallel to a line passing through the wing
tips. A moment about the lateral axis is a pitching moment, M, and a positive pitching
moment is nose-up.

23 June 2020 16
 Principles of Flight

Aeroplane Reference Axis

Longitudinal Stability is motion about the lateral axis;

Lateral Stability is about the longitudinal axis;

Directional Stability is about the normal axis.

23 June 2020 17
 Principles of Flight

Static Longitudinal Stability

An aircraft will exhibit static longitudinal stability if it tends to return towards the trim angle of
attack when displaced by a gust or a control input.

• It is essential that an aircraft has positive static longitudinal stability. If it is stable, an

aeroplane is safe and easy to fly since it seeks and tends to maintain a trimmed condition of
flight. It also follows that control deflections and control “feel” (stick force) must be logical,
both in direction and magnitude.

If the aircraft is neutrally stable, it tends to remain at any displacement to which it is disturbed.

• Neutral static longitudinal stability usually defines the lower limit of aeroplane stability
since it is the boundary between stability and instability. The aeroplane with neutral static
stability may be excessively responsive to controls and the aircraft has no tendency to return
to trim following a disturbance - generally, this would not be acceptable.

23 June 2020 18
 Principles of Flight

Static Longitudinal Stability

The aircraft which is unstable will continue to pitch in the disturbed direction until the
displacement is resisted by opposing control forces.

• The aeroplane with negative static longitudinal stability is inherently divergent from any
intended trim condition. If it is at all possible to fly the aircraft, it cannot be trimmed and
illogical control forces and deflections are required to provide equilibrium with a change of
attitude and airspeed - clearly, this would be totally unacceptable.

For the study of stability it is convenient to consider the changes in magnitude of lift force due
to changes in angle of attack, acting through a stationary point, the aerodynamic centre (AC). It
will be remembered that the location of the AC is at the quarter chord (or 25% aft of the
leading edge).

It should be noted that the pitching moment about the AC is negative (nose-down) and that this
negative (nose-down) pitching moment about the AC does not change with changes in angle of
attack.

23 June 2020 19
 Principles of Flight

Static Longitudinal Stability

The pitching moment about AC remains constant as the angle of attack is increased because the
magnitude of the lift force increases but acts through a smaller arm due to CP moving forward.

It is only at the AC (25% chord) that this will occur. If a point in front of, or to the rear of the AC
were considered, the pitching moment would change with angle of attack. For the study of
stability, we will consider the lift to act at the AC.

The AC is a stationary point located at the 25% chord only when the airflow is subsonic.

23 June 2020 20
 Principles of Flight

Static Longitudinal Stability

A wing considered alone is statically unstable because the AC is in front of the CG. A vertical
gust will momentarily increase the angle of attack and increase lift (ΔL), which, when multiplied
by arm ‘x’, will generate a positive (nose-up) pitching moment about the CG. This will tend to
increase the angle of attack further, an unstable pitching moment. The wing on its own would
rotate nose-up about the CG.

23 June 2020 21
 Principles of Flight

Static Longitudinal Stability

Now consider a wing together with a tailplane. The tailplane is positioned to generate a
stabilizing pitching moment about the aircraft CG. The same vertical gust will increase the angle
of attack of the tailplane and increase tailplane lift (ΔLt), which, when multiplied by arm ‘y’, will
generate a negative (nose-down) pitching moment about the aircraft CG.

If the tail moment is greater than the wing moment, the sum of the moments will not be zero
and the resultant nose-down moment will give an angular acceleration about the CG. The nose-
down angular acceleration about the CG will return the aircraft towards its original equilibrium.

23 June 2020 22
 Principles of Flight

Static Longitudinal Stability

There are two moments to consider: the wing moment and the tail moment.

• The wing moment is a function of the change in wing lift multiplied by arm ‘x’.

• The tail moment is a function of the change in tailplane lift multiplied by arm ‘y’.

The length of both arms is dependent upon CG position.

If the CG is considered in a more forward position, the tail arm is larger, and the wing arm is
smaller. A more forward CG position increases static longitudinal stability.

If the nose-down (negative) tail moment is greater than the nose-up (positive) wing moment,
the aircraft will have static longitudinal stability.

23 June 2020 23
 Principles of Flight

Coffee Break

23 June 2020 24
 Principles of Flight

Elevator Position vs Speed (IAS)

• The static longitudinal stability of an aeroplane is defined by the tendency to return to
equilibrium upon displacement.

• A stable aeroplane will resist displacement from trim or equilibrium.

• The control forces of the aeroplane should reflect the stability of the aeroplane and provide
suitable reference to the pilot for precise control of the aeroplane.

23 June 2020 25
 Principles of Flight

Elevator Position vs Speed (IAS)

• If the elevators of the aeroplane are held at zero deflection, the resulting line of CM vs CL for
0° depicts the static stability and trim lift coefficient.

• If the elevators are held at a deflection of 10° up (aircraft trimmed at a lower speed), the
aeroplane static stability is unchanged but the trim lift coefficient is increased.

23 June 2020 26
 Principles of Flight

Elevator Position vs Speed (IAS)

• When the CG position of the aeroplane is fixed, each elevator position corresponds to a trim
lift coefficient.

• As the CG is moved aft, the slope of this line decreases, and the decrease in stability is
evident by a given control displacement causing a greater change in trim lift coefficient.

• This is evidence that decreasing stability causes increased controllability and, increasing
stability decreases controllability.

• A change in elevator position does not

alter the tail contribution to stability.

23 June 2020 27
 Principles of Flight

Elevator Position vs Speed (IAS)

• Since the lift coefficient corresponds to a value of dynamic pressure required to support an
aeroplane in level flight, trim airspeed can be correlated with elevator deflection.

• If the CG location is ahead of the neutral point and control position is directly related to
surface deflection, the aeroplane will give evidence of stick position stability. In other
words, the aeroplane will require the stick to be moved aft to increase the angle of attack
and trim at a lower airspeed and to be moved forward to decrease the angle of attack and
trim at a higher airspeed.

23 June 2020 28
 Principles of Flight

Neutral Point
If you consider the CG moving rearwards from a position of static longitudinal stability:

• The tail arm ‘y’ will decrease, and the wing arm ‘x’ will increase; consequently,

• The (negative) tail moment will decrease, and the (positive) wing moment will increase.

Eventually the CG will reach a position at which tail moment is the same as wing moment.

23 June 2020 29
 Principles of Flight

Neutral Point
If a vertical gust displaces the aircraft nose-up, the sum of the moments will be zero and there
will be no angular acceleration about the CG to return the aircraft towards its original position
of equilibrium.

Because there is no resultant moment, either nose-up or nose-down, the aircraft will remain in
its new position of equilibrium; the aircraft will have neutral static longitudinal stability.

The position of the CG when the sum of the changes in the tail moment and wing moment
caused by the gust is zero, is known as the neutral point.

23 June 2020 30
 Principles of Flight

Manoeuvrability
Manoeuvrability is the quality of an aircraft that permits it to be manoeuvered easily and to
withstand the stresses imposed by those manoeuvres.

Increasing stability about any axis decreases manoeuvrability and controllability and increases
stick (or pedal) forces.

Increased manoeuvrability gives a smaller control deflection requirement for a given pitch
change.

• Moving the CG aft reduces static longitudinal stability and increases manoeuvrability.

• Moving the CG forward increases static longitudinal stability and decreases manoeuvrability.

23 June 2020 31
 Principles of Flight

Static Margin
• It is necessary to achieve the proper proportion between static stability and controllability
during the design of an aircraft because too much static stability (forward CG position)
reduces controllability. The forward CG limit is set to ensure minimum controllability.

• On the other hand, a too aft CG reduces static stability, so an aft CG limit ensures stability.

• Static margin is defined as the distance between the CG and the neutral point of the aircraft.

23 June 2020 32
 Principles of Flight

Questions

23 June 2020 33
 Principles of Flight

Revisions (1)
tendency of an aircraft to return to a steady
Stability is the ________ _____ state of flight, after being disturbed
pilot
force without any help from the _____.
by an external ______,

Static and ________

There are two broad categories of stability: ________ Dynamic .

Equilibrium (trim) when the sum of all forces is ____

An aircraft is in a state of __________ zero and the sum of
moments is zero.
all ________

initial tendency, following the

The type of static stability an aircraft possesses is defined by its ______
removal of some disturbing force.

23 June 2020 34
 Principles of Flight

Revisions (2)
The three different types of static stability are:

Positive static stability exists if an aircraft is disturbed from equilibrium and has the
a) _________
tendency to return to equilibrium.

b) Neutral
______ static stability exists if an aircraft is subject to a disturbance and has neither the
tendency to return nor the tendency to continue in the displacement direction.

Negative static stability exists if an aircraft has a tendency to continue in the direction of
c) _________
disturbance.
CG from _____
The longitudinal axis passes through the ____ nose to _____.
tail

CG at 90
The normal axis passes “vertically” through the ___ longitudinal axis.
__° to the ___________

The lateral axis is a line passing through the ___,

CG parallel to a line passing through the ____
wing tips.

23 June 2020 35
 Principles of Flight

Revisions (3)
Centre ___
The three reference axes all pass through the _______ of ________.
Gravity

Longitudinal axis (_______).

Lateral stability involves motion about the __________ rolling

Lateral axis (_______).

Longitudinal stability involves motion about the ______ pitching

Normal axis (_______).

Directional stability involves motion about the _______ yawing

Attack
Magnitude of lift force due to changes in angle of ________,
We consider the changes in __________
stationary point; the ___________
acting through a __________ Aerodynamic ______.
centre

25 chord position.
The aerodynamic centre (AC) is located at the ___%

constant at normal angles of attack.

Negative pitching moment about the AC remains ________
The _________
unstable because the ___
A wing on its own is statically ________ AC is in front of the ___.
CG

23 June 2020 36
 Principles of Flight

Revisions (4)
increase the angle of attack of the wing. The
An upward vertical gust will momentarily ________
________ AC will increase the positive
increased lift force magnitude acting through the ___ ______ pitching moment
CG
about the ___.

unstable pitching moment.

This is an ________

stabilizing pitching moment about the aircraft ___.

tailplane is positioned to generate a _________
The ________ CG

zero
If the tail moment is greater than the wing moment, the sum of the moments will not be ____
acceleration about the ____.
down moment will give an angular ___________
and the resultant nose _____ CG

The ______ greater the rate of return

greater the tail moment relative to the wing moment, the _______
equilibrium position.
towards the original __________
_______

increases the tail arm

CG forwards, which _________
The tail moment is increased by moving the aircraft ___
wing arm.
and decreases the _____

23 June 2020 37
 Principles of Flight

Revisions (5)
If the nose-down (_______)
negative tail moment is greater than the nose-up (_______)
positive wing moment,
the aircraft will have _______ __________ stability.
Static Longitudinal

The position of the CG when changes in the sum of the tail moment and wing moment due to a
Neutral _____.
disturbance is zero is known as the ______ Point

The further forward the ___, greater the nose-down angular __________
CG the ______ acceleration about the ___
CG -
the greater
______ the degree of _____ __________ stability.
Static Longitudinal

distance the ___

The _______ CG is forward of the ________ static
neutral point will give a measure of the _____
longitudinal stability; this distance is called the static ______.
margin

greater the _______

The greater the static margin, the ______ Static ___________
Longitudinal stability.

forward of the Neutral

aft CG limit will be positioned some distance _________
The ____ Point
_____ _____.

23 June 2020 38
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (1)

• If the sum of moments in flight is not zero, the airplane will rotate about:

a) The neutral point of the airplane;

b) The aerodynamic centre of the wing;

c) The centre of gravity;

d) The centre of pressure of the wing.

23 June 2020 39
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (2)

• When an airplane with the centre of gravity forward of the centre of pressure of
the combined wing/fuselage is in straight and level flight, the vertical load on the
tailplane will be:

a) Downwards;

b) Upwards;

c) Zero because in steady flight all loads are in equilibrium;

d) Downwards because it is always negative regardless of the position of the CG.

23 June 2020 40
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (3)

• In a twin-engine jet powered aeroplane (engines mounted below the low wings)
the thrust is suddenly increased. Which elevator deflection will be required to
maintain the pitching moment zero?

a) Up;

b) No elevator movement will be required because the thrust line of the engines
remains unchanged;

c) It depends on the position of the centre of gravity;

d) Down.
23 June 2020 41
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (4)

• After a disturbance about the lateral axis, an airplane oscillates about the lateral
axis at a constant amplitude. The airplane is:

a) Statically unstable - Dynamically stable;

b) Statically stable - Dynamically neutral;

c) Statically stable - Dynamically unstable;

d) Statically unstable - Dynamically neutral.

23 June 2020 42
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (5)

• A statically unstable aeroplane is:

a) Never dynamically stable;

b) Always dynamically stable;

c) Sometimes dynamically stable;

a) Sometimes dynamically unstable.

23 June 2020 43
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (6)

• One of the requirements for dynamic stability is:

a) A small C.G. range;

b) A large deflection range of the stabilizer trim;

c) Positive static stability;

d) Effective elevator.

23 June 2020 44
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (7)

• For a normal stable airplane, the centre of gravity is located:

a) Between the aft limit and the neutral point of the airplane;

b) Aft of the neutral point of the airplane;

c) At the neutral point of the airplane;

d) With a sufficient minimum margin ahead of the neutral point of the airplane.

23 June 2020 45
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (8)

• An aeroplane which is inherently stable will:

a) Require less effort to control;

b) Be difficult to stall;

c) Not spin;

d) Have a built-in tendency to return to its original state following the removal of
any disturbing force.

23 June 2020 46
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (9)

• After a disturbance in pitch an aircraft oscillates in pitch with increasing
amplitude. It is:

a) Statically and dynamically unstable;

b) Statically stable but dynamically unstable;

c) Statically unstable but dynamically stable;

a) statically and dynamically stable.

23 June 2020 47
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (10)

• Longitudinal stability is given by:

a) The fin;

b) The wing Dihedral;

c) The horizontal Tailplane;

d) The ailerons.

23 June 2020 48
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (11)

• If the wing AC is forward of the CG:

a) Changes in lift produce a wing pitching moment which acts to reduce the
change of lift;

b) Changes in lift produce a wing pitching moment which acts to increase the
change of lift;

c) Changes in lift give no change in wing pitching moment;

d) When the aircraft sideslips the CG causes the nose to turn into the sideslip thus
applying a restoring moment.
23 June 2020 49
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (12)

• The maneuverability of an airplane is best when the:

a) Speed is low;

b) C.G. is on the aft C.G. limit;

c) C.G. position is on the forward C.G. limit;

d) Flaps are down.

23 June 2020 50
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (13)

• To ensure some degree of longitudinal stability in flight, the position of the CG:

a) Must always coincide with the AC;

b) Must be forward of the Neutral Point;

c) Must be aft of the Neutral Point;

d) Must not be forward of the aft CG limit.

23 June 2020 51
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (14)

• What determines the longitudinal static stability of an aeroplane?

a) The relationship of thrust and lift to weight and drag;

b) The effectiveness of the horizontal stabilizer, rudder, and rudder trim tab;

c) The location of the CG with respect to the AC;

d) the size of the pitching moment which can be generated by the elevator.

23 June 2020 52
 Principles of Flight

Sample Questions (15)

• The static margin is equal to the distance between:

a) The CG and the AC;

b) The AC and the neutral point;

c) The CG and the neutral point;

d) The CG and the CG datum point.

23 June 2020 53
 Principles of Flight

See you next Class!

23/06/2020 54