Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the four known
fundamental forces (electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions, omitting gravity) in the
universe and classifying all known elementary particles. It was developed in stages throughout
the latter half of the 20th century, through the work of many scientists worldwide,[1] with the
current formulation being finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the
existence of quarks. Since then, proof of the top quark (1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and the
Higgs boson (2012) have added further credence to the Standard Model. In addition, the
Standard Model has predicted various properties of weak neutral currents and the W and Z
bosons with great accuracy.

Although the Standard Model is believed to be theoretically self-consistent[note 1] and has

demonstrated huge successes in providing experimental predictions, it leaves some phenomena
unexplained. It falls short of being a complete theory of fundamental interactions. For example,
it does not fully explain baryon asymmetry, incorporate the full theory of gravitation[3] as
described by general relativity, or account for the universe's accelerating expansion as possibly
described by dark energy. The model does not contain any viable dark matter particle that
possesses all of the required properties deduced from observational cosmology. It also does
not incorporate neutrino oscillations and their non-zero masses.

The development of the Standard Model was driven by theoretical and experimental particle
physicists alike. The Standard Model is a paradigm of a quantum field theory for theorists,
exhibiting a wide range of phenomena, including spontaneous symmetry breaking, anomalies,
and non-perturbative behavior. It is used as a basis for building more exotic models that
incorporate hypothetical particles, extra dimensions, and elaborate symmetries (such as
supersymmetry) to explain experimental results at variance with the Standard Model, such as
the existence of dark matter and neutrino oscillations.

Historical background

In 1954, Chen Ning Yang and Robert Mills extended the concept of gauge theory for abelian
groups, e.g. quantum electrodynamics, to nonabelian groups to provide an explanation for
strong interactions.[4] In 1957, Chien-Shiung Wu demonstrated parity was not conserved in the
weak interaction.[5]
In 1961, Sheldon Glashow combined the electromagnetic and weak
interactions.[6] In 1967 Steven Weinberg[7] and Abdus Salam[8] incorporated the Higgs
mechanism[9][10][11] into Glashow's electroweak interaction, giving it its modern form.

The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the masses of all the elementary particles in the
Standard Model. This includes the masses of the W and Z bosons, and the masses of the
fermions, i.e. the quarks and leptons.

After the neutral weak currents caused by Z boson exchange were discovered at CERN in
1973,[12][13][14][15] the electroweak theory became widely accepted and Glashow, Salam, and
Weinberg shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering it. The W± and Z0 bosons were
discovered experimentally in 1983; and the ratio of their masses was found to be as the
Standard Model predicted.[16]

The theory of the strong interaction (i.e. quantum chromodynamics, QCD), to which many
contributed, acquired its modern form in 1973–74 when asymptotic freedom was
proposed[17][18] (a development which made QCD the main focus of theoretical research)[19] and
experiments confirmed that the hadrons were composed of fractionally charged quarks.[20][21]

The term "Standard Model" was first coined by Abraham Pais and Sam Treiman in 1975,[22] with
reference to the electroweak theory with four quarks.[23] According to Steven Weinberg, he came
up with the term[24][25] and used it in 1973 during a talk in Aix-en-Provence in France.[26]

Particle content

The Standard Model includes members of several classes of elementary particles, which in turn
can be distinguished by other characteristics, such as color charge.
All particles can be summarized as follows:

v t

e (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Elementary_particles&action=edit)
Elementary particles

Elementary fermions Elementary bosons

Half-integer spin Integer spin
Obey the Fermi–Dirac Obey the Bose–Einstein
statistics statistics

Quarks and Leptons and antileptons Gauge bosons Scalar bosons

antiquarks Spin = 12 Spin = 1 Spin = 0
1
Spin = 2 No color charge Force carriers
Have color charge Electroweak interactions
Participate in strong
interactions

Three generations Three generations Four kinds Unique

1. Up (u),
1. Electron (e ), [†]
1. Photon

Down (d) Electron neutrino (ν

e) (γ; Higgs boson (

0

−
electromagnetic H )
2. Charm (c),
2. Muon (μ ),

interaction)
Strange (s)

Muon neutrino (νμ)

2. W and Z bosons

3. Top (t),

−

3. Tau (τ ),

+

−

(W , W , Z; weak
Bottom (b)

Tau neutrino (ντ) interaction)

3. Eight types of
gluons

(g; strong
interaction)

Notes:

[†] An anti-electron (e ) is conventionally called a “positron”.

Fermions
The Standard Model includes 12 elementary particles of spin 1⁄2, known as fermions. According
to the spin–statistics theorem, fermions respect the Pauli exclusion principle. Each fermion has
a corresponding antiparticle.

Fermions are classified according to how they interact (or equivalently, by what charges they
carry). There are six quarks (up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom), and six leptons (electron,
electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino). Each class is divided into pairs of
particles that exhibit a similar physical behavior called a generation (see the table).

The defining property of quarks is that they carry color charge, and hence interact via the strong
interaction. The phenomenon of color confinement results in quarks being very strongly bound
to one another, forming color-neutral composite particles called hadrons that contain either a
quark and an antiquark (mesons) or three quarks (baryons). The lightest baryons are the proton
and the neutron. Quarks also carry electric charge and weak isospin. Hence they interact with
other fermions via electromagnetism and the weak interaction. The remaining six fermions do
not carry color charge and are called leptons. The three neutrinos do not carry electric charge
either, so their motion is directly influenced only by the weak nuclear force and gravity, which
makes them notoriously difficult to detect. By contrast, by virtue of carrying an electric charge,
the electron, muon, and tau all interact electromagnetically.

Each member of a generation has greater mass than the corresponding particle of any
generation before it. The first-generation charged particles do not decay, hence all ordinary
(baryonic) matter is made of such particles. Specifically, all atoms consist of electrons orbiting
around atomic nuclei, ultimately constituted of up and down quarks. On the other hand, second-
and third-generation charged particles decay with very short half-lives and are observed only in
very high-energy environments. Neutrinos of all generations also do not decay, and pervade the
universe, but rarely interact with baryonic matter.

Gauge bosons
Interactions in the Standard Model. All Feynman diagrams in the model are built from combinations of these vertices. q is
any quark, g is a gluon, X is any charged particle, γ is a photon, f is any fermion, m is any particle with mass (with the
possible exception of the neutrinos), mB is any boson with mass. In diagrams with multiple particle labels separated by /
one particle label is chosen. In diagrams with particle labels separated by | the labels must be chosen in the same order.
For example, in the four boson electroweak case the valid diagrams are WWWW, WWZZ, WWγγ, WWZγ. The conjugate of
each listed vertex (reversing the direction of arrows) is also allowed.[27]

In the Standard Model, gauge bosons are defined as force carriers that mediate the strong,
weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions.

Interactions in physics are the ways that particles influence other particles. At a macroscopic
level, electromagnetism allows particles to interact with one another via electric and magnetic
fields, and gravitation allows particles with mass to attract one another in accordance with
Einstein's theory of general relativity. The Standard Model explains such forces as resulting from
matter particles exchanging other particles, generally referred to as force mediating particles.
When a force-mediating particle is exchanged, the effect at a macroscopic level is equivalent to
a force influencing both of them, and the particle is therefore said to have mediated (i.e., been
the agent of) that force.[28] The Feynman diagram calculations, which are a graphical
representation of the perturbation theory approximation, invoke "force mediating particles", and
when applied to analyze high-energy scattering experiments are in reasonable agreement with
the data. However, perturbation theory (and with it the concept of a "force-mediating particle")
fails in other situations. These include low-energy quantum chromodynamics, bound states, and
solitons.

The gauge bosons of the Standard Model all have spin (as do matter particles). The value of the
spin is 1, making them bosons. As a result, they do not follow the Pauli exclusion principle that
constrains fermions: thus bosons (e.g. photons) do not have a theoretical limit on their spatial
density (number per volume). The types of gauge bosons are described below.

Photons mediate the electromagnetic force between electrically charged particles. The
photon is massless and is well-described by the theory of quantum electrodynamics.

+

−

The W , W , and Z gauge bosons mediate the weak interactions between particles of different

flavours (all quarks and leptons). They are massive, with the Z being more massive than the
±

±

W . The weak interactions involving the W act only on left-handed particles and right-handed

±

antiparticles. The W carries an electric charge of +1 and −1 and couples to the

electromagnetic interaction. The electrically neutral Z boson interacts with both left-handed
particles and right-handed antiparticles. These three gauge bosons along with the photons are
grouped together, as collectively mediating the electroweak interaction.

The eight gluons mediate the strong interactions between color charged particles (the
quarks). Gluons are massless. The eightfold multiplicity of gluons is labeled by a combination
of color and anticolor charge (e.g. red–antigreen).[note 2] Because gluons have an effective
color charge, they can also interact among themselves. Gluons and their interactions are
described by the theory of quantum chromodynamics.

The interactions between all the particles described by the Standard Model are summarized by
the diagrams on the right of this section.

Higgs boson

The Higgs particle is a massive scalar elementary particle theorized by Peter Higgs in 1964,
when he showed that Goldstone's 1962 theorem (generic continuous symmetry, which is
spontaneously broken) provides a third polarisation of a massive vector field. Hence,
Goldstone's original scalar doublet, the massive spin-zero particle, was proposed as the Higgs
boson, and is a key building block in the Standard Model.[9][10][11][29] It has no intrinsic spin, and
for that reason is classified as a boson (like the gauge bosons, which have integer spin).

The Higgs boson plays a unique role in the Standard Model, by explaining why the other
elementary particles, except the photon and gluon, are massive. In particular, the Higgs boson
explains why the photon has no mass, while the W and Z bosons are very heavy. Elementary-
particle masses, and the differences between electromagnetism (mediated by the photon) and
the weak force (mediated by the W and Z bosons), are critical to many aspects of the structure
of microscopic (and hence macroscopic) matter. In electroweak theory, the Higgs boson
generates the masses of the leptons (electron, muon, and tau) and quarks. As the Higgs boson
is massive, it must interact with itself.

Because the Higgs boson is a very massive particle and also decays almost immediately when
created, only a very high-energy particle accelerator can observe and record it. Experiments to
confirm and determine the nature of the Higgs boson using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at
CERN began in early 2010 and were performed at Fermilab's Tevatron until its closure in late
2011. Mathematical consistency of the Standard Model requires that any mechanism capable of
generating the masses of elementary particles must become visible at energies above
1.4 TeV;[30] therefore, the LHC (designed to collide two 7 TeV proton beams) was built to answer
the question of whether the Higgs boson actually exists.[31]

On 4 July 2012, two of the experiments at the LHC (ATLAS and CMS) both reported
independently that they had found a new particle with a mass of about 125 GeV/c2 (about 133
proton masses, on the order of 10 × 10−25 kg), which is "consistent with the Higgs
boson".[32][33][34][35][36][37]
On 13 March 2013, it was confirmed to be the searched-for Higgs
boson.[38][39]

Theoretical aspects

Construction of the Standard Model Lagrangian

 Parameters of the Standard Model

Renormalization

# Symbol Description Value

scheme (point)

1 me Electron mass 0.511 MeV

2 mμ Muon mass 105.7 MeV

3 mτ Tau mass 1.78 GeV

4 mu Up quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 1.9 MeV

5 md Down quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 4.4 MeV

6 ms Strange quark mass μMS = 2 GeV 87 MeV

7 mc Charm quark mass μMS = mc 1.32 GeV

8 mb Bottom quark mass μMS = mb 4.24 GeV

9 mt Top quark mass On shell scheme 173.5 GeV

10 θ12 CKM 12-mixing angle 13.1°

11 θ23 CKM 23-mixing angle 2.4°

12 θ13 CKM 13-mixing angle 0.2°

13 δ CKM CP violation Phase 0.995

14 g1 or g' U(1) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 0.357

15 g2 or g SU(2) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 0.652

16 g3 or gs SU(3) gauge coupling μMS = mZ 1.221

17 θQCD QCD vacuum angle ~0

18 v Higgs vacuum expectation value 246 GeV

19 mH Higgs mass 125.09 ± 0.24 GeV

Technically, quantum field theory provides the mathematical framework for the Standard Model,
in which a Lagrangian controls the dynamics and kinematics of the theory. Each kind of particle
is described in terms of a dynamical field that pervades space-time.[40]
The construction of the
Standard Model proceeds following the modern method of constructing most field theories: by
first postulating a set of symmetries of the system, and then by writing down the most general
renormalizable Lagrangian from its particle (field) content that observes these symmetries.
The global Poincaré symmetry is postulated for all relativistic quantum field theories. It consists
of the familiar translational symmetry, rotational symmetry and the inertial reference frame
invariance central to the theory of special relativity. The local SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1) gauge symmetry
is an internal symmetry that essentially defines the Standard Model. Roughly, the three factors of
the gauge symmetry give rise to the three fundamental interactions. The fields fall into different
representations of the various symmetry groups of the Standard Model (see table). Upon writing
the most general Lagrangian, one finds that the dynamics depends on 19 parameters, whose
numerical values are established by experiment. The parameters are summarized in the table
(made visible by clicking "show") above.

Quantum chromodynamics sector

The quantum chromodynamics (QCD) sector defines the interactions between quarks and
gluons, which is a Yang–Mills gauge theory with SU(3) symmetry, generated by T a. Since leptons
do not interact with gluons, they are not affected by this sector. The Dirac Lagrangian of the
quarks coupled to the gluon fields is given by

where

ψi is the Dirac spinor of the quark field, where i = {r, g, b} represents color,

γ μ are the Dirac matrices,

a

Gμ is the 8-component ( ) SU(3) gauge field,

a

Tij are the 3 × 3 Gell-Mann matrices, generators of the SU(3) color group,
a

Gμν represents the gluon field strength tensor,

gs is the strong coupling constant.

Electroweak sector

The electroweak sector is a Yang–Mills gauge theory with the symmetry group U(1) × SU(2)L,

where
Bμ is the U(1) gauge field,

YW is the weak hypercharge – the generator of the U(1) group,

 →
W μ is the 3-component SU(2) gauge field,
→
τL are the Pauli matrices – infinitesimal generators of the SU(2) group – with subscript L to
indicate that they only act on left-chiral fermions,

g' and g are the U(1) and SU(2) coupling constants respectively,

( ) and are the field strength tensors for the weak isospin and weak
hypercharge fields.

Notice that the addition of fermion mass terms into the electroweak Lagrangian is forbidden,
since terms of the form do not respect U(1) × SU(2)L gauge invariance. Neither is it
possible to add explicit mass terms for the U(1) and SU(2) gauge fields. The Higgs mechanism
is responsible for the generation of the gauge boson masses, and the fermion masses result
from Yukawa-type interactions with the Higgs field.

Higgs sector

In the Standard Model, the Higgs field is a complex scalar of the group SU(2)L:

where the superscripts + and 0 indicate the electric charge (Q) of the components. The weak
hypercharge (YW) of both components is 1.

Before symmetry breaking, the Higgs Lagrangian is

which up to a divergence term, (i.e., after partial integration) can also be written as

The Higgs self-coupling strength λ is approximately 1⁄8. This is not included in the table above
because it can be derived from the mass (after symmetry breaking) and the vacuum expectation
value.

Yukawa sector

The Yukawa interaction terms are

where Gu,d are 3 × 3 matrices of Yukawa couplings, with the ij term giving the coupling of the
generations i and j, and h.c. means Hermitian conjugate of preceding terms.

Fundamental interactions

The Standard Model describes three of the four fundamental interactions in nature; only gravity
remains unexplained. In the Standard Model, such an interaction is described as an exchange of
bosons between the objects affected, such as a photon for the electromagnetic force and a
gluon for the strong interaction. Those particles are called force carriers or messenger
particles.[41]

The four fundamental interactions of nature[42]

Electroweak Strong
Property/Interaction Gravitation
Weak Electromagnetic Fundamental Residual

Not yet observed

W+, W− π, ρ and ω
Mediating particles (Graviton γ (photon) Gluons
and Z0 mesons
hypothesised)

Left-
Electrically Quarks,
Affected particles All particles handed Hadrons
charged gluons
fermions

Stress energy
Acts on Flavour Electric charge Color charge
tensor

Planets, stars,
Bound states Atoms, Atomic
galaxies, galaxy — Hadrons
formed molecules nuclei
groups

Strength at the scale

Not
of quarks

10−41 (predicted) 10−4 1 60 applicable

(relative to
to quarks
electromagnetism)

Strength at the scale

of
Not
protons/neutrons
10−36 (predicted) 10−7 1 applicable
20
(relative to to hadrons
electromagnetism)
Gravity

Despite being perhaps the most familiar fundamental interaction, gravity is not described by the
Standard Model, due to contradictions that arise when combining general relativity, the modern
theory of gravity, and quantum mechanics. However, gravity is so weak at microscopic scales,
that it is essentially unmeasurable. The graviton is postulated as the mediating particle.

Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism is the only long-range force in the Standard Model. It is mediated by photons
and couples to electric charge. Electromagnetism is responsible for a wide range of phenomena
including atomic electron shell structure, chemical bonds, electric circuits and electronics.
Electromagnetic interactions in the Standard Model are described by quantum electrodynamics.

Weak nuclear force

The weak interaction is responsible for various forms of particle decay, such as beta decay. It is
weak and short-range, due to the fact that the weak mediating particles, W and Z bosons, have
mass. W bosons have electric charge and mediate interactions that change the particle type
(referred to as flavour) and charge. Interactions mediated by W bosons are charged current
interactions. Z bosons are neutral and mediate neutral current interactions, which do not change
particle flavour. Thus Z bosons are similar to the photon, aside from them being massive and
interacting with the neutrino. The weak interaction is also the only interaction to violate parity
and CP. Parity violation is maximal for charged current interactions, since the W boson interacts
exclusively with left-handed fermions and right-handed antifermions.

In the Standard Model, the weak force is understood in terms of the electroweak theory, which
states that the weak and electromagnetic interactions become united into a single electroweak
interaction at high energies.

Strong nuclear force

The strong nuclear force is responsible for hadronic and nuclear binding. It is mediated by
gluons, which couple to color charge. Since gluons themselves have color charge, the strong
force exhibits confinement and asymptotic freedom. Confinement means that only color-neutral
particles can exist in isolation, therefore quarks can only exist in hadrons and never in isolation,
at low energies. Asymptotic freedom means that the strong force becomes weaker, as the
energy scale increases. The strong force overpowers the electrostatic repulsion of protons and
quarks in nuclei and hadrons respectively, at their respective scales.

While quarks are bound in hadrons by the fundamental strong interaction, which is mediated by
gluons, nucleons are bound by an emergent phenomenon termed the residual strong force or
nuclear force. This interaction is mediated by mesons, such as the pion. The color charges inside
the nucleon cancel out, meaning most of the gluon and quark fields cancel out outside of the
nucleon. However, some residue is "leaked", which appears as the exchange of virtual mesons,
that causes the attractive force between nucleons. The (fundamental) strong interaction is
described by quantum chromodynamics, which is a component of the Standard Model.

Tests and predictions

The Standard Model predicted the existence of the W and Z bosons, gluon, top quark and charm
quark, and predicted many of their properties before these particles were observed. The
predictions were experimentally confirmed with good precision.[43]

The Standard Model also predicted the existence of the Higgs boson, which was found in 2012
at the Large Hadron Collider, the final fundamental particle predicted by the Standard Model to
be experimentally confirmed.[44]

Challenges

Unsolved problem in physics:

What gives rise to the Standard Model of particle physics?

Why do particle masses and coupling constants have the values that we measure?

Why are there three generations of particles?

Why is there more matter than antimatter in the universe?

Where does dark matter fit into the model? Does it even consist of one or more
new particles?

(more unsolved problems in physics)

Self-consistency of the Standard Model (currently formulated as a non-abelian gauge theory
quantized through path-integrals) has not been mathematically proven. While regularized
versions useful for approximate computations (for example lattice gauge theory) exist, it is not
known whether they converge (in the sense of S-matrix elements) in the limit that the regulator is
removed. A key question related to the consistency is the Yang–Mills existence and mass gap
problem.

Experiments indicate that neutrinos have mass, which the classic Standard Model did not
allow.[45] To accommodate this finding, the classic Standard Model can be modified to include
neutrino mass.

If one insists on using only Standard Model particles, this can be achieved by adding a non-
renormalizable interaction of leptons with the Higgs boson.[46] On a fundamental level, such an
interaction emerges in the seesaw mechanism where heavy right-handed neutrinos are added to
the theory.
This is natural in the left-right symmetric extension of the Standard Model[47][48] and
in certain grand unified theories.[49] As long as new physics appears below or around 1014 GeV,
the neutrino masses can be of the right order of magnitude.

Theoretical and experimental research has attempted to extend the Standard Model into a
unified field theory or a theory of everything, a complete theory explaining all physical
phenomena including constants. Inadequacies of the Standard Model that motivate such
research include:

The model does not explain gravitation, although physical confirmation of a theoretical
particle known as a graviton would account for it to a degree. Though it addresses strong and
electroweak interactions, the Standard Model does not consistently explain the canonical
theory of gravitation, general relativity, in terms of quantum field theory. The reason for this is,
among other things, that quantum field theories of gravity generally break down before
reaching the Planck scale. As a consequence, we have no reliable theory for the very early
universe.

Some physicists consider it to be ad hoc and inelegant, requiring 19 numerical constants

whose values are unrelated and arbitrary.[50] Although the Standard Model, as it now stands,
can explain why neutrinos have masses, the specifics of neutrino mass are still unclear. It is
believed that explaining neutrino mass will require an additional 7 or 8 constants, which are
also arbitrary parameters.[51]

The Higgs mechanism gives rise to the hierarchy problem if some new physics (coupled to the
Higgs) is present at high energy scales. In these cases, in order for the weak scale to be much
 smaller than the Planck scale, severe fine tuning of the parameters is required; there are,
however, other scenarios that include quantum gravity in which such fine tuning can be
avoided.[52] There are also issues of quantum triviality, which suggests that it may not be
possible to create a consistent quantum field theory involving elementary scalar particles.[53]

The model is inconsistent with the emerging Lambda-CDM model of cosmology. Contentions
include the absence of an explanation in the Standard Model of particle physics for the
observed amount of cold dark matter (CDM) and its contributions to dark energy, which are
many orders of magnitude too large. It is also difficult to accommodate the observed
predominance of matter over antimatter (matter/antimatter asymmetry). The isotropy and
homogeneity of the visible universe over large distances seems to require a mechanism like
cosmic inflation, which would also constitute an extension of the Standard Model.

Currently, no proposed theory of everything has been widely accepted or verified.

See also

Yang–Mills theory

Fundamental interaction:
Quantum electrodynamics

Strong interaction: Color charge, Quantum chromodynamics, Quark model

Weak interaction: Electroweak interaction, Fermi's interaction, Weak hypercharge, Weak

isospin

Gauge theory: Introduction to gauge theory

Generation

Higgs mechanism: Higgs boson, Alternatives to the Standard Higgs Model

Lagrangian

Open questions: CP violation, Neutrino masses, QCD matter, Quantum triviality

Quantum field theory

Standard Model: Mathematical formulation of, Physics beyond the Standard Model

Electron electric dipole moment

Notes
 1. In fact, there are mathematical issues regarding quantum field theories still under debate (see e.g.
Landau pole), but the predictions extracted from the Standard Model by current methods applicable to
current experiments are all self-consistent.[2]

2. Technically, there are nine such color–anticolor combinations. However, one of these is a color-
symmetric combination that can be constructed out of a linear superposition, reducing the count to eight.

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Further reading

R. Oerter (2006). The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of
Modern Physics (https://archive.org/details/theoryofalmostev0000oert) . Plume.

B.A. Schumm (2004). Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics (https://a
rchive.org/details/deepdownthingsbr00schu) . Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-
8018-7971-5.

"The Standard Model of Particle Physics Interactive Graphic" (http://www.symmetrymagazine.

org/standard-model/) .

Introductory textbooks
I. Aitchison; A. Hey (2003). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics: A Practical Introduction. Institute
of Physics. ISBN 978-0-585-44550-2.

W. Greiner; B. Müller (2000). Gauge Theory of Weak Interactions. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-

67672-0.

G.D. Coughlan; J.E. Dodd; B.M. Gripaios (2006). The Ideas of Particle Physics: An Introduction
for Scientists. Cambridge University Press.

D.J. Griffiths (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-
60386-3.

G.L. Kane (1987). Modern Elementary Particle Physics. Perseus Books. ISBN 978-0-201-11749-
3.

Advanced textbooks
T.P. Cheng; L.F. Li (2006). Gauge theory of elementary particle physics. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-851961-4. Highlights the gauge theory aspects of the Standard Model.
 J.F. Donoghue; E. Golowich; B.R. Holstein (1994). Dynamics of the Standard Model. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47652-2. Highlights dynamical and phenomenological
aspects of the Standard Model.

L. O'Raifeartaigh (1988). Group structure of gauge theories. Cambridge University Press.

ISBN 978-0-521-34785-3.

Nagashima, Yorikiyo (2013). Elementary Particle Physics: Foundations of the Standard Model,
Volume 2 (https://books.google.com/books?id=QYlX6AL4CtwC) . Wiley. ISBN 978-3-527-
64890-0. 920 pages.

Schwartz, Matthew D. (2014). Quantum Field Theory and the Standard Model (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=HbdEAgAAQBAJ) . Cambridge University. ISBN 978-1-107-03473-0. 952
pages.

Langacker, Paul (2009). The Standard Model and Beyond (https://books.google.com/books?id=

dpANo3e_pS8C) . CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-7907-4. 670 pages. Highlights group-
theoretical aspects of the Standard Model.

Journal articles
E.S. Abers; B.W. Lee (1973). "Gauge theories". Physics Reports. 9 (1): 1–141.
Bibcode:1973PhR.....9....1A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973PhR.....9....1A) .
doi:10.1016/0370-1573(73)90027-6 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0370-1573%2873%2990027-
6) .

M. Baak; et al. (2012). "The Electroweak Fit of the Standard Model after the Discovery of a
New Boson at the LHC". The European Physical Journal C. 72 (11): 2205. arXiv:1209.2716 (http
s://arxiv.org/abs/1209.2716) . Bibcode:2012EPJC...72.2205B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/2012EPJC...72.2205B) . doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-012-2205-9 (https://doi.org/10.1140%
2Fepjc%2Fs10052-012-2205-9) . S2CID 15052448 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:15052448) .

Y. Hayato; et al. (1999). "Search for Proton Decay through p → νK+ in a Large Water Cherenkov
Detector". Physical Review Letters. 83 (8): 1529–1533. arXiv:hep-ex/9904020 (https://arxiv.or
g/abs/hep-ex/9904020) . Bibcode:1999PhRvL..83.1529H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/1999PhRvL..83.1529H) . doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1529 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPh
ysRevLett.83.1529) . S2CID 118326409 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118326
409) .
 S.F. Novaes (2000). "Standard Model: An Introduction". arXiv:hep-ph/0001283 (https://arxiv.or
g/abs/hep-ph/0001283) .

D.P. Roy (1999). "Basic Constituents of Matter and their Interactions – A Progress Report".
arXiv:hep-ph/9912523 (https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9912523) .

F. Wilczek (2004). "The Universe Is A Strange Place". Nuclear Physics B: Proceedings

Supplements. 134: 3. arXiv:astro-ph/0401347 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0401347) .
Bibcode:2004NuPhS.134....3W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004NuPhS.134....3W) .
doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2004.08.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysbps.2004.08.
001) . S2CID 28234516 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28234516) .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Standard Model.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Standard Model.

"The Standard Model explained in Detail by CERN's John Ellis (http://omegataupodcast.net/93

-the-standard-model-of-particle-physics) " omega tau podcast.

The Standard Model (http://home.web.cern.ch/about/physics/standard-model) on the CERN

website explains how the basic building blocks of matter interact, governed by four
fundamental forces.

Particle Physics: Standard Model (https://av.tib.eu/series/56) , Leonard Susskind lectures

(2010).

Portals:  Mathematics  Physics

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