THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES 2-403

FIG. 2-29 Enthalpy-concentration diagram for aqueous sodium hydroxide at 1 atm. Reference states: enthalpy of liquid water at 32 °F and
vapor pressure is zero; partial molal enthalpy of infinitely dilute NaOH solution at 64 °F and 1 atm is zero. [McCabe, Trans. Am. Inst. Chem.
Eng., 31, 129 (1935).]
 EVAPORATORS 11-115

FIG. 11-124 Boiling-point rise of aqueous solutions. °C = 5/9 (°F − 32).

enough so that most of the entrained droplets can settle out against Entrainment losses by flashing are frequently encountered in an
the rising flow of vapor. Allowable velocities are governed by the evaporator. If the feed is above the boiling point and is introduced
Souders-Brown equation: V = k(ρ 1−ρ v, in which k depends on
v)/ρ above or only a short distance below the liquid level, entrainment
the size distribution of droplets and the decontamination factor F losses may be excessive. This can occur in a short-tube-type evapora-
desired. For most evaporators and for F between 100 and 10,000, k  tor if the feed is introduced at only one point below the lower tube
0.245/(F − 50)0.4 (Standiford, Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 4th ed., sheet (Kerr, Louisiana Agric. Expt. Stn. Bull. 149, 1915). The same
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963, p. 11–35). Higher values of k (to about difficulty may be encountered in forced-circulation evaporators hav-
0.15) can be tolerated in the falling-film evaporator, where most of the ing too high a temperature rise through the heating element and thus
entrainment separation occurs in the tubes, the vapor is scrubbed by too wide a flashing range as the circulating liquid enters the body.
liquor leaving the tubes, and the vapor must reverse direction to reach Poor vacuum control, especially during startup, can cause the genera-
the outlet. tion of far more vapor than the evaporator was designed to handle,
Foaming losses usually result from the presence in the evaporat- with a consequent increase in entrainment.
ing liquid of colloids or of surface-tension depressants and finely Entrainment separators are frequently used to reduce product
divided solids. Antifoam agents are often effective. Other means of losses. There are a number of specialized designs available, practically
combating foam include the use of steam jets impinging on the foam all of which rely on a change in direction of the vapor flow when the
surface, the removal of product at the surface layer, where the foam- vapor is traveling at high velocity. Typical separators are shown in Fig.
ing agents seem to concentrate, and operation at a very low liquid 11-122, although not necessarily with the type of evaporator with
level so that hot surfaces can break the foam. Impingement at high which they may be used. The most common separator is the cyclone,
velocity against a baffle tends to break the foam mechanically, and this which may have either a top or a bottom outlet as shown in Fig.
is the reason that the long-tube vertical, forced-circulation, and 11-122a and b or may even be wrapped around the heating element of
agitated-film evaporators are particularly effective with foaming liq- the next effect as shown in Fig. 11-122f. The separation efficiency of a
uids. Operating at lower temperatures and/or higher-dissolved solids cyclone increases with an increase in inlet velocity, although at the
concentrations may also reduce foaming tendencies. cost of some pressure drop, which means a loss in available tempera-
Splashing losses are usually insignificant if a reasonable height has ture difference. Pressure drop in a cyclone is from 10 to 16 velocity
been provided between the liquid level and the top of the vapor head. heads [Lawrence, Chem. Eng. Prog., 48, 241 (1952)], based on the
The height required depends on the violence of boiling. Heights of 2.4 velocity in the inlet pipe. Such cyclones can be sized in the same man-
to 3.6 m (8 to 12 ft) or more are provided in short-tube vertical evap- ner as a cyclone dust collector (using velocities of about 30 m/s (100
orators, in which the liquid and vapor leaving the tubes are projected ft/s) at atmospheric pressure) although sizes may be increased some-
upward. Less height is required in forced-circulation evaporators, in what in order to reduce losses in available temperature difference.
which the liquid is given a centrifugal motion or is projected down- Knitted wire mesh serves as an effective entrainment separator
ward as by a baffle. The same is true of long-tube vertical evaporators, when it cannot easily be fouled by solids in the liquor. The mesh is avail-
in which the rising vapor-liquid mixture is projected against a baffle. able in woven metal wire of most alloys and is installed as a blanket