Notes of DIT

Notes of Operating System

Section A

What is Operating System?

Operating system is collection of system and application software which create a link

between user and computer machine. So that user can easily perform basic function

on computer machine such that I/O functions. In simple word we say that Operating

system is a program that acts as an interface between user and computer machine

and also between software and hardware.

Modern operating systems use a graphical user interface also called GUI. A GUI lets

you use your mouse to click icons, buttons, and menus, and everything is clearly

displayed on the screen using a combination of graphics and text. For example

Microsoft operating likes Windows 7, windows 10. Some other operating system are

Linux, macOS etc.

Objectives of Operating System

The objectives of the operating system are −

1. To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.

2. To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.

3. To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.

 4. To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it

easier for the users to access and use other resources.

5. To manage the resources of a computer system.

6. To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.

Characteristics of Operating System (Function / Role of

Operating System)

(1) Memory Management: - operating System Keeps track of the primary memory,

i.e. what part of it is in use by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the

memory when a process or program requests it.

(2) Managing Resources: -Operating System coordinates the entire computer’s

resources including keyboard, mouse, printer, monitor, storage devices and memory.

(3) File system: - When a file is saved, the operating system saves it, attaches a

name to it, and remembers where it put the file for future use. The way an operating

system organizes information into files is called the file system.

(4) Providing a user interface: – The user interface (UI) is the point of human-

computer interaction. Almost all operating systems today provide a windows-like

Graphical User Interface (GUI) in which graphic objects called icons are used to

represent commonly used features.

(5) Managing Resources: - Operating system manages all of the software and

hardware on the computer. Most of the time, there are several different computer

programs running at the same time, and they all need to access your computer's

central processing unit (CPU), memory, and storage. The operating system

coordinates all of this to make sure each program gets what it needs.
(6) Running applications: - Controls and monitors the execution of all other programs

that reside in the computer, including application programs and other system

software.

(7) Support for built-in utility programs: - The operating system uses utility

programs for maintenance and repairs. Utility programs help identify problems,

locate lost files, repair damaged files, and backup data.

(8) Security: − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of

passwords and other similar techniques.

Parts / Components of Operating System

The parts of an operating system all exist so as to make the various parts of a

computer system work together. These components are interrelated and connected

in a way to achieve the major function of operating system. Following are the major

components of Operating System

1. Kernel (also known as the executive)

2. Process manager

3. Interrupts

4. File manager

5. Memory Manager

6. Security Management

7. User Interface

1. Kernel:- When an operating system is loaded into memory, the kernel loads

first and remains in memory until the operating system is shut down again.
 The kernel is responsible for low-level tasks such as disk management, task

management and memory management.

2. Process Management: - A program in execution is called a process. In order

to accomplish its task, process needs the computer resources. There may be

more than one process running in the system which may require the same

resource at the same time. Therefore, the operating system has to manage all

the processes and the resources in a convenient and efficient way. Process

management is responsible for manage processes, threads, enable

processes to share information, protect process resources and allocate

system resources to processes that are requested.

3. Interrupts:- A signal that gets the attention of the CPU . For example,

hardware interrupts are generated when a key is pressed or when the mouse

is moved. When an interrupts occur they tell the CPU to stop its current

activities and execute the appropriate part of the operating system.

4. File manager: - A file manager is a part of Operating System that helps a

user manage all the files on their computer. For example, all file managers

allow the user to view, edit, copy, and delete the files on their computer

storage devices.

5. Memory Manager:- A memory manager is a part of operating system. It helps

manage memory more efficiently and provides additional features such as

flushing out unused segments of memory. All modern operating systems

provide memory management.

6. Security Management: - The security management is responsible for

implementing mechanisms that secure and protect the computer system

internally as well as externally. Therefore an operating system is responsible

 for securing the system at two different levels which are internal security and

external security.

7. User Interface: - The user interface is usually referred to as a shell and is

essential if human interaction is to be supported. The user interface checks

out the directory framework and requests services from the operating system

that will obtain information from input hardware devices and demands

operating system services to display prompts, status messages and such on

output hardware devices.

Classification of Operating System

 Basically Operating system divided in to two categories.

1. General Operating System

2. Special Purpose Operating System

1. General Purpose Operating System: - General purpose Operating System

used for multipurpose. General purpose Operating System supports large

number of utility such that compiler, assembler, editor debugging, packages,

word processor and a file system for long term storage of information.

2. Special Purpose Operating System: - These types of Operating Systems

are used for special purpose. In simple word we say that these operating

systems are design for unique purpose.

Types of Operating System

1) Real-Time Operating System:

Real-time operating systems are systems that respond to input immediately. They

are used for such tasks as navigation, in which the computer must react to a steady

flow of new information without interruption. Most general-purpose operating

systems are not real-time because they can take a few seconds, or even minutes, to

react. Real time can also refer to events simulated by a computer at the same speed

that they would occur in real life. In graphics animation, for example, a real-time

program would display objects moving across the screen at the same speed that

they would actually move. For example CC TV system, navigation system, weather

forecasts

2) Multi-user Operating Systems:

 A multi-user operating system is the Systems that allow multiple users that are on

different computers to access a single system's operating system resources

simultaneously. Users on the system are connected through a network.

3) Single-user Operating Systems:

A single-user operating system is a type of system that has been developed and

designed to use on a single computer. It is used by only one user at a time. It is the

most common system used for home computers.

 4) Single Task Operating Systems:

This type of OS is just better version of Real time OS, where one User can use the

computer to do one thing at a time, which means that doing thing more than one

thing at a time is difficult in this type of OS. The handhelds or the palmtop computers

are good examples of this type of systems. For example Windows mobile and MS

DOS etc.
3) Multi-tasking Operating Systems:

Multitasking is the ability of a computer to run more than one program, or task , at

the same time. The operating system is able to keep track of where you are in these

tasks and go from one to the other without losing information. Multitasking also

allows the computer to make good use of the time.

4) Multi Processing System:

A multiprocessing operating system is one that can run on computer systems that

contain more than one processor. This type of Operating system has great speed.

These types of systems are used when very high speed is required to process a

large volume of data. The whole task of multiprocessing is managed by the operating

system, which allocates different tasks to be performed by the various processors in

the system.

5) Multithreading Operating System: -

Multithreading is the ability of an operating system to execute the different parts of

the program, called threads, simultaneously. This type of operating system needs a

special type of micro processor called Hyper-Threading processor. Hyper-Threading

is a technology that allows a single microprocessor to act like two separate

processors to the operating system and the application program s that use it.

6) Distributed Operating System:

An operating system that manages a group of independent computers and makes

them appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed operating system.

The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate

with each other, gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are
carried out on more than one machine. Windows 2003 + application server

(IIS&PWS) and Linux (apache server) is example of Distributed System.

 What is difference between Desktop and Server base

operating System?

Desktop Operating System:

A desktop operating system is one that is intended for a desktop computer Also

called a “client operating system”. These OS usually come with things that one would

probably use at a desk. For example, Windows sometimes comes with Microsoft

Office pre-installed. These types of operating system provide its resources to only

one single person at a time. For example windows 7.

Server Operating System

A server operating system is an operating system specifically designed to run on

servers, which are special computers that operate within client/server architecture to

serve the requests of client computers on the network. Server OS provide a platform

for multi-user applications, and most come bundled with a batch of common server

applications, such as Web servers, e-mail agents and terminal services. Server

Operating system provides central interface to manage users, implement security

and other administrative processes. Some common examples of server operating

systems include Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Windows Server, Mac OS X Server.

WHAT IS TASK, JOB and PROCESS ?

Task: When a program is requested for execution then it is called task e-g when a

user types the name of a program it is then task for operating system to validate it,

Job: When operating system validates it then it becomes a job for operating system.

Process: When job is loaded into memory & it is ready for execution then it is called

a process,

OR When a program is under execution is called process.

What Is Scheduling?

The allocation of C.P.U time to different jobs to be processed on the computer is

called scheduling. We also say that the process, which arranges different process

according to their priority, is called scheduling. If more than one process are able to

execute then operating system must decide which one to run first. The part of

operating system concerned with these decisions is called 'scheduler', and the

algorithm it uses is called scheduling algorithm.

An operating system uses two types of scheduling processes execution.

1) Preemptive Scheduling

2) Non- Preemptive Scheduling

1. Pre-emptive Scheduling: -

It is that mode of execution in which a process may be swapped from C P.U before

completion If a process is running and another process of higher priority arrives to

the system, then execution of current process is stopped and C.P.U is assigned to

newly arrived process.

Suppose a process P1 with size 2 KB is currently running by C.P.U and at the

meantime P2 with size 1 kB arrives. Now P2 have higher priority due to less memory

size So P1 is swapped from memory and C.P.U is assigned to P2.

(2) Non-Pre-Emptive Scheduling:

If a process is assigned to C P U and is not swapped out before its completion then

this mode of execution is called non-pre-emptive and is referred to as non-pre-

emptive scheduling.

Suppose a process P1 with 10Kb memory size is currently in execution. At meantime

another process P2 with 2Kb arises to the system, but the process P2 will have to

wait (although P2 will have memory size less then P1) until P1 is completed.

Different Types of Pre-Emptive Scheduling Algorithm:

(I) RR (Round Robin) Time Sharing Scheduling Algorithm: -

In this kind of scheduling all the processes are given equal time of C.P.U called time

slice or quantum. If a process is not completed before its C.P.U time expires then the

C.P.U is taken away and given to the next waiting process & pre-empted process is

then placed at the back of ready list.

(ii) SJN (shortest job next) Scheduling Algorithm: -

It is also called shortest remaining time (SRT). In this algorithm all incoming jobs are

placed to their size. A job, which has less memory requirement, will be assign to

CPU first. So that shortest job will be assign to CPU. During the execution another

process arrive which have highest priority. So currently executed process will

compare to the newly arrived process. If the remaining part of currently executed

process is greater then the new process then currently executed process will
stopped and CPU assign to new process. If the remaining part of currently executed

process is less then the new process then CPU not terminate the Currently process.

Different Types of Non Pre-Emptive Scheduling Algorithm:

(I) FIFO (first in first out) Scheduling Algorithm:

According to this algorithm the incoming jobs are placed in a queue and processed

one by one at FIFO basis. A job at front of queue is allowed to use C. P.U. Once the

job is assigned to C.P.U then C.P.U cannot be taken away from it, until it is

completed. So processes are executed according to their arrival time means First in

First out.

(ii) LIFO (last in first out) Scheduling Algorithm:

In this algorithm incoming jobs are placed in stack & C.P.U is assigned to job that is

at the top of stack. A Process with lowest real time (arrival time) will be executed

first.

(iii) SJF (shortest job first) Scheduling Algorithm:

According to this algorithm first of all processes are arranged according to their

memory size and shortest job is assigned the highest priority. It means that a job

requires less memory will be given higher priority.

What is Disk and describe its Different Types:

Disk some time referred to as a diskette is a storage device. Where data is recorded

by various electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical changes to a surface layer of

one or more rotating disks. The most commonly found disks with a computer are the

hard disks ,floppy disk, optical disc etc.

Hard Disk:

These are also called 'fixed disks’ because the storage media is mounted within the

computer and not intended to be removed. Hard drives consist of one or more metal

platters stacked together on a single spindle. Multiple read/write heads float next to

the surface of the drive.

Floppy Disk:

These disks are designed to allow users to store data to a disk, remove it and carry

the data elsewhere. These typically come in one of two formats in the 3.5 inch

store1.44Mbytes and 5.25 inch store 1.22 Mbytes.

Optical disk:

An optical disk is any computer disk that uses optical storage techniques and

technology to read and write data. An optical disk is a permanent storage device. A

laser beam used to read and write data on an optical disk. It can store data up to 1

GB.

There are different categories of optical disk:

CD-ROM:

CD-ROM stands for compact disk read-only memory. The data stored on CD-ROM

can only be read. It cannot be deleted or changed.

DVD:

DVD stands for digital video disk. It is similar to CD-ROM. It uses a laser beam with

a short wavelength. The short wavelength reads smaller holes on the disk.

WORM Disks:
WORM stands for write once read many. It can only be read and cannot be updated

or changed. It can store greater volumes of information than CD-ROM. Its capacity is

200 GB.

Rewritable Optical Disks:

It uses several technologies to combine optical and magnetic disk technology to

enable read and write storage. A 5 ½ inch rewritable disk can store up to 5 GB.

These are normally used for applications using large volumes of storage with little

update activity. 

What is Disk Partition?

A disk partition or partition enables users to divide a physical disk into logical

sections. For example, allowing multiple operating systems to run on the same

device. In old File system like FAT 16 which are not sport a big partition more than

40 GB then we must create partition allows a computer hard drive to run more

efficiently and save more disk space.

Types of Partition:

Primary Partition:

Primary Partition is the hard disk partition where both Windows OS and other data

can be stored, and it is the only partition that can be set active. Early MBR supports

up to 4 primary partitions. Now GPT disk can be divided into 128 primary partitions at

least.

Extended Partition:
Because the primary only can be created four maximum, this need to use extended

partition to break the limitation of 4 partitions. In an Extended Partition you can

create unlimited logical drives. Extended partition is not used to store data, because

the Extended Partition is used to hold logical partitions.

Logical Partition:

Also called logical partition. A volume created within an extended partition on a basic

disk. A logical drive can be formatted and assigned a drive letter, but cannot host an

operating system.

What is Difference between MBR and GPT?

MBR:

MBR, Master Boot Record, is a boot sector at the very beginning of computers' hard

drive. MBR hard disk can be divided into 4 primary partitions at most and it supports

hard disk below 2TB.

GPT:

GUID Partition Table (GPT) is a standard for the layout of the partition table on a

physical hard disk, using globally unique identifies. It has many good features.

Firstly, it allows users to create up to 128 partitions in Windows without creating

extended partition and logical partition. Secondly, it can support 18EB hard disk.

What is Register?

 A processor register (CPU register) is one of a small set of data holding places that

are part of the computer processor. A register may hold an instruction, a storage

address, or any kind of data. Some instructions specify registers as part of the
instruction. For example, an instruction may specify that the contents of two defined

registers be added together and then placed in a specified register.

What is interpreter?

We generally write a computer program using a high-level language. A high-level

language is one which is understandable by us humans. It contains words and

phrases from the English human language such as language. But a computer does

not understand high-level language. It only understands program written in 0's and

1's in binary, called the machine code. A program written in high-level language is

called a source code. We need to convert the source code into machine code and

this is accomplished by interpreters. So we say that, an interpreter is a program that

converts program written in high-level language into machine code understood by

the computer. Interpreter directly converts and executes instructions statement by

statement. Programming language like Python, Ruby uses interpreters.

What is Compiler?

Compiler is also a program that converts the source code written in high-level

language into machine code understood by the computer. Compiler read the entire

program and translates it as a whole into machine code. Programming language like

C, C++ uses compilers.

What is Address bus?

An address bus is computer bus architecture. It is used to transfer data between

devices. The devices are identified by the hardware address of the physical memory
(the physical address). The address is stored in the form of binary numbers to

enable the data bus to access memory storage.

Section B

Requirements of window 7

1. 1 gigahertz (GHz) or faster 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor*

2. 1 gigabyte (GB) RAM (32-bit) or 2 GB RAM (64-bit)

3. 16 GB available hard disk space (32-bit) or 20 GB (64-bit)

4. DirectX 9 graphics device with WDDM 1.0 or higher driver.

Installation of window 7

1. Boot your computer with window7 DVD.

2. After booting a message appear on the screen. “Press and key to Boot Form

CD”

3. At this stage press any key form Keyboard.

4. The next screen allows you to setup your language, time and currency format,

keyboard or input method. Choose your required settings and click next to

continue.

5. The next screen allows you to install or repair Windows. We will click on

"install now".

6. In Next Step Read over the Microsoft Software License Terms, check I accept

the license terms, and click Next.

7. You will now be presented with two options. Upgrade or Custom

(Advanced).For New and clean installation we will select Custom (Advanced).

 8. In Next Screen select the drive where you want to install the windows 7 and

Then Click on Next Button.

9. Windows 7 starts the installation process and starts copying all the necessary

files to your hard drive

10. It will go through various stages of the setup and will reboot your system few

times.

11. After the reboot your computer will be prepared for first use.

12. At this stage you need to choose a user name and computer name. Click next

to continue.

13. Review your time and date settings. Select your time zone, correct the date

and time and click next to continue.

14. Windows will now finalize the settings for your computer and restart.

15. Finally you have the logon screen. Just type your password and press enter

or click on the arrow to logon to Windows 7 for the first time.

Disk Management In windows 7

1. Log on as administrator or as a member of the Administrators group.

2. Click Start -> Run -> type compmgmt.msc -> click OK.

3. Alternatively, right-click on the My Computer icon and select 'Manage'.

In the console tree, click Disk Management. The Disk Management window appears.

Your disks and volumes appear in a graphical view and list view.

How to create a new partition or a new logical drive

To create a new partition or logical drive on a basic disk:

1. Open Disk Management.

2. To create a new partition, right-click on the unallocated space on the Basic

disk where you want to create the partition, and then click New Partition.

3. To create a new logical drive in an extended partition, right-click on the free

space on an extended partition where you want to create the logical drive, and

then click New Logical Drive.

4. This will be start New Partition Wizard, then click Next.

5. Click the type of partition that you want to create (Primary partition, Extended

partition, or Logical drive), and then click Next.

6. Specify the size of the partition in the Partition size in MB box, and then click

Next.

7. If you want to format the partition, click Format this partition with the following

settings, and then complete the fields in the Format dialog box otherwise

select do not Format Partition

8. Confirm that the options selected are correct, and then click Finish.

Configuration of device drivers

1. Open device manager click - Start Menu -> Control Panel -> System and

Security -> System -> Device Manager.

2. You will see all your hardware listed. You need to check if you have any

yellow exclamation marks next to the name of the devices this indicates that

the driver has not been installed for this device.

 3. At this stage you can install the driver for this device. To do so, Right Mouse

click on the device and select Update Driver Software.

4. You can choose to "Search automatically for updated driver software" or

"Browse my computer for driver software". If you have the driver CD or if the

driver is on a USB drive then choose "browse my computer for driver

software".

5. Window 7 will search and install the driver from the CD or you can locate the

driver manually.

6. Once you have removed all the yellow exclamation marks from the device

manager your Windows 7 configuration would be fully complete.

Configuration of Printer

1. Click the Start and then choose the Control Panel option.

2. The Control Panel window opens up. Click Device and Printer.

3. The Device and Printer window opens up with the list of all external devices

and printer.

4. Click Add a printer to add new printer.

5. Click Add a local printer.

6. Chose the Printer Port and Click Next.

7. Click Have Disk to install Printer Driver. Browse driver location and click Ok.

8. Choose Manufacturer and Printer. Click Next.

9. Type Printer Name and Click Next.

10. Click Finish.

Configure network connectivity on windows 7

 1. Go to the Start Menu and select Control Panel.

2. Click the Network and Internet category and then select Networking and

Sharing Center.

3. From the options on the left-hand side, select Change adapter settings.

4. Right-click on the icon for Wireless / Local Area Connection and click enable.

5. If you are going to Connect Wireless Network Then Right Click n The

Wireless Network and Click on Connect give password.

Remote Access Setting For A Windows 7 Client

Computer

Remote Desktop Connection is a technology that allows you to sit at a computer

(sometimes called the client computer) and connect to a remote computer

(sometimes called the host computer) in a different location. For example, you can

connect to your work computer from your home computer and have access to all of

your programs, files, and network resources as though you were in front of your

computer at work

1. Open Control Panel > User Accounts

2. In the Control Panel, click on the System and Security link

3. Under System click on Allow remote access

4. Select Allow connections only from computers running Remote Desktop with

Network Level Authentication under Remote Desktop. Click Apply.

5. Click on the Select Users button and add the users that you would like to

grant access to via Remote Desktop, click on the user and click OK when

done.
 6. Click OK 3 times to exit all of the dialog boxes.

7. Your Windows 7 Machine is now ready to be connected via Remote

Connection.

Connecting to a Remote Desktop

1. Click on Start Button select All Programs > Accessories > Remote Desktop

Connection

2. Type the address of the remote computer in the Computer: text box, click

Connect

3. Sign-on to the computer when prompted for credentials.

Configure File Access / File and Folder Sharing In

Windows 7

1. To turn on File and folder sharing, follow these steps:

2. Open My Computer Right click on Drive or Folder which you want to share

with other.

3. Select Property option from Below

4. In Appearing properties Box select Sharing Tab.

5. Click on Advanced Sharing Button from appearing Properties Box.

6. Check the Box Share This Folder. Give The Share Name and Then Click on

Permission Button.

7. Set the Permissions and select the User

8. Click on Ok button Two Time and close the properties box.

Windows 2008 Server

Installing Windows Server 2008

1. Boot your computer with Windows Server 2008 installation media .

2. When prompted for an installation language and other regional options, make

your selection and press Next.

3. Next, press Install Now to begin the installation process.

4. Enter your Product ID in the next window, and if you want to automatically

activate Windows the moment the installation finishes, click Next.

5. Select the Full version of the right Windows version you're prompted, and click

Next.

6. Read and accept the license terms by clicking to select the checkbox and

pressing Next.

7. Select Custom (Advanced) installation option for New and Clean Window

Installation.

8. Next screen select the drive usually Disk 0, and click Next.

9. The installation now begins, copying the setup files from the DVD to the hard

drive, extracting and uncompressing the files after a while the operating

system is installed.

10. The installation process will reboot your computer

11. Then the server reboots you'll be prompted with the new Windows Server

2008 type of login screen. Press CTRL+ALT+DEL to log in.

12. Click on Other User.

13. The default Administrator is blank, so just type Administrator and press Enter.

14. You will be prompted to change the user's password. You have no choice but

to press Ok.
 15. In the password changing dialog box, leave the default password blank and

enter a new, complex, at-least-7-characters-long new password twice. Press

Ok

16. Finally, the desktop appears and that's it, you're logged on and can begin

working.

What are The Server Roles and its Features

A server role is a set of software programs that, when they are installed and properly

configured, lets a computer perform a specific function for multiple users or other

computers within a network.

Windows 2008 includes the following roles:

(1) Active Directory Domain Services:

Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) is a server role in Active Directory that

allows admins to manage and store information about resources from a network, as

well as application data, in a distributed database.

(2) DHCP Server:

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network protocol that enables a

server to automatically assign an IP address to a computer from a defined range of

numbers (i.e., a scope) configured for a given network

(3) DNS Server:

Domain Name Servers (DNS) are the Internet's equivalent of a phone book. They

maintain a directory of domain names and translate them to Internet Protocol (IP)
addresses. This is necessary because, although domain names are easy for people

to remember, computers or machines, access websites based on IP addresses.

(4) Application Server:

The application server is a framework, an environment where applications can run,

no matter what they are or what functions they perform. An application server can be

used to develop and run web-based applications.

(5) Terminal Services:

 Enables users to access Windows-based programs that are installed on a terminal

server or to access the Windows desktop from almost any computing device that

supports the RDP protocol. Users can connect to a terminal server to run programs

and to use network resources on that server.

(6) Print Services:

 Enables the management of print servers and printers. A print server reduces

administrative and management workload by centralizing printer management tasks.

How we install and configure the Active Directory

Domain Services?

Creating Active Directory

1. Run Server Manager

2. Select Add Role and Then Select The Active Directory Domain Services from

List of Role

3. After this Click start > run and type dcpromo and press enter.

4. Active directory installation wizard will be started.

 5. Click next and select the “domain controller for a new domain and click next.

6. Select a domain in the new forest.

7. Provide the fully qualified domain name and click next.

8. Enter the NETBIOS name and click next.

9. Set the Active directory restore password. It is not the same as your domain

administrator password.

10. Click next.

11. Active directory installation process begins.

12. During the installation process do not click cancel. The installation process will

automatically be completed. When the installation is completed click finish

and restart the computer.

What is Group Policy?

Group Policy is simply the easiest way to reach out and configure computer and user

settings on networks based on Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS).

To create a Group Policy Object (GPO)

1. Open the GPWalkthrough MMC console.

2. Click the + next to Active Directory Users and Computers, and click the

reskit.com domain.

3. Click the + next to Accounts to expand the tree.

4. Right-click Headquarters, and select Properties from the context menu.

5. In the Headquarters Properties page, click the Group Policy tab.

6. Click New, and type HQ Policy.

To delegate administrative control of a GPO

Access the Group Policy snap-in for the GPO.

1. Right-click the root node of the console and click Properties.

2. Click the Security tab, then click the security group for which you want to allow

or deny administrative access to the GPO.

3. To provide administrative control of all aspects of the GPO, set the Read

permission to Allow and set the Write permission to Allow.

4. Click OK.

Managing User and Group Accounts

Creating User Account

1. Logon to Windows server 2008 with Administrator account.

2. Click on Start button and from the appeared menu click on Server Manager.

3. On the opened box in the left pane expand Configuration tree.

4. From the expanded list double-click on Local Users and Groups.

5. From the center pane double-click on Users.

6. Right click anywhere in the center pane and from the appeared menu click on

New User.

7. On New User box populate that required fields with appropriate information

and uncheck User must change password at next logon checkbox.

8. Once done, click on Create button to create the user with the specified name.

Creating Domain User Account

 1. Click Start, select Administrative Tools and click Active Directory Users and

Computers.

2. In Active Directory Users and Computers, navigate to the folder where you

want to store the new user.

3. Right in click the user list and click New User.

4. Right in click the user list and click New User.

5. Fill in the new user information and click Next.

6. Fill in the password information and click Next.

7. If the account will be used by a service application like SQL Server, uncheck

User must change password at next logon and check the options below.

8. User cannot change password

9. Password never expires

10. Click Finish.

Section C
Linux

Linux Installation

1. Boot you computer with Linux bootable CD.

2. First of all welcome screen appear.

3. Click on the Next button to continue.

4. Next Using your mouse, select the language you would prefer to use for the

installation.

5. Once you select the appropriate language, click Next to continue.

6. Next Set Keyboard Configuration, Using your mouse, select the correct layout

type (for example, U.S. English) for the keyboard you would prefer to use for

the installation and as the system default. Once you have made your

selection, click Next to continue.

7. Next Set the Mouse Configuration,

8. Next Select Installation Type, Choose the type of installation you would like to

perform. Your options are Personal Desktop, Workstation, Server, Custom,

and Upgrade.

9. Next Disk Partitioning Setup option will appear, Select Automatic partitioning

allows you to perform an installation without having to partition your drive(s)

yourself. To partition manually, choose the Disk Druid partitioning tool.

10. Next select the Boot Loader Configuration .In order to boot the system without

a boot diskette, you usually need to install a boot loader. A boot loader is the

first software program that runs when a computer starts.

11. Next Set the Network Configuration. If you do not have a network device, you

will not see this screen. The installation program will automatically detect any

network devices you have and display them in the Network Devices list. Once

you have selected a network device, click Edit. From the Edit Interface pop-up

screen, you can choose to configure the IP address and Net mask of the

device via DHCP (or manually if DHCP is not selected) and you can choose to

activate the device at boot time.

12. Next Set the Root Password. The root account is used to install packages,

upgrade RPMs, and perform most system maintenance. Logging in as root

gives you complete control over your system.

 13. After your partitions have been selected and configured for formatting, you are

ready to select packages for installation.

14. Unless you choose a custom installation, the installation program will

automatically choose most packages for you. To select packages individually,

check the Customize the set of packages to be installed checkbox.

15. Next screen preparing you for the installation of Red Hat Linux.

Creating a User Account In Linux

There are two ways to create new user accounts:

1. Using the graphical User Manager application

2. From a shell prompt.

To create a user account graphically using the User Manager:

1. Select Applications (the main menu on the panel) => System Settings =>

Users & Groups from the panel.

2. You can also start the User Manager by typing redhat-config-users at a shell

prompt.

3. If you are not logged in as root, you will be prompted for your root password.

4. The window shown in Figure 1-16 will appear. Click Add User.

5. In the Create New User dialog box, enter a username and other Information.

6. Click OK. The new user will appear in the user list.

To create a user account from a shell prompt:

1. Open a shell prompt.

 2. If you are not logged in as root, type the command su - and enter the root

password.

3. Type useradd Command

4. Useradd < user name> Press Enter Key

5. Now Type passwd command

6. Passwd Press Enter Key

7. At the New password: prompt enter a password for the new user and press

[Enter].

8. At the Retype new password: prompt, enter the same password to confirm

your selection.

Linux File System

Linux File System is a layer which is under the operating system that handles the

positioning of your data on the storage, without it the system cannot knows which file

starts from where and ends where.

Linux offers following file system:

Ext: an old one and no longer used due to limitations.

Ext2: first Linux file system that allows 2 terabytes of data allowed.

Ext3: came from Ext2, but with upgrades and backward compatibility. This file

system doesn’t support file recovery or disk snapshots.

Ext4: faster and allow large files with significant speed. It is a very good option for

SSD disks and this one is the default file system that Linux suggests.
JFS: old file system made by IBM. It works very well with small and big files, but it

failed and files corrupted after long time use.

XFS: old file system and works slowly with small files.

Some Important Linux Commands

mkdir Command:

Purpose: mkdir command is used for creating new directory (Folder). We also used

some option with mkdir command.

Syntax: mkdir [- option] Directory Name

Where Option are:

- p Parent directory creator. If directory, not exists.

-m Assign Permission default 755 mean Read, Write and execute Access for owner

and Read and Execute Access for Other user and Group.

For example : mkdir [-m] Toqeer 755

cd Command OR chdir Command

Purpose: Change current directory to directory which are specify in the command.

We also use chdir command for this purpose.

Syntax: cd Directory name

For example : Cd Toqeer

rmdir Command
This Command is used to delete the directory. Directory must be empty.

Syntax: rmdir [-option] Directory name

Where Option are: –s Give the message for confirmation

For Example: rmdir -s Toqeer

After typing this command delete the folder name toqeer and before deleting give the

confirmation message.

rm Command:

Purpose: This command used to delete the folder and files and also sub folder if

existing.

Syntax rm [-r –f –I ] Directory

Where

–r means delete all the sub folder, -I means give message before deleting, -f mean

delete also write protected file

For Example : rm -m Toqeer

After typing this command and pressing Enter Key the folder Toqeer And All its files

and subfolder deleted.

ls Command

Purpose: This command displays the list of files and folder of the working directory.

Syntax : ls [-option]

Where option are:

-a display all the files including those files start with dot ( . ) means hidden files.

-A all the files including start with double dot.

-l display the long list means that all the information about files and folders.

-R in reverse order.

For Example : ls – l

cat Command

Purpose: This command read the data form standard input and then out put in the

different forms. In simple word we say that CAT command is used for three different

purposes.

 First to create a new file for this purpose we use cat command in this way

cat > file name

 Second we create a file for an other file we use cat command in this way

cat source file name > destination file name

Where source file is file from which we create a new file. And destination file is new

file name.

 if we want to merge the file contents with an other file we use cat command in

this way:

cat source file name >> destination file name

With this command Contents of source file merge with contents of Destination file.
  Cat command also display the Contents of file. For this purpose we use cat

command with simple file name.

cat File name

For Example : cat > test.txt

After this type the contents of file and then press CTRL + D Key for save the file.

Cat Test.txt

This command Display the contents of file test.txt.

Cat test.txt > New.txt

This command Create a new file name new.txt and copy the contents of test.txt in to

new.txt

Cat test.txt >> new.txt

This command add the contents of test.txt in to new.txt

cp Command:

Purpose :This command copy the file form one location to other location or Copy the

contents of one file to an other file

Syntax : cp [option] (source file name) (destination / or Directory name)

Where option are:

-I Give the message if overwriting occur

-p Preserve that permission is granted.

For Example : cp test.txt toqeer

Where test.txt is file name and Toqeer is folder name where we want copy test.txt.

We also use cp command in this way

cp test.txt new.txt

In this way contents of first file copy in second file.

mv Command:

Purpose :This command is used for two purposes.

 First Move the file or folder from one location to other location.

 This command also used for Renaming the file and folders.

Syntax: mv source file/folder Destination 

For Example : mv test.txt New

This command change the name file text.txt to shah.txt

ln Command:

Purpose: Create a link to the specified TARGET with optional LINK_NAME. If

LINK_NAME is omitted, a link with the same base name as the TARGET is created

in the current directory.

 Syntax : ln file name Link File name

For Example : Ln test.txt welcome.lnk

file Command: -

Purpose: This command describes the nature of file.

Syntax: file test.txt

For Example : file Test.txt

Return ASCII Text File

wc Command: -

Purpose: This command Count the Contents of file. For example total number of

Character, Word and lines.

Syntax: wc [ -Option] File Name

Where Option are:

-c Count the Total Character, -l Count The Total line, - W Count The total Word

FOR EXAMPLE: wc [-c] Test.txt

Display the Total Character of the File Test.txt

Calendar Command: -

Displays appointments and reminders for the date.

Syntax:

Before you can do the calendar program you must have a file named calendar at the

root of your profile. Within that file you may have something similar to:

7/7/2000 You have a meeting today.

Then add at the end of your .login or .profile calendar and then when you log on 7/7

it will display the message: 7/7/2000You have a meeting today.

Examples: calendar
Display appointments if any.

cal Command: -

Purpose: This command display the calendar of the year

Syntax: cal [Month] [Year]

Where month and year are optional if we type only CAL command then display the

current calendar.

FOR EXAMPLE : cal march 2006

After typing this command and pressing Enter Key Calendar of March 2006 is

display on the screen.

passwd Command: -

PURPOSE: This Command changes the user Password.

SYNTAX: passwd User Name [-d][-f]

Where –d for deleting the password

-f means that you user must be change the password.

chown Command: -

Purpose

Change the Owner of file, you can also specify the Privileges of the file same time

when you change the Owner.

SYNTAX

chown User ID File Name

who Command: -

PURPOSE: This Command Display The list of those users who are Currently Login.

SYNTAX: Who [-s][-q][-h][-i]

Where -s means that Display the User ID, -H Column Header, -q Display quick

Information consist on only user ID, -I Also send the message

who am i Command: -

PURPOSE: -This tells that who ere you, Means That Log in Name of the user.

SYNTAX:- who am I

Tee Command: -

PURPOSE: Read from an input and write to a standard output or file.

SYNTAX: Tee [a] File name / List

Where –a means that if file already exist then insert the data in previous file.

For Example:: ls *.txt | wc -l | tee count.txt

In the above example the ls command would list all .txt files in the current directory,

take a word count (wc) by the amount of lines (-l) and the output will be sent to the

count.txt.

Write Command:
Purpose: This command used to send the message to the other user right at the

same time when you type the message it will be send at real time message to the

online user whose name is specified in the command. In the end press CTRL+D or Z

key for stop this process.

Syntax: Write User Name List

Message

Press CTRL+D or Z

For Example : Write user01

Hello how are You my Friend

When You press Enter key this message Transmit to User01. For end of session

Press CTRL+D or CTRL+Z key.

 mesg Command : -

Lets you control if people can use the write command, to send text to you over the

screen.

Syntax: mesg [n | y]

n Prevents the messages from others popping up on your screen.

y Allows messages to appear on your screen.

Examples: mesg

Typing this command by itself will display whether or not the mesg service is

enabled. For example, it may display: "is y", indicating that it is enabled. Typing n or

why after the command would enable or disable this command.

wall Command: -

Purpose

This command is used to display the message to all those users who are currently

logged on to the system. wall command is differ form write command because write

command send the message to specify users but wall command send the message

to all user.

Syntax: Wall message (Press CTRL+Z key)

The length of the message is limited to 20 lines.

For Example : Wall message

Please Shut Down You PC

CTRL+Z

Mail Command: -

This command is used to read/send E-Mail the mail to any user in Network. If User

currently not login then mail store in the mail box of that user. User can check this

mail at any time when he/she login by typing mail and press enter key.

SYNTAX: Mail User ID

Write text-------

-------

------

------
Press CTRL +D Key to save

Also you can send the file with mail command

For this purpose write command in this way

Mail User name < File Name

Clear Command: -

PURPOSE: This command clears the contents of the screen.

SYNTAX: Clear

Vi Command:

This command is used to edit the file are create new file. Using Screen-oriented

(visual) display editor based.

SYNTAX: Vi file name

For Example: vi test.txt

pico Command: -

PURPOSE: This command is used for creating a new file are edit the previous store

file.

SYNTAX: Pico < File name>

For Example:: Pico Test.txt

less Command: -
PURPOSE: This command Write The Contents of file on the screen. You can not

edit the file with this command. Jus like Type command in DOS.

SYNTAX: Less < File Name>

For Example: Less test.txt

tar Command: -

PURPOSE: Create archives file or extract archives file.

SYNTAX:: tar -czvf name-of-archive.tar.gz /path/to/directory-or-file

Creating a tar file: tar -czvf archive.tar.gz stuff

Where archive.tar.gz is tar file.

Extracting the files from a tar file:

tar -cvvf home.tar home/

deluser Command: -

PURPOSE: This command deletes the user from Linux Server. Or Remove the

Login Name.

SYNTAX: deluser User Name

For Example: deluser user01

more Command: -
Purpose: The more command is used to display the contents of file page by page.

The more command pauses at the end of each page and by pressing Space Bar key

Next page is display.

Syntax: More [+ Line Number] File name

Where Line number is optional which specify the Starting Line Number.

- lines

For Example More Test.txt

OR More +20 test.txt

Tail COmmand: -

Purpose: Display the contents of file from one specific point to an other specific

point. (Top to Tail).

We say that

Delivers the last part of the file.

Syntax: Tail +Start Line number test.txt [+ End Line Number] File Name

Last Line Number is optional

For Example: Tail myfile.txt

The above example would list the last 10 (default) lines of the file myfile.txt.

tail myfile.txt -n 100

The above example would list the last 100 lines in the file myfile.txt.

Head Command: -
Purpose: This command display the contents of file form top to Specific Number Of

line.

Normally this command Displays the first ten lines of a file, unless otherwise stated.

Syntax: Head [- Number] file Name

For Example: head -15 myfile.txt

Finger Command: -

Purpose: Display the detail of Information of the user. If we specify the user name

then information about that user is display other wise information of all currently login

is display.

Syntax: Finger [user name]

Where user name is optional.

For Example: finger -b -p ch

at Command: -

Purpose: Schedules a command to be ran at a particular time, such as a print job

late at night.

Syntax: at Time

Command

For Example: At 04:00

write

This is Class Time

(Press CTRL + D)

Shutdown Command: -

Purpose:

Turn off the computer immediately or at a specified time.

 Syntax: Shutdown –g –y

Where –g give the 60 second to user save work and log out and –y means that

disconnect the user with out confirmation

For Example: shutdown 8:00

Shutdown the computer at 8-oclock

ps Command: -

Purpose: The ps command is used to provide information about the currently running

processes, including their process identification numbers (PIDs)

Syntax: Ps

For Example: ps

This will return the following Report

PID TTY TIME CMD

12330 pts/0 00:00:00 bash

21621 pts/0 00:00:00 ps

kill Command: -
This command stopped the running process in background or we say Cancels a job.

SYNTAX: Kill [-Signal] [ Process ID]

FOR EXAMPLE: kill -s kill 1230

Exit Command: -

Allows you to exit from a program, shell or log you out of a Unix network.

Syntax: exit

Examples: exit - If supported would exit you from the program, shell or log you out

of network.

gzip Command

Purpose: Compress or expand files.

Syntax: gzip [ -a c d] [-S suffix] [ name ... ]

-d decompress the file.

Examples: gzip myfile

Compresses the file myfile, making it myfile.gz. Note. When doing this the original

file will no longer exist on the drive.

Login Command: -

Purpose: Signs into a new system.

Syntax: login [ -p ] [ -d device ]

Examples: login computerhope.com

man Command: -

The man command which is short for manual provides in depth information about the

requested command or allows users to search for commands related to a particular

keyword.

Syntax : man [-] [-k keywords] topic

Examples: man mkdir

 Lists help information on the mkdir command.