548.6r 19 Polymer Concrete Guidelines For Structural Applications

Polymer Concrete:
Guidelines for Structural

Applications
Reported by ACI Committee 548
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American Concrete Institute
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First Printing
American Concrete Institute January 2019
Always advancing
ISBN: 978-1-64195-051-0
Polymer Concrete: Guidelines for Structural Applications
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548.6R-19
Polymer Concrete: Guidelines for Structural

Applications
Reported by ACI Committee 548
Mahmoud M. Rcda Taha, Chair
Ashraf I. 1\hmed David W. Fowler Bradley Nemunaitis Michael S. Stenko

Mohammad A. Alhassan Quentin L. Hibben Joseph A. uciforo Jr. Donald P. Tragianese
Jacques A. Bertrand Albert 0. Kaeding John R. Robinson Wafeek S. Wahby
Constantin Bodea Jay Lee Michael L. Schmidt David White
Chris Davis John R. Milliron Joseph R. Solomon
Don Edwards Myles A. Murray Michael M. Sprinkel
Consulting Members
Milton D. Anderson Lech Czarnecki William Lee Hamid Saadatmanesh

Lu J\nqi Harold (Dan) R. Edwards Troy D. Madeley Donald J\. Schmidt
Craig A. Ballinger Larry J. Farrell Henry N. Marsh Jr. Meyer Steinberg
John J. Bartholomew George Horeczko Peter Mendis Harold H. Weber Jr.
Shashi P. Bhatnagar David P. Hu Peter J. Moss
Jerry D. Byrne Bert Paul Kriekemans Yoshihiko Ohama
Zhi-Yuan Chen Deon Kruger Kelly M. Page
Subcommittee 548B
Aly Said
Polymer concrete (PC) can be used in the construction of stmctural Keywords: beam; creep; equipment foundation; fatigue; fire resistance;
elements with applications, including wall panels withstanding fracture; manholes; polymer; polymer concrete: reinforced polymer
wind and seismic loads, underground vaults resisting lateral earth concrete: utility stnactures; walls.
pressure, vault and utility box covers resisting vehicle loads, and
railroad ties resisting static and dynamic rail loads. PC struc CONTENTS
tural elements are used to resist bending moments and axial and
shear loads. Creep, fatigue, and service temperature are impor CHAPTER 1 -INTR ODUCTION, p. 2
tant aspects for PC stmctural elements. These guidelines help the
defining and understanding of mechanical properties and struc
CHAPTER 2-N OTAT ION AND DEFINITIONS, p. 2
tural behavior of PC Industrial standards and design guidelines
2. 1 - otation, p. 2
governing design with PC have been developed and used by the PC
2.2-Definitions, p. 2
indus/!)' for the last five decades. These guidelines highlight some
of those standards.
CHAPTER 3-MAT ER IALS AND PR OPERTIES, p. 3
3. 1 -M aterial for structural polymer concrete, p. 3
ACI Committee Rep01ts, Guides, and Commentaries are 3.2-Polymer concrete types, p. 5
intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and 3.3-Mechanical properties, p. 6
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use
3.4-Chemical and phy ical characteri stics, p. 1 1
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who
3.5-Standards and guides applicable to polymer concrete,
will accept responsibility for the application of the material it p. 1 3
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom. ACI 548.6R-t9 supersedes ACt 548.6R-96 and was adopted and published January
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract 2019.
Copyright 0 2019, American Concrete Institute.
doctm1ents. If items found in this document are desired by
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and usc in any fonn or by
the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents,
any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic
they shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation or mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual
by the Architect/Engineer. reproduction or for usc in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless
J>Cnnission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
2 POLYMER CONCRETE: GUIDELINES FOR STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS (ACI 548.6R-19)
3.6-Safety, p. 13 poles, stmctural sandwich elements, building blocks, utility

3. ?-Regulatory matters, p. IS trenches, utility covers, and insulation panels (Fowler 1 988).
3.8-Current and suggested research, p. 1 6
CHAPT ER 2-NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS
CHAPTER 4-STR UCTUR AL M EM B ER S, p. 1 6
4. 1 -Fiexural members, p . 1 6 2.1 -Notation
4.2-Compression members, p . 1 6 A1 amplitude of first cycle
4.3-Reinforced polymer concrete, p . 1 6 An amplitude of the n-th cycle
4. Unreinforced polymer concrete, p . 1 7 E dynamic modulus, psi ( MPa)
4.5-Sandwich panels, p . 1 7 /J frequency of the first mode, Hz
I section moment of inertia, in. 4 (mm 4)
CHAPTER 5-AP P L I CATI O N S IN STR UCTUR E S, I specimen length, in. (mm)
p.17 n number of ampl itude cycles
5 . 1 -Architectural and fat;ade panels, p. 17 Tg glass-transition temperature, °F (0C)
5 .2-Applications in transportation, p. 19 W weight of the specimen, lbf (lbf/N)
5.3-Utility stmctures, p. 20 p f3!J, in. 1 (m 1)
5. Hydraulic structures, p. 23 � specific damping factor
5 .5-1 -lazardous waste contaimnent structures, p. 23
2.2-Definitions
CHAPTER 6-R EFER EN CES, p. 24 AlB component s in dividual parts of a polymer binder
-
Authored documents, p. 24 system; in epoxy PC, the components typically consist of

resin (A) and curing agent/hardener (B); in free radical PC,
APP ENDIX A-EXAMP LE PC FORM U LATIONS, p. 29 the components typically consist of resin (A) and initiator (B).
accelerator hemical used to increase the rate of cure in
APP ENDIX 8-TYP ICAL P C PROP ERTI ES, p. 30 a free radical system by reacting with the initiator.
catalyst-substance that markedly speeds up the cure of a
CHAPT ER 1 -INTR ODUCTION binder when added in minor quantity.
Polymer concrete (PC) bas been used in stmctural appli cross-linking-joining of preformed linear polymer
cations where strength, stiffness, durability, and ease in chains to each other to form three-dimensional networks.
molding provide an advantage over other materials. Many cross-linking agent hemical used to increase the cross-
types of reinforcement can be used with PC. This guide pres link density of the polymer network.
ents the structural uses of PC. cure tim the interval after mixing in which a PC system
Polymer concrete is a mixture of aggregates and resins or gains adequate strength to support loads, such as foot traffic,
monomers without pottland cement that hardens by polym vehicular traffic, or both.
erization after it is placed. PC was first used commercially in cu ring-the change in properties of a chemical by an
the 1 950s in the United States in the production of synthetic increase in molecular weight via polymerization or cross
marble, fol lowed by the manufacture of architectural facing linking, usually accomplished by the action of heat, catalyst,
panels in the late 1 950s. Beginning in the 1 970s, other cross-l inking agent, curing agent, or any combination, with
structural products began to appear in the market, including or without pressure.
floor drains, utility trenches, underground utility vaults and fiberglass-a composite material consisting of glass
covers, high-voltage insulators, and highway median barrier fibers in resin.
shells. These products were followed by the introduction flammable l iq u id-any liquid having a flash point below
of manhole stmctures and machine tool bases. By the mid- 38°C ( I 00°F).
1 970s, PC was used as a repair material for pottland-cement flash point-minimum temperature at which a liquid
concrete structures, mainly on highways and bridges. In the gives off vapor within a test vessel in sufficient concentra
United States in the 1 980s, chemical companies developed tion to form an ignitable mixture with air near the surface
an increasing interest in specific materials and material prop of the liquid.
etties required to produce PC. As a result, many enhance flexibilizer-additive that gives a rigid plastic flexibil ity.
ments in the polymers used for PC were developed, and gel tim time interval after mixing that a liquid material
resins tailor-made for PC production became available. This exhibits a significant viscosity increase.
development continues, and important material improve heat deflection temperatur temperature at which a
ments are often achieved by manufacturers. polymer or plastic sample deforms under a specified load.
Research into the behavior of PC structural elements inhibitor-substance that slows or stops a chemical
has been conducted at numerous research labs. Stmctural reaction.
research has been conducted on such uses as steel-rein initiator-substance capable of causing the polymeriza
forced beams and panels, ballistic panels (barriers to armed tion of a monomer by a chain reaction mechanism; often
assault on embassies, for instance), electric transmission incorrectly called a catalyst.
American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

POLYMER CONCRETE: GUIDELINES FOR STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS (ACI 548.6R-19) 3
methyl methacrylat low-viscosity methacrylate 3. 1 . 1 Polymers-The monomers, polymers, or a mixture

monomer that is characterized by high volatility. of monomers and polymers in liquid form are nlixed with
organic peroxides-sources of free radicals used in an aggregate system. Polymerization promoters and initia
polymerization and cross-linking. tors are also included in the nlixture in precise proportion to
polyester ne of a group of resins, mainly produced by cross-link or complete the polymerization of the monomers.
reaction of unsaturated dibasic acids with dihydroxy alco Several properties of the monomers or polymers are typi
hols; commonly dissolved in a vinyl group monomer such cally used to define the characteristics of the uncured PC.
as styrene. PC is usually classified using the properties of the uncured
premix-a polymer concrete formulation prepared b inder, the cured binder, and the cured PC or mot1ar. For
and packaged in advance of use with compatible ingredi most applications, the properties of the cured binder will
ents preblended together in the correct ratios for the final control binder selection.
mixture. For example, aggregates and the catalyst are Thermoset polymers are typically used to form the binder
frequently premixed as one pm1 and the monomers, addi system of structural PC. Unsaturated polyesters are the most
tives, and promoters as another part of premixed methacry popular thermoset used to produce PC. Ot1hophthalate unsat
late systems. mated polyester resins are used as binders combined with
promoters-reducing agent compounds added to the methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) as initiator (Soh et al.
monomer system to cause the decomposition of the peroxide I 999; San Jose and Ramirez Ortiz 1 999; Ribeiro et al. 2003;
initiators in the system (often called accelerators). Jo et al. 2008a). Moreover, unsaturated isophthalic polyester
specific heat-heat required to raise the temperature resin was observed to produce a hard, rigid polymer that can
of the wlit mass of a given substance by a given amount provide good mechanical properties (Orak 2000). PC binder
(usually I degree). systems were produced from other thennoset polymers,
surface failure-loss of top surface aggregates from the including low-viscosity vinyl ester resin (Czarnecki and
polymer binder in polymer concrete. Chmielewska 1 999), polystyrene resins (Choi and Ohama
surface seeding-application of aggregate to the freshly 2004; Rai and Singh 2004), and polyurethane (Tokush ige et
applied polymer concrete overlay. al. 2005). Orthophthalate unsaturated polyester can also be
thermal compatibility-ability of a PC to withstand ther mixed with polyurethane, forming interpenetrating polymer
mally induced stresses and strains without debonding from networks to produce l ightweight PC ( Bignozzi et al. 200 1 ).
a substrate. Epoxies have been extensively used to form the binder
thermoplastic material with a linear polymeric stmc- systems to produce PC (Ribeiro et al. 2003; Reis and Ferreira
ture that can be reshaped repeatedly when heated and 2004; Barbuta et al. 2 0 1 0). Epoxies consist of two parts:
will harden when cooled; for example, styrene polymers epoxy resin and epoxy hardener. While the resin contains
and copolymers, acrylics (uncross-linked), polycarbon epoxy reactive groups at the two ends of the polymer chain,
ates, nylons, polyethylene, polypropylene, and various the hardener contains free amine hydrogens. A chemical
polyfluorocarbons. reaction occurs between the two groups to tie polymer chains
thermosets-a polymer that will solidify when first cured together and form the solid polymer mass. This chemical
and cannot be remelted or remolded without destroying its reaction is called cross-linking.
original characteristics; for example, epoxies, w1saturated The viscosity of the individual or mixed components can
polyesters, melamines, phenolics and ureas. be specified to control the coating of the aggregates. Binder
tined surfac a surface that is scored or grooved to resins with low viscosity are more suitable for m ixtures with
provide an architectural finish or to facilitate drainage of polymer contents lower than 20 percent. Specific chemical
water. resistance and the glass-transition temperature (Tg) are
unsaturated polyester-a prepolymer resin system important characteristics for binder selection. A gel time
reacted with a styrene monomer to form thermoset plastic. range can be specified to ensure that there is adequate time
working Ii� time period between the mixing of a PC to place the fresh PC and that the curing will be completed
and the point at which its viscosity bas become too hjgh to within the time specified for form removal. Additional prop
be workable or too high to bond properly to the substrate. et1ies of the uncured binders, such as specific gravity, shelf
life, component content, and flash point also may need to be
CHAPTER 3-MATERIALS A N D PROPERTIES specified (Sprinkel 1 99 1 ).
M ixing procedures vary with the binder system selected.
3.1-Materials for structural polymer concrete The combination of monomers, polymers, initiators,
Polymer concrete (PC), as described in this guide, includes promoters, and chemical additives constitutes the binder
polymer mortars, polymer grouts, and polymer concretes. system. Some binder systems can be formulated as two
Example PC formulations are given in Appendix A. Polymer components, where one component contains the monomers,
mortars include materials with aggregate sizes smaller than polymers, promoters, and additives, and the other compo
l/4 in. (6 mm). Polymer grout includes materials with no nent is the curing agent or initiator. Another common way
aggregate. Differences between mortars and grouts depend to prepare the binder system is to premix the promoters and
on the intended use and affect the fabricator's formulation additives with pat1 of the monomers and polymers and to
of the material. premix the initiators with the remaining portion. For a specific

binder system, the manufacturer or a qualified polymer strength and ductility of PC. Increases in splitting tensile
chemist should be consulted to select the most appropriate strength of 9 percent for I in. (25 mm) long alkali-resis
method to mix the required components. Promoters should tant (AR) glass fibers (2 percent by mass) and from l O to
not be mixed directly with initiators because the mixture can 50 percent for various steel fibers (2 to 7 percent by mass)
react explosively. Section 3.6 provides guidelines for safety have been reported ( Fowler et al. 1 98 I ). The addition of
requirements. glass fibers increases PC flexural strength and fracture
3. 1 .2 Aggregates-Aggregates such as silica sand, properties as well as toughness and failme strain (strain at
granite, river gravel, basalt, fly ash, calcium carbonate, and peak stress), but might decrease the compressive modulus
silica fume are generally acceptable for PC resin systems. (Mebarkia and Yipulanandan 1 992). ln an unsaturated poly
S ilica sand is generally used as inorganic fine aggregate and ester PC, glass fibers were added at a rate of 6 percent and
calcium carbonate as fine filler material ( Soh et al. 1 999; the flexural strength increased to exceed 6000 psi (4 1 MPa)
Bignozzi et al. 200 1 ; Choi and Ohama 2004). Fly ash, calcium ( Yipulanandan and Mebarkia I 997). Bignozzi et al. (2000)
carbonate, and silica fume are also used as fine fillers in PC. reported the use of silane-treated waste fibers to improve the
They are used to modify m ixture rheology, improve work mechanical strength of PC. Similar results were reported by
ability, and improve placing characteristics of the fresh PC. Reis (2009a) using recycled textile chopped fibers.
Individual fly ashes should be tested in trial batches before 3 . 1 .4 Additives-Additives such as air-release agents,
use because some can adversely affect the polymerization wetting agents, flexibilizers, shrinkage reducers, ulh·aviolet
reaction. Most aggregates meeting ASTM C33/C33M will (UV) inhibitors, fire-resisting agents, and bond enhancers
perform adequately in PC. I n addition, aggregates should are added to PC to improve one or more properties. Each
be selected for chemical resistance if that is a factor in the of these additives is designed and selected to match the
application (Kaeding l 99 l a). Aggregates are usually speci particular polymer being used. Air release and wetting
fied to be dry ( less than 0.2 percent free moisture) and free agents are used in polymer systems to remove air entrapped
from dirt, clay, asphalt, and organic materials. Rounded river dming mixing and to decrease the polymer content when a
gravel up to 3/4 in. (20 mm) has been used for some overlays low-polymer-ratio PC is required. Flexibilizers are added
and is also suitable for large precast sections. The rounded to reduce the modulus of elasticity and increase deform
smooth smface of the coarse aggregate provides a more ability. Shrinkage reducers compensate for polymerization
workable mixture, and less resin is required. shrinkage. The natural resistance of PC to any structurally
The conse1vation of natural resources has focused attention significant UV degradation is due to the opacity of the aggre
on the need to recycle waste materials such as plastics, glass, gates and filler system and is evidenced by more than 25
and incinerator ash to produce useful products for the public years of field exposure of some building panels and utility
and p1ivate sectors. Recycled waste materials and avail structures. UV inhibitors, however, are often required to
able natural composites could be used as fillers, aggregates, protect exterior surface finishes and color for PC, except
or both, to preserve the environment and reduce the cost. for acrylic and methac1ylic monomer concretes, which, by
Recycled waste materials that have been used in PC include their chemical natm·e, are more resistant to UV exposure and
chipped and crumbed rubber tire particles (Reda Taha et al. weathering effects. Fire-resistant agents are used to decrease
2005), recycled concrete aggregates (Jo et al. 2008b), silica the surface flammability of systems with higher polymer
fume (Barbuta et al. 20 10), and fly ash (Barbuta et al. 20 1 0), contents. Bond-enhancing agents, such as silanes and tita
whereas natural composites include ophitic aggregate (San nates, provide a chemical bond between the aggregate and
Jose and Ramirez 011iz I 999) and wood stmnps and roots the polymer, have been shown to increase strength prop
(Tokush ige et al. 2005). Maksimov et al. (2003) repm1ed the erties by I 0 percent, and decrease effects of water degra
use of ground limestone (flour), quartz sand, and crushed dation for some systems (Kaeding I 99 I a). Some research
granite as mineral fillers in a polyester PC. Moreover, cork has shown that performance of unsaturated polyester PC is
granulates partially replaced sand to produce l ightweight improved by pretreating aggregates with silane (y-methacry
polymer mortar with improved compressive ductility ovoa loxypropyltrimethoxysilane). Researchers at the University
et al. 2004). Waste glass is a major portion of all municipal of Houston found the strength to increase up to 66 percent
waste, accounting for approximately 1 0.5 percent, or 13.5 in compression ( 1 5,000 psi [ 1 03 MPa]) and as much as 35
million tons ( 1 2.2 million metric tons), in 1 975. This glass percent in flexure over the same PC without silane pretreat
fraction of municipal solid waste is an inert aggregate that can ment ( Mebarkia and Yipulanandan 1 994). S ilane coupling
be used in PC composites (Fontana 1 988). Examples of glass agents were added to vinyl ester mortars and improved the
polymer composites include sanitary pipe, culvert pipe, septic bond and mechanical strengths (Czarnecki and Chmielewska
tanks, cesspools, and building blocks or brick (Fowler 1 99 1 ). 1 999; Chmielewska et al. 2006).
3. 1 .3 Reil?forcement-Reinforcement used in PC includes ln many cases polymers other than the original resin were
bars and rods made from steel fiber-reinforced polymers used as additives to PC. Expanded polystyrene (EPS)-based
(SFRPs) or glass fiber-reinforced polymers (GFRPs); resin dissolved in styrene monomer (SM) was shown to be
fabrics made from steel wire, fiberglass, or polymers; and used as a low-profile additive to reduce curing shrinkage (Soh
fibers made from steel, glass, carbon, polymers, and crimped et al. 1999). Recycled polyethylene terephthalate from plastic
wire cloth (Fowler 1 99 1 ; Bhutta et al. 20 1 1 ). The addition bottles (Rebeiz and Fowler 1 996a,b), mbbers ( Bignozzi et at.
of various types of fibers can increase the splitting tensile 2000, 2002), and electrical cable wastes (Bignozzi et al. 2000,
(ciC1) American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

2002) were added to polymer mortar to modify its proper facturer's product i nformation and field-pe1formance data.
ties. Fly ash was also added to sulfur and sand to manufac Epoxy resins are available for use in a range of applica
ture sulfur polymer concrete with improved mechanical and t ion temperatures. The ratio of the two components should
chemical prope1ties (Mohamed and Gamal 2009). never be adjusted to change the curing time. Epoxy resins
Nanoparticles particles such as nanoclay, carbon nano are considered allergenic; therefore, safe handling practices
tubes, and carbon nanofibers were recently used to improve should be incorporated (Kraus 1 99 1 ). Section 3.6 provides
the mechanical prope1ties of polymer concrete. anoparti additional safety information.
cles typically have the size of I to I 000 nm. Jo et al. (2008a) Koblischek ( 1 99 1 ) reported properties for an epoxy
reported enhanced mechanical and thermal performance of polymer PC being used in the manufacture of machine tool
unsaturated polyester concrete mixed with montmorillonite. bases with a compressive strength of I 7,400 psi ( 1 20 M Pa),
However, modified nanoclay was reported to reduce the tensile strength of 1 500 psi (I 0 MPa), and flexural strength of
tensile and flexural strengths of PC ( Shokrieh et al. 20 1 2). 3200 psi (22 MPa). He also reported a compressive modulus
Carbon nanotubes were also used to improve the mechanical of elasticity of 5 . 8 x 1 06 psi (40 GPa) and a tensile modulus
properties of different types of PC, including latex-modi of 4. 1 x I 0 6 psi (28 GPa) for the same epoxy polymer PC.
fied concrete (Soliman et al. 20 1 2) and epoxy-based PC The behavior of epoxy polymer PC under various curing
(Daghash et al. 20 1 6). conditions, temperatures, and strain rates has been studied
and discussed by Vipulanandan and Paul ( 1 990).
3.2-Polymer concrete types -
3.2.2 Methacrylate polymer co ncrete Methyl methac
Because the polymer f01ms the continuous phase, behavior rylate (MMA) and high-molecular-weight methacrylate
of the composite is significantly affected by the choice of the (HMWM) are the primary monomers used in methacrylate
type of polymers (Manson 1 98 1 ). For that reason, PC can be PC. Methacrylate has been used in the PC industry for many
categorized by the binder type. years. It has provided a satisfactory level of performance and
3.2. 1 Epoxy polymer co ncrete- Epoxy resins used for PC Long-term durability. HMWM was developed to minimize
are typically two-component systems. One component is the the volatility of the methacrylate monomer, thus reducing
epoxy resin, and the second component is the hardener or odor, flammability hazards, and monomer loss from the
curing agent. Most epoxy resins are condensation products PC surface through evaporation. Due to its low viscosity,
of bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin. Because of their struc methacrylate monomer has excellent wetting properties and
ture, epoxy resins form strong bonds with p01tland-cement excellent bond strengths. M M A monomer is a c lear, low
concrete, steel, and most construction materials. viscosity, highly volatile liquid with a pungent odor. Typi
Epoxy resin curing rates and strengths can vary dramati cally, MMA systems are formulated to provide between 1 5
cally. Epoxies can be formulated to provide a wide range and 60 minutes ofworking time, then cure ve1y rapidly. M M A
of gel times and cure rates. Some systems can be designed monomers can b e formulated t o cure over a wide range o f
for gel times as short as 3 minutes whereas others may be temperatures and are suitable for use in cold weather. Meth
as long as 1 0 hours. They are resistant to many chemicals, actylate PCs also have excellent flow characteristics and are
and systems are formulated to cure under many moisture and well suited for placement around closely spaced reinforce
temperature conditions. They have low curing shrinkage, ment or formwork for naiTow cross sections. Bhutta et al.
good adhesion properties, high tensile strengths, and excel (20 I I ) reported the possible production of PC panels using
lent abrasion resistance. Some epoxy resins tend to have MMA solution of waste expanded polystyrene (EPS) with
high viscosity and putty-like mortar consistency that can be good mechanical properties and improved ductility.
sticky to finish, although others with lower viscosities make Methacrylate systems require the addition of an initiator
mortars and concretes with good workability. and promoter to the monomer to begin the polymerization
The two-component systems for PC are formulated to be reaction. Most methacrylate PC systems are packaged with
mixed at a specific resin-to-hardener ratio either by weight promoters already blended into the monomer. The initiator
or by volume; the most commonly provided ratios are either is typically packaged separately but included in the unit
one or two parts of resin to one part hardener by volume. price and shipment, and it is normally provided in the proper
Varying the specified ratio of the two components can proportions for the furnished quantity of monomer or PC. A
significantly affect mechanical and chemical properties and variety of initiators and promoters are available to provide
gel times. Batching should be done in complete units or by a range of curing times and physical propetties. Unlike
using accurate volumetric or mass measures. The individual epoxies, methacrylate systems will tolerate wide variations
components should be thoroughly mixed before combining in the ratio of initiator to promoter to the monomer. A cross
them with the aggregate or fi l ler system. Equipment is avail linking monomer is typically blended with methacrylate
able for automatic metering of resins to ensure that proper to provide a tougher and more temperature-stable polymer
mixture ratios are obtained. ( Kraus 1 99 1 ) for most methac1ylate systems.
Epoxy polymer PCs can be user-prepared with a wide Koblischek ( 1 99 1 ) reported properties for a particular
variety of epoxy formulations with resulting physical prop methac1ylate PC being used in the manufacture of machine
erties, gel times, and cure rates to meet the requirements tool bases. The properties reported included a compressive
of specific applications. The selection of the material for a strength of I 7,400 psi ( 1 20 M Pa), a flexural strength of 4200
pa1ticular application should be based on a specific manu- psi (29 MPa), a tensile strength of 1 700 psi ( 1 1 .5 MPa), and
American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org (ciCi)

a Poisson's ratio of 0.35. Koblischek (1991) also reported 70.-

Comn��ive Streongth
several values of the modulus of elasticity, including 3.5 x �60 ---�--.
�
I 06 psi (24 GPa) in tension and 4.5 x 106 to 5.7 x I 06 psi (31 :;;-so
to 40 GPa) in bending. c.
� 40
3.2.3 Unsaturated polyester polymer concrete-Most
� 30
commercially produced precast PC products made in the "
...
nited States and Europe are made with polyester resins. ] 20

�
The resins are typically extended with styrene monomer and � 10
supplied prepromoted with cobalt alts. Before mixing with o +-��+-��+-��
the aggregate system, an initiator is added that reacts with -10 0 10 20 30 40
orkvolume content ('Yo)
the promoter and causes a cross-linking reaction between
the styrene monomer and the unsaturated polyester. Typical Fig. 3.2. 5-PC produced using cork-modified-polymer
initiators are methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) or mortar showing the effect of cork volume content on the
ketone peroxide blends. The resulting thermoset polymer is compressive a ndflexural strength ofPC (Novoa el a/. 2004).
a strong and durable binder. The type of polyester selected is
based on the application conditions. General purpose prod ally lower, although for some PCs, particularly those made
ucts are made with orthopbthalic or dicyclopentadiene poly of epoxy, are sometimes higher. When the mixing propor
esters. Where improved mechanical strength or chemical tions, materials, and procedures are held con tant, the
resistance is required, an isophthalic polyester or vinyl ester re ulting PC has very con i tent propertie . The variation in
can be selected. propertie of test specimen taken from several batche i
3.2.4 Furan polymer concrete-Furfuryl acetone (FA) commonly le than 2 percent (Cowan et al. I 975). Different
ba ed PCs have been used extensively in the former Soviet polymers used in PC production will impart d ifferent prop
nion and South Africa. The FA monomer is manufactured ertie to the finished material. For instance, Vipulanandan
from grain by-products. FAs are typically cured by the addi and Paul ( I 990) published results of extensive research into
tion of an acid catalyst, and water is a by-product. Working the effects of curing conditions, temperatures, aggregate
time and curing rate are controlled by the choice of acid and size , and train rates on the mechanical properties of epoxy
through the addition of buffers for the acid. Cured FA poly polymer PC and un aturated polye ter PC. It was concluded
mers are black, which l imits the color of the finished PC. that there wa no direct relation hip between the aggregate
ntil the cure is complete, the acidic catalyst can be very gradation and the trength of the PC within the range of
corrosive to metal tools and formwork, fwther l imiting the aggregate izes studied. Te t re ult uggest that the ACI 318
appl ications of FA PC. Because of the need for an acid cata relationship for calculating the compre ive modulu and
lyst, FA resins should not be used with alkaline aggregates, the tensile strength u ing the compres ive strength do not
which when wetted by water, produce a pH higher than 7. apply to PC. A constitutive model capable of modeling both
3.2.5 Lightweight polymer concretes-Aninabhaui et al. strain oftening and strain hardening has been developed
(1987) showed that l ightweight polymer concretes generally for the stress-strain relationships of epoxy polymer PC and
shrink and creep more than portland-cement concretes. The un aturated polyester PC (Vipulanandan and Paul 1990).
ratio of tensile-to-compressive strength is often lower than 3.3.1 Compressive strength-PC has different propertie
that of ordinary concrete. Lightweight PC has a lower coeffi under axial compression and axial tension. nder normal
cient of thermal conductivity than portland-cement concrete conditions of hort-tem1 application of tatic loads, the ratio
and, therefore, on exposure to fire, it will increase in temper of compres ive to tensile trength typically range from
ature at a lower rate than pmtland-cement concrete. Thus, the 5 to lO As load duration is increased, the tensile strength
resistance to internal beat gain of structural l ightweight PC decrea es due to the vi coela tic nature of the binder and
components is approximately one-third higher than that of creep effects. The effects of load duration on compressive
components made of portland-cement concrete. In extended strength are less pronounced (Davydov and Ivanov 1972).
fire exposures, however, the lightweight PC will begin to Figure 3.3. I bows a typical stre s- train curve for unsatu
lose its strength as the internal temperature of the structural rated polyester PCs and methyl methacrylate (MMA) PCs in
element approaches its glass transition temperature (T8). compression and flexure loading ( Rebeiz and Fowler 1995).
ovoa et al. (2004) reported the production and mechanical PC have demonstrated compre ive strengths of 9000
properties of l ightweight cork-modified-polymer mortar to 26 000 psi (60 to 180 MPa), depending on the polymer
with cork representing up to 45 percent ofthe total aggregate binder being used and the aggregate size, type, and grada
volume, a shown in Fig. 3.2.5. tion. Most commercial PC have compressive strength of
12,000 to 15,000 psi (80 to 100 M Pa). Compressive trength
3.3-Mechanical properties mea urements were made using ASTM C579. lsophthalic
The mechanical properties of PC, such as compressive polyester PC with 15 to 20 percent of fly ash demonstrated
strength, are similar or higher than those of portland-cement a compres ive strength of approximately 14,000 psi (95
concrete, but the flexural strength, tensile strength, and MPa) ( Rebeiz et al. 2004; Gomin ki et al. 2007). Orthoph
shear strength are typically higher than for portland-cement thalic polyester PC reinforced with nonmetallic glass-rein
concrete. The compressive and flexural moduli are gener- forced polymer bars developed a compressive strength of
American Concrete I nstitute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

12
14,800 psi {102 M Pa) (San Jose et al. 2008). Moreover, the
compressive strength and strain of a polymer concrete made
10
from waste tire rubber were 13,600 psi (93.4 MPa) and 6.7
percent, respectively (Chung and Hong 2009). 8
:::::-
In addition, compressive strength of PC is affected by g · · · ··· · · ··· ·
· ··
curing, and filler and aggregate used in the mixture. Barbuta !:! 6
2:
et a!. (20 I 0) reported epoxy PCs with compressive strengths Vi
4
ranging from 6305 to 10,127 psi (43.47 to 69.82 MPa)
using different dosages of fly ash and silica fume as fillers. 2
Polyester PC with marble of different particle size added as - UP --- MMA - UPA-FLEX . . . . . MMA-FLEX
0
aggregate and submitted to gamma radiation doses reached 0 0.0025 0.005 0.0075 0.01
a compressive strength of 13,000 psi (89. I MPa) (Martinez train (in/in)
Ban-era and Brostow 20 I 0). Furthermore, epoxy incorpo
rating micro-marbles was repotied to obtain a compressive Fig. 3.3. 1-Typical stress-strain curves for unsaturated poly
strength of I 0,150 psi (70 M Pa) w1der different conditions of ester PCs and MMA PCs in compression (Rebeiz et a/. 1 994).
curing (Haidar et a!. 2011).
maximum strain of 0.98 percent (San Jose et a!. 2008).
Different mortars made of polymers were also investi
Furthermore, Rebeiz and Fowler (1996a) reported flexural
gated under axial compression. Soh et a!. (1999) reported
strength of 13,977 psi (96 MPa) and fai lure strain of 0.87
unsaturated polyester resin mortar added to polystyrene
percent tor steel-reinforced polymer concrete beams made
resin with compressive strength of approximately 12,000 psi
of unsaturated polyester resins based on recycled polyethe
(85 M Pa). Moreover, compressive strengths of I 8,500 psi
lene terephthalate. Reis and Ferreira (2003) investigated the
( 1 28 MPa), 7550 psi (52 MPa), and 4100 psi (28.5 MPa)
fracture behavior of epoxy polymer concrete reinforced wilh
were obtained from vinyl ester mortar with silane coupling
chopped gla s fiber and reported flexural modulus of ela -
agents (Chmielewska et al. 2006), epoxy polymer mortar
ticity of 1,400,000 psi (9.5 GPa).
(Reis 2009b), and unsaturated polyester mortars manufac
Similar to the compressive strength and olher mechanical
hrred from polyethelene terephthalate bottles (Mahdi et al.
properties, the filler and aggregate used would affect the
2013), respectively.
flexural strength of the mixture. Flexural strengths of 3050
3.3.2 Flexural strength-Flexural strengths are influenced
psi (21 MPa), 2180 psi ( 1 5 MPa), and 4060 psi (28 M Pa)
considerably by the choice of polymers. Generally, highly
were obtained for PC mixture using calcium carbonate and
cross-linked polymers produce a higher flexural strength.
recycled concrete aggregate (Jo et al. 2008b), fly ash and
They also tend to have a more brittle fai lure mode and a
sil ica fume (Barbuta et a!. 2010), and a graded mixrure of
higher modulus of elasticity. An W1Jeinforced PC can have
coarse and fine sand (Haidar et a!. 20 1 1), respectively.
flexural strengths of 2000 to 4000 psi (14 to 28 MPa) or
Flexural strength for different polymer mortars was inves
higher. U nreinforced flexural members should not be used
t igated. Soh et a!. ( 1 999) obtained flexural slrengths of
as primary struchrral elements due to the potentially brittle
approximately 3770 psi (26.5 MPa) using unsaturated poly
nahtre of the failure. U ltimate flexural strengths for unre
ester mortar and adding polystyrene resin. Silane coupling
inforced sections should be based on flexural tests of the
agent mixed with polyester (B ignozzi et a!. 2000) and vinyl
formulation to be used.
ester (Chmielewska et al. 2006) mortars demonstrated flex
Static flexural propetiies of PC have been determined
ural strengths of 4915 psi (33.9 MPa) and 5932 psi (40.9
using the same test methods used for portland- cement
MPa), respectively. Moreover, epoxy mortar showed a flex
concrete (ASTM C293/C293M or C78/C78M), but the
ural strength of 6184 psi (42.64 M Pa) (Ribeiro et al. 2004).
method currently specified for chemical-resistant mortars
grouts, monolithic surfacings, and polymer concrete � 3.3.3 Tensile strength-Direc t tensile testing of PC is rare
because PC is not normally used in direct tension applica
(ASTM C580) is more suitable for PC.
tions. Preparing and mounting a specimen in a tensile-testing
PC made with flexible polymers exhibits more ductile
fixrure without introducing stress concentration effects is
behavior than those made with rigid polymers. The stiffness
difficult. A dog-bone specimen can be used, but care should
for PC beams is lower than for concrete control beams. The
be taken to eliminate end effects at the j aws of the test
strain distribution along the depth in the compression zone
fixrure. Tensile strengths are normally measured using the
of flexural beams is l inear. Hsu (1984) showed that a conser
splitting tensile test method (ASTM C496/C496M ). Tensile
vative value of 0.008 in .lin. (mm/mrn) can be assumed for
strengths (from splitting tension te ts) of 1000 to 2500 psi or
the maximum compressive strain at the extreme fiber.
( 1 0 to 1 7 M Pa) are typical. Tavares et a!. (2001) and Guedes
PC made of polyester resin incorporating 15 to 20 percent
et a!. (2004) suggested reinforcing PC under ten ion with
fly ash developed a flexural strength of approximately 3050
fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars.
psi (2 1 M Pa) (Rebeiz et al. 2004; Gorninski et a!. 2007).
3.3.4 Modulus of elastici�The deformation response
Beams manufachu·ed of orthophthalic polyester resin rein
of PC depends on the modulus of elasticity and maximum
forced with nonmetallic glass-reinforced polymer bars
elongation of the polymer binder, with elastic moduli up to
demonstrated a flexural strength of 3771 psi (26 M Pa),
5000 ksi (35 GPa) for rigid polymers. PC can be produced
modulus of elasticity of 5,500,000 psi (37.9 GPa), and

with a wide range of elastic moduli. Moduli of PC are gener multi-walled carbon nanotubess in the polymer matrix prior
ally dependent on the moduli of the resin binder and the to PC fabrication.
percentage of the resin used. As binder content decreases 3.3.8 Creep- PC exhibits the general creep behavior of
(approaching 5 percent by volwne), the modulus is increas the polymer binder. Several studies of creep in PC (Dhar
ingly influenced by the aggregate and reinforcements. marajan and Armeniades 1987; Hsu and Fowler 1985) have
Elastic moduli range from 500 ksi (3.5 GPa) for a flexible shown that sustained loads at stress levels substantially
resin-rich system up to 5000 ksi (35 GPa) for a rigid matrix below short-term ultimate strength will cause some PCs
(tensile failure strains of 15 percent to less than I percent, to creep to failure. As the level of maximum applied stress
respectively). The modulus of elasticity varies with tempera increases, creep strain also increases, as has been shown in
ture and for each of the major stress states: pure tension, pure portland-cement concrete. At some level of stress, however,
compression, and flexural (Mendis 1985). creep proceeds rapidly to failure. The closer the maximum
3.3.5 Poisson :� ratio-Very few measurements of Pois applied stress is to the shmt-term ultimate strength, the faster
son's ratio for PC have been reported. A value of 0.35 that creep to failure occurs. By connecting the inflection or
was given for a methacrylate PC used for machine tools fai lure points on a family ofcreep curves, a creep mpture enve
(Koblischek 199 1 ), and Mann·ala and Vipulanandan (1995) lope may be developed for that pmticular PC, but the envelope
reported work with a unsaturated polyester PC where the will vary with different polymers and other mixture and load
average dynamic Poisson's ratio was 0.22 compared to the variables. The creep mpture envelope permits the maximwn
static value of 0.20. allowable design stresses for the PC at different anticipated
3.3.6 Shear s trength- Most shear failures in PC stmc load durations by using an appropriate factor of safety. For
tural elements are actually djagonal tension fai lures or most PCs, the service stress level should be 30 percent or less
rarely diagonal compression failures as in portland-cement than the short-term ultimate strength. All stresses used for
concrete. PC, like portland-cement concrete, is much weaker design should include appropriate factors of safety to account
in tension than in compression, leading to diagonal tension for tllis behavior of PC under long-term loading.
failures in regions of pure shear. Actual shear strengths of PC has a significantly higher (two to three times) creep
275 to 3700 psi (2 to 26 M Pa) are between the tensile and compliance than portland-cement concrete. The specific
compressive strength (Fowler 199 1). Rebeiz et al. (2004) creep for both is approximately the same. Figure 3.3.8a
achieved shear strength of 1160 psi (8 M Pa) for polyester PC shows the specific creep strain for a specific unsaturated
after replacing 15 percent of sand by fly ash. Steel-reinforced polyester PC, for example, a11d Fig. 3.3.8b shows the effect
PC beams using polyester resin and based on recycled poly of ambient temperature on specific creep for the same PC
ethelene terephthalate demonstrated shear strengths ranging (Okada et al. 1976). The static strength of PC is not signifi
between 0.53 and 19 M Pa (77 and 2754 psi) (Rebeiz and cantly affected by the long-term creep loading within the
Fowler 1996b; Mahdi et al. 2013). creep mpture envelope. The PC creep sn·ain is lligh and the
3.3.7 Fatigue strength- Tests (Hsu and Fowler 1985) have PC sustained strength is low compared with portland-cement
shown that fatigue loading increases both flexural strength concrete. For stress levels of more than 50 percent of ulti
and the modulus of elasticity. The maximum applied sn·ess mate strength, creep strain in fly-ash-based PCs is extremely
is the most important factor influencing the fatigue life of high, and the specimens will creep to failure in as little as 2
PC beams. As the maximum applied stress increases, fatigue months (Davydov and I vanov 1972). When design loads will
life decreases. The stress range between maximum and be applied continuously for 10 days or more, reductions for
minimum applied stress also has a significant effect; the creep effects should be applied. A design stress of less than
wider the stress range, the shorter the fatigue life. PC beams 30 percent of ultimate strength should be used for sn·ength
were superior to portland-cement concrete beams in fatigue design for these cases.
life. Wheat et al. (1993) investigated the fatigue behavior of PC creep behavior is also influenced by ambient temper
beams made of portland-cement concrete overlaid by epoxy ature and resin content. Creep increases with increased
PC. The composed beams survived 2 million load cycles temperatw·e. PC should not be used in environments where
without significant loss of stiffness or delamination. Beams the temperature approaches the glass transition temperature
were statically loaded to failure after load cycles, and the of the polymer matrix.
obtained stiffness was found to be close to the initial stiff Creep is i mportant in PC design calculations of long-term
ness. Therefore, it was concluded that fatigue was not the deflections and deformations. Perfonn creep tests using the
primary cause of failure. Furthermore, Tavares et al. (200 l ) specific mixture proportion design and service temperatures
tested PC prisms reinforced with glass fiber-reinforced to be used. Creep strains generally increase with increased
polymer (GFRP) rods in three-point bending fatigue tests. polymer loading; for that reason, a well-graded aggregate
The PC prisms, which were made of epoxy resin, lasted for I system should be selected to reduce the amount of polymer
million cycles without mpture. The observed fatigue sn·ength if creep is to be minimized. The resin or monomer, aggre
was atn·ibuted to both PC and the GFRP rods. Experiments gate type, and gradation all affect the creep behavior of the
by Garner et al. (2015) showed the significant improvement PC (Fowler 1991). ASTM C l l 8 l /C l l 8 L M may be used
of PC fatigue life incorporating multi-walled carbon nano to measure the creep behavior of PC at both ambient and
tubess. One order of magnitude i mprovements in fatigue life elevated temperatures.
in excess of 1 million cycle was reported by incorporating

200 .-------, 7 00 r-
---,
- - <a - - - &- - - -<)- - - -
-o-
&- - -
e- - -
-
- .o- - - - e- Long-term-none
e-
- 6 - Long-term-CaCOJ.-10%
- B- Long-term-CaCOJ.-20%
- 9- Long-lerm-CaCOJ.-30%
pecific creep strain

Polyester PC
0 L-------�
2000 4000
0 20 40 60 80 1 00
0 6000 8000 10000
Time (hours)
Time (Days)
Fig. 3. 3. 8c-Creep compliance of polymer concrete with
Fig. 3. 3.8a-Specific creep strain.
varying CaC03.fiffer content (Jo et af. 2007).
800 Dose (kGy)

Specific creep strain vs Temperature
14 - 0
c (At 40 Days Age)
,-..,
'i 5
·-
.. ..
� � 600 Q. 13 - 10
c. - D 50
'»
"' ..
.5 Ill
- 1 00
.. .. ::l
3 12
u '<;;
0
400 '8
� 1 50
..
u
!.:::;
·- c.> �
u 11
�� ..,
"'
� '""' 200 cu
w 10
.2
E
cu 9
0 +-�_.�;-��_.��-+�� c
10
-10 30 so 70 s
Temperature (°C) 8
0.71 1 .40 2.36
Fig. 3. 3. 8b-Specific creep strain versus temperature. Marble Particle Size (mm)
Fig. 3. 3. 9-Dynamic elastic modulus of PC with different

Some additives will increase the cross-linking of the binder marble particle size and irradiated to different levels of
sy tern, resulting in reduced slip between the molecules and, gamma rays (Martfnez-Ban·era and Brostow 2010).
hence, reduced creep strain . Moreover, using fillers and aggre
gate in the mixture proved to restrict the resin deformation and increased with addition of 2 to 3 percent of the longer fibers
decrea e creep (Jo et al. 2007). Fly ash proved to decrea e the by volume. Fiber lengths were between 1 14 and I in. (6 and
creep compliance of PC by approximately 5 percent (Rebeiz et 25 mm). Martinez-Barrcra and Brostow (20 I 0) showed an
al. 2004). However, calcium carbonate used as filler proved to increase in the dynamic modulus of elasticity of polymer
have better creep behavior than using fly ash (Jo et al. 2007). concrete by adding marble pmticles and ubjecting the PC to
The effect of calcium carbonate of creep of PC is shown in gamma radiation, as shown in Fig. 3.3.9.
Fig. 3.3.8c. This could be due to the relatively large surface PCs also exhibit excellent energy absorption. Toughness,
area of calcium carbonate compared with fly ash, resulting in measured as the area below the stress-strain curve, is related
higher bond area with polymer resin and stronger bond with to the ability of the PC to absorb energy before fai lure and,
aggregate than with fly ash. Furthermore, it was sugge ted that thu , directly con·elates to its impact strength. Daghash et
the fineness of fly ash interrupts the bond between the polymer al. (20 1 6) showed that it is possible to significantly improve
and the aggregate (Jo et al. 2007). epoxy PC toughness and impact resistance by up to 36
3.3.9 Impact and abrasion resistance - N eelamegan percent by dispersing I percent multi-walled carbon nano
and Parameswaran ( 1 992) studied the behavior of various tubcs by weight of epoxy in the epoxy matrix prior to fabri
glass-fiber-reinforced PC mortars when subj ected to impact cation of PC.
and abrasion. The PC was made with an isophthalic poly 3.3. 1 0 Bond strength- Polymer concrete has been used
ester resin and fine river sand. Glass fiber contents were as an overlay to cover concrete pavements and steel b1idge
varied from 0 to 4 percent by mass. Results showed that decks. With its low water and acid permeability, PC can
glass fiber addition i ncreased impact resistance with fiber protect concrete or steel substrates, repair damaged port
contents of more than 2 percent by volume. Fiber length land-cement concrete pavements, and provide high skid
also affected the improvement with longer fibers providing resistance. The superior mechanical and durability proper
higher impact-resistance values. Abrasion resistance also tics of PC compared to conventional concrete allows the usc
of thin overlays, which reduces the structure dead load and
American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org (ciCi)

Ta ble 3.3. 1o-PC mixtures produced using nanomaterials and their comparison to microfine cement*
future abbreviation Base material
I Nano1Jarticles Content, percent
Reference Microfine cement one -

PCNC I Polysulfide siloxane epoxy one -
PCNC2 Polysulfide siloxane epoxy M'IVC NTs 0.5
PCNC3 Polysulfidc siloxanc epoxy

I MWCNTs 1 .0
PCNC4 Polysulfide siloxane epoxy MWC Ts 1 .5
PCNC5 Polysulfide siloxane epoxy Nanoclay 4.0
PCNC6 Polysulfidc epoxy anosilica 1 .0

-
PCNC7 Polysulfidc siloxane epoxy Nanoalumina
-- 2.0
-
PCNCS ovolac epoxy N one
PCNC9 ovolac epoxy MWC Ts 0.5
PCNC I O Novo lac epoxy MWCNTs 1 .0
PCt C l l ovolac epoxy MWC Ts 1 .5
PCNC I 2 ovolac epoxy Nanoclay 4.0
PCNC I 3 ovolac epoxy anosilica 1 .0
PCNC 1 4 Novo lac epoxy Nanoalumina 2.0
'Hond of all mixtures are tested against steel using slant shear test.
minimizes the cost of repair and maintenance. One of the fide siloxane and novolac PC up to 200 percent compared
main concern with overlays i the bond strength between with neat PC (Genedy et al. 20 1 4). The PC materials are
the overlay and the substrate. In this part, it is important to presented in Table 3.3.10 and the effect of nanomaterials are
differentiate between adhesive and cohesion strength and the shown in Fig. 3.3. 1 0.
possible modes of fai l ure. Adhesive strength, usually called 3.3. 1 1 Fracture properties-Re i lance to crack growth
the bond strength, can be defined as a measure of the bond was shown to be better in epoxy polymer PC than in port-
between an overlay and the substrate. land-cement concrete (Vipulanandan and Dharmarajan 1989).
On the other hand, cohesion strength is defined as a measure Additional ly, researchers found that unsaturated polyester PC
of the tensile bond between the overlay layers. Therefore, with well-graded aggregate systems had better fracture prop-
adhesive or bond strength describes the bond line between the erties than unsaturated polyester PC with uni formly graded
overlay and the sub trate, while cohe ive trength describes aggregates. Chmielewska et al. (2006) showed that fracture
the bond lines inside the overlay itsel f. Failure in the case of charactetistics of vinyl ester polymer mortar and concrete
overlay and substrate can occur in one of three modes. The has been improved significantly with pretreatment of silica
first mode is failure in the substrate. The econd mode is cohe- aggregate with ilane coupling agent. Rei and Ferreira (2006)
sion fai lure inside the overlay, which depends on the overlay reported a significant increase in fracture toughness of PC
mechanical properties. The third mode is debonding between incorporating glas and carbon chopped fibers.
the overlay and the substrate, indicating bond failure. The 3.3. 1 2 Dynamic properties-Using nondestructive testing
bond strength between overlay and substrate can be reduced i f methods, MantraI a and Vipulanandan ( 1 995) investigated
the overlay ha limited shear trength. Furthermore, this bond the effect of pecimen hape and size on the dynamic moduli,
strength can be significantly decreased i [ the structure experi- dampi ng ratio, and pulse velocity of an unsaturated polyester
ences high temperature variations or if ignificantly different PC with a compressive strength of 58 MPa (8412 psi). The
thermal expansion coefficients of the two matetials exist. The average dynamic Poisson's ratio was 0.22 compared to the
industry has agreed that bond strength above 200 psi (1.4 static value of 0.20; average pulse velocity of PC was 3400
MPa) is acceptable for most applications. m/s ( 1 I , I 55 nJs), and the damping ratio was 0.6 percent.
Low-viscosity vinyl ester mortar modified with a si lane Bignozzi et al. (2002) reported the ability of powdered
coupling agent bowed bond strength of 406 psi (2.8 MPa) rubber-based fi l ler to improve damping of polymer mortars.
to a wet portland-cement concrete ubstrate compared with 3.3. 1 3 Reinforcement development length-Fow l er
270 psi (1.86 M Pa) for nonmodified mortar (Czarnecki and ( 1 99 1 ) studied the development lengths for steel reinforcing
Chmielewska 1999). Rebeiz et al. (2004) reported bond bars in PC and found that the ACI 3 I 8 code provisions are
strength of 479 psi (3.3 MPa) between polyester PC modi- conservative for PC. Development lengths have been found
tied with fly ash and cement concrete substrate. This bond for only Grade 60 (420 MPa) steel and for one strength and
strength was reduced by more than 45 percent afier 80 type of PC. ACI 318 requirements for development length
thermal cycles (Rebeiz et al. 2004). Experiments using slant should be used unless development lengths are found from
shear tests showed that nanomaterials ( pecifically alumina tests for the actual PC and bar size and strength to be used in
nanoparticles) can improve the bond strength of polysul- a given application.
(ciC'lJ American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

45
40 -�· ::::: Sic>..... .. .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................................... .!�!'��
35
; po
� 25
f zo
6: 15 +1 �
..,
!i 10
..
,..1'"�"' f-�0 ""�<>- <1--i> ""�f)- ""�& ""�(? ""�¢ <�--i' i;, f-�0<:) Ji'• ""�<?"' ""�(.� ""�<!'
Fig. 3 . 3. 1 0-Impro ving bond strength of polysulfide siloxane and novolac epo).y using
nanomaterials (Genedy et a!. 2014). Materials shown are described in Table 3. 3. 1 0.
Some polymers bond better to GFRP bars or steel rein from 66 to 45 MPa (9600 to 6500 psi) when immersed in
forcement than others. Tests showed that the methacrylate water over a period of 12 months ( Mebarkia and Vipu
PC has a higher bond streng1h to steel reinforcing bars than lanandan 1 995). There was, however, almost complete
potiland-cement concrete. Epoxy also bonds wel l to steel recovery of compressive strength upon heating the PC.
reinforcement, while unsaturated polyester PC doesn't bond Researchers developed a simple model based on the theory
well. Fly-ash-based PCs may not work well with steel rein of diffusion to predict the streng1h degradation rate for this
forcement because of the acidic catalysts used. Glass fiber PC in water. The use of silane-treated aggregates reduced
reinforcement is frequently used in PC both as preformed the diffusion of water into the unsaturated polyester PC. This
FRP bars and as fibers. Bond to GFRP is dependent on the phenomenon is patiicularly noted in distil led water exposures
coating or sizing applied to the fiber by the manufacturer. and depends on the polymer used. Performance histories for
The bond to GFRP bars depends on the polymer used to similar PCs or for glass fiber-reinforced composites with the
make the bar and the polymer used in the PC. Where devel same polymer system should be reviewed to determine the
opment length is an important criterion in design, tests with effects of submersion. Polymers that, by themselves, have a
the specific PC and reinforcement to be used are recom low resistance to water will also tend to lose strength when
mended ( Dikeou and Kaeding 1992). used in PCs exposed to water. Strength reductions are gener
a l ly small and occur only over long exposure times for PC
3 .�Chemical and physical characteristics that is properly consolidated with few voids.
Several physical and chemical characteristics of PC affect Fly ash PC swells when penetrated by water or other l iquids.
its performance in structural applications. Each of these char Water can be removed from the fly ash PC if the specimens
acteristics should be considered as it applies to a patiicular are transferred to a drier environment. In this respect, fly ash
structure. The primary mechanism of aging is the decom PC is similar to wood, except that it has a lower water content
position of the complex molecules of the polymer. This is a and does not swell or shrink as much as wood.
vety slow process that has not yet been fully studied, but the 3.4.3 Permeability--PC is less permeable than port
effect of aging does not seem significant over the expected land-cement concrete. PC does not have an interconnected
life of a structure. Building cladding and w1derground utility internal pore structure and any voids produced by entrapped
enclosures have been in service for over 35 years in the air during casting operations are discrete and isolated within
United States and have not shown any decrease in service the hardened polymer matrix.
abil ity based on visual evaluations of these tructures. 3.4.4 Resistance to freezing and thawing-A lte rnate
3.4.1 Ultraviolet light and temperature resistance-Aging freezing and thawing degrades non-air-entrained portland
of polymers is affected by exposure to ultraviolet rays and cement concrete. Freezing-and-thawing cycling has little
high temperature. PCs should, therefore, be selected based effect on PC because there is no internal pore structure to
on their resistance to aging when they will be exposed to trap and retain water. Tests have been completed to 1600
these conditions. Because high fil ler loading increases the cycles with no mass loss nor significant change in dynamic
opacity of a PC, degradation caused by ultraviolet rays is modulus exhibited by the PC ( Reis and Ferreira 2006).
normally reduced to surface cosmetic considerations of 3.4.5 Curing shrinkage-Volumetric shrinkage occurs in
discoloring and blemishing. Thus, behavior of the polymer PCs as the monomer or resin system changes from a liquid
binder alone may not be a good indicator of ultraviolet l ight to a solid and as the PC cools from the exothermic polym
resistanc, as it affects structural performance of a PC. erization reaction. The liquid monomer or resin decreases
3.4.2 Moisture absorption-The moisture absorption of in volume and increases in density when the liquid is
PC is generally I percent or less by mass. The compressive converted by the polymerization reaction into a solid
strength of unsaturated polyester PC cyl inders was reduced polymer (polymerization shrinkage). The polymerization

reaction is exothermic and causes expansion as the tempera l A

ture rises. This temperature rise occurs dming the solidifi 1:1 = - log e _.!.. (3.4.7. l b)
n A,
cation process. As the solid PC cools, the PC shrinks and
may crack (thermal contraction). The volwnetric changes of
3.4.7.2 Dynamic modulus-Experimental work presented
PC vary depending on the type and amount of the monomer
by Kane (1991) suggests that a general relationship exists
or resin used. Zero- and low-shrinkage binder systems
between the dynamic modulus and material density for
have been developed to compensate chemically for these
polymer concretes incorporating 5 to I I percent by mass of
shrinkage mechanisms (Maass 1993). A gradual cooling of
epoxy polymer where dynamic modulus is defined as
the PC will allow some stress relief due to creep effects that
will decrease the likelihood of crack formation (Craig et a!.
1985). The high level of ine11 filler in PC also reduces expan
.t;·2 � w
_
':. .:.
.!_ ..._ (3.4.7.2)
E = _.:
sion and shrinkage rates. 4905.944

3.4.6 Chemical resistance-A valuable property of PC
is its chemical resistance. Aggregate and polymer selection Maximum moduli were observed at a maximwn packing
affects the chemical resistance of PC. Polymers are rela density of 6.5 percent binder. Comparison of axial dynamic
tively chemically inactive materials. Most PCs are resis moduli with separate static elastic moduli tested in accor
tant to alkalis, acids, and a wide range of other aggressive dance with ASTM C469/C496M showed very close agree
media such as petroleum products, salt environments, and ment. Agreement was not as good with the transverse
some solvents. The main exceptions to this resistance are dynamic modulus test results. The dynamic modulus of an
oxidizing acids, such as nitric and chromic, which react with unsaturated polyester PC using nondestmctive tests has been
most polymers, and alkalis, which react with phenolic and reported by Mann·ala and Vipulanandan (1995).
3.4.8 Thermophysical properties
unsatmated polyester and FA polymers. In acidic environ
3.4.8. 1 Response to elevated tempera tu res-Organic
ments, aggregates that are resistant to acid attack should
be selected. General purpose unsaturated polyester PC polymers exhibit a characteristic, abmpt change in physical
is attacked by certain strong acids, such as nitric acid, or properties at some elevated temperature. This temperature
acidic solutions at temperatures over 140°F (60°C). Organic is defined as Tg. where the polymer changes from a rigid,
solvents, especially ketones (acetone) and chlorinated glassy state to a more flexible, plastic state. T8 can vary over
hydrocarbons (carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and methy a broad range and is dependent on the molecular stmcture of
lene chloride), will attack most commonly used polymers, the cured polymer. For the polymers commonly used in PC,
but where such an environment is anticipated, polymers are T8 generally ranges from 50°F ( I 0°C) for very flexible PCs
available with high solvent resistance, such as vinyl ester. to over 400°F (200°C) for rigid, high-temperature-resistance
U nsaturated polyester PCs have excellent resistance to weak formulations. Resistance to high operating temperatures is a
chemical solutions, such as salts and acids. function of the binder used. Figure 3.4.8.1 shows an example
3.4.7 Vibration damping-PC has excellent vibration
of sn·ength reductions that can occur as the operating temper
damping characteristics, leading to its use in machine bases. ature increases (Kobayashi and Ito 1976). Unsaturated poly
In a study by Kane (1991), the damping factor for an epoxy ester-based systems are generally limited to 150 to 200°F
polymer PC was 0.003 to 0.005 compared with 0.0003 for (65 to 90°C) as are acrylics. EPs are also limited based on
cast iron. With polymer composites, the continuous solid curing temperature; at ambient temperatures, the T8 is nearly
matrix is an interlocked long chain of complex-shaped linear with cme temperature. A T8 above l 40°F (60°C) is
and configured molecular units. These polymer chains are generally only achievable in an EP if the polymer can have
created through an in-place polymerization reaction of an elevated temperature post-ew-ing. Vinyl ester, fly ash,
low-molecular-weight reactive resins or monomers. Once and phenolics can generally withstand higher temperatures,
complete polymerization (curing) is achieved, structural up to 250 to 300°F (120 to l 50°C). Only very specialized
behavior is primarily controlled by volume, distribution, and PCs can withstand temperatures over 300°F (150°C), and
characteristics of the polymer, along with composition, size, these materials are usually expensive or not readily avail
and distribution of the aggregates. Compared with metals, able. The properties of some resins change dramatically
the less dense polymers have more energy-absorbing mecha during exposure to high temperatures when the temperature
nisms that are available to attenuate vibration. approaches or exceeds the T8 of the resin. At T8, the resin
3.4.7.1 Specific dampingfactor-A tenfold increase in the
begins to soften and will distort or flow under loading. When
specific damping factor with all the epoxy-based PCs tested formulating PCs, physical property measurements should be
was found (Kane 199 1) compared with a cast iron control made at the upper and lower service temperatures expected.
where the specific damping factor is defined as The anticipated response of a pa11icular PC formulation can
be measured by determining its T8 using ASTM 07028.
For stmctmal applications, specify a T8 above the highest
s=� (3.4.7. l a) expected in-service temperature of the stmcture.
21t
Where performance at elevated temperatures will be
required, specifications should require testing over a range
where of temperatures that includes the highest expected service

120% r-------� sections reinforced with steel to eliminate problems associ

Effect of temperature on strength
Polyester PC ated with the difference in coefficient of thermal expansion.
1 00% �----
p The CTE for PC can vary from 7.2 to 70.0 x I 0 6 (in./
...
C'l 80% i n.)/°F ( 13 to 126 x 10 6 (mm/mm)/K). The CTE of PC is
1V
.::
normally 1.5 to 2.5 times greater than that of steel or port
;;,
c
60% land-cement concrete. This property becomes important
f
u; and significant for PC structural elements rigidly attached
0 40%
to other materials, such as building fascia panels ( Prusinski
;!.
20% 1 978). Ribeiro et a!. (2003) repotted that polymer concretes
and mortars, produced using epoxy and unsatmated poly
O% L-----�----J---L--�--� ester, tend to have a lower CTE at lower temperatures than
0 20 40 60 80 10 1 20
Temperature, •c at higher temperatures. It was also shown that the variation
of the CTE with temperature follows a parabolic law rather
Fig. 3. 4.8. 1-Effect ofelevated temperature on strength. than a bilinear law.
3.4.9 Electrical properties-With proper selection of
temperature. A graph of the test results versus temperature materials, the dielectric properties characteristic of good
would then show any anticipated strength lo s. electrical insulation can be achieved. This characteristic of
Koblischek (1991) showed that both compressive and PC makes it suitable for use as an electrical insulator. Fonnu
tensile modulus of elasticity began to decrease rapidly as the lations, testing, and casting procedures required to produce
temperature exceeded 140°F (60°C) for an epoxy polymer insulator grade PC have been developed and are repotted by
PC used in the manufacture of machine tool bases. Gunasekaran ( 1977).
3.4.8.2 Fire resistance-PC formulations genera l ly will 3.4. 1 0 Densiry-The density of PC is principally dependent
not support combustion i f their resin content is 10 percent or on the fillers used. With the use of notmal concrete aggregates
less. Most PCs with resin contents over 10 percent require and resin contents of less than 15 percent per mass (nonnal
special fire-retarding additives if nonftamrnabil ity is needed. weight PC), densities are approximately 135 to 150 lb/ft3
FA-based PCs have a higher specific heat compared to (2200 to 2400 kg/m3). PC mortar generally has a density near
other PCs and are less likely to bum. Under conditions of the lower end of this scale. L ightweight PC, using low-density
continued heating at temperatures of 360°F (180°C) and fillers, is typically in the 70 to 90 lb/ft3 ( 1100 to 1400 kg/m3)
above, however, the strength of fly ash PC is considerably range with some special materials having been developed
reduced, followed by decomposition of the material and with densities as low as 40 lb/ftl (640 kg/m3).
evolution of gases. Abrupt changes in the mechanical proper
ties of the polymers occur when the temperature approaches 3 .5-Standards and guides a p plica ble to polymer
the heat-deflection temperature determined by ASTM 0648. concrete
3.4.8.3 Coefficient of thermal conductivity and specific 3.5. 1 Design guides- Serv ice loads are established by
heat-Values for the coefficient of thermal conductivity governing codes. Building design loads can be found in
from 11.6 to 13.9 Btu/( h · ft · °F) (1.7 to 2.0W/mK) have been ASCE/SEI 7. Design loads for highway bridges are given in
reported for PC. The specific heat of PC is 0.19 Btu/Ibm· °F AASHTO H B-17-02. Underground structures used under or
(795 J/kg). Additional values are shown i n Appendix B. near roadways should be designed to withstand loads speci
3.4.8.4 Coefficient of thermal expansion-The coefficient fied in ASTM C857. The design professional using polymer
of thermal expansion (CTE) will vary over a broad range. concrete should determjne appropriate loads on the member
PCs with low polymer contents (less than 10 percent) tend to in accordance with applicable design codes. ACI 548. 1 R is a
have lower expansion coefficients, being influenced more by guide to polymer concrete materials.
the aggregates. As the polymer content increases the CTE 3.5.2 Test methods and standards-Tables 3.5.2a through
increases in general accordance with the law of mixtures, 3.5.2c present tests and standards tabulated by Ohama
approaching that of the binding polymer. PC may also ( 199 I ) that are currently in use to characterize the properties
exhjbit one or more changes in its thermal expansion coef of PC in Britain, Japan, and the United States. These prop
ficient, occUlTing near room temperature. Measurements of etties affect mechanical properties of polymer and polymer
an unsaturated polyester PC, with a polymer content of 9 composites used in construction.
percent by mass, showed an expansion coefficient of approx
imately 6 X 10--6 in./in./0f (11 X 10--6 ( mm/mm)/K) belOW 3.6-Safety
rOOm temperature and apprOXimately 8.35 X 1o-6 in./in./0f Current and detailed safety infonnation pertinent to PC
( 15 x 10--6 (mrnlmm)/K) above room temperature. In the production is given in ACI 548.1 R. Manufacturers and
same study, a methacrylate PC showed twice the expansion distributors of the materials being used will also provide
coefficient, and an epoxy polymer PC exhibited an expan i nformation in safety data sheets (SDS) and other publi
sion coefficient between that of the unsaturated polyester PC cations. This information should be read and thoroughly
and the methactylate PC (Harris et a!. 1988). It has been a understood by everyone planning and doing work with PC.
common practice to design the thickne s of polymer concrete The key safety information is presented herein because it is
vital to the continued safe use of PC.

Ta ble 3.5. 2a-ASTM test methods for polymer mortars and materials
1
ASTM C267 Standard Test Method for Chemical Resistance of Mortars, Grouts, and Mono lithic Surfacings
ASTM C307 Standard Test Method for Tensile Strength of Chemical-Resistant Mortars. Grouts, and Monolithic Surfacings
1 Standard Test Method for Work ing and Setting Times

ASTM C308
of Chemical Resistant Resin Mortars
I--
ASTM C4 1 3 Standard Test Method for Absorpt ion o f Chemical-Resistant Mortars, Grouts, and Monolithic Surfacings
--
Standard Test Method for Li near Shrinkage and Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Chemical-Resistant Mortars, Grouts, and
ASTM C53 1
Monolithic Surfacings
1---
ASTM C579 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Chemical-Resistant Mortars. Grouts, Monolithic Surfacings, and Polymer Concretes
I--
Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength and Modulus of Elasticity Chemical-Resistant Mortars, Grouts, and Monolithic Surfacings
ASTM C580
and Polymer Concretes
ASTM C905 Standard Test Method for Apparent Density of Chemica l-Resistant Mortars, Grouts, and Monolithic Surfacings
I
ASTM D3262 Standard Specifications for Reinforced Plastic Mortar Sewer Pipe
ASTM D35 1 7 Standard Specifications for Reinforced Plastic Mortar Pressure Pipe
ASTM D3840 Standard Specifications for Reinforced Plastic Mmtar Pipe Fittings for Nonpressure Applications
ASTM D648 Standard Test Method for Deflection Temperature of Plastics Under Flexural Load in the Edgewise Position
Ta ble 3.5.2b-Ja panese I ndustrial Sta ndards for polymer concrete

JlS A 1 1 8 1 Method of Making Polyester Resin Concrete Specimens
JlS A 1 1 82 Method of Test for Compre ssive Strength o f Polyester Resin Concrete
J I S A I I 83 Method of Test for Compressive Strength of Polyester Resin Concrete Using Portions of Beams Broken in Flexure
I--
J I S A 1 1 84 Method of Test for Flexural Strength of Polyester Resin Concrete
- -
J I S A 1 1 85 Method of Test for Splitting Tensile Strength of Polyester Resin Concrete
1-- I--
J IS A I I 86 Measuring Methods for Working Life o f Polyester Resin Concrete
�
JlS A 5350 Fiberglass Reinforced Plastics Mortar Pipes
Ta ble 3.5. 2c-British Sta ndards for co ncrete-polymer composites
I--
BS 63 1 9
BS 63 1 9, Part I
- Testing o f Resin ompos itions for Use in
Method for Preparation of Test Specimens

onstruction
�
BS 63 1 9, Part 2 Method for Measurement of Compressive Strength
I--
BS 63 1 9, Part 3 Method for Measurement of Flexural Strength
I--
BS 63 1 9, Part 4 Method for Measurement of Bond Strength ( S lant Shear Method)
BS 63 1 9, Part 5 Method for Determination of Density of Hardened Resin Compositions
BS 63 1 9, Part 6 Method for Determination of Density of Modulus of Elasticity in Compression
BS 63 1 9, Part 7 Method for Measurement of Tensile Strength
BS 63 1 9, Part 8 Method for the Assessment of Resistance to Liquids
3.6. 1 Initiators and promoters-Initiators required for galvanized steel . Grinding dusts from finishing operations
methacrylate and vinyl ester reactions are usually organic can be a source of contamination for the organic peroxides,
peroxides such as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) and care should be taken to prevent exposure. If replacement
or benzoyl peroxide (BPO). By their nature, organic perox parts must be installed on peroxide handling equipment,
ides are combustible and may decompose with explosive use the same materials of construction as were originally
violence under certain conditions. Heat and contamination used or specified by the manufacturer of the equipment.
are potential sources of problems when handling organic Organic peroxides hould always be stored in their original
peroxides. Organic peroxides should not be exposed to any containers. For transfer of peroxides into process equipment,
source of heat, such a direct sunlight, steam pipes, radiators, clean polyethylene, polypropylene, polytetrafluoroethene, or
open flames, or sparks. Heat may cause them to decompose stainless steel containers and funnels should be used.
violently, and their decomposition products, pia ticizer , and BPO products that do not have phlegmatizing agents can
packaging will bum if ignited. The manufacturer's recom react explosively if al lowed to dry and are then subjected to
mended storage temperature should not be exceeded. shock or heat. For this reason, preparations higher than 55
Organic peroxides are particularly sensitive to contami percent purity are not recommended. Dilute phlegmatized
nation from metals and should not come in contact with forms of BPO are available a powders or as liquid disper
easily oxidized metals such as copper, brass, and mild or sions and suspensions at various concentrations. These fom1s

of BPO are safer to handle and use and are recommended for problems that may be encountered with epoxy materials are
PC use. Additional i nformation on initiator systems, and the skin irritations such as burns, rashes, itches, and allergic skin
use and application of methacrylate PC, has been published sensitization. Sensitization reactions may occur inunediately,
by Fowler et al. (1983). but in other cases they may occur only after long periods of
Some solvents, such as acetone, can react with peroxides continual exposure. The user should refer to current SDS
to form unstable peroxides of their own. Small amounts of i nformation for health and safety effects of each component
these peroxides can cause the explosive decomposition of being used in any epoxy fonnulation.
commercial peroxides. 3.6.4 Fire safety-Fire safety provisions are particularly
Accelerators, also referred to as activators, are generally i mportant in PC manufacture because flanunable and reac
used in unsaturated polyester, vinyl ester, and methacrylate tive chemicals are routinely used. Besides standard fire
PC formulations when ambient-temperature polymeriza prevention practices, PC manufacturers need to consider:
tion is desired; in some systems, a promoter is also used. a) Proper storage and handling of flammable or combus-
The accelerator-initiator system can be designed to cause tible liquids
polymerization over a wide range of times and tempera b) The possibility of explosive vapor concentrations
tures. Commonly used accelerators are ,N-di-methyl para c) The dangers associated with oxidizing initiators
toluidine (DMpT) and N, -di-methylaniline (DMA); cobalt A comprehensive fire safety plan should be developed and
octoate (CoO); and cobalt naphthenate (CoN). Accelerators implemented before any work is begun with the chemicals
and promoters should never come into direct contact with used in PC manufacturing.
the initiator due to the potential for an explosive reaction. 3.6.5 Plant safety programs-PC manufacturing opera
To reduce the chance of an explosion, the resin or monomer tions should have a safety program with specific personnel
can be divided into two batches with the initiator added to or a department assigned to and responsible for safety. Plant
one-half of the resin while the accelerator and promoter are safety inspections, worker training, and protective equip
added to the other half. Premixing the initiators with an unac ment should all be managed by the safety supervisor. Plants
celerated (also called unpromoted) portion of the monomer should maintain a separate designated area for the storage
or resin may be done several hours before combining the two and blending of promoters and another separate area for
premixed components with aggregates to make the PC. Some storage of initiators. These two areas should be well sepa
resin systems can be preaccelerated (or prepromoted)-that rated from each other and the initiator storage should, prefer
is, with the accelerators and promoters premixed into the ably, be in a separate storage building.
resin by the manufacturer before delivery or mixed into the 3.6.6 Toxicity-Many chemicals used in PC manufacture
stored resin by the user so that only the initiator is added are considered toxic. Each chemical should be considered
at the time of use. Prepackaged materials generally consist separately and then together with chemicals that it may react
of a liquid resin component and a dty aggregate component with to form new chemicals. Chemicals can be hazardous
that contains the initiators. These procedures eliminate the depending on how they enter the body-through inhala
danger of combining the promoter and initiator directly. tion, taken internally, or absorbed through the skin. Some
Some of the accelerators and promoters commonly used are chemicals are dangerous through only one exposure route;
extremely hazardous. DMpT and DMA are particularly toxic others are dangerous through a combination of entries or all
and even small splashes should be immediately washed off. of them. The level of exposure and its duration also influ
Contaminated clothing should be removed immediately. ence the toxicity. All contact with toxic materials should
3.6.2 Monomers and solvents- The chemicals used in be reduced to a safe health level. Liquid resins, monomers,
methacrylate PC, unsaturated polyester PC, vinyl ester PC, solvents, initiators, and promoters should not be allowed to
and epoxy polymer PC are flammable and may be toxic. contact the skin. Protective equipment, such as clothing and
Trained workers and proper handling and safety practices gloves, should be used and all spills should be cleaned up at
are required during handling, mixing, and placing opera once (Cook Composites and Polymers 1 990).
tions. Eye and skin protection and chemical respirators Breathing or skin exposure to DMA or DMpT can lead
should be used. Extended exposure to the vapors can cause to headache, nausea, breathing irregularities, or fainting.
dizziness, headaches, or nausea. Contact with the skin may Prolonged exposures cause even more severe reactions.
cause a rash and should be avoided. The resin is flammable, Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) initiators are particu
so open flames should be avoided. The cured resin will burn larly corrosive to the eyes, and any such contact should be
but will not sustain combustion. prevented. Solvents and thirmers are toxic. Due to their vola
Styrene and methacrylate are flammable liquids. Accu tility and frequent use, they can easily accumulate in sufficient
mulations of styrene vapors from polyesters or methacrylate quantity to cause a physiological reaction. Protective equip
vapors can lead to a flash fire or explosion that can be started ment such as plastic suits, breathing apparatus, eye goggles,
by any spark or flame. and gloves should be used when handling these chemicals.
3.6.3 Epoxies- Different epoxy resins can be combined
with numerous curing agents, flexibilizers, fillers, and other 3.7-Regulatory matte rs
chemicals to produce several hundred different products. Local, state, and federal regulations govem PC manu
The flashpoint of epoxies is higher than that of styrene or facturing and key regulations are outlined in the following.
methacrylate, so epoxies are less of a fire hazard. Health Copies of the regulations and implementation requirements

should be obtained from the appropriate agency before can be dete1mined by satisfying the compatibility of the
beginning any PC manufacturing or construction activity. strains and equilibrium of internal forces. The compressive
Federal, state, and local regulations are constantly changing, strain at failure of PC was observed to be 0.005. According
and PC producers should be aware of these changes. to experimental data, the equivalent rectangular stress block
OSHA 29CFR 1910. 1200 requires employers to evaluate method for conventional concrete would yield conservative
chemicals used in their workplaces to determine if they are results for reinforced PC beams. Therefore, a new flexure
hazardous and to transmit information on hazardous chemi design equation, developed using statistical analysis of tests
cals to employees by means of a comprehensive training and results, should be used to calculate the flexural capacity of
hazard communication program. OSHA also regulates expo reinforced PC beams (Rebeiz and Fowler 1996a). In addi
sure limits for ce11ain chemicals. tion, an empirical equation to predict the effective moment of
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has devel inertia of reinforced PC beams was proposed by analyzing the
oped cradle-to-grave regulations governing the generation, stmctmal behavior of PC beams (Park et al. 20 I 0). Fm1her
storage, treatment, and disposal of hazardous materials and more, PC has been found to have a higher modulus of rupture
wastes. Departments of Transportation (DOTs) regulate than conventional portland-cement concrete. Yeon et al.
shipment of hazardous materials and wastes. States have (1987) repm1ed the increase to vary from 17 to 73 percent.
regulations concerning hazardous materials, their disposal, Reinforced PC beams would also have higher ductility and
odor abatement, nuisance laws, and label requirements. require less reinforcement cover (Rebeiz and Fowler 1996a).
There is very limited information on the shear strength of
3.8-Current and suggested research PC beams. Research conducted by Helal ( 1978) and Dang
Research on PC over the past decade was focused on and Fowler (1987) suggested that the equations used for
improving the mechanical characteristics of PC using shear design of portland-cement concrete beams can be used
d ifferent type of polymers, additive fibers, and nanomate in PC beams. Care should be taken in shear design of PC
rials. Research showed the possible improvement of bond beams to account for the fact that PC will tend to have a
strength of PC to different substrates specifically to steel. much h igher modulus of rupture, a lower modulus of elas
The possible alteration of important PC characteristics such ticity, and a higher crushing strain than portland-cement
as fatigue life and impact strength was also reported. concrete (Abdel-Fattah and El-Hawary 1999). Designers
Future research should look at: should determine the minimum depth required for a partic
a) Definition of working stress limits based on short-term ular PC formulation, reinforcement type, and ratio. With the
ultimate strength testing wide variety in resins, testing of specific PC to determine
b) Characterization of the effects of creep on long-term the parameters necessary for flexural and shear design (for
performance example, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, and
c) Fm1her studies of the fatigue properties of the materials cmshing strain) is recommended.
d) Development of equations for design to prevent
cracking of structmal PC 4.2-Compressio n members
PC with longitudinal reinforcement has been used to form
CHAPTER 4-STRUCTURAL M EM B E RS columns to support axial loads and moments. The experi
Polymer concrete (PC) has been used to carry loads for mental and analytical studies on steel-encased polymer
specialized structures, particularly for components that have concrete under axial compressive load proved the enhanced
one or more of the following requirements: thin sections to ductility and increased compressive strength (Oyawa et al.
reduce weight; high durability to resist water intrusion, acid 200 I ; Oyawa 2007). The effect of steel-encased confinement
attack, wear or abrasion; aesthetically pleasing, including on the stress-strain behavior of PC is shown in Fig. 4.2.
ability to have color and be fonned into complex smfaces
and shapes; rapid cure to maximize form usage; and excel 4.3-Reinforced polyme r concrete
lent strength properties. Chapter 4 has a list of many applica Precast PC is frequently reinforced with a high-tensile
tions in wllich structural PC has been used. sh·ength material, glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP), or
Rarely is PC used for primary structural members that are steel in either rod or fiber form. When steel reinforcement is
critical to the overall ability of the building or other stmc used, it should be mechanically anchored into to the PC, either
ture to provide safety; it is never used where a fire rating is with a deformed smface or through mechanical shear devices
required. These components are often used to carry loads designed to transfer stresses between the steel and the PC.
over short spans that are supported by steel or concrete Where GFRP rods are used, they should be deformed. All rod
framing members. Some of the heaviest loaded PC compo reinforcements should be embedded deep enough in the PC
nents are underground utility vaults or boxes that must carry to prevent the radial tension developed by the deformed bars
lateral soil pressure and pedestrian and vehicular loads. This from causing tensile cracks in the nearby surface.
chapter will discuss structural design criteria. Surface fiberglass fabric is also frequently used as a rein
forcement. Sections reinforced in this manner generally
4.1 -Fiexural members experience one of two failure modes. The first is a brittle
Many structmal PC applications are for flexural members. failure with a sudden breaking of the fiberglass. In these
The ultimate moment resistance of steel-reinforced sections cases, the section is under-reinforced. The PC portion of the

foam. Measurements showed that the sandwich panel system

7 �------�--�
StElA provided the required strength and thennal insulation. PC
- StEl A
6 - SIE2A sandwich beams provide durable, lightweight stmctures in
-<>- S/CN corrosive environments. teet-polymer concrete composites
5 --- s in the form of a filled column and a sandwich column (two
concentric steel tubes with polymer concrete sandwiched in
4
between) were observed to have had compressive strengths
f 3
I 0 to 30 percent higher than the summation of the individual
components. The ductil ity of the andwich composite was
2 improved by 100 to 200 percent over that of the corre
sponding steel tubes (Vipulanandan et at. 1997; Helal 1978).
CHAPTER 5-APPLICATIONS IN STRUCTURES

0 �-----r----�--�
0 20 40 60 80 1 00 Precast PC util ity components include a variety of struc
tures used in various indu trie and in general construction
project . The types of PC structural elements cm·rently being
commercially produced are shown in Table 5.
Fig. 4. 2-Typical normalized load versus strain for steel
confined PC (D/2 = 50). Figure compares S (steel tube) to
5.1-Architectural and factade panels
S/E2A (epoxy type 2 concrete-filled steel tube), SEIA (epoxy
Preca t PC panels have been commercially available since
type I filled steel tube), S/LCM (latex-mod[fied mortar-filled
1 958. PC made from unsaturated polyester resins and silica
steel tube), and S/CN (cement concretefilled steel tube).
sand was used to produce single-skin panels 0.75 in. (19
section has a sufficiently high flexural strength so that when mm) thick or sandwich panels with 0.75 in. (19 mm) thick
tensile cracking begins, the fiberglass reinforcement is imme facings that encapsulated polyurethane foam. Fiberglass
diately overstressed in tension and fails. The second mode of cloth and, in some cases, steel bars were used as reinforce
failure is evidenced by tearing and delamination of the smfacc ment for spans up to 15 ft (4.5 m) to withstand wind load.
fiberglass reinforcement in areas of high tensile stress. This Exposed aggregate was typically used on the exposed face.
mode indicates that the failure is caused by excessive shear Prusinski (1978) gives many examples of PC far;:ade panels
buildup at the interface between the surface fiberglass rein used around the world (Fig. 5.1a). Many companies have
forcement and the underlying PC. Both failure mechanisms produced PC panels, but some were unsuccessful due to fail
should be examined during design (Kaeding I 99 l a). ures in their panels. Reasons for failures included:
a) Laminated panels delaminated in service
4.4-Unreinforced polymer concrete b) Steel reinforcing bars placed too close to the smface
Cast-in-place PC bearing and leveling pads have been re ulted in cracking
used for bridge rehabilitation in the United States and Europe c) I nadequate reinforcement
for many years. They arc de igncd o that all the strcs cs in d) Use of impure silica sand that caused blotchiness or
the PC arc compressive. Because PC is brittle under tensile discoloration
or flexural stresses, unrcinforccd PC should not be used for e) I rregular placement of aggregate on the surface caused
stmctural applications in which the load supports, or both, unsightly finishes
could produce ten ilc or flexural stresses, possibly leading to f) Warping and bowing due to improper fabrication
a sudden, catastrophic failure. Even for PC clements under Unsaturated polyester PC panels reinforced with fiber
compressive stresses, care hould be given to avoid buckling. glass have been produced since approximately 1970 in the
Another stmctural application of PC is the high-speed milling Netherlands. Flat single-skin panels are 0.6 in. (15 mm)
machines beds. Suh and Lee (2008) studied the design and thick; panels that have returns or which form corners are 0.8
manufactured a hybrid polymer concrete bed for high-speed in. (20 mm) thick. I nsulating sandwich panels are produced
milling machine. The hybrid bed, which had welded steel in thickness of 4 in. (100 mm). Spandrel panels, channel
faces and polymer concrete core, provided high damping and shaped in cross section, are made using sandwich constmc
high stiffness compared with conventional concrete beds. tion in lengths up to 17 ft (4.5 m) (VanBerg 1984).
Since 1972, a Quebec firm has been producing precast PC
4.5-Sandwich panels panels using unsaturated polyester resins and a variety ofsutface
Research performed by Fridley et al. ( 1989) examined finishes, including ribbed with granite filler, exposed aggregate,
the behavior of PC as a facing material over three different and gel coat. Single-skin facing panels are generally used,
core materials in sandwich panels. The results indicated that although some panels u e 3 in. (75 mm) of polyurethane foam
flexural and shear behavior of the beams could be predicted sandwiched between 1 in. (25 mm) PC skins. Some panels are
by conventional sandwich beam theory. Yeon et al. (1997) curved at the top and bottom, and some interior panels used in
developed a PC sandwich panel for low-temperature store- subways have a bench fmmed monolithically within the panel
house. ln this application, PC facing is reinforced with glass or with a metallic lattice (Laliberte 1984). Example design of
fibers and is used to cover a core of expanded polystyrene PC panels for far;:ade are shown in Fig. 5.1b and 5.1c.
American Concrete I nstitute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org (c]'(;"iJ

Ta ble 5-Structura l a p p lications of PC

Component Description and advantages Reference
Wall fascia panels Exterior bui lding cladding: strength, weight durability Kaeding and Prusinski {2003)
Median barriers H ighway lane separators: color, reflectivity, stTength, weight Dikeou ( 1 987)
E lectrical insulators
I Support electrical conductors: electTical properties, mechanical strength Gunasekaran ( 1 977)
Underground handholcs Cable splice enclosures: lightweight, toughness, durability Kaeding ( 1 99 1 b): Hclal 1 97 8
Kaeding ( l 99 1 b);
Service boxes Gas, water, metering boxes: lightweight, toughness, durability
llelal l 978
- -
r-
Kaeding ( 1 99 1 b):
Equipment vault Underground equipment housings: strength, impenneabil ity. corrosion resistance
Helal ( 1 978)
r-
Controlled environment vaults Underground housing for delicate phone equipment: impcrrncabiliry, high strength Kaeding ( 1 99 1 b)
- -
1-
Cable trenchc Control cable enclosures: easy accc sibility, strength to weight characteristics Kaeding ( 1 99 1 b)
f-- - 1-
Equipment pads Support for power and telephone equipment: strength to weight characteristics Kaeding ( 1 99 1 b )
Shunt reactor stands

I Support tower for electrical equipment: nonmagnetic, insulation properties Kaeding ( 1 99 1 b)
Catch basins
I Collect surface water: impermeability, strength, corrosion resistance Kaeding ( 1 99 1 b)
Separators Separate sludge from effluents: corrosion resistance, impermeability Kaeding ( 1 99 1 b)
Drainage systems Collect and transport surface water: strength, impenneability, corrosion resistance Kaeding ( 1 99 1 b)
Pipe and pipe liners Transport corrosive fluids: corrosion resistance, impem1eability Kaeding ( 1 99 1 b)
I
Machine bases Precision machine tool assemblies: strength, vibration, thermal properties, cost Fowler ( 1 99 1 ); Kane ( 1 99 1 )
Hazardous waste containers Enclose or encapsulate wastes: impcnneability, chemical and physical inertness Fontana ( 1 99 1 )
-
Fo d
,.,.,
Fig. 5. 1 c-PC panel with foam insulation reinforced with

fiber glass cloth.
Fig. 5. Ja-PC buildingjacing.
Spence (1987) gives examples of thin facing fas;adc panels
used and column covers in the United Kingdom. Unsatu
rated polyester PC with a wide range of aggregate fi llers,
and in some cases with pigments, is used. Other ourccs in
the U nited Kingdomc indicate a wide range of interior and
exterior PC wall panels installations.
An innovative composite panel has been produced that
consists of a thin 3/16 in. (5 mm) polymer mortar facing
bonded to a reinforced plastic panel that has foam-filled ribs
to provide stiffness. The panels were developed as an alter
native to fiberglass-reinforced panels that were too heavy for
rccladding an old church.
Polyester polymer panels were the most populaT applica
tion of PC, as it proved able to provide the required strength
and wind load resistance (Kaeding and Prusinski 2003) and
high perfonnancc in different c limatic conditions (Wahby
Fig. 5. 1 b-PCpanel with e.xposed aggregate reinforced with and Prusinki 2005). Subsequently, high ductility and load
fiber glass cloth. bearing-capacity polymer mortal" panels without and with
steel fiber and crimped wire cloth reinforcements were

Fig. 5. 1 d-Church in Cannon burg, PA (Metro Cast C01p.).

Fig. 5)(-1n.fopeel at the L incoln Center in New York City
(Metro Cast Corp.).
Fig. 5. 1 e-PC precast panel with embedded brick. Fig. 5.2a-PC railroad crossing panels (photo courtesy of
Transpo Industries Inc. 2012).
produced (Bhutta et al. 20 1 1 ). The polymer mortar panel

cement concrete is u ed to fill the void between the PC shell
were made using methyl methactylate (MMA) solution
and the existing banier. The shell serves as the permanent
produced of wa te expanded polystyrene (EPS).
form that provides a durable, reflective surface and results
A company in M ichigan began producing gla s fiber
in considerable avings in construction lime (Dikeou 1987).
reinforced PC panels in 1970, expanding the types in the
Hal f shells can be used to provide a new surface for bridge
1990s with architectural building components, including a
p arapets or tunnel walls with concrete used to fill the void.
four-quadrant, 20 ft (6.7 m) d iameter PC dome with a 1 in.
PC curb facing is also produced with dowels that permit
(25 nun) thickness over a steel tube fram the only one of
i t to be atlached to cast-in-place portland-cement concrete.
its type ever built-for a church in Pennsylvania (Fig. 5 . l d).
The lay-in-place form comes in height o f 4 to 18 in. ( 1 00
They also produce panels with thin bticks that are
to 450 mm) and lengths up to 1 0 ft (3 m).
embedded in PC panels that are supported by attached l ight
A precast rai l road crossing panel that rests on the bollom
gauge steel channels that serve as reinforcement for trans
flange of the steel track allows the top of the panel to always
pOiting and erection and then to transfer wind load to the
be level with the lop of the rail, ensuring that the crossing
building frame (Fig. 5 . l e). They have also produced some
vehicles have a mooth tide (Fig. 5 .2a). The panels fit over
unusual sculptured products such as the Infopeel at the
concrete and wood tie (sleeper ) and can can·y axle loads of
L incoln Center in ew York City (Fig. 5 . 1 f).
20,000 kg (44,000 lb). A galvanized steel bar cage is used as
reinforcement.
5.2-Ap p l ications in transportation
A PC railroad tie was developed using two elongated
Several application of PC for the transportation industry
hells connected by a ingle strut (Fig. 5 .2b). The weight is
have been identified. For several years, median barrier
approximately one-hal f that of a n01mal concrete tie. Advan
systems have been produced con isting of shell that are u ed
tage include reduced weight, greater durability, greater
to enca e existing deteriorated concrete barrier . Portland-

Fig. 5. 2b-PC railroad ties.
Dri lled holes

8 .3
for pouring
polymer concrete 6 0
No. 1 6 (#5)
6 1 0 spacing
Fig. 5.2c-Precast PC railroad tie developed at University
of Texas at Austin.
stabi lity in the ball ast bed, and significantly improved reso
nance damping of the PC compared to concrete. An example A l l dimen. ion. in m m
concrete railway tie fabricated at University of Texas at Fig. 5. 2d-Barriers reinforced with FRP and proposed PC
Au tin is shown in Fig. 5 .2c. connection (hatched area) to attach bridge barrier to new
New low-smoke low-styrene, methyl methacrylate (MMA) composite deck (Zhao et a/. 2004).
free flame-retardant polye ter resin systems were used for mass
transit applications (Martens and Siegel I 998). Many bridge
PC underground equipment enclosures are used by power
overlays were manufactured of PC. PC overlays can provide
and communication util ities throughout the United States
high ten ion elongation, high adhesion to deck surface, and and in other countries. The pri mary advantage of PC enclo
high energy absorption (Lopez-Anido et al. I 998). Moreover,
sures is the weight reduction compared to portland-cement
PC has been used to connect b1idge baniers made of reinforced
concrete. PC enclosures are produced by several manufac
portland-cement concrete to FRP composite bridge decks ttJrers in sizes varying from approximately I ft3 (0.03 m3 ) to
(Zhao et al. 2004), as shown in Fig. 5.2d.
units that are 8 ft (2.4 m) wide by 8 ft (2.4 m) high by 8 ft
(2.4 m) deep. Most of these units can be placed manually by
5.3-Utility structures
two workers. The larger w1its require only a l ight boom hoist
5.3. 1 Underground structures Many types of under
-
on the delivery tmck. Design requirements for underground
ground enclosures, handhole , vault , and manholes are
enclosures include use of high-strength materials to reduce
produced from PC. These units typically use fiberglass
product weight, low total creep to reduce deformation under
reinforcement. The smaller units are generally cast mono
soil loading conditions, and high fatigue and impact strength
lithically whereas the larger units are cast segmentally and
to resist traffic loads.
erected on site.

Fig. 5. 3. Jb-PC underground structures.
cable support racks, bell ends, duct tenninators, or combi

nations thereof. Bell end and tenninators are fittings to
which the uti lity can connect underground conduits reeding
the vault. Vaults are available completely preassembled or
packaged i11 components for a sembly at the construction
site. Several manuracturers also offer an adjustable upper
1ing or collar to permit field changes to the top grade and
Fig. 5. 3. I a-Composite manhole with PCfoundation (photo level. The smaller vaults are called handholes, which are
courtesy ofSewer Shield Composites). used to enclose cable splices for underground distribution
systems. PC handholes are generally one-third to one-fi fth of
Enclosures are designed for loads from l ight vehicles such the weight of an equivalent portland-cement concrete hand
as cars, pickups, and light trucks, or heavier vehicles such a hole. This lower weight results in covers that can easily be
heavy commercial trucks and tractor-trailer trucks. Under removed by one person without special lifting devices and
ground PC manholes should al o be designed to simulta substantially decreases the risk of injury. The handhole and
neously resist earth pressure in addition to any water pre - cover are also extremely tough. tilities, as a result, are also
sure from groundwater. Designs accow1t for the standing durable, resulting in a much lower replacement rate.
weight or slowly moving weight of the vehicle, either on The l argest underground structures used by the utilities are
the cover or on the soil or pavement adjoining the enclo manholes. They can be similar in size and construction to
sure. Designs should account for long-tenn effects such as vaults but are deep enough to permit a worker to completely
creep of PC under service temperature. An example glass enter the enclosure, typically 7 ft ( 1 .8 m) or more. At these
fiber compo ite manhole integrated with PC foundation is ize and depth , the primary design concern is the lateral
shown in Fig. 5.3. l a. soil pressure on the walls and the vehicular load on the top.
Typical construction of an enclosure includes a four-sided A higher safety factor is also required because the life afety
box, generally without a bottom, but with a cover (Fig. 5.3.1b). of anyone entering the enclosure is involved and the soil
Sometimes an extension is included that can be installed pressures are continuous long-te1m loads subject to creep
below the box to produce a deeper enclosure. The covers are effects (Kaeding l 99 1 b). Another important design a pect i
fiberglass-reinforced PC (FRPC). The boxes are either FRPC to ensure that the applied vertical loads are much lower than
or a compo ite of FRP and FRPC. In the composite construc buckling loads with a relatively high factor of safety. Precast
tion, the upper or collar section i of FRPC to provide rigidity PC manholes have been used extensively in Japan since 1 967.
and abrasion resistance. The lower wall p01tion of the box i Annual production was reported to be approximately 20,000
FRP, providing very high strength and low weight. FRPC/ tons ( 1 8,000 menic tons) in 1 978 (Ohama 1 978). Greater
FRP composite boxes provide lightweight, strong enclosures, strength, lower weight, and better chemical resistance are
and are preferred by many utilitie . cited a reasons for their popularity. Typical dimensions are
Vaults are used for housing larger equipment and are char 5.4 ft ( 1.6 m) wide by 6.3 ft (1.9 m) high by 9.2 ft (2.8 m) long,
acterized by their size, fixtures, and accessibil ity. Vault sizes with wall tbickne s ranging from 2 to 3.5 in. (50 to 90 mm).
vary from 30 in. (750 mm) wide by 48 in. (1200 mm) long by The unit weigh approximately 3.3 tons (3000 kg). Based on
24 in. (600 mm) deep to 48 in. ( 1 .2 m) wide by 96 in. (2.5 m) testing and field experience, units that develop cracks in the
long by 60 in. (1.5 m) deep. They are typically equipped with end walls are still capable of withstanding the design loads.

Fig. 5. 3. 2b-PC machine .foundation.

Fig. 5 . 3. 2a-PC Base .for wind turbine structures (photo
cour!SeJ' o.fA I-Kaeding) .
It i nece ary to repair the crack with glas -fiber cloth and
polymer mortar to prevent water intrusion (VanBerg 1 984).
Succes ful integration o f FR P and PC for making lightweight
and safe PC manholes was rep01ted.
5.3.2 Equipment pads and support structures-PC equip
ment foundation are lighter than equivalent portland
cement concrete foundations becau e of the thinner ections
used. This weight reduction al lows the use of precast foun
dations for many applications where previously cast-in
place concrete was used. Installed costs are lower because
less equipment and smaller crews are required to install the
l i ghtweight PC foundations. In northem climates, PC foun
dations have a much longer service l i fe than concrete due
to PC 's better resistance to freezing-and-thawing damage.
Tests conducted on polymer concrete have shown no spec
imen weight loss a fter 2000 cycles of freezing and thawing
(Smoak 1 978). There are many U.S. producers for precast
PC equipment foundation . Primary design parameter
include physical strength, resistance to UV and water expo-
ure, dimensional stability, resistance to dilute acid or ba e
solutions, resistance to all solutions, and resi lance to trans
former oils and fuels. An example PC foundation for wind
turbine structure i hown in Fig. 5 .3 .2a.
There is a variety of surface, pad-mounted telephone
equipment being used in the communications industries.
This equipment is generally light, weighing 250 to 1 000 lb
Fig. 5. 3. 2c-PC equipment pads.
(I 00 to 450 kg). The primary criteria for supporting pads
are dimen ional lability and re istance to UV and weather
exposures. An example PC pad for machines is hown in kg]) and large shunt reactors (up to 1 5,000 lb [6800 kg]).
Fig. 5 . 3 .2b. Magnetism around such equipment precludes the use of any
Furthetmore, compo ite FRPC/FRP pads provide the e metal in the suppoti structure. PC reinforced with fiberglass
characteristics in addition to being lightweight (Fig. 5.3.2c). rods/mats provides a superior suppoti stand for these units.
Typical ly, the precast FRPC/FRP pad are light enough to 5.3.3 Cable tren ch es- Cable trenches are typical ly u ed
allow their in lallation by the same crew and with the same to hold control cables in electrical switch yards, extending
equipment used to install the cabinet. A a result, only one trip from the control house to the equipment on the power l ines
to the worksite with one crew i required to provide an instal in the yard. The trench is usually 2 to 3 ft (0.6 by 0.9 m) wide
lation. Composite FRPC/FRP construction again provides by 12 to 1 8 in. (300 by 450 mm) deep and ha only a partial
a very strong, durable pad with very low weight for heavy bottom. The trench is also equipped with covers. Trenche are
equipment such as power transformers (up to 6000 lb [2700 preferred for control cable distribution because of the easy
(aCi) American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

corrosion-resistant resins are also unaffected by the strong

c leaners used in these installations.
5.4.2 Pipes andpipe liners-PC pipe and PC-lined pipe are
used where advantage can be taken of PC's impermeabil ity
and corrosion resistance. Both portland-cement concrete
pipe and steel pipe have been successfully lined with PC for
various appl ications. Pipe and liners for geothermal power
plant piping have been developed ( Kaeding 1 985). PC mate
rials used in this application have to withstand operating
environments of 460°F (280°C) and 600 psig (42 kgf/cm 2
gauge) and contain acidic fluids with high dissolved-solids
contents (Kawakami et al. 1 976). The PC developed for this
use has performed well and is currently in commercial use at
geothermal sites in the Salton Sea area of southern California.
P ipe and liner design should include a review of chemical
resistance, water resistance, mechanical strengths, and oper
ating temperature requirements. Snow ( 1 999) reported the
development of aggregate-fi l led epoxy grouts in polymer
encapsulation of concrete piles in marine environment.
PC-Iined portland-cement concrete pipe has been used
to produce pipes and other components for a sewer system
in Czechoslovakia (Bares 1 978 ). PC-I i ned portland cement
pipe was chosen to provide resistance to alternately acid and
alkaline effluents being transported. The PC-Iined portland
cement concrete composite pipe resulted in the use of a
thinner wall pipe and reduced the overall cost of the project.
S imilar work has been completed in Japan with PC-mottar
l ined portland-cement concrete pipe. Kawakami et al. ( 1 976)
Fig. 5. 3. 4-PC acid tank made with ester resin. described development of sewer pipe lined with a polymer
mortar. Portland-cement concrete pipe will corrode if it is
accessibility they provide for repairs and changes. Covers exposed to effluents with a pH of 4 or less. An epoxy mottar
are commonly designed to supp01t pedestrian loads. Where l iner was chosen that is resistant to the low-pH environment.
the trench crosses a service road in the yard, however, the The liner was applied centrifugally immediately after the port
covers are required to support loaded line trucks and should land-cement concrete was also cast centrifugally. The epoxy
be designed for these loads. polymer PC liner was then polymerized with infrared radia
5.3.4 Miscellaneous-An example PC acid tank made tion before the portland cement portion was steam cured.
with ester resin is shown in Fig. 5 .3 .4.
5.5-Hazardous waste containment structures
5.4-Hydraulic structures Many approaches used to solidify or stabilize hazardous
Hydraulic structures include drainage components (catch wastes originated in radioactive waste management. For
basins, separators, and drain trenches), pipe, and lined pipe. the past several decades, a great deal of development and
5.4. 1 Drainage systenzs-Drainage systems in the form research has taken place in the solidification, containment,
of catch basins, sand and grease interceptors, and trench or both, of radioactive, industrial, and other waste materials
drains are also produced in PC and have been widely used (Fontana 1 99 1 ). A PC hazardous waste container is shown
during the last 25 years. PC area drainage systems consist in Fig. 5 . 5 .
of modular, presloped trench sections. PC drains are l ight Geothermal resources are inexpensive and environmen
weight so that one or two workers can lift and install each of tally c lean energy sources compared with coal and oil, yet
the modular components. The drains are used in large exte they can present a variety of pollution problems. The disposal
rior areas, such as parking lots, tennis courts, and playing of spent brines and waste waters generated in drilling,
fields, to intercept rain water runoff. i nterior applications construction, and operation of a geothermal plant presents a
include auto or truck maintenance garages, agricultural major problem associated with geothermal energy.
facilities, and food-processing plants. On the other hand, Geothermal fluids generally contain a variety of inorganic
catch basins are used to collect surface water and route it compounds and heavy metals. If these contaminated fluids
into the drainage piping underground. Precast PC catch and residues are not properly disposed of, sUJface water,
basins are used where inflows might be corrosive, in areas groundwater, or both, can be polluted. The special proce
subject to freezing-and-thawing cycling, and where weight dures required for the handling and disposal of hazardous
is a concern. PC provides a smooth, impervious surface that materials will result in a significant increase in the cost
can be easily scrubbed and disinfected. PC formulated with of geothermal energy. Considerable savmgs can be real-

ASTM C469/C496M- 1 4-Standard Test Method for

Static Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson's Ratio of Concrete
in Compression
ASTM C496/C496M- 1 7-Standard Test Method for
Spl itting Tensile Strength of Cyl indrical Concrete Specimens
ASTM C579-0 I (20 1 2)-Standard Test Method for
Compressive Strength of Chemical-Resistant Mortars,
Grouts, Monolithic Surfacings, and Polymer Concretes
ASTM C580-02(20 1 2 )-Standard Test Method for Flex
w·al Strength and Modulus of Elasticity of Chemical Resis
tant Mortars, Grouts and Monolithic Surfacings
ASTM C857- 1 6-Standard Practice for Minimum Struc
tural Design Loading for Underground Precast Concrete
Util ity Structures
ASTM C 1 1 8 1 /C 1 1 8 1 M- 1 7-Test Methods for Compres
sive Creep of Chemical-Resistant Polymer Machinery Grouts
ASTM D648- 1 8-Standard Test Method for Deflection
Temperature of Plastics Under Flexural Load in the Edge
wise Position
ASTM D7028-07(20 1 5)-Standard Test Method for
Glass Transition Temperature (DMA Tg) of Polymer Matrix
Composites by Dynamic Mechanical Analysis ( DMA)
Fig. 5. 5-PC hazardous waste containe1�
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
ized if the waste materials can be encapsulated or solidi OSHA 29CFR 1 9 1 0. 1 200:20 1 2-Hazard Communication
fied to render them nonhazardous. Studies conducted by Standard
Brookhaven ational Laboratory ( Webster and Kukacka
1 987) have suggested that geothermal wastes can be solidi Authored documents
fied in polymer composites and portland cement mortars that Abdel-Fattah, H., and EI-Hawary, M. M., 1 999, "Flex
will render them nonleachable and, therefore, nonhazardous. ural Behavior of Polymer Concrete," Construction &
Building Materials, V. 1 3, No. 5, pp. 253-262. doi: 1 0. 1 0 1 6/
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American Association of State Highway and Transportation Barbuta, M . ; Harja, M.; and Baran, 1., 20 1 0, "Compar
Officials ison of Mechanical Properties for Polymer Concrete with
AASHTO H B- 1 7-02-Standard Specifications for Different Types of F i ller," .Journal of Materials in Civil
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Bares, R. A., 1 978, "Furane Resin Concrete and Its
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APPENDIX A-EXAMPLE PC FORMU LATIONS

The fol lowing formulations of four PC mixtures:
MMA-TM PTMA PC FORMU LATION

Component Composition Weight, percent
t- -
Aggregate 3/4 in. to flour sand 92
-- -
t-
MMA - 90 percent
Monomer TMPTMA - 5 percent 8
PMMA - 5 percent
Benzoyl peroxide 70 percent

3
I
Ini tiator
(percent of monomer)
Promoter DMA (percent of monomer) I
VINYL ESTER PC FORM U LATION

-
r-
Aggregate 3/4 in. to flour sa n d 93
Vinyl ester - 90 percent

Resin 7
Styrene - 10 percent
--- -
t-
I ni t i ator M EK perox i de - 70 percent 1 .5
-1- -
Promoter Cobalt napthenate 0.75
- --
Additives Silane (percent of resin) 0.5
POLYESTER-STYRENE PC FORM U LATION

Component Composition \:Vcight, percent
Aggregate I /2 in. to flour sand 88
Polyester - 55 percent
Resin I Styrene - 4 5 percent
12
Initiator M E K perox ide - 70 percent 1 .5
Pro moter Cobalt napthenate 0.75

--
Additives Silane (percent of resin) 0.5
-- -
EPOXY PC FORMU LATION

Aggrega te 1 /4 in. to 200 mesh 80
Resin - 50 percent
Res i n 20
Hardener - 50 percent
American Concrete I nstitute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

APPEN DIX 8-TYPICAL PC PROPERTIES

Binder MMA-TMPTMA Epoxy Furan Polyester-styrene Vi11yl ester
I-- -
6 8
Binder, percent by weight 20 - 7
12 18
1-- - - -- --
1 200 (8) 2500 ( 1 7) 3000 (2 1 ) 4000 (28) 2500 ( 1 7)
Flexural strength, psi (GPa)
9000 (62) 4900 (34) 3500 (24) 8600 (59) 22,000 ( 1 49)
4.5 X 1 06 (3 1 )
Flexural MOE, psi (GPa) 4. 1 X 1 06 (28) - - -
5 . 7 X 1 06 (40)
Compressive strength, psi (MPa) I 1 0,000 (70)

20,000 ( 140)
8500 (59)
1 7,400 ( 1 20)
9000 (62)
1 5,000 ( 1 02 )
1 0,000 (70)
20,000 ( 1 40)
9000 (62)
1 6,000 ( 1 10)
I
1 .0 X I Q6 (7) 1 .2 1 06 (8)
Compressive MOE, psi (GPa)
X
4.0 X I 06 (28) - 4.8 X I 06 ( 3 3 )
5.3 X 1 06 ( 3 7 ) 5 . 8 X 1 06 (40)
1 200 (8) 1 300 (9) 1 400 (9.6) 1 600 ( I I ) 1 400 ( 1 0)

Tensile strength, psi ( M Pa)
2 1 00 ( 1 4 ) 3 500 (24) 2000 ( 1 4) 1 0,000 (70) 1 3,000 (90)
Shear strength, psi ( MPa) 3700 (26) - - 275 (2)

I -
1 36 ( 2 1 80)
Density, lb/in J ( kg/ i n J ) 1 49 (2388) - - 1 50 (2404)
1 62 (2596)
0.23 - - -
Poisson's ratio 0.22
0.35
t--- --- -- --- -
1 .5 0.02 0. 1 0.3
Linear shrinkage. percent -
5.0 0.20 0.2 3
-- -- ---
I-- - - -
Water absorption, percent 0.6 0. 1
- -
1 670 cycles, 0 percent 2024 cycles, 0 perccm
Freezing-and-thawing resi tancc - - -
weight loss weight loss
I
Coefficient of thermal expansion, 5.3 (2.9) 3 . 1 ( 1 .7 ) I I (6. 1 ) 1 .2 (0.67) 1 2 (6.7)
1 0-6 in./in.•F (mm/mm •q 26 ( 1 4) 1 4.2 (7.9) 12 (6.7) 7.2 (4.0) 15 (8.3)
I
I
20 30 15
Working time, minutes - -
40 60 40
I
Cure time, hours at 65 to 90°F I 1 0.25 2
2 1 68
( 1 8 to 3 2 °C) 4 48 12 96
ote: The table contain s a nom1al range of values reported in the literature. A particular formulation will not nom1ally give results with all high values or all
low values. The reader should refer to the references to detem1ine the properties obtained from particular fonnulations.

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548.6r 19 Polymer Concrete Guidelines For Structural Applications

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Polymer Concrete:

Guidelines for Structural

Polymer Concrete: Guidelines for Structural Applications

American Concrete Institute

Polymer Concrete: Guidelines for Structural

Mahmoud M. Rcda Taha, Chair

Ashraf I. 1\hmed David W. Fowler Bradley Nemunaitis Michael S. Stenko

Milton D. Anderson Lech Czarnecki William Lee Hamid Saadatmanesh

3.6-Safety, p. 13 poles, stmctural sandwich elements, building blocks, utility

Authored documents, p. 24 system; in epoxy PC, the components typically consist of

American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

methyl methacrylat low-viscosity methacrylate 3. 1 . 1 Polymers-The monomers, polymers, or a mixture

American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

(ciC1) American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org (ciCi)

a Poisson's ratio of 0.35. Koblischek (1991) also reported 70.-

nited States and Europe are made with polyester resins. ] 20

American Concrete I nstitute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

(ciC1) American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

pecific creep strain

800 Dose (kGy)

Fig. 3. 3. 9-Dynamic elastic modulus of PC with different

American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org (ciCi)

Reference Microfine cement one -

PCNC3 Polysulfidc siloxanc epoxy

PCNC4 Polysulfide siloxane epoxy MWC Ts 1 .5

PCNC5 Polysulfide siloxane epoxy Nanoclay 4.0

PCNC6 Polysulfidc epoxy anosilica 1 .0

PCNC9 ovolac epoxy MWC Ts 0.5

PCNC I O Novo lac epoxy MWCNTs 1 .0

PCt C l l ovolac epoxy MWC Ts 1 .5

PCNC I 2 ovolac epoxy Nanoclay 4.0

PCNC I 3 ovolac epoxy anosilica 1 .0

PCNC 1 4 Novo lac epoxy Nanoalumina 2.0

(ciC'lJ American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

reaction is exothermic and causes expansion as the tempera­ l A

sion and shrinkage rates. 4905.944

American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

120% r-------� sections reinforced with steel to eliminate problems associ­

American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

1 Standard Test Method for Work ing and Setting Times

Ta ble 3.5.2b-Ja panese I ndustrial Sta ndards for polymer concrete

Ta ble 3.5. 2c-British Sta ndards for co ncrete-polymer composites

Method for Preparation of Test Specimens

BS 63 1 9, Part 5 Method for Determination of Density of Hardened Resin Compositions

BS 63 1 9, Part 6 Method for Determination of Density of Modulus of Elasticity in Compression

BS 63 1 9, Part 7 Method for Measurement of Tensile Strength

BS 63 1 9, Part 8 Method for the Assessment of Resistance to Liquids

(ciC1) American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

American Concrete Institute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org

foam. Measurements showed that the sandwich panel system

CHAPTER 5-APPLICATIONS IN STRUCTURES

American Concrete I nstitute - Copyrighted © Material - www.concrete.org (c]'(;"iJ

Ta ble 5-Structura l a p p lications of PC

Shunt reactor stands

Separators Separate sludge from effluents: corrosion resistance, impermeability Kaeding ( 1 99 1 b)

reaction is exothermic and causes expansion as the tempera l A

120% r-------� sections reinforced with steel to eliminate problems associ

cable support racks, bell ends, duct tenninators, or combi