Chapter Two:

Formulating Research Problem, Reviewing Literature and

Formulating Hypothesis
Research Problem
Definition of research problem
The definition of the problem can be seen from two perspectives:
Conventional sense-a research problem is a set of conditions needing discussion, and
information.
Technical sense-a research problem implies the possibilities of “empirical investigations”,
i.e. “of data collection and analysis
Broadly speaking, any question that you want answered and any assumption or assertion
that you want to challenge or investigate can become a research problem or a research
topic for your study. However, it is important to remember that not all questions can be
transformed in to research problems and some may prove to be extremely difficult to study.
A problem might be defined as the issue that exists in the literature, theory, or practice
that leads to a need for the study.

A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context
of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
Generally speaking, a research problem is a situation that needs a solution and for which
there are possible solutions. If a situation has no possible solutions then it makes little or
no sense expending resources researching it. Take this statement, “everybody wants to go
to heaven but nobody wants to die.” Dying looks like a problem that needs a solution yet
there is no possible solution to it. People must die. A research on how people can live
forever makes little or no sense. A research problem may be described as incongruence; a
discrepancy between what is and what ought to be. It may be also described as the gap in
knowledge that needs to be filled.

Formulating of a problem
A problem statement is the description of an issue currently existing which needs to be
addressed. It provides the context for the research study and generates the questions which
the research aims to answer. The statement of the problem is the focal point of any
research. Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the
research process. Problem formulation is like determination of the destination before
undertaking a journey. To define a problem means to put a fence round it, to separate it by
careful distinctions from like questions found in related situations of need. Defining a
problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study
the problem. Techniques involved in defining a problem include:
 Statement of the problem in a general way
 Understanding the nature of the problem
 Surveying the available literature
 Developing the idea through discussion
 Rephrasing the research problem.
A general template for writing a statement of the problem to a proposal or research study is
known as the deficiency model.
• According to the model, there are five key components found in all statement of the
problem, regardless of approach to research.

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This includes:
a. Establishing the problem leading to the study,
b. Reviewing the literature about the problem
c. Identifying deficiencies in the literature about the problem targeting an audience,
d. Noting the significance of the problem for this audience, and
e. Identifying the purpose of the proposed study.
The Research Problem in the Study
When researchers begin their studies, they start with one or more paragraphs that convey
the specific research problem or issues. They also present, in the first sentence,
information to create reader interest. In the sentences that follow the first sentence,
authors identify a distinct research problem that needs to be addressed. The first sentence
accomplishes both objectives: piquing interest in the study and conveying a distinct
research problem or issue. This sentence would it entice a reader to read on. It should be
pitched at a level so that a wide audience could understand it. Opening sentences are called
narrative hooks, a term drawn from English composition, to draw or hook the reader into
the study. It is as similar as the opening sentence in leading journals in different fields of
study. Beyond this first sentence, it is important to clearly identify for the reader the issue
or problem that leads to a need for the study. In applied social science research, problems
arise from issues, difficulties, and current practices.
For example, schools may not have implemented multicultural guidelines, or a community
needs to better understand the contributions of tourism industry. These are all significant
research problem that merit further study and establish a practical issue or concern that
needs to be addressed.
A research problem is the issue that exits in the literature, in theory, or in practice that
leads to a need for the study.
The research problem in a study begins to become clear when the researcher, asks
• What is the need for this study? Or
• What problem influenced the need to undertake this study?
• When designing the opening paragraphs of a proposal, keep in mind these guidelines:
a. Write an opening sentence that will stimulate reader interest as well as convey an
issue to which a broad audience can relate.
b. As a general rule, refrain from using quotations, especially long ones, in the lead
sentence. Quotations raise many possibilities for interpretation and thus create
unclear beginnings. However, as is evident in some qualitative studies, quotations
can create reader interest.
c. Stay away from idiomatic expressions or trite phrases (e.g., ―The lecture method
remains a sacred cow among most college and university instructors).
d. Consider numeric information for impact (e.g., ―Every year an estimated 5 million
Americans experience the death of an immediate family member).
e. Clearly identify the research problem (i.e., dilemma, issue) leading to the study.
Researchers might ask themselves. ―Is there a specific sentence (or sentences) in
which I convey the research problem?
f. Indicate why the problem is important by citing references that justify the need to
study the problem.
g. Make sure that the research problem is framed in a manner consistent with the
approach to research in the study (e.g., exploratory in qualitative, examining
relationships or predictors in quantitative, and either approach in mixed methods
inquiry).
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Review Studies Addressing the Problem
After establishing the research problem in the opening paragraphs, next justify the
importance of the research problem by reviewing studies that have examined the problem.
Simply present the major categories of studies about the problem at hand. Do not review
single, isolated studies; instead, introduce larger groups of studies so that at this point they
could present the broader picture of the literature.
It is in the “literature review” section that one finds detailed reviews of studies. The
purpose of reviewing studies that have addressed the problem is to justify the importance
of the study and to create distinctions between past studies and a proposed study. This
component might be called-setting the research problem within the ongoing dialogue in the
literature. Researchers do not want to conduct a study that explicates exactly what
someone else has studied. New studies need to add to the literature or to extend or retest
what others have examined. To review the literature related to the research problem for a
statement of the problem, consider these ideas:
a. Refer to the literature by summarizing groups of studies (unlike the focus on single
studies in the integrated review), not individual studies. The intent should be to
establish broad areas of research at this juncture in the study.
b. To de-emphasize single studies, place the in-text references at the end of a paragraph
or at the end of a summary point about several studies.
c. Review research studies that used a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods
approach.
d. Find recent literature to summarize (such as the published in the last 10 years)
unless an older study exists that has been widely cited by others.
Importance of Formulating a Research Problem
a. It determines the research destine. It indicates a way for the researcher. Without it, a
clear and economical plan is impossible.
b. Research problem is like the foundation of a building. The research problem serves
as the foundation of a research study: if it is well formulated, one can expect a good
study to follow.
c. The way you formulate your research problem determines almost every step that
follows: the type of study design that can be used; the type of sampling strategy that
can be employed; the research instrument that can be used; and the type of analysis
that can be undertaken.
d. The quality of the research report (output of the research undertakings) is dependent
on the quality of the problem formulation
e. It establishes the importance of the topic.
f. It creates reader interest.
g. It focuses the reader’s attention on how the study will add to the literature.
Some points to be observed when selecting a problem
The following points may have to be observed by a researcher in selecting a research
problem or a subject for research.

 Subject, which is overdone, should be avoided since it will be difficult to throw any
new light in such cases for the average researcher.
 Controversial subjects should not become the choice of the average researcher.
 Too narrow or too broad or vague problems should be avoided
 The subject selected for the research should be familiar and feasible so that the
researcher is within the researcher’s reach.
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  The importance of the subject in terms.
 The qualification and the training of researcher, and
 The cost involved and the time factor are few other factors that must be considered in
selecting a study topic.
The task of formulating or defining the research problem is a step of greatest importance in
the entire research process. Formulation of the research problem often follows a sequential
pattern where a number of formulations are set up each formulation more specific than the
preceding one, each one phrases in more analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms
of the available data and resources.

Some potential Sources of a Research Topic

Even before determining the research topic the researcher may have to choose a broad field
of study within which he/she will conduct the study. A general understanding of the known
facts and ideas in the field or area in which the researcher is interested constitute the first
and most important step in selecting a problem for study. So, a general area of interest or
aspect of a subject matter (agriculture, industry, social sector, etc.) may have to be
identified at first. Although an experienced research guide might help in identifying a
research topic, a topic must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant springs from its’
own seed. Nevertheless, some important sources, which may be helpful to a researcher for
selecting a research problem, may be suggested.
a) Professional Experience
Own professional experience is the most important source of a research problem.
Nevertheless, contacts and discussions with research-oriented people, attending
conferences, seminars, and listening to the learned speakers are all helpful in locating
research problems.
b) Inferences from theory and Professional Literature
Research problems can also emanate from inferences that can be drawn from theories
and from empirical literature. Two types of literature can be reviewed. The conceptual
literature concerning the concepts and theories and the empirical literature consisting of
studies made earlier, which are similar to the one proposed. The validity, scope, and the
particularity of various theories can be tested through research. The study of professional
literature will not only expose a researcher to pressing research problems but will suggest
the way in which research is conducted. Research reports, bibliographies of books, and
articles, periodicals, research abstracts and research guides suggest areas that need
research. In general, a preliminary literature search is important in order.

 to find out what other researches have to say about the topic,
 to ensure that no one else has already exhausted the questions that you aim to
examine,
 to see how the topic has been discussed within the competing theoretical framework,
and
 To make sure that there is enough material available for you to work with
productively.
c) Technological and Social Changes
New developments bring forth new development challenges for research. New innovations
and changes need to be carefully evaluated through the research process.
Some possible helping guides could be suggested that could help in identifying a research
topic.
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  Identify a general area of interest or aspect (agriculture, industry, service sector,
trade, etc.)
 Re-examine course materials if they could suggest some topics (a research topic may
be generated from the topics or questions raised in the material or courses that
you found particularly exciting or would like to explores in more detail. For example,
the Ethiopian economy, macro related topics, micro related topics, etc.)
 Carefully revisit your professional interest and experience (the best research is nearly
always based on a high degree of enthusiasm for the subject. In other words, strong
professional interest is important).
If the above procedures could not produce a research topic that may be important then the
following may be recommended in the form of practical exercises.

 If you have not found a particular topic that you would like to work on or explore
further then you may draw a list of potential interesting topics on the basis of
experience, curiosity say for example from the media, your own state of knowledge
or existing problems-applied research begins with a problem that look potentially
interesting to you.
 Then discuss these topics with others say your instructor, or anyone you know who
has expertise in the area and might be able to offer advice or insight.
 Select a topic that interests you most and that you are fairly certain that it can be
investigated with the resources at hand.
 Focus upon a specific question within that topic that relates to the wider concern, is
supported by sufficient relevant material, and is sufficiently modest in scope for you
to achieve within the set deadline.
Literature Review
What is a Literature Review?
Literature review is not a compilation of every work written about a topic. It is not simply a
list of sources reviewed separately for their own merit. A literature review is a description of
the literature relevant to a particular field or topic. Is one of the essential preliminary tasks
of a researcher? It gives an overview of what has been said, who the key writers are, what
are the prevailing theories and hypotheses, what questions are being asked, and what
methodologies are appropriate and useful. Obviously, the amount of available literature can
differ significantly depending on the topic area being studied. Often it is a time-consuming
and difficult process if there has been a great deal of research conducted in a particular
area
Reasons for reviewing the literature
A literature review has three functions. It helps you to:
1. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem; the literature review can play an
extremely important role in shaping your research problem because the process of
reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area better and thus
helps you to conceptualize your research problem clearly and precisely.
2. Improving the Methodology; Going through the literature acquaints you with the
methodologies that have been used by others to find answers to research questions
similar to the one you are investigating. It tells you if others have used procedures
and methods similar to the one that you are proposing, which procedures and
methods have worked well for them, and what problems they have faced with them
and hence you can take care of those problems.
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 3. Broadening the researcher knowledge in the research area; the most important
function of the Literature review is to ensure you read widely around the subject area
in which you intend to conduct your research study. It is important that you know
what other researchers have found in regard to the same or similar questions, what
theories have been put forward and what gaps exist in the relevant body of
knowledge. Besides it helps the researchers to know what types of studies have been
conducted in particular areas so they can determine whether their specific research
questions have already been answered. However, it is certainly a legitimate goal of
research to replicate the results of other studies. But there is a difference between
replicating a study for purposes of establishing the robustness or generalizability of
the original findings and simply duplicating a study. In the second case, you need to
consider changing your research topic or its focus. In most business-related
research, it is very rare that a specific set of research questions or a specific
hypothesis has already been addressed in your specific topic area.
Procedures in reviewing the literature
Reviewing a literature is a continuous process. Often it begins before a specific research
problem has been formulated and continues until the report is finished.
• There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:
 Search for existing literature in your area of study
 Review the literature selected
 Develop a theoretical framework
 Develop a conceptual framework
The skills required for these tasks are different. Developing theoretical and conceptual
frameworks are more difficult than the other tasks.
Search for Existing Literature
• Effectively search for literature in your field of inquiry.
• Next compile a bibliography.
• There are two sources that you can use to prepare a bibliography: Books; and Journals
• The best way to search for a book is to look at a library catalogue
• There are several sources designed to make your search for journals easier and these can
save enormous time. They are:
 Indices of journals e.g. SSRN, JSTOR, BLACKWELL, EMERALDS,
 Abstract of articles e.g. ERIC
 Citation indices, e.g. social sciences Citation Index
Review the selected Literature
Now that you have identified several books and articles as useful, the next step is to start
reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that belong together. If you do
not have a theoretical framework in mind, to start with, use separate sheets of paper for
each article or book.
Develop a Theoretical Framework
The information obtained from different books and journals needs to be sorted under the
main themes and theories. Highlight agreements and disagreements among the authors
and identify the unanswered questions or gaps. Ask-What are the Main Theoretical
Perspectives? It is critical that you are aware of all theories pertaining to your research
topic, their strengths and their weaknesses. In fact, it is often the case that the theoretical
knowledge of a particular topic reveals gaps in our understanding of that topic—this often
enables you to identify more important research questions.
Develop a Conceptual Framework
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Whatever the research topic that you have identified, you need to construct a conceptual
framework within which you will study the topic. The conceptual framework stems from
the theoretical framework and concentrates, usually, on one section of the theoretical
framework. It describes the aspects you selected from the theoretical framework to become
the basis of your study. It is the basis for your research problem.
Types of literature review
A. Evaluative Review; this type of literature review focuses on providing a discussion of
the literature in terms of its coverage and contribution to knowledge in a particular
area. It is often used to directly compare research findings from different researches.
An example of this type of review is meta-analysis which provides a comprehensive
commentary on a very large number of research projects focused on a specific topic.
B. Exploratory Review; This is a literature review which is seeking to find out what
actually exists in the academic literature in terms of theory, empirical evidence and
research methods as they pertain to a specific research topic and its related wider
subject area.
C. Instrumental Review; this is where the literature is used exclusively as a source of
information on how to conduct some research on a highly specific research problem.
It is not designed to identify the state of current knowledge in an area but to identify
the best way to carry out a research project without incurring unnecessary and
avoidable costs.
Assessing the quality of literature
It is not easy to assess if a piece of published work is of high, medium or low quality until
you actually read it and are able to compare it with other works you have read.
• Ask yourself the following questions:
 Do you know who wrote the article?
 Are the sources for any factual information clearly listed so that they can be
verified in another source?
 Is the information free of grammatical, spelling and other typographical errors?
(These kinds of errors not only indicate a lack of quality control, but can actually
produce inaccuracies in information.)
 If there are charts and/or graphs containing statistical data, are the charts and/or
graphs clearly labeled and easy to read?

Referencing, Quotations and Citation

Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism; Plagiarism is the use of another person’s ideas or words
without giving them the proper credit. Plagiarism can occur when you use someone else’s
exact words without giving them credit, taking credit for someone else‘s ideas, or even
presenting your own past work as a new idea. Academic institutions take both intentional
and unintentional plagiarism seriously, and it can be grounds for dismissal. The best
method of avoiding plagiarism is to cite the ideas, theories, and research that directly
influenced your work, cite key background information, information that may support or
dispute your theory or hypothesis, or offer critical definitions or data. Document all facts
and figures that are not common knowledge.
In-Text Citations; Citations used in the body of your publication identify the source of
information. In-text parenthetical citations are used to give credit to the authors whose
ideas or thoughts are used within the document. These internal citations allow the reader

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to identify the source and locate the information being addressed. APA uses a system that
includes the author’s last name and the year of publication.
For example: (Small, 2009). If there is a direct quote or a specific part of the work is being
referred to, the page numbers are also included. For example, (Small, 2009, p. 23). Sources
may include books and book chapters, journal or magazine articles, dissertations and
theses, conference papers, government reports, films, websites, blogs and wikis, discussion
boards, personal communications, and more.
Paraphrasing; Paraphrasing is used when you take someone else’s direct quote and state
their idea in your own words. Changing a few words here and there is still considered
plagiarism even if you do cite the author. Paraphrasing means that you expressed the
author’s information or ideas in your own words and have given that person credit for that
information or idea. You can prevent plagiarism by closing the document and restating the
idea in your own words.
Notice in this example how the paraphrased version made changes to more than 50% of the
original wording:
1. Original Passage: “Signed into law in January 2002 by President George W. Bush, the
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act signaled the nation’s most sweeping education reform of
federal education policy in decades” (Smith, 2008. p. 212).
2. Unacceptable Paraphrasing: Enacted into law in 2002 by President Bush, the No Child
Left behind Act signaled the most sweeping education reform of U.S. educational policy in
decades.
3. Paraphrased: According to Smith (2008), the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) Act
provided the most all-encompassing reform in U.S. education in almost half a century or
the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) Act provided the most all-encompassing reform in U.S.
education in almost half a century (Smith, 2008). Paraphrases must include the name of
the author and the year of publication of the original source. Including the page number in
the text citation is optional.
Quoting directly; when you directly quote an author, you need to put the exact words of
the author in quotation marks or follow the rules for a block quotation. Include the exact
spelling and interior punctuation of the borrowed words. The author, year of publication,
and page number(s) or paragraph number for non-paginated materials are always included
in the text and a reference citation is included in the reference list.
Regular Quotes -- Regular quotes are used when the quote is less than 40 words.
McPherson (2007) coined the phrase ―goblet of motivation‖ (p. 71). Keep the author and
year of publication together. Use quotation marks to identify the exact words of the author.
Include the page number in parentheses immediately after the direct quote. Place the
period after the parentheses.
Block Quotes – Block quotes are used for quotes of more than 40 words. Indent the block
quote five spaces or half an inch. Do not use quotation marks. Double space the quote
unless your school has a rule about single spacing block quotes. Do not include any
additional lines or spaces before or after the block quote. Notice that in block quotes, the
period goes before the parentheses, not after.
Citation Placement; Use the author-date method of citation by inserting the surname of
the author and the year of publication at the appropriate point in the text.
a. Citations for Paraphrased Information
Beginning of sentence: Krankenstein (2006) reported that empirical research verified
compliance.

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Middle of sentence: After looking into the issue, Lynch (2007) stated that the findings were
not valid.
End of sentence: The report concluded were victims of cyber terrorism (Windhorst, 2004).
 Citations with Direct Quotes
Author and quote together; the principal stated clearly that student’s ―needed parental
permission to leave school‖ (Abbott, 2005, p. 25).
Author and quote separated; MacDougall (2004) stated that the “Information Literacy
Model needed to be implemented” (p. 34).
Quote from non-paginated material; Winkowski (2007) stated, “The research is
unreliable” (Conclusion section, para. 4).
Multiple Citations by the Same Author in Same Paragraph
When the same author is cited multiple times in the same paragraph and the author’s
name is part of the narrative, you need to include the year in subsequent non-parenthetical
references to a resource. However, you do include the year in all parenthetical citations: A
study by Tunon and Brydges (2007) found that the quality of the two sets of citations were
comparable. The subjective rubric developed by Tunon and Brydges helped establish this.
The study went on to show a difference between academic programs (Tunon & Brydges,
2007).

 Multiple Authors for the Same Source

• One author Smith (2007), (Smith, 2007)
• Two authors Smith and Thomas, (2007)
• (Smith & Thomas, 2007)
• Three to five authors Smith, Thomas, and Jones (2007)
• Parenthetical citation (Smith, Thomas, & Jones, 2007)
• Subsequent parenthetical citations (Smith, et al., 2007)
• Six or more authors Smith et al. (2007)
• Parenthetical citation (Smith et al., 2007)
• Subsequent parenthetical citations (Smith et al., 2007)
• Group authors American Psychological Association (APA, 2010)
• Subsequent citations in text (APA, 2010)
• Parenthetical citation American Psychological Association ([APA], 2010)
 Multiple Authors for Different Sources
Different sources may be cited when referring to several representative sources used for a
key point. List authors in alphabetical order within the same parentheses. Separate names
with semicolons. If a work is in press, put that after the years of publication. Example:
Empirical research shows that dissertations chairs think doctoral students have the
necessary information literacy skills need to do the library research for the literature review
(Boote & Beile, 2004, 2008, in press; Brydges & Tunon, 2005; Morner, 1997; Tunon &
Brydges, 2007).
 Citing a Secondary Source
It is always best to read the original or primary sources, but sometimes this is difficult if
the original work was published in another language or was published in a book that is
difficult to obtain. In such a case, you would need to cite the original or primary source in
the text of the paper, but you would provide a reference in the reference list for the
secondary source.
Example: According the Skinner (as cited in Freud, 1923), Freud took the position ….
 Personal Communications
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Personal communications including conversations, phone calls, email messages, class
lectures, interviews, and online chats should be paraphrased. Cite personal
communications only in the text, give the initials as well as the surname of the
communicator, and provide the exact date if possible. Example: 1. According to S. Ramdial
(personal communication, July 20, 2009), the book is ready. 2. The book is ready (S.
Ramdial, personal communication, July 20, 2009). If the personal communication is
recoverable, then the source should be cited as an archived material.
Formatting Citations in the Reference List
Referencing Books; General notes about books: If name(s) are the first part of the citation,
they are capitalized and listed-last name, then initials. Separate names with a comma, and
use an ampersand (&) before the last author. Use Ed. for one editor, Eds. for multiple
editors. Capitalize the first word in titles and subtitles, and proper names. Place of
publication should include the city name and two letter state abbreviation. A book is
referenced by writing name of the authors, year of publication in bracket, title of the book
(in italics), edition, publisher, and place of publication respectively. If you are citing a book
chapter or section you must indicate the pages. Use p. for a single page and pp. for
multiple pages. Put a space after the p. and put a - (dash) between the numbers with no
space before or after the hyphen.
-Ex: Book by a single author.
• Author's name. (Year). Title of book. Place of publication: Publisher.
• Chitty, D. (2003). Do lemmings commit suicide? Beautiful hypotheses and ugly facts. New
York, NY: Oxford University Press.
- Ex: Book by two or more authors.
• Author's names. (Year). Title of book. Place of publication: Publisher.
Rosellini, G., & Worden, M. (2004). Of course, you're angry: A guide to dealing with the
emotions of substance abuse (Rev. ed.). Center City, MN: Hazelden.
- Ex: Book by a group author with DOI
• Group author. (Year). Title of book. Place of publication: Publisher. doi: XXX.XXXXXXXX
• Children's Express. (2009). Voices from the future: Our children tell us about violence in
America.
New York, NY: Crown. doi: 10/1023/10452-000
• - Ex: Book by an unknown author.
• Title of book. (Year). Place of publication: Publisher. The alternative medicine handbook.
(1994). New York: Crescent Books.
- Ex: Book that is a major classical work.
Reference list entries are not required for major classical works. These include ancient
Roman and Greek works as well as classical religious works such as the Bible and the
Koran. You do however identify the work the first time it is cited in the text. Because
classical works are usually numbered systematically across all editions, use the numbers
instead of pages when referring to specific parts of the text.
Periodicals – Journal, Magazine, and Newsletter Articles
General notes about periodical articles and documents:
Names are listed last name, then initials, if name(s) is the first element of the citation.
Separate names with a comma, and an ampersand (&) before the last author. If there is no
author, then the title of the article is first.

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Dates– Daily newspapers & newsletters: Use (Year, Month Day). Monthly newspapers &
magazines with no volume number: Use (Year, Month). Journals: Use (Year)
 Titles– Article titles: capitalize first word in titles and subtitles, and any proper
names.
 Journal titles– Capitalize all words except articles and prepositions
 Volume numbers and issue numbers – Do not use vol. for volume or no. for issue
number.
• The volume number is italicized while the issue number is not. The issue number is
enclosed in parentheses and follows immediately after the volume number with no space.
Follow the parentheses with a comma.
 Pages– Newspapers: use p. for one page, pp. for two or more pages. However, for
magazines and journals, do not use p. or pp. before page numbers. Follow the page
number(s) with a period.
Article in a journal or magazine. Author's name. (Year). Title of article. Title of journal or
journal, volume number (issue number), page numbers.
APA Style of referencing Journal Articles
General notes about periodical articles and documents: Names are listed last name,
then initials, if name(s) is the first element of the citation. Separate names with a comma,
and an ampersand (&) before the last author. If there is no author, then the title of the
article is first. A journal article can be referenced by writing name of the authors, year of
publication, ‗title of article (in single quotation marks), title of the journal (in italics),
volume number, issue number, and page numbers. For example: Gebregziabher (2009b).
Financing preferences of micro and small enterprise owners in Tigray: does POH hold?
Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 16 (2), 322-334. If a journal article
has no author then it can be cited as follows: Building human resources instead of landfills
2000. Biocycle, 41 (12), 28–9.
APA Style of referencing Magazines and Newspapers
Magazine and newspaper articles can be used to support an empirical fact. Magazine
articles are cited similar to that of journal articles except that the date of publication
should be written. For example: Kluger, J. (2008, January 28). Why we love. Time, 171 (4),
54-60. Newspaper article can be cited as: Tesfaye, K. (2010, September 10). Unchanged
Trade Flows May Nullify Impact of Devaluation. Addis Fortune, 11 (541). Retrieved from
http://www.addisfortune.com/economic_commentary.htm.
APA Style of referencing Audio-Visual Media
Sometimes, audio-visual media can also be referenced. Audio-visual references shall
include the following: name and function of the primary contributors (e.g., producer,
director), date, title, the medium in brackets, location or place of production, and name of
the distributor. For example: Anderson, R., & Morgan, C. (producers). (2008, June 20). 60
Minutes [Television broadcast]. Washington, DC: CBS News.
Hypothesis Formulation
Introduction
Inferences on population parameters are often made on the basis of sample observation. In
doing so, one has to take the help of certain assumptions or hypothetical values about the
characteristics of the population if some such information is available. Such hypothesis
about the population is termed as statistical hypothesis and the hypothesis is tested on the
basis of sample values. The procedure enables one to decide on a certain hypothesis and
test its significance.
The Meaning of Hypotheses
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The word Hypothesis is composed of two words, “hypo” and ‘thesis’. “Hypo” means under
or below, and “Thesis” means a reasoned theory or rational view point. Thus, hypothesis
would mean a theory which is not fully reasoned. Hypothesis is a set of suggested tentative
solution of a research problem. Hypothesis is a tentative statement about something, the
validity of which is usually unknown. A hypothesis is a tentative proposition relating to
certain phenomenon, which the researcher wants to verify when required. If the researcher
wants to infer something about the total population from which the sample was taken,
statistical methods are used to make inference. We may say that, while a hypothesis is
useful, it is not always necessary.
Importance of Hypothesis
a) It places clear and specific goals before the researcher; these clear and specific goals
provide the investigator with a basis for selecting samples and research procedures to meet
these goals.
b) It sensitizes the individual facts and conditions that might otherwise be overlooked.
c) It provides direction to research
d) It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions.
e) It prevents blind research.
Characteristics of Good Hypotheses
a) A hypothesis should be simple, specific, and conceptual clear.
b) A hypothesis should be capable of verification.
c) A hypothesis should be related to the body of knowledge.
d) A hypothesis should be operationalized
Sources of hypothesis
Hypothesis can be derived from many sources
1. Theory
2. Observation
3. Past experience
4. Case studies
5. Similarity
1. Theory: Theory on the subject can act as a source of hypothesis. We start of from a
general premise and then formulate hypothesis. Example: Providing employment
opportunity is an indicator of social responsibility of a government enterprise. From the
above several hypotheses, it can be deduced that: -
1) Public enterprise has greater social concern than other enterprises.
2) People’s perception of government enterprise is social concern.
3) Govt. enterprise helps in improving the life of less privileged people.
2. Observation: Peoples' behavior is observed. In this method we use observed behavior to
infer the attitudes. This indirect method of attitude measurement Direct observation is
used to get insights into research behavior and other related issues.
Example: A shopper in a supermarket may be disguised, to watch the customer in the
stores.
3) Past experience: Here researcher goes by past experience to formulate the hypothesis.
Example: A dealer may state that fastest moving kids’ apparel is frock. This may be verified.
4) Case studies: Case studies published can be used as a source for hypothesis.
5) Similarity: This could be with respect to similarity in activities of human beings.
Example: Dress, food habits or any other activities found in human living in different parts
of the globe.
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Types of Hypothesis; There are several bases on which hypothesis are classified. Hypothesis
is classified as research or statistical/alternate hypothesis; research hypothesis is stated in
declarative form, and statistical hypothesis are stated in null form. A research hypothesis
states an expected relationship or difference between two variables; in other words, the
relationship the researcher expects to verify through the collection and analysis data is
specified. Research, or declarative, hypotheses are non-directional or directional. A non-
directional hypothesis simply indicated that a relationship or difference exists; a directional
hypothesis indicated the nature of the relationship or difference. In any way, an alternate
hypothesis is the opposite of a research hypothesis.
Example: suppose you want to study “the smoking pattern in a community in relation to
gender differentials.” the following hypothesis could be constructed: -
Ex.1. there is no difference in the proportion of male and female smokers in the study
population.
Ex.2. a greater proportion of females than males are smokers in the study population.
Ex.3. a total of 60% of females and 30% of males in the study population are smokers.
Ex.4. there are twice as many females’ smokers as male smokers in the study population
1) No difference between two situations, this is called a “null hypothesis” and usually
written as Ho. (ex.1.)
2) “There will be a difference” but does not specify the magnitude is called a
hypothesis of difference. (ex.2.)
3) Proportion of male and female is stated “hypothesis of point-prevalence.”
4) A hypothesis in which a researcher stipulates that the extent of the relationship or
prevalence of phenomena in different population groups (twice as many female as
male smokers) called hypothesis of association.
Null hypothesis is also classified as a hypothesis of no difference under
“research hypothesis”

1. Research Hypothesis
2. Null Hypothesis

Types of hypothesis

Statistical hypothesis Research hypothesis

Null
hypothesis

Hypothesis of Hypothesis of Hypothesis of Hypothesis of

no difference difference point- association
prevalence
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Testing of hypothesis

Hypothesis testing is really what scientific research is all about, in order to test a
hypothesis, the researcher determines the sample, measuring instruments, design, and
procedure that will enable her/him to collect the necessary data. Collected data is the
analyzed in a manner that permits the researcher to determine the validity of the
hypothesis. Analysis of collected data does not result in a hypothesis being proven or not
proven, only supported or not supported.

Errors in testing hypothesis

As mentioned, hypothesis is an assumption, they may prove to be either correct or
incorrect.
Incorrect conclusions about the validity of a hypothesis may be drawn if:
a. The study design selected is faulty
b. The sampling procedure adopted is faulty
c. The method of data collection is inaccurate
d. The analysis is wrong
e. The statistical procedures applied are inappropriate
f. The conclusion drawn are incorrect
Type one and type two errors in testing hypothesis
When the null hypothesis is actually
When your True False
decision is to Accept Correct decision Type II error
Reject Type I error Correct decision
Hence in drawing conclusion about a hypothesis two errors can occur
1) Rejection of null hypothesis when it is true thus is to known as type I error.
2) Acceptance of null hypothesis when it is false thus is known as type II error.

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