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Deterioration of reinforced concrete in sewer environments

Article  in  ICE Proceedings Municipal Engineer · January 2006

DOI: 10.1680/muen.2006.159.1.11

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Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers
Municipal Engineer 159
March 2006 Issue ME1
Pages 11–20

Paper 14373
Received 11/08/2005
Accepted 14/12/2005
A. K. Parande P. L. Ramsamy S. Ethirajan C. R. K. Rao N. Palanisamy
Keywords: Scientist, Central Student, Central Student, Central Scientist, Central Scientist, Central
concrete technology & Electrochemical Research Electrochemical Research Electrochemical Research Electrochemical Research Electrochemical Research
manufacture/corrosion/sewers & Institute, Karaikudi, Institute, Karaikudi, Institute, Karaikudi, Institute, Karaikudi, Institute, Karaikudi,
drains Tamilnadu, India Tamilnadu, India Tamilnadu, India Tamilnadu, India Tamilnadu, India

Deterioration of reinforced concrete in sewer

environments
A. K. Parande MTech, P. L. Ramsamy BTech, S. Ethirajan BTech, C. R. K. Rao PhD and N. Palanisamy PhD

Millions of dollars are being spent worldwide on the repair industrial waste discharged directly into the sewer system. The
and maintenance of sewer systems and wastewater second cause is grouped together as sulphide corrosion, hydrogen
treatment plants. Microbially-induced corrosion causes sulphide (H2S) corrosion or sulphide attack. These types are easy
damage via micro-organisms. Deterioration is caused by to identify. Sulphide corrosion occurs above the sewage surface
acid excretion which etches the surface of concrete, while low pH sewage will cause corrosion below the waterline.1
penetrating the mortar surface, especially in sewer Sulphate attack, sometimes confused with sulphide corrosion,
systems. The mechanisms of concrete and occurs when soils with high sulphate levels contact the concrete
reinforcement deterioration in sewer environments and pipe structure and the deterioration is external. Sulphate attack
microbially-induced corrosion is discussed in detail in this does not occur inside the sewer structure or pipe. Sulphide
paper. A comprehensive review is given of the role of corrosion starts when sulphate in the sewage is converted to
hydrogen sulphide and micro-organisms in the sulphur. The most corrosive agent that leads to the rapid
deterioration of concrete in sewer environments and of deterioration of concrete pipelines in sewers is (H2S), which also
repair and rehabilitation measures, including the following attacks concrete floors in barn buildings housing animals. H2S
preventative measures: (a) modification of the materials also attacks the concrete in sewer and wastewater treatment
used in construction of sewer pipes; (b) coatings; (c) sewer plants. The aerobic bacteria present oxidise the H2S dissolved in
treatments. A complete review of the microbial the moisture to sulphuric acid (H2SO4). The H2S dissolves in
deterioration of concrete and its remedies is also included. moisture films on the exposed concrete surfaces where it
undergoes oxidation by aerobic bacteria to H2SO4, commonly
referred to as biogenic sulphuric acid (BSA), which attacks the
concrete surface.2 The corrosion process is caused by the reaction
1. INTRODUCTION of the BSA with the cementitious material of the concrete,
Nowadays, concrete is the material that is being used for which leads to eventual structural failure. This step is
pipelines for sewage waste disposal. The corrosion of concrete in characterised by the production of a corroding layer on the
sewers poses a major problem in the modern world. Millions of surface of the concrete. This layer consists of gypsum (CaSO4 of
dollars are being spent on the repair and maintenance of sewer various hydration states) and moisture. The thickness of this
pipelines and wastewater treatment plants. The presence of layer expands into the concrete as more and more acid is
various bacteria—such as the sulphur-reducing and the produced to react with the concrete. The formation of ettringite
proteolytic bacteria in the sewer—together with animal and plant (3CaO . Al2O3 . CaSO4 . 12H2O or 3CaO . Al2O3 . 3CaSO4 . 31H2O)
wastes is the main reason for the corrosion of concrete. during the acid reaction process is another facet of the problem.
Ettringite is expansive and causes internal cracking and pitting,
Most of these sewer pipelines are concrete that has been either which provides a larger surface area for the chemical reaction to
cast in place or precast. Brick manholes have been replaced over occur. This will also provide further sites of penetration of the
the years because of concerns about infiltration and a realisation acid into the concrete. The conversion of the concrete to gypsum
that the mortar holding the bricks together is subjected to and ettringite weakens the structural integrity of the concrete
corrosion. Prefabricated plastic manholes have been introduced, pipe. This reduces the load-bearing capacity of the concrete and
but in some cases they are difficult to install; for example, in high can result in the eventual collapse of the sewer.
groundwater areas they tend to float out of the hole if proper
ballast or anchorage has not been applied. Care should be taken The action of anaerobic proteolytic bacteria in sulphur-
in these areas, and also with regard to water passing through containing organic compounds results in the H2S. Design of
these manholes, therefore all the joints should be properly sealed sewer structures is an important parameter. In general, any
with rubber gaskets. configuration that results in significant hydraulic energy loss will
accelerate corrosion and may also induce serious corrosion of the
There are two major causes of internal corrosion in a sanitary downstream pipe. The concrete can be prevented by two
sewer. The first is conventional acid attack caused by low pH subgroups: prevention of corrosion of concrete and corrosion

Municipal Engineer 159 Issue ME1 Deterioration of reinforced concrete in sewer environments Parande et al. 11
 of reinforcement. The latter subgroup has the following Beck4 studied the cause of concrete sewer pipe corrosion. The
characteristics objectives of the project were to compare the cost for routine
cleaning of interceptors and the accumulative corrosive effects
(a) altering the material used for the pipelines that excessive deposition have on sewer pipes. Manhole locations
(b) providing corrosion-resistant coatings
were set up and data were collected from them for pipe wall
(c) providing cathodic protection deterioration and deposition, throughout the 12 000 ft
(d) modifying the engineering aspects of the structure. (3657.6 m), 42 in. (1.07 m) and 30 in. (0.76 m) concrete
interceptor. Sewer sediment is a type of settleable particulate and
This paper discusses the mechanisms involved by H2S in sewers form bed deposit. It has been established that excessive pipe
that cause the deterioration of concrete, together with subsequent deterioration and an excessive amount of deposition existed in
control measures. the upstream half of the interceptor and low amounts of
deposition and minor deterioration were present in the
lower half.
2. DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE: CAUSES AND
DETERMINATION To monitor the corrosion of the iron pins in the specimen,
A general consensus has been that H2S is the most corrosive electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and open-circuit
agent that leads to the rapid deterioration of concrete pipelines in potential (OCP) serve as valuable tools. Jahani et al. 5 studied the
sewers. The aerobic bacteria present oxidise the H2S, which is degradation of a mortar specimen exposed to an acidic sulphate
dissolved in the moisture, to produce H2SO4.2 At normal domestic solution, using iron pins set within the sample with their ends
sewage pH levels, from one-quarter to one-third of the dissolved close to the surface. The corrosion behaviour was monitored
sulphide exists as molecular H2S, which is released to the air using the EIS and the OCP of the pins. The pH of the test solution
was maintained in the range 4–5 for eight days and 2–3 for
and deposited on the moist structure wall. Bacteria on the wall
convert the H2S to H2SO4, which reduces wall moisture pH values 73 days. By using the experimental data, the role of the diffusion
to the 1–2 range, and the acid corrodes the structure wall above reaction in the deterioration of concrete surfaces was determined.
the flow line. A highly corrosive environment is created by the It is indicated from the OCP of the pins that the pin closest to
presence of volatile hydrocarbons and H2S. Both concrete the surface of the mortar deteriorates after 36 days. Also it was
and steel are susceptible to accelerated corrosion rates under observed that 0.82 mm of the mortar was corroded at the end
such conditions. Few researchers have discussed the of the experiment. This establishes the validity of the moving
methodology for carrying out experimental work to determine boundary paradigm for the sulphide corrosion of concrete.5
the corrosion rate, along with their main corrosion mechanism
and the factors controlling the corrosion rate, and consequently The cause of deterioration is mainly determined by petrographic
there is a paucity of published papers in this area.3 examinations. A study conducted by Cady and Richard6 showed
that the affected area in an entrained air void system was the
Factors affecting increased sulphide in sewage are outlined main reason for the deterioration caused by inadequacy of
below. entrained air in these areas. Their examinations showed that the
magnesium oxide (MgO) content of the Portland cement in the
(a) High sewage temperature, accelerating the sulphate/ affected areas was 3.5 times more than that present in the
sulphide conversion process. unaffected areas. MgO (9.1%) was more than its permissible value
(b) High biochemical-oxygen-demand (BOD) sewage, prescribed as per ASTM C-150. Enhanced deterioration was
particularly high-soluble BOD sewage. observed in manhole sections that were located below the frost
(c) Flat sewer slopes producing oxygen-deficient, or ‘septic’ line. Freezing and thawing attack caused typical fracture planes
sewage; and the low velocities lengthen detention time and parallel to exposed surfaces. These crack patterns were
increase settling of organic solids and grit in the sewer invert. characteristic of the expansive reactions. Ramachandran7 stated
(d) Long detention times in wet wells, force mains, inverted that dead burnt magnesia expands some 17%. This was in the
siphons or surcharging gravity sewers. context of the slow hydration of unreactive material requiring
(e) Steep slopes and high flow velocities. additional water for hydration over the original mix water. The
( f ) Turbulence caused by inadequate or poor design of volume changes with reactive magnesia as it hydrates in the
structures: examples are junction structures with colliding cement matrix containing Portland cement and can be
flows, and drop structures and intercepts or force mains that engineered to be neutral. Owing to the fact that hydration of dead
discharge significantly above the wastewater surface in the burnt magnesia is a slow process, the change in the volume that
main line. occurs when magnesia hydrates is
( g) Changes in slope that lead to hydraulic jumps, abrupt flow
direction changes (angle points) and short radius curves. MgO(S) þ H2 O(I) ! Mg(OH)2
40
31 þ 18
0 ! 58
3 molar mass
Other factors tend to increase the amount of H2S escaping 11
2 þ 18
0 ! 24
9 molar volumes
from the wastewater. H2S is released primarily as a gas and will
spread in the air. When released as a gas, it will form sulphur This reaction, as in the case with dead burnt magnesia produced
dioxide and H2SO4 in the atmosphere. Sulphur dioxide, a major as a result of high-temperature thermal deposition, occurs after
component in acid rain, can be broken down further and most of the free mixing water has been taken up by the hydration
accelerates corrosion rates. H2S remains in the atmosphere for of the cementitious minerals, mainly comprising tricalicum
approximately 18 h. In some instances, it may be released as a silicate and dicalcium silicate, or vacated through bleeding or
liquid waste from an industrial facility. evaporation.7

12 Municipal Engineer 159 Issue ME1 Deterioration of reinforced concrete in sewer environments Parande et al.
It has been generally accepted that concrete corrosion is caused micro-organisms (ASOM) and the ASOM itself. This was not the
by bacterial oxidation of H2S in sewer systems. Costs related to case in neutrophilic sulphur-oxidising micro-organisms (NSOM).12
sewer replacement and remedies are quite high, but there is
limited knowledge and documentation on the relationship The alkaline nature of concrete with a pH of around 11–13
between H2S levels and corrosion rates. This information is creates an unfavourable condition for the growth of
necessary in order to select the appropriate means of H2S control micro-organisms.13 However, the presence of CO2 and H2S brings
and to conduct a cost–benefit analysis. The effect of the acidic properties to the concrete.14 The detrimental effects of CO2
wastewater composition on corrosion damages in the sewer on concrete were studied by Ismail et al.15 Their experiments
pipelines was considered, especially for the steel and cast iron showed that atmospheric CO2 reduces the pH of concrete to 9.5.
pipes. The concrete pipes are also susceptible to corrosion A drastic reduction in pH was observed at an atmosphere
damage, especially in the presence of H2S and/or fatty acids.8 containing 5000 ppm of CO2. The theory behind this pH
reduction was studied by Thistlethwayte and Goleb.16

3. ROLE OF MICRO-ORGANISM IN DETERIORATION Bacteria of the thiobacillus species stick to the concrete surface
OF CONCRETE IN SEWER PIPELINES and, if adequate nutrients, moisture and oxygen are available,
Culture-dependent studies have implicated that begin to reproduce once the pH of the solution is reduced to
sulphur-oxidising bacteria, combined with the bacteria of approximately 9.17,18 The five major species of thiobacillus,
the acidiphilium genus, are the main agents of concrete which play important roles on concrete, are (a) Thio-oparus,
corrosion in sanitary sewers.9 (b) Thio-novellus, (c) Thio-neapolitanus, (d) Thio-intermedius and
(e) Thio-oxidans. Of these, the first four are categorised as
Acidophilic iron oxidising bacteria are responsible for the NSOM and the fifth as ASOM.
corrosion of reinforcement. They attack steel to convert ferrous to
ferric oxide and, along with the sulphur-oxidising bacteria, lead Jahani et al. 19 studied the deterioration of concrete in acid
to the corrosion of concrete in many sewers. When the concrete sulphate solutions. The experiments were conducted at a pH of
samples were exposed to a sewer environment containing H2S of 4–5 for eight days and 2–3 for 13 days. The efficacy of the
more than 600 ppm, the surface pH of the specimen reduced from diffusion-reaction-based model with a moving boundary for the
an initial value of 12–13 to a very low value of ,2. This corrosion process was analysed from the experiment. The
reduction in pH is attributed to the fact that sulphur-oxidising corrosion rate constant for the specimen and the effective
bacteria grow on the surface of the specimen, which converts the diffusion rate of H2SO4 in the corrosion layer were calculated
H2S to H2SO4. The reduction in pH also takes place internally from the acid neutralisation rates in the solution. It was observed
where bacterial growth is absent. This may be attributed to the that the cross-sectional area of 0.8 mm2 of the sample was
penetration of H2SO4 into these areas. Formates, such as calcium corroded at the end of the experiment. The moving boundary
formate, inhibited the growth of sulphur-oxidising bacteria and model was validated by the experimental data obtained and it can
iron-oxidising bacteria when present in concentrations of more be inferred that the effective diffusion rate reduced with age of
than 50 ppm.10 the corrosion product being formed.19

This type of H2SO4 is known as BSA. The main species of Maintenance holes are provided to access a sewerage system for
acid-producing bacteria in sewers is thiobacillus supported by investigations, clearance of blockages and maintenance
acidiphilum. Fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH) studies were purposes. Van Mechelan and Polder 20 have studied the rate of
used to identify and enumerate selected bacteria in homogenised attack of concrete in sewer manholes and subsections by BSA
biofilm samples taken from the corroding crowns of concrete. attack. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed details of
Direct epiflourescent microscopy demonstrated the ability of the attacked concrete layer. The corrosion is predominantly
FISH to identify significant numbers of active acidophilic caused by diffusion of sulphate into sound concrete beyond the
bacteria among concrete particles, products of concrete corrosion gypsum-rich layers. Microstructural properties were also studied.
and other mineral debris. FISH analyses with the species-specific Investigations show that the highest rate of attack of concrete by
probe Thio820, and a domain level probe that recognises all H2SO4 is 3 mm per year,20 which may vary depending on the pore
bacteria. Thio-ferro-oxidans and Thio-thio-oxidans comprised structure and permeability of concrete.
between 12% and 42% of the total active bacteria present in
corroding concrete samples.10
3.1. Chemistry behind H2S attack
11
Babushkin et al. have elaborately studied the mechanism of Bacteria reduce the sulphur-containing organic compounds and
chemical and biochemical processes taking place in sewage. sulphates to form sulphides. As a result of this property, septicity
Davis et al. 12 have studied the effect of microbial population in arises in the biowastes from the activity of the bacteria under
the loose outer corrosion layer (OCL) and the bound inner anaerobic conditions. A part of the sulphur, after reduction, is
corrosion layer (ICL) of concrete from a corroded sewage released into a large percentage of sulphide ions into the
collection system. In order to determine the mineralogical environment, and a part is released as free H2S. Only the
composition and the strength of samples, chemical and physical bacteria assimilate a very meagre part of the reduced sulphur.
studies were carried out. It was also found that the strength of Proteolytic bacteria in the absence of oxygen act on the organic
concrete was reduced by 20% at crown and springline. compounds of sulphur to form initially H2S. The proportions of
Furthermore, it was demonstrated that after the initial corrosion these sulphide ions are very sensitive to the pH of the
of concrete, further corrosion was controlled by the penetration solution, temperature and ionic strength. As a result, various ions
rate of the acid produced by the acidophilic sulphur-oxidising are formed. They are predominantly H2S, HS2 and S22. The

Municipal Engineer 159 Issue ME1 Deterioration of reinforced concrete in sewer environments Parande et al. 13
 sulphate-reducing bacteria do not reduce the contaminants of therefore, some means of reducing concrete corrosion must be
fresh manure. This defect is, however, overcome by the fact that utilised. It must be effective and economical. It can be achieved
the bacteria from the digestive system can assimilate these either by treatment of the sewer or the modification of the
organic compounds into lactic acid, which is one of the concrete. Concrete protection methods commonly used for
common substances used by the H2S-reducing bacteria.21 structures include modifications of concrete mix, design;
coatings painted or rolled onto the concrete surface; and liners
Desulphovibriod
desulphuricans
that have integral locking projections cast into the concrete.
CH3 CHOHCOOH þ 0
43 H2 SO4 þ 0
067 NH3  
! Modifying the concrete mix usually involves increasing the
0
33 CH1
4 N0
2 O0
4 þ 0
96 CH3 COOH alkalinity, since the corrosion rate is inversely related to concrete
þ 0
43 H2 S þ 0
7 CO2 þ 0
94 H2 O alkalinity. The following points are to be considered during the
construction of sanitary works
Generally sulphate-reducing bacteria suffer from an inability to
use the acetic acid as a source of carbon. There are, however, (a) use of ASTM type V rather than ASTM type II cement, or
exceptions, one of which is Desulphotomaculum acetoxidans, ASTM type II low alkali cement rather than type II
an acetic-acid-based H2S, the production of which is (b) addition of microsilica to precast concrete sewer pipe
illustrated below doubles the corrosion rate of conventional concrete pipe
when exposed to acid
Sulphate reducers
CH3 COOH þ SO2
4 ! H2 S þ 2HCO
3 (c) high-alumina cement increases corrosion rates at typical pH
moisture levels of 1–2 on structure walls.
Aerobic Thiobacilli bacteria generally convert the H2S
developed during the decomposition of the organic 4.1. Treatment of sewers
substances to sulphate. Oxidation of H2S occurs in several
Sydney et al. 26 studied the control of concrete sewer corrosion
stages as follows21–25
by the crown spray process. In this method, a high pH mixture is
Green sulphur bacteria
2H2 S þ O2 
! 2H2 O þ 2S þ 528J sprayed onto the crown area of the sewer. Deactivation of
sulphur-oxidising bacteria and neutralisation of the acid are
Purple sulphur bacteria
S2 þ 3O2 þ 2H2 O 
! 2H2 SO4 þ 1231J some of the main principles in this process. The sewer crown
environment must be rendered unfavourable for the growth of
The H2SO4 formed as shown above is very corrosive to the sulphur-oxidising bacteria. A residual alkali on the sewer crown
concrete tanks and sewer pipelines. has been left to neutralise the acid produced. These are some of
the major applications of the crown spray process. Measurements
In addition to the above, the sulphate ions also attack the were made before and after the treatment for the surface pH of the
concrete directly thereby resulting in major corrosion. They also sewer ground to check the effectiveness of the treatment. Various
react with the calcium present in the cement to form gypsum, as chemical treatments with biocides were studied for deactivation
shown below and regrowth of organisms. It has been established that
2H2 O þ Ca2þ þ SO2 ! CaSO4
2H2 O magnesium hydroxide slurry of pH 10.5 is used to neutralise
4
acidic wastes and is the most effective and non-hazardous
and with the calcium aluminium hydrate to form ettringite. In the chemical tested to date. The above chemical, applied at a rate of
above reactions, the formation of products causes a major 50%, has reduced the population of sulphur-oxidising bacteria to
increase in the volume of the cement and thereby leads to about one-millionth of the initial value, and achieved a constant
cracking and damage in the structure. The volume increase rate is pH of 9 for approximately nine nine months.26 In another study,
124% for gypsum and 227% for ettringite. There is a large the effect of the total dissolved organic carbon (DOC), suspended
increase in the stress on the surface of the cement. This is even solids; dissolved oxygen present in the sewers on the
further worsened by the fact that H2S also attacks the concrete deterioration of concrete was studied by Chen et al.27 They also
and the steel reinforcement. It reacts with lime to produce a established a treatment technique for the reduction of the DOC,
soluble product where the sewer was passed through a 1.5 km section having
inner diameter of 450 mm constructed over a slope of 0.0075.
Ca(OH)2 þ 2H2 S ! Ca(HS)2 þ 2H2 O
Approximately 14% of the DOC was removed for a retention time
Ferrous sulphide is formed as a result of the H2S reaction with the of 18 min. Batch tests were carried out for raw sewage, suspended
reinforcing steel through the cracks produced by sulphate solids or settled solids. As a result, the raw sewage yielded 1.3 mg
attacks. Water and oxygen, also migrating through the cracks, DOC/mg of sample, whereas the suspended solids yielded a
form iron oxides and hydroxides. The products formed here also 2.6 mg DOC/mg dry weight. From this study they concluded that
increase the volume of the concrete surface thereby leading to for a 15 km pipeline approximately 39.133 kg of DOC can be
cracks and corrosion. stabilised per day.

4.1.1. Modification of material structures. Werner and

Krausewald28 studied an innovative presentation consisting of a
4. PREVENTING CONCRETE DETERIORATION concrete pipe shaft system for municipal wastewater along with
How does an engineer design a wastewater system to counter the an integrated air/H2O press-testing function for the detection of
corrosion effects of H2S gas and H2SO4? The simple answer is to leakages in the structure of the pipe or the pipe joints: a socket
reduce the conditions that generate H2S. However, this is not seal. The main function was to detect exfiltration or infiltration
always possible or economical. Excluding piping, approximately and achieve an integrated electronic memory for a network
40% of a wastewater system is made up of concrete structures; storage in-house sewer information system. Heil and Kloss29

14 Municipal Engineer 159 Issue ME1 Deterioration of reinforced concrete in sewer environments Parande et al.
studied the concrete corrosion caused by SO22
4 in sewage forming Fridels salts. Sulphates in cement, however, form
systems. According to German communal environmental laws stronger bonds than the chloride so only a fraction of the C3A and
the limit for SO22
4 is 400–600 mg/l. In view of the current state of C4F is accessible for chloride-binding capacity. Since these
technology, however, the adonising plant cannot comply to this materials form additional calcium aluminates hydrates in their
limit. Heil and Kloss suggested that the maximum SO22 4 values reaction, SF will decreases the chloride-binding capacity.
for the anodising plants should be determined individually
according to the composition of sewage or the quality of Dumas34 studied in detail the characteristics and durability of
concrete pipes. Investigations have shown, however, that aluminous cements in relation to their suitability for repair of
SO22
4 -contaminated anodising effluents with concentrations of sewers. An effective solution based on a hydraulic binder has
.600 mg/l have not caused any corrosion of concrete pipes.29 been suggested for sewers and sewer systems. A detailed study
has been made of concrete containing pozzolans such as silica
The corrosion phenomena caused by both chemical and bacterial fume and fly ash, more than in conventional cement, for
activity have been given special emphasis recently. New aspects converting the calcium hydroxide generated by the hydration of
of the subjects are highlighted by investigations on particularly cement to calcium silicate fumes H-type hydrates.35 Soutsos
aggressive sites, which suggest that calcium-aluminates-based et al. 36 concluded that different mix proportions for concrete
binders can be appropriate in such environments.30 In view of the with regard to silica fumes offer better durability for concrete in
above, Cabiron and Heliard31 commented that the proliferation of terms of chloride and sulphate-induced corrosion. The corrosion
bacteria produces bio-H2SO4 as a result of which the bacterial process of reinforced concrete may be divided into two stages:
corrosion occurs. It has been reported that the concrete matter initiation period and propagation. Silica fume affects both stages.
made of alumina cements has a better resistance than Portland In the initiation period, carbonation is occurring or chloride ions
cement. This is because the resistance to sulphates is attributed to are transported into the concrete. The carbonation results in
the absence of Ca(OH)2 in hydrated high alumina cement and reduced pH values, allowing corrosion to start. SF may be
also to the protective influence of the relatively inert alumina gel expected to reduce the resistance against carbonation owing to
formed during hydration. Lean mixes are much less resistant to the level of Ca(OH)2; SF will also improve the resistance against
sulphates and also the chemical resistant decreases drastically CO2 ingress. Addition of SF also improves pore refinement
after conversion of both CAH10 and C2AH8 structure thereby reducing permeability. The concentration of
chloride ions in the pore solution reducing the ion mobility may
3CAH10 ! C3 AH6 þ 2AH3 þ 18H be another reason.

Maeda32 postulated that synthetic sheets, having integrally

moulded anchors and concrete placed on the anchor side so as to 4.1.2. Coating for corrosion prevention. The behaviour of
protrude the anchors from the concrete surfaces, should comprise concrete with polymer when exposed to H2SO4 medium has been
the lining sheets. The anchors are buried in the mortar applied to studied since 2002.37 The mass transfer coefficient ratio of the
the surfaces so as to bond the lining sheets firmly to the inner concrete to the polymer was over 12. The chemical resistance of
surfaces of sewers and sewer systems. the coating was studied using coated concrete with pinholes. The
effect of the pinhole sizes on the performance of concrete was
In another study, Northwood et al.33 studied the deterioration of studied by modelling the weight change in the coated concrete.37
concrete sewer pipelines in America owing to the presence of A further study by Wehr 38 deals with development of a polymer-
chloride ions and the performance of the modified structure in modified resin cement mortar which, when coated over the
the same environment. A conventional dry process plant concrete surface, increases the corrosion resistance of the sewer
modified the composition of cement so that the intrusion of concrete pipeline. The important pretreatments adopted for this
chloride ions was controlled. Inter-ground silica fume cement are that the surface of the concrete should be flushed and a wash
was used to reduce the handling difficulties of silica fumes. The primer should be sprayed over the surface. The total lining
material was tested for its chloride permeability and chloride ion thickness was 10–14 mm.
diffusivity. This resulted in a very small increase in the total
construction cost owing to the modification of the material and a Polymer modification of concrete influences to a large extent the
change in the casting process. microstructure of the material. Owing to the film-forming
capacity of the polymer particles, an interpenetrating network of
Silica reacts with Ca(OH)2 in the presence of water to form cement hydrates and polymer particles exists in which the
cementing compounds consisting of calcium-silicate hydrate. aggregates are embedded.39 Polymer modification also
The silica fume (SF) concrete improves the strength efficiency influences the transition zone between the bulk cement-polymer
and durability characteristics. Typically 5–10% of SF is added. co-matrix and the aggregates. The growth of large crystals is
During the chemical reaction between SF and components in the decreased and possibly the calcium ions react with certain
pore water, the content of components keeping a high pH value is carboxylate groups of the polymers. The main improvements
reduced, especially Ca(OH)2 and potassium. A high level of alkali attributed to the presence of the polymer film are bridging of
content in the cement accelerates the reaction rate of the SF. It micro-cracks, reduction of pore size and blocking of pores, which
has been reported that the addition of up to 8% SF significantly results in a reduced permeability of the concrete. All of these
reduces permeability. Owing to reduced pH value in concrete properties should lead to an improved resistance of the concrete
with SF, it is expected that the chloride binding capacity also against acid attack. In fact, the lower permeability should slow
should be reduced. Chloride binding in cementing materials is down the penetration of H2S, the ingress of the micro-organisms
dominated by the content of C3A (tricalicum aluminate) and C4F and the produced acid. Also, in the case of production of
(tetra calcium ferrite) regardless of the chloride source, both expansive reaction products, polymer-modified concrete is

Municipal Engineer 159 Issue ME1 Deterioration of reinforced concrete in sewer environments Parande et al. 15
 expected to be more resistant to this detrimental action because A rigid cellular plastic is formed when the resin expands owing to
of the capacity of the polymer film to bridge microcracks. an exothermic reaction.42

Cathodic protection by electrochemical methods can be applied An interesting observation was made in a Los Angeles county
for the protection of steel-reinforced rods from corrosion in concrete sewer. Following an industrial waste pretreatment, the
sewage lines.40 corrosion rate increased sharply. When investigated, it was found
that the corrosion was not only increased by sulphide generation but
also by an increase in the concentration of transition metals such as
4.1.3. Engineering design. The major factors that come into Ni, Fe, Pb, Cd and Cr. None of these metals was present before the
play in sewer pipes are: (a) internal pressure; (b) pressure result- pretreatment process. Morton et al.43 also conducted a series of
ing from external load; (c) temperature stresses; and (d) flexural experiments in order to determine the effects of transition metals.
stresses. Sewer maintenance manholes should be of a size and They also found that Cr, Cn2, Cu, Zn and Ni inhibited the sulphur-
shape that provides reasonable access for personnel and reducing bacteria (SRB) activity in the reactor. A model with a
equipment to flow channels, with a minimal likelihood of Monod-type function has been made in a pilot scale with a
problems. General access is maintained on lengthy sewers by maximum corrosion rate of 16 mm/year at 258C at 2 ppm H2S.
providing intermediate maintenance holes. Maximum Maintaining the H2S concentration at zero ppm can prevent
maintenance hole spacing is dependent on whether entry into the concrete corrosion. This can be done by controlled treatment with
pipeline is possible. For pipelines of less than DN600, a numerical nitrate. The nitrate dose is made based on the Nutriox concept where
designation of the size of a unit or a component within a structure the dosage is dependent on the flow, temperature, sewer design and
is given, which is a convenient integer approximately equal to the sewage concentration. For a more cost-effective treatment it is
the manufacturing dimension in millimetres for internal diameter advisable to have a longer hydraulic retention time.44
(DN): in other words, the nominal diameter (ND) external of a
pipe or a manhole. The exact external diameter corresponding Van Mechelen and Polder45 studied the level of aggressiveness
to an ND is specified in the relevant standards subjected to a of BSA present in ten different manholes on four different
tolerance limit. DN600 is the nominal size of pipe capacity used types of concrete. Significant differences in corrosion rates in
in sewage systems. The maximum spacing is dependent on the different concrete types were observed.
type of equipment available to maintenance crews. The DN sizing
is given in Table 1. It is considered that curved alignments will
require more maintenance than straight alignments. Visual 5. REPAIRS AND REHABILITATION
inspection from maintenance hole to maintenance hole is Permeable slag sand waste concentration for repairing was
generally not possible. As a consequence, closer maintenance studied by Pernice46 in different ratios in concrete containing
hole spacing is required on these alignments. 5–20% cement, 4–20% vitrified and milled blast furnace slag,
5–20% crystal and milled blast furnace slag and 50–75% sand of
In order to increase the watertightness of shaft rings and cones blast furnace slag. The concrete is sprayed onto the walls of the
of precast components for sewer pipelines, different joint types galleries and smoothened. Pernice suggested that the application
were adopted and wall thickness was increased. The hidden of this repair material prevented further deterioration.
defects in the joints were rectified by introducing a concrete joint
structure.41 Some of the case studies are given and discussed Kaempfer and Berndt47 stated that Germany spends
below. approximately US$100 billion in maintenance and repair of
private and public sewage systems. About 40% of the damage in
The East Bay, California, USA, municipality effected the concrete pipelines is caused by bio-generated H2SO4 as a result of
rehabilitation of the wood street interceptor by using the Danby long flow durations and improper ventilation of wastewater.
and Linabond process. By doing so, the lifespan of the pipeline, Kaempfer and Berndt have investigated the corrosion of concrete
which was already 50 years old, was increased by 50–100 years. in BSA. They have devised a simple reproducible comparative
In the Danby process, profiled polyvinyl chloride (PVC) strips are simulation method for testing the service life in the cases of
spirally wound through existing manholes to form a liner that dissolute and expansive chemical attack.
needs grouting. PVC forms are installed over the interior surface
of the pipe and a cementitious grout is placed behind the forms in Atsunori and Maeda48 commented that sulphur-oxidising
sewer lifts. In the Linabond rehabilitation a high-strength bacteria deteriorate a repair system of concrete structures used
thermosetting is sprayed over the surface of the concrete pipe. for sewerage treatments or sewer piping by oxidising the H2S and
producing H2SO4. The rate of corrosion has exceeded 4 mm/year.
A repair method for corroded concrete by employing
Maximum maintenance hole high-density polyethylene (HDPE) sheets is described in their
spacing: m paper. An innovative method was designed in which fresh mortar
containing bacterium inhibitors was applied directly by HDPE
Sl No. Pipe size (DN) Straight sewers Curved sewers sheets. This repair method is advantageous because it can be
applied to large sheets without making wrinkles, there are less
1 150–450 100 80
2 525–900 150 100 holes to support the concrete panels and there are fewer welding
3 1050–1650 300 300 spots. If sulphate were to remain in the concrete, it would react
4 .1800 500 500 with the fresh mortar in the cement and produce ettringite that
would peel the mortar from the concrete. It was observed that
Table 1.
when the sulphate content of the cement was within 2–5%, the

16 Municipal Engineer 159 Issue ME1 Deterioration of reinforced concrete in sewer environments Parande et al.
adhesive strength between the old concrete and mortar was dosage of a special nitrate solution, the problems of corrosion by
.1.47 N/mm2. Sulphate, which is present in Portland cement as H2SO4 and odour of H2S can be solved. The growth of
gypsum, is added during the manufacture to control the set, but is denitrifying micro-organisms in place of sulphate-reducing
limited to 3% expressed as SO3 by the mass of cement. There is no micro-organisms is done by the addition of the above special
test available which can determine the safe sulphate content. A nitrate solution. As a result, denitrification prevents the
limit of 4% by mass of cement is, however, considered occurrence of anaerobic conditions and hence sulphide
reasonable. The primary product of concrete decomposition by formation. Barjenbruch and Matthias51 published a review on
H2SO4 is calcium sulphate. This provides little structural stability methods to minimise the odour formation and corrosion caused
in the wet condition and it generally exists in paste form on the by H2S in sewer systems. A dosage of Ca(NO3)2 is given to prevent
concrete surface. This paste layer lowers corrosion rate and, as H2S formation: this is adjusted for anoxic conditions. According
H2SO4 has to penetrate through this layer, this is sometimes to Eiswirth et al.52 oxygen-containing liquids (e.g. H2O2, H2O
advantageous. Consequently, if this layer is removed by high with dissolved O2) or gases (air or pure oxygen) should be
flow then the corrosion is accelerated. transported through a perforated flexible tube into sewers as far
as 10 km and distributed homogeneously to combat odour and
prevent corrosion. The tube containing polyurethane is
6. ODOUR individually perforated. Using accurate injection, the required
Odour can be defined as the ‘perception of smell’ or in scientific amount of oxygen can be decreased by 480%. Table 2 gives the
terms as ‘a sensation resulting from the reception of stimulus by causes of odour from the industry.
the olfactory sensory system’. Whether pleasant or unpleasant,
odours are induced by inhaling airborne volatile organics or 6.1.2. Odour measurement. The olfactometric methods of
inorganics. With a growing population, industrialisation and odour measurement fall into two categories: determination of the
urbanisation, the odour problem has been reaching threshold concentration of odoriferous gases; and determination
an objectionable proportion. Urbanisation without proper of the type and intensity of odour.
sanitation facilities is a major cause of odour problems. Rapidly
growing industrialisation has aggravated the problem through (a) Threshold concentration of odoriferous gases. European
odour produced in industrial operations. Undesirable odours threshold concentration ranges for some unpleasant odours
contribute to air-quality concerns and affect human lifestyles. are presented in Table 3.
Odour is undoubtedly the most complex of all the air pollution (b) Determination of the type and intensity of the odour.
problems. Generally odour intensity increases with the odorant
concentration. The relationship between intensity and
concentration can be expressed as
6.1. Measurement and monitoring of odour
P ¼ K log S
6.1.1. Odour intensity. Odour intensity is the strength of
the perceived odour sensation. It is related to the odorant where P is the odour intensity, K is a constant and S is the odour
concentration. The odour intensity is usually stated according to concentration.
a predetermined rating system. A widely used scale for odour
intensity49 is the following Currently, the preferred and internationally standardised
methods of measuring odour are the Dutch Standard
0 no odour
Method (NVN 2820)53 and the more recent European
1 threshold level
Standard Method.
2 definite odour
3 strong odour
4 overpowering odour 6.2. Odour control
50
Gunster stated that, if the natural microbial activity of micro- An array of treatment technologies are available for control
organisms in sewer systems can be supported by controlled of odour from gas streams collected through process

Sl No. Industry Odorous material

1 Pulp and paper Mercaptans, hydrogen sulphide

2 Tanneries Hides, flesh
3 Fertilisers Ammonia, nitrogen compounds
4 Petroleum Sulphur compounds from crude oil, mercaptans
5 Chemical Ammonia, phenols, mercaptans, hydrogen sulphide, chlorine, organic products
6 Foundries Quenching oils
7 Pharmaceuticals Biological extracts and wastes, spent fermentation liquors
8 Food Cannery waste, dairy waste, meat products, packing house wastes, fish cooking odours,
coffee roaster effluents
9 Detergent Animal fats
10 General Burning rubber, solvents, incinerator, smoke
11 Swine operations Hydrogen sulphide and ammonia
12 Wastewater treatment/plant Hydrogen sulphide
13 Municipal solid waste landfill Hydrogen sulphide
Table 2. Sources of odour

Municipal Engineer 159 Issue ME1 Deterioration of reinforced concrete in sewer environments Parande et al. 17
 Suitable materials and design can be used to safeguard the
Detection Detection
threshold: threshold: structure from deterioration by sulphide attack from sewage.
Compound mg/m3 Compound mg/m3 Repair work should be carried out at regular intervals to check
the sedimentation layer formed in the sewer pipelines. This can
Acetic acid 25–10 000 Indole 0.6 prevent severe damage—that is, the collapse of the whole
Propanic acid 3–890 3-methyl 0.4–0.8 structure.
indole
Butanoic 4–3000 Methanethiol 0.5
3-methyl 5 Dimethyl 2–30
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
butanoic acid sulphide
Pentanoic acid 0.8–70 Dimethyl 3–14 The authors thank the Director of the Central Electrochemical
disulphide Research Institute (CECRI) for kind permission to publish this
Phenol 22–4000 Dimethyl 7.3 paper.
trisulphide
4-methyl phenol 0.2–35 Hydrogen 0.1–180
sulphide
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