General Biology

Unit 3
The cellular basis of life

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 3. The cellular basis of life
Robert Hook (1600) was the first to observe plant cells with a
crude microscope.

Then, Mathias Schleiden & Theodore Schwann (1830)

proposed that all living things are composed of cells.

Virchow extended this idea by contending that cells arise only

from other cells.

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 3.1 The cell theory
 The 3 parts of cell theory are as follows:
1) All living things are made up of cells.
2) A cell is the basic structural & functional unit of living
organisms (are the smallest building blocks of life).
 The activity of an organism depends on both the
individual & the collective activities of its cells.
3) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

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 A typical eukaryotic cell has 3 major parts:
 Plasma membrane:
» the outer boundary of the cell.
 Cytoplasm:
» the intracellular fluid packed with organelles
 Nucleus:
» an organelle that controls cellular activities.
» typically the nucleus resides near the cells center.

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Fig: 3.1. Generalized animal cell
 3.1.1 Cell organelles
An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a
specific function.
Eukaryotes have membrane bound organelles.
Prokaryotes do not have membrane bound organelles.
Organelles are found in the cytoplasm
 Two kinds of cell organelles based on membrane covering,
Membranous organelles:
– ER (rough & smooth), GC, mitochondria, chloroplasts,
nucleus, lysosomes, peroxisomes & vacuoles
Non-membranous organelles:
– ribosomes (70s & 80s), centrosomes, cilia & flagella,
microtubules, basal bodies & microfilaments.
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 3.1.2 Structure and function of organelles
 The nucleus:
• is oval shaped largest central structure
• surrounded by double-layered membrane.
• DNA directs protein synthesis
• DNA gives codes, or instruction for directing synthesis of
specific structure & enzymes proteins within the cell.
• the nucleus indirectly governs most cellular activities & serves
as the cell’s master.

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  Three types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis.
• mRNA: copies instructions in the DNA & carries these to
the ribosome.
• tRNA: reads mRNA sequence & transfers each amino acid
to ribosome where the protein product is synthesized.
• rRNA: composes the ribosome & binds the corresponding
amino acid to a growing peptide chain.

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 The nucleus contains nuclear envelope, chromatin & one or
more nucleoli.
The nuclear envelope
surrounds nuclear material
consists of outer & inner membrane
perforated at intervals by nuclear pores
through this pores most ions & water soluble molecules
transfer b/n nucleus & cytoplasm
Chromatin:
term chromatin means "colored material"
it refers easily stained for viewing with microscope, &
it mainly composed coils of DNA bound to basic protein called
histones.
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Nucleoli: the nuclei of most cells contain one or more lightly
stained structures.
actively engage in synthesizing of ribosomes.
does not have a limiting membrane.
contains large amounts of RNA & protein.
nucleolus enlarged when a cell is actively synthesizing proteins.

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 Cytoplasm: cytosol is cell‟s interior not occupied by nucleus
is complex jelly like marrow called cytosol.
All cells contain six main types of organelles-
ER, GC, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria & vacuoles.
Each organelle is a separate compartment, different function.
These organelles occupy about half of the total cell volume.
The remaining part of the cytoplasm is cytosol.

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  Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Rough ER Smooth ER

-Does not have ribosomes

-Ribosomes attached.
-it looks smooth

-Works on protein synthesis -It does not produce proteins.

-mRNA carries the genetic -smooth ER bud off/pinch off,

message from the nucleus to giving rise to transport vesicles.
the ribosomes “workshop”
-So, it used to make membranes

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 Golgi complex:
is associated with the ER &
contains sets of flattened, curved, membrane enclosed sacs, or
cisternae, stacked in layers.
number of stacks vary in cells
cells for protein secretion have hundreds of stacks, whereas
some have only one.

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 It performs the following important functions.
1. Processing the raw material into finished products.
2. Sorting, labeling & directing (ships) finished product to
their final destination.

Fig:3.2. Golgi apparatus

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 Lysosomes:
intracellular “digestive system”.
are membrane enclosed sacs
contains powerful hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting &
removing
– Digest unwanted cellular debris & foreign materials like bacteria.
vary in size & shape, about 300μm in a cell.
Extrinsic material to be attacked by lysosomal enzymes by the
process of endocytosis.
If the fluid is internalized by endocytosis, the process is called
pinocytosis.
Endocytosis is also accomplished by phagocytosis by WBCs.

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take up old organelles such as mitochondria & break down into
their component molecules.
– those molecules can be reabsorbed into the cytosol, & the rest
are dumped out of the cell.
The process by which worn-out organelles are digested is called
autophagy a human liver cell recycles about half its content
every week.
– Garbage disposal & recycling.
In the inherited condition known as lysosomal storage disease
(Tay-Sachs disease) lysosomes are not effective because they
lack specific enzymes.
– As a result, harmful waste products accumulate disrupting the
normal function of cells, often with fatal results.

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 Peroxisome: is membrane-enclosed sacs
containing oxidative enzymes & catalase
– detoxify various wastes such as ethanol (liver & kidneys).
major product generated is a powerful oxidant H2O2.
catalase & antioxidant enzyme decomposing H2O2 into
harmless H2O & O2.
This reaction is an important safety reaction that destroys
deadly H2O2, at the site of production
– thereby preventing possible devastating escape into the cytosol.
Peroximal disorders disrupt the normal processing of lipids &
disrupt the normal function of the nervous system
– by altering the structure of the nerve cell membrane.

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 Mitochondria:
are the “power houses” of a cell;
they extract energy from nutrients & transform into usable form.
Varies in number based on the energy needs of each cell types.
– A single cell may have few hundreds or thousands.
rod or oval shaped about the size of a bacterium.
each is enclosed by a double membrane-
– smooth outer that surrounds the mitochondria, &
– inner membrane forms a series of enfolding called cristae, inner
cavity filled with a jelly-like matrix.
• cristae contain proteins (electron transport protein).
– The enfolding increase the surface area for keeping these proteins.

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 Function
 make ATP from cellular respiration
 sugar + O2  ATP
 fuels the work of life both animal & plant cells
• Found in both animal & plant cells
 Mitochondria are unusual organelles in two ways:
 have their own unique DNA called mitochondrial DNA.
 have the ability to replicate themselves even when the cell to
which they belong is not undergoing cell division.

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 Fig. 3.3 Mitochondrial structure
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Chloroplasts
are useful organelles among plastids
participate in the process of photosynthesis
is a process by which plants synthesize their own food.
by converting light energy into chemical energy.
are green colored due to chlorophyll pigments.
 Plants make their energy in two ways:
 Mitochondria:
 cellular respiration: sugar + O2  ATP
 Chloroplasts:
 Photosynthesis: sunlight + CO2  ATP + sugar
 ATP = active energy
 sugar = stored energy
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 Fig 3.4: Structure of plant cell
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 Vesicles: are membrane bound sacs
are used to store or transport substances around the cell.
Lysosomes are actually Vesicles.
 Vacuoles: are essentially larger vesicles
formed by joining many vesicles together.
are membrane bound organelles
have no specific shape
contain water with a number of d/t compounds within it.
Their function varies depending on the type cell.
e.g, In plant cells used to maintain Turgor Pressure.
In animal cell it help sequester waste products.

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 Cytoskeleton:
is a complex protein network act as „bone & muscle‟ of the cell.
This network has at least 4 distinct elements: Microtubules,
Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments & Microtubular
lattice.
 Generally, cytoskeletons determine/ provide:
distinct shape, size to the cell
structural support
organizing its contents
substances movement through cell (cilia, flagella &
intracytoplasmic vesicles), and
Contribute to movements of the cell as a whole.

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 Plasma/cell membrane
is extremely thin layer of lipids & proteins forming outermost
boundary of living cell & enclosing the intracellular fluid (ICF).
serves as a mechanical barrier that traps needed molecules
within the cell;
plays an active role by selective permeability of substances to
pass b/n the cell & its ECF environment.
It is a fluid lipid bilayer embedded with proteins.
It appears as „trilaminar’ layer structure having
– two dark layers separated by a light middle layer

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 Fig 3.5: Structure of the cell membrane
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 All plasma membrane are made up of
– lipids & proteins plus small amount of carbohydrates.
Phospholipids are
– most abundant with a lesser amount of cholesterol.
– have a polar hydrophilic head (water loving) having a
negatively charged phosphate group &
– two non-polar (electrically neutral) hydrophobic (water fearing)
fatty acid tails.
 Reading assignment
Lipid bilayer:
Membrane proteins:
Membrane Carbohydrate:
Cellular diversity
Functions of biological membranes
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 Transport across the cell membranes
• plasma membrane is selectively permeable.
• For the cell to survive some materials need to enter & leave the
cell. There are 4 basic mechanisms:
1. Diffusion & facilitated diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Active transport
4. Bulk transport
Two forces are involved in facilitating movement across the
plasma membrane:
1. Passive force: forces that do not require to expend
energy for movement
2. Active force: forces requiring energy (ATP) to transport
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 Diffusion
is the net movement of molecules (or ions) from a region of
high concentration to lower concentration.
The molecules move down a concentration gradient.
Molecules have kinetic energy, which makes them move about
randomly.
All molecules in liquid & gases are in continuous random
motion in any direction.
As a result of this random movement, the molecules frequently
collide bouncing off each other in different directions.
The greater the concentration, the greater the likelihood of
collision.

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 Additional factors that influence the rate of net diffusion are:
1. permeability of the membrane
2. surface area of the membrane
3. molecular weight of substance (lighter diffuses rapidly)
4. distance through which diffusion must take place
 N.B:- Increasing all the factors increases rate of net diffusion,
except distance - thickness, that if increased, decreases the rate of
diffusion; & molecular weight if increased, decreases rate of
diffusion.

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 Movement along electrical gradient
Movement of charged particles is also affected by their electrical
gradient.
If a relative difference in charges exists b/n two adjacent areas,
– the cations move towards more negatively charged area, whereas the
anions move toward the more positively charged areas.
The simultaneous existence of an electrical & concentration
(chemical) gradient for a particular ion is referred to as an electro-
chemical gradient.

Fig: 3.8: Concentration gradient and

diffusion

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 Facilitated Diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion uses a carrier protein to facilitate the
transfer of a particular substance across the membrane ''downhill''
from higher to lower concentration.
• This process is passive & does not require energy.
 Osmosis
• is the net diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient.
• Water can readily permeate the plasma membrane.
• The driving force for diffusion of water is its concentration
gradient from area of higher water concentration (low solute) to
the area of lower water (high solute) concentration.
• This net diffusion of water is known as osmosis.

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Fig 3.10: Movement across
membranes

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 Active transport
• requires the expend energy to transfer its passenger ''uphill''
against a concentration gradient from an area of [lower] to an
area of [higher].
• ions across a membrane against its natural tendency to diffuse in the
opposite direction.
• The movement of molecules is in one direction only; unlike diffusion
that is reversible.
The major ions within the cells & their surrounding are Na+, K+
& Cl-.
the membrane surface of most cell have sodium pump is
coupled with a potassium pump that actively moves K+ from
outside to inside the cell.
The combined pump is called the sodium potassium pump (Na-
K- pump).

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NB: for every 2K+ taken into the cell, 3Na+ are removed.

Thus a potential difference is built up across the membrane, with

the inner side of the cell being negative.

This tends to restrict the entry of negatively charged ions (anions)

such as chloride & favoring diffusion of cations into the cell.

This explains why [chloride] inside red cell is less than the
outside despite the fact that chloride ions can diffuse in & out by
facilitated diffusion

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 Fig 3.11: sodium-potassium pump

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 Na-K-pump plays 3 important roles
• It helps regulate cell volume by controlling the concentration of
solutes inside cell & thus minimizing osmotic effects that would
induce swelling or shrinking of animal cell (osmoregulation).
– If the pump is inhibited, the cell swells and brusts because of the building-up of
Na+, which results in excess water entering in to the cell by osmosis.
• It establishes Na & K concentration gradients across the plasma
membrane of all cells;
– these gradients are important in the nerve & muscle to generate
electrical signals.
– high concentrations of K are needed inside cells for protein
synthesis, glycolysis, photosynthesis & other vital processes.
• The energy used to run the pump also indirectly serves as the
energy source for the co-transport of glucose & amino acids
across the membrane (intestine & kidney cell).

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 Table 3.1 How molecules cross cell membrane

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 Exocytosis and Endocytosis
 Vesicular Transport
• cell membrane selectively transport ions & small polar molecules.
• But large polar molecules & multimolecular material may leave or
enter the cell, such as hormone secretion or ingestion of invading
microbe by leukocytes.
• These materials cannot cross the plasma membrane but are to be
transferred between the ICF & ECF not by usual crossing
• This process of transport into or out of the cell in a membrane-
enclosed vesicle is - vesicular transport.

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• transport into the cell is termed endocytosis.
• transport out of the cell is called exocytosis.

• Both are active processes involving the bulk transport of

materials through membranes.

• Endocytosis of fluid is called pinocytosis (cell drinking),

• Endocytosis of large multimolecular particle is called
phagocytosis (cell eating).

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 Fig 3.12: Exocytosis

 Exocytosis is the reverse process of endocytosis.

 Wastes such as solid & undigested remains from phagocytic vacuoles
may be removed from cells or useful materials may be secreted.

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