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Baruch Spinoza (1632 to 1677)

Rationalist (Dutch Jewish)

Spinoza's philosophy encompasses nearly every area of philosophical discourse,

including metaphysics, epistemology, political philosophy, ethics, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of science.
It earned Spinoza an enduring reputation as one of the most important and original thinkers of the seventeenth
century.

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Spinoza's philosophy is largely contained in two books:

1. Theologico -Political Treatise

2. Ethica
Cartesian’s philosophy is based on Rationalism, Descartes subordinates the intellect to the will, the powers of
human intellect are so feeble that they cannot understand the will of God. Thus humans need to subordinate to
God's authority, rather than our own judgment. On the other hand Spinoza’s Philosophy rests as the true
rational system with the intellect as the highest in man.

Difference Between Cartesian and Spinoza’s Philosophy

Descartes Spinoza

Dualism Monism
Deism Pantheism
Interactionism Parallelism

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Metaphysics
God as only Substance
God is the only substance in the universe, and everything is a part of God. “Whatever is, is in God, and nothing
can be or be conceived without God”. After stating his proof for God’s existence, Spinoza addresses who “God”
is. Spinoza believed that God is “the sum of the natural and physical laws of the universe and certainly not an
individual entity or creator”. Spinoza attempts to prove that God is just the substance of the universe by first
stating that substances do not share attributes or essences, and then demonstrating that God is a “substance”
with an infinite number of attributes, thus the attributes possessed by any other substances must also be
possessed by God. Therefore, God is just the sum of all the substances of the universe. Thought and extension
are not attributed to mind and body, but are parallel attributes of the one substance, i.e. God.

Spinoza's metaphysics consists of one thing, Substance, and its modifications (modes). Early in The
Ethics Spinoza argues that there is only one Substance, which is absolutely infinite, self-caused, and eternal.
Substance causes an infinite number of attributes (the intellect perceiving an abstract concept or essence) and
modes (things following from attributes and modes). He calls this Substance "God", or "Nature". In fact, he takes
these two terms to be synonymous (in the Latin the phrase he uses is "Deus sive Natura"), but readers often
disregard his neutral monism. During his time, this statement was seen as literally equating the existing world
with God - for which he was accused of atheism. Spinoza asserted that the whole of the natural universe is made
of one Substance – God or Nature – and its modifications (modes).

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Attributes of god

“By attribute I mean that which intellect perceives as constituting the essential nature of substance.”

From this it can be seen that Attributes are related to Substance. It is not clear, however, even from Spinoza's
direct definition, whether, a) Attributes are really the way(s) Substance is, or b) Attributes are simply ways to
understand Substance. Spinoza thinks that there are an infinite number of Attributes, but there are two
Attributes for which Spinoza thinks we can have knowledge. Namely, thought and extension. And regarding this
two kinds of interpretations are possible.
1. Idealist :
According to this view attributes do not really belong to god but attributed to him by human thoughts.
Here attributes are forms of our knowledge.
2. Realist :
In this view they consider attributes as real expression, essential and actual components of god’s nature.
Attributes are not merely subjective conceptions existing in human mind but objective characteristic of
existing in and constituting the very nature of god or substance

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Method of Spinoza
Spinoza accepts a rational and truly logical god who allows things o follow from him with intellectual necessity,
just like it follows from a triangle that it sums to two right angles. Thus Spinoza has casted the whole world in the
form of a geometrical theorem.

He says there is only god in the world, and all human, every worldly element, including feelings and passions etc.
are modifications of god itself.

Criticism

Any philosophy must explain varied experience of life. Life is uncounted and Spinoza takes a partial view to life
by ignoring the actual state of affairs, first as in geometry, we ignore the color, texture, of an abject and instead
focus only to its extension. World is dynamic and concrete not abstract like geometry.

Modes
Modes are particular modifications of substance, i.e., particular things in the world. Spinoza gives the following
definition:
“By mode I understand the affections of a substance, or that which is in another through which it is also
conceived.”

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By the definition of a mode it implies that everything that exists other than God is a mode or affection of God.
A natural way to think about modes is as a certain kind of property. The circular shape of the coin on the desk is
a mode of that coin. On this reading, being circular is a state of the coin, a particularized way that the coin is.
Spinoza’s claim that modes are “in” their substances also suggests that modes inhere in substances akin to the
way that properties inhere in things. Circularity, we might say, inheres in the coin and the coin is circular.
Thus mode is that which can be conceived through substance and exists as its modification. The substance is
eternal, infinite and necessary cause of itself (independent), while modes are temporary, finite and contingent.
Substance is like the ocean while modes are its waves, shapes that perpetually die and never last. Thus we can
say god’s attributes are expressed in various modes.
Difference between substance and modes
Substances Modes
Eternal Perishable
Undergoes No Change Constantly Change
Perfect Imperfect
Self Caused Caused By Other Things
Independent Dependent
Necessary Contingent

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Pantheism
Pantheism is the belief that reality is identical with divinity, or that all-things compose an all-
encompassing, immanent god. Pantheist belief does not recognize a distinct personal god. God and world are
identical. He derives it from his concept of Substance, employing the geometrical method that relies on self-
evident axioms and those propositions logically deduced from them. The infinite God comprises in Himself all
reality. Spinoza underlines the fact that, logically, by virtue of its definition, there can be, or be conceived, no
substance other than God. Everything that exists is either God or a mode of God or Substance, which consists of
infinite attributes, each of which expresses eternal and infinite essence exists.
Criticism
Pantheism is an abstract monism that denies reality of the world and the finite selves. It sacrifices the many for
the one. It contradicts the testimony of our experience. It brings fatalism and dependency to human life.
Pantheism regards god as impersonal substance devoid of love, intelligence and will. This impersonal principal
cannot satisfy our religious cravings.

Mind and body (Parallelism)

For Spinoza mind and body are the same substance. Thus, mind and body are ontologically the same thing, the
same reality or substance. The mind is inseparable from the body, and vice versa. He says, " The mind is united

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to the body because the body is the object of the mind". But this does not mean that one determines the other
or causes effects in the other, because in reality the mind and body are the same. They are different attributes
of one fundamental reality. They are not causally related but intrinsically related, so we cannot say that one
determines the other. Spinoza says, "The body cannot determine the mind to think, nor the mind the body to
remain in motion or at rest". This is because each acts simultaneously with the other, so it is illogical to say one
determines the other.

Criticism:

Parallelism asserts that physiological processes and mental processes do not interfere with each other but run
along in perfect correspondence with each other. It neither reduces matter to mind like spiritualism nor mind to
matter like materialism, but regards both of them as real. Spinoza regards them as parallel attributes of the
divine substance. Secondly Spinoza’s doctrine ends in panpsychism, as he holds that whatever there is thought
there is extension and that wherever there is extension there thought. But this is not confirmed by scientific
evidence.

Summary

Modes: Modifications- explains diversity and limited notions of the world, lowest knowledge of truth.

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Attributes: Essential nature of substance, infinite, eternal, and parallel. Finite modes related to infinite
attributes.

Substance: Self evident and necessary truth, absolute unity of all highest form of knowledge. Beyond time,
space, intellect, within itself and self caused.

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