CHAPTER 2

LOGIC AND PROOF

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

1. Understand propositions and logical operations.

2. Apply logical connectives to obtain compound statements.
3. Employ universal quantifier and existential quantifier to propositional function,
hence determine the truth of the statement.
4. Identify conditional statement, converse, contrapositive and equivalence.
5. Apply suitable method including mathematical induction to prove any
mathematical statements.

2.1 Introduction

Logic is the discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning. On an elementary
level, logic provides rules and techniques for determining whether a given argument is
valid.

Logical reasoning is used in mathematics to prove theorems, in the natural and

physical sciences, and in our everyday lives to solve a multitude of problems. The
following are two contributors in logic field.

AUGUSTUS DE MORGAN

Augustus De Morgan was a British mathematician and logician. He formulated De

Morgan’s Laws and introduced the term mathematical induction, making its idea
rigorous.

Born : June 27, 1806, Madurai, India

Died : March 18, 1871, London United Kingdom
Children : William De Morgan, Mary De Morgan
Education : University of Cambridge, Trinity College, Cambridge

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 GEORGE BOOLE

George Boole was an English mathematician, philosopher and logician. He worked in

the fields of differential equations and algebraic logic, and is now best known as the
author of The Laws of Thought.

Born : November 2, 1815, Lincoln, United Kingdom

Died : December 8, 1864, Ballintemple, Cork, Republic of Ireland
Spouse : Mary Everest Boole (M. 1855)
Awards : Royal Medal
Children : Ethel Lilian Voynich, Alicia Boole Stott, Mary Ellen Boole Hinton, Lucy
Everest Boole, Margaret Taylor

2.2 Propositions and Logical Operations

A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but

not both.

Examples of proposition:

1. Sofia is a doctor.
2. The earth is round.
3. Cairo is the capital of Japan.
4. SMA1034 is the course code for Introduction to Discrete Mathematics.
5. Tun Mahathir is the 7th Prime Minister of Malaysia.
6. What is my name.
7. I have three sisters.

Examples that are not proposition:

1. I wish I were wise.

2. Do you speak Mandarin?
3. x +1 = 2 .
4. What is your name?
5. Do not jump!
6. Take a break.
7. I think she is smart.

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Example 1:
Which of the following are statement/proposition?

a. 2+3 = 5.
b. 3− x = 5.
c. Take two aspirins.
d. The temperature on the surface of the planet Venus is 800 F .
e. The sun will come out tomorrow.

Solution:
a. Is a statement that happen to be true.

b. Is a declarative sentence, but not a statement, since it is true or false depending

on the value of x .

c. Is not a statement; it is command.

d. Is a declarative sentence whose truth or falsity we do not know at this time;

however, we can in principal determine if it is true or false, so it is a statement.

e. Is a statement since it is either true or false, but not both, although we would
have to wait until tomorrow to find out if it is true or false.

2.2.1 Logical Connectives and Compound Statements

In logic, the letters p, q, r , ... denote the propositional variables: Variable that can be
replaced by proposition.

Statement or propositional variables can be combined by logical connectives to obtain

compound propositions.

Important Logical Connectives:

1. Negation, ~ (Unary operation)

2. Conjunction, 
3. Disjunction, 
4. Implication (Conditional), →
5. Equivalence (Biconditional), 

Negation
Let p be a proposition. The statement “It is not the case that p ” is another proposition,
called the negation of p . The negation of p is denoted by ~ p and read “not p ”.

17
Example 2:
Each of the following is a negation.

a. p : “It is a sunny day.”

b. ~ p : “It is not the case that it is a sunny day.”, or simply “It is not a sunny day.”

The truth value of ~ p relative to p is given in the following table.

p ~p

T F
F T

Notes:
Such a table, giving the truth values of a compound statement in terms of its
component parts, is called truth table.

Example 3:
Give the negation of the following statements:
a. p : 2 + 3 1
b. q : It is cold.

Solution:
a. ~ p : 2 + 3 is not greater than 1 . That is, ~ p : 2 + 3  1 . Since p is true in this
case, ~ p is false.

b. ~ q : It is not the case that it is cold. More simply, ~ q : It is not cold.

Conjunction
If p and q are propositions, the conjunction of p and q is the compound proposition
“ p and q ”, denoted by p  q . The following is the truth table.

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

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Example 4:
Each of the following is a conjunction.

a. I am beautiful and I am happy.

b. He is handsome and he is stylish.
c. She is rich and she is generous.
d. They unite and they win.

Example 5:
Form the conjunction of p and q for each of the following.

a. p : It is snowing. q : I am cold.
b. p: 23 q : − 5  −8
c. p : It is snowing q: 35

Solution:
a. p  q : It is snowing and I am cold.
b. p  q : 2  3 and −5  −8
c. p  q : It is snowing and 3  5 .

Disjunction
If p and q are proposition of p and q is the compound propositions ‘ p or q ’,
denoted by p  q. The following is the truth table.

p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example 6:
Each of the following is a disjunction.

a. It will rain tomorrow or it will sunny tomorrow.

b. I love you or I hate you.
c. She attended the class or she did not attend the class.
d. He focuses or he sleeps.

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Example 7:
Form the disjunction of p and q for each of the following.
a. p : 2 is the positive integer. q : 2 is a rational number.
b. p: 2+3  5 q : Paris is the capital of Sweden.

Solution:
a. p  q : 2 is a positive integer or 2 is a rational number. Since p is true, the
disjunction p  q is true, even though q is false.
b. p  q : 2 + 3  5 or Paris is the capital of Sweden. Since both p and q are
false, p  q is false.

Compound Statement
In general, a compound statement may have many component parts, each of which is
itself a statement, represented by some propositional variables.

Example 8:
( p  q)  (~ p) is an example of compound statement. Make a truth table for
( p  q)  (~ p) .

Solution:

p q pq ~p ( p  q)  (~ p)
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T F T T
F F F T T

2.2.2 Quantifiers

An element of {x | P( x)} is an object t for which the statement P(t ) is true. Consider
the following example:
P( x) : x  8

Based on the definition of a propositions, P( x) is not considered as a proposition. The

truth values of P( x) depends on the choices of x .

Let P( x) be a statement involving the variable x and let D be a set. We call P a

propositional function or predicate (with respect to D ) if for each x  D, P( x) is a
proposition. We call D the domain of discourse of P .

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Example 9:

Let A = x x is an integer less than 8  . Here P( x) is the sentence “ x is an integer
less than 8.” The common property is “is an integer less than 8.” P(1) is the statement
“ 1 is an integer less than 8.” Since P(1) is true, 1  A .

Universal Quantification

Let P be a propositional function with the domain of discourse D . The universal

quantification of P( x) is the statement “For all values of x, P( x) is true.” We assume
here that only values of x that make sense in P( x) are considered.

The universal quantification of P( x) is denoted by:

x P( x)

The symbol  is called the universal quantifier.

Universal quantification can also be stated in English as:

a. For each …
b. For every …
c. For any …

Example 10:

a. The sentence P( x) : −(− x) = x is a predicate that make sense for real numbers
x . The universal quantification of P( x), x P( x) , is a true statement, because
for all real numbers, −(− x) = x .

b. Let Q( x) : x + 1  4 . Then x Q( x) is false statement, because Q(5) is not true.

Existential Quantification

Let P be a propositional function with the domain of discourse D . The existential

quantification of P( x) is the statement “There exists a value of x for which P( x) is
true.”

The existential quantification of P( x) is denoted by:

x P( x)

The symbol  is called the existential quantifier.

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Existential quantification can also be stated in English as:

1. There is some …
2. There exists …
3. There is at least …

Notes:
For a predicate with several variables, we may apply both universal and existential
quantification. In this case, the order does matter.

Example 11:
a. Let Q( x) : x + 1  4 . The existential quantification of Q( x), x Q( x) , is a true
statement, because Q ( 2 ) is a true statement.

b. The statement y y + 2 = y is false. There is no value of y for which the

propositional function y + 2 = y produces a true statement.

Example 12:
a. Let D be the set of n  n diagonal matrices. Consider the statement M  D
−1
such that M does not exists. To determine if this statement is true or false,
we must decide if there is an n  n diagonal matrix that does not have an
inverse.

For a statement n  6, 2  2n , only integers greater than or equal to 6 need

n
b.
to be tested.

Example 13:
Let A and B be n  n matrices.

a. The statement A B, A + B = I n is read “for every A there is a B such that

A + B = I n ”. For given A =  ai j  define B = bi j  as follows:
bi j = 1 − ai j , 1  i  n and bi j = −ai j , i  j, 1  i  n, 1  j  n . Then A + B = I n
and we have shown that A B, A + B = I n is a true statement.

b. B A , A + B = I n is a statement “there is a B such that for all A, A + B = I n ”.

This statement is false; no single B has this property for all A ’s.

c. B A , A + B = A is true. What is the value for B that makes the statement

true?

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Example 14:
Let p : For all positive integers n, n + 41n + 41 is a prime number. Then ~ p
2
a.
is “There is at least one positive integer n for which n2 + 41n + 41 is not prime.”

b. Let q : There is some integer k for which 12 = 3k . Then ~ q : For all integers
k , 12  3k .

Example 15:
Let p : The empty set is a subset of any set A . For p to be false, there must be an
element of  that is not in A , but this is impossible. Thus p is true.

2.3 Conditional Statement

If p and q are statements, the compound statement “if p then q ,” denoted p → q , is

called a conditional statement, or implication. The statement p is called the
antecedent or hypothesis, and the statement q is called the consequent or
conclusion. The connective “if… then…” is denoted by the symbol → .

The truth table for the implication p → q is as following:

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Example 16:
Each of the following is an implication.

a. If I take a shower, then I’m refreshed.

b. If I wake up late, then I miss the UPSI Bus.
c. If I respect, then I will be respected.
d. If they have power, then they will be just.

Example 17:
Form the implication p → q for each of the following.
a. p : I am hungry q : I will eat.
b. p : It is snowing. q : 3+5 = 8

Solution:
a. If I am hungry, then I will eat.
b. If it is snowing, then 3 + 5 = 8 .

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Converse and Contrapositive

If p → q is an implication, then the converse of p → q is the implication q → p , and

the contrapositive of p → q is implication ~ q → ~ p .

The truth table for converse is as following:

p q p→q q→ p

T T T T

T F F T

F T T F

F F T T

These two propositions p → q and q → p are not logically equivalent. Why?

The truth table for contrapositive is as following:

p q p→q ~ q →~ p

T T T T

T F F F

F T T T

F F T T

These two propositions p → q and ~ q → ~ p are logically equivalent. Why?

Example 18:
Give the converse and contrapositive of the implication “If it is raining, then I get wet”.

Solution:
We write:
p : It is raining.
q : I get wet.

The converse is q → p : If I get wet, then it is raining.

The contrapositive is ~ q → ~ p : If I do not get wet, then it is not raining.

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Equivalence or Biconditional

If p and q are statements, the compound statement “ p if and only if q ” which is

denoted by p  q , is called an equivalence or biconditional.

The connective “if and only if” is denoted by the symbol  .

The truth table for the implication p  q is as following:

p q pq

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T

Example 19:
Each of the following is an equivalence.

a. I am a Muslim if and only if I obey the five pillars of Islam.

b. I learned Introduction to Discrete Mathematics if and only if I signed up for the
course.
c. Zafri sleeps if and only if he is sleepy.
d. Munirah smiles if and only if she is happy.

Example 20:
Is the following equivalence a true statement?

3  2 if and only if 0  3 − 2 .
Solution:
Let p be the statement 3  2 and let q be the statement 0  3 − 2 . Since both p
and q are true, we conclude that p  q is true.

Example 21:
Compute the truth table of the statement ( p → q)  (~ q → ~ p) .

Solution:

p q p→q ~q ~p ~ q →~ p ( p → q)  (~ q → ~ p)

T T T F F T T

T F F T F F T

F T T F T T T

F F T T T T T

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Notes:

a. Tautology is a statement that true for all possible values of its propositional
variables.

b. Contradiction or an absurdity is a statement that is always false.

c. Contingency is a statement that can be either true or false.

Example 22:

a. The statement p  ~ p is an absurdity. Verify it.

b. The statement ( p → q)  ( p  q) is a contingency.

Solution:
a.
p ~p p ~ p

T F F

F T F

b.
p q p→q pq ( p → q )  ( p  q)

T T T T T

T F F T F

F T T T T

F F T F F

Example 23:
The binary operation  has the commutative property; that is, p  q  q  p . The truth
table for ( p  q)  (q  p) shows the statement is a tautology.

p q pq q p ( p  q)  (q  p)

T T T T T

T F T T T

F T T T T

F F F F T

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Example 24:

p q p→q ~p (~ p)  q

T T T F T

T F F F F

F T T T T

F F T T T

The conditional statement p → q is equivalent to (~ p)  q .

Theorem 1:

The operations for propositions have following properties.

Commutative properties
1. pq  q p
2. pq  q p

Associative properties
1. p  (q  r )  ( p  q)  r
2. p  (q  r )  ( p  q)  r

Distributive properties
1. p  (q  r )  ( p  q)  ( p  r )
2. p  (q  r )  ( p  q )  ( p  r )

Idempotent properties
1. p p  p
2. p p  p

Properties of negation
1. ~ (~ p)  p
2. ~ ( p  q)  (~ p)  (~ q)
3. ~ ( p  q)  (~ p)  (~ q)

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Theorem 2:

a. ( p → q)  (~ p)  q
b. ( p → q)  (~ q → ~ p)
c. ( p  q)  ( ( p → q)  (q → p) )
d. ~ ( p → q)  ( p  ~ q)
e. ~ ( p  q)  ( ( p  ~ q)  ( q  ~ p) )

Theorem 3:

a. ~ ( x P( x) )  x ~ P( x)
b. ~ ( x P( x) )  x ( ~ P( x) )
c. x P( x) → Q( x)  x P( x) → x Q( x)
d. x ( P( x)  Q( x) )  x P( x)  x Q( x)
e. x ( P ( x)  Q( x) )  x P( x)  x Q( x)
f. ( ( x P( x) )  ( x Q( x) ) ) → x P( x)  Q( x) is a tautology.
g. x ( P( x)  Q( x) ) → x P( x)  x Q( x) is a tautology.

Theorem 4:

Each of the following is a tautology.

a. ( p  q) → p b. ( p  q) → q
c. p → ( p  q) d. q → ( p  q)
e. ~ p → ( p → q) f. ~ ( p → q) → p
g. ( p  ( p → q)) → q h. (~ p  ( p  q)) → q
i. (~ q  ( p → q)) →~ p j. (( p → q)  (q → r )) → ( p → r )

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2.4 Methods of Proof

Arguments based on tautology represent university correct methods of reasoning.

The validity of the arguments depends only on the form of the statements involved and
not on the truth values of the variables.

An argument is valid if and only if it is impossible for all the premises to be true and the
conclusion to be false.

Such arguments are called rules of inference.

RULES OF INFERENCE:

Hypothetical Syllogism:  ( p → q)  (q → r )  → ( p → r ) is a tautology.

p→q
q→r
p→r

Modus Ponens:  ( p → q )  p  → q is a tautology.

p→q
p
q

Modus Tolens:  ( p → q) ~ q  → ~ p is a tautology.

p→q
~q
~ p

Disjunction Syllogism:  ( p  q ) ~ p  → q is a tautology.

pq
~p
q

Addition: p → ( p  q) is a tautology.
p
p  q

Simplication: ( p  q) → p is a tautology.

pq
p

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Conjunction:  ( p)  (q)  → ( p  q) is a tautology.

p
q
p  q

Resolution:  ( p  q)  (~ p  r )  → (q  r ) is a tautology.

pq
~ pr
q  r

Example 25:
Is the following argument valid?

If you invest in the stock market, then you will get rich.
If you get rich, then you will be happy.
If you invest in the stock market, then you will be happy.

Solution:
Argument is valid, although the conclusion may be false.

Example 26:
Is the following argument valid?

Smoking is healthy.
If smoking is healthy, then cigarettes are prescribed by physicians.
 Cigarettes are prescribed by physicians.

Solution:
The argument is valid since it is form modus ponens. However, the conclusion is
false.

30
Example 27:
Is the following argument valid?

If taxes are lowered, then income rises.

Income rises.
 Taxes are lowered.

Solution:
Let p : taxes are lowered, and q : income rises.

p→q
q
p

The conclusion p is false. Hence the argument is not valid.

Example 28:
For each of the following, is the argument valid? If valid, then state its rules of inference.

a. If I was famous, then I will be a writer.

I will not be a writer.
 I was not famous.

b. If I was famous, then I will be a writer.

I was not famous.
I will not be a writer.

c. If I was famous, then I will be a writer.

I was famous.
I will be a writer.

d. I will be famous or I will be a writer.

I will not be famous.
I will be a writer.

e. If I was famous, then I will be a writer.

I will be a writer.
I was famous.

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Solution:

a. Let p : I was famous and q : I will be a writer.

p→q
q
 p

The argument is valid since it is form modus tolens.

b. Let p : I was famous and q : I will be a writer.

p→q
p
 q

The conclusion q is false. Hence the argument is not valid.

c. Let p : I was famous and q : I will be a writer.

p→q
p
q

The argument is valid since it is form modus ponens.

d. Let p : I was famous and q : I will be a writer.

pq
p
q

The argument is valid since it is form disjunction syllogism.

e. Let p : I was famous and q : I will be a writer.

p→q
q
p

The conclusion p is false. Hence the argument is not valid.

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METHODS OF PROOF

In practice, the construction of proofs is an art and must be learned in part from
observation and experience. The choice of intermediate steps and methods of deriving
them is a creative activity that cannot be precisely described. But a few simple
techniques are applicable to a wide variety of settings.

The popular techniques which cover in this course are:

a. Direct Method
b. Indirect Method
c. Proof by Contradiction
d. Counterexample
e. Mathematical Induction

Definition 1:
Let n be an integer. We call n even if n is divisible by 2 i.e. if there exists an integer
r so that n = 2r . If n is not even, then we call n odd and find for this case that there
exists an integer s where n = 2s + 1 .

Example 29: (Indirect Method)

Let n be an integer. Prove that if n 2 is odd, then n is odd.

Solution:
2
Let p : n is odd and q : n is odd. We have to prove that p → q is true. Instead, we
prove the contrapositive ~ q → ~ p .

Thus suppose that n is not odd, so that n is even. Then n = 2k , where k is an

integer. We have n = (2k ) = 4k = 2(2k ) , so n 2 is even.
2 2 2 2

We thus show that if n is even, then n 2 is even, which is the contrapositive of the given
statement. Hence the given statement has been proved.

Example 30: (Counterexample)

Prove or disprove the statement that if x and y are real numbers,
( x2 = y 2 )  ( x = y) .

Solution:
The statement can be restated in the form xy R( x, y) . Thus, to approve this result,
we would need to provide steps, each of which would true for all x and y . To disprove
the result, we need only find one example for which the implication is false.

Since ( −3 ) = 32 , but
2
−3  3 , the result is false. Our example is called a
counterexample, and another counterexample would do just as well.

33
Example 31: (Proof by Contradiction)
Prove that there is no rational number p / q whose square is 2. In other words, show
that 2 is irrational.
Solution:
Please try …

Example 32: (Proof by ?)

Let m and n be integers. Prove that n2 = m2 if and only if m = n or m = −n.

Solution:
Please try …

Example 33: (What method?)

For all integers k and l , if k , l are both odd, then k + l is even.

Solution:
Since k and l are odd, we may write k = 2a + 1 and l = 2b + 1 , for some integers a, b.
This is due tu Definition 1.

Then
k + l = (2a + 1) + (2b + 1) = 2(a + b + 1),

by virtue of the commutative and associative laws of addition and the distributive law
of multiplication over addition i.e. all of which hold for integers.

Since a, b are integers, a + b + 1 = c is an integer; with k + l = 2c, it follows from

Definition 1 that k + l is even.

Example 34: (What method?)

Consider the following statement for the universe of integers. Prove or disprove the
statement that:
If n is an integer, then n2 = n , or n [n = n].
2

Solution:
Now for n = 0 it is true that n2 = 02 = 0 = n. And if n = 1, it is also true that
n2 = 12 = 1 = n. However, we cannot conclude n2 = n for every integer n . The rule of
universal generalization does not apply here, for we cannot consider the choice of 0
(or 1) as an arbitrarily chosen integer.

If n = 2 , we have n2 = 22 = 4  2 = n , and this one counterexample is enough to tell

us that the given statement is false.

However, either replacement namely, n = 0 or n = 1 is enough to establish the truth of

the statement.
For some integer n , n2 = n , or n [n = n].
2

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Example 35: (What method?)
For all integers k and l , if k and l are both odd, then their product kl is also odd.

Solution:
Since k and l are both odd, we may write k = 2a + 1 and l = 2b + 1 , for some integers
a and b because of Definition 1.

Then, the product

kl = (2a + 1)(2b + 1) = 4ab + 2a + 2b + 1 = 2(2ab + a + b) + 1,

where 2ab + a + b is an integer.

Therefore, by Definition 1 once again, it follows that kl is odd.

We should not assume, however, that every theorem can be so readily proved in a
variety of ways. Investigate the following example.

Example 36:
If m is an even integer, then m + 7 is odd.

Solution:
We shall prove in three ways i.e.

1. Direct Method/Direct Prove

Since m is even, we have m = 2a for some integer a . Then,

m + 7 = 2a + 7 = 2a + 6 + 1 = 2(a + 3) + 1.

Since a + 3 is an integer, we know that m + 7 is odd.

2. Indirect Method (Contrapositive)

Suppose that m + 7 is not odd, hence even. Then, m + 7 = 2b for some integer b and

m = 2b − 7 = 2b − 8 + 1 = 2(b − 4) + 1,

where b − 4 is an integer. Hence, m is odd. Since 7 is odd, thus m + 7 is also odd.

35
3. Proof by Contradiction

Now assume that m is even and that m + 7 is also even. (This assumption is the
negation of what we want to prove.)

Then, m + 7 even implies that m + 7 = 2c for some integer c . And, consequently,

m = 2c − 7 = 2c − 8 + 1 = 2(c − 4) + 1

with c − 4 an integer, so m is odd. Now we have our contradiction. How and why?

We started with m even and deduced m odd. An impossible situation, since no integer
can be both even and odd. How did we arrive at this dilemma? Simple. We made a
mistake! This mistake is the false assumption, namely, m + 7 is even, that we wanted
to believe at the start of the proof. Since the assumption is false, its negation is true,
and so we now have m + 7 odd.

Example 37: (What method?)

For all positive real numbers x and y , if the product xy exceeds 25, then x  5 or
y  5.

Solution:
Consider the negation of the conclusion that is, suppose that 0  x  5 and
0  y  5. Under these circumstances, we find that 0 = 0.0  x . y  5.5 = 25, so the
product xy does not exceed 25.

2.5 Mathematical Induction

Mathematical induction can be used to prove statements that assert that

+
n  , P(n) is true. A proof by mathematical induction has two parts:

Basic Step : We verify that P (1) is true.

Inductive Step : We show that the conditional proposition
k  + , ( P ( k ) → P ( k + 1) ) is true.

Example 38:
Show, by mathematical induction, that for all n  1,

1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
( n ( n + 1)) .
2

36
Solution:

Basic Step:

We must first assert that P (1) is true. P (1) is the statement

1=
(1(1 + 1))
2

which is clearly true where LHS = RHS = 1.

Inductive Step:

We must now show that for k  1 , if P ( k ) is true, then P ( k + 1) must also be true.
We assume that for some fixed k  1 ,

1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k =
( k ( k + 1))
2

We now wish to show the truth of P ( k + 1) :

( k + 1) ( ( k + 1) + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + ( k + 1) =
2

The LHS of P ( k + 1) can be written as

1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + ( k + 1)

and we have:
(MUST START FROM LHS)

k (k + 1)
(1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k ) + ( k + 1) = + (k + 1)
2
k 
= (k + 1)  + 1
2 
(k + 1)(k + 2)
=
2
( k + 1) ( ( k + 1) + 1)
= : RHS of P ( k + 1)
2

Thus, we have shown the LHS of P ( k + 1) equals the RHS of P ( k + 1) , hence

P ( k + 1) is true. By the principle of mathematical induction, it follows that P(n) is true
for all n  1.

37
Example 39:
Prove that the following statement is true:
2 + 4 + 6 + ... + 2n = n ( n + 1)
Solution:

Basic Step:

For n = 1, P (1) is true where LHS: 2 and RHS: 1(1 + 1) = 2.

Inductive Step:

P ( k ) : 2 + 4 + 6 + ... + 2k = k ( k + 1)
P ( k + 1) : 2 + 4 + 6 + ... + 2 ( k + 1) = ( k + 1) ( k + 1) + 1 = ( k + 1)( k + 2 )

LHS of P ( k + 1) : 2 + 4 + 6 + ... + 2k + 2 ( k + 1) = k ( k + 1) + 2 ( k + 1)
= ( k + 1)( k + 2 ) : RHS of P ( k + 1)

The LHS of P ( k + 1) equals the RHS of P ( k + 1) , hence P ( k + 1) is true. By the

principle of mathematical induction, it follows that P(n) is true for all n  1.

Example 40:
Let A1 , A2 , A3 , ..., An be any n sets. We show by mathematical induction that
n n
Ai = Ai
i =1 i =1

(This is an extended version of one of De Morgan’s laws). Let P(n) be the predicate
that the equality holds for any n sets we prove by mathematical induction that for all
n  1, P(n) is true.

Solution:
Basic Step:

P (1) is the statement A1 = A1 , which is obviously true.

Inductive Step:

We use P ( k ) to show P ( k + 1) that is

38
  k +1 
 i =1 Ai  = A1  A2  ...  Ak  Ak +1
 
= ( A1  A2  ...  Ak  Ak +1 )
= ( A1  A2  ...  Ak )  Ak +1
k 
=  Ai   Ak +1
 i =1 
k +1
= Ai
i =1

Example 41:
Prove that the following statement is true for n is a nonnegative integer:

1 + 21 + 22 + ... + 2n = 2( n+1) −1
Solution:

Basic Step:

n = 0, P ( 0 ) : 2( 0+1) − 1 = 1 is true.

Inductive Step:

P(k ) :1 + 21 + 22 + ... + 2k = 2( k +1) − 1

P(k + 1) :1 + 21 + 22 + ... + 2k +1 = 2( k + 2) − 1

LHS of P ( k + 1) :1 + 21 + 22 + ... + 2k + 2(
k +1)
( )
= 2( k +1) − 1 + 2k +1

= 2  2( k +1) − 1
= 2( k + 2) − 1 : RHS of P ( k + 1)

By the principle of mathematical induction, it follows that P(n) is true for all n  0.

Example 42:
Consider the following recursive definition of the factorial function:

1 ! = 1, n ! = n (n − 1) !, n  1

n −1
Suppose we wish to prove for all n  1, n !  2 . We proceed by mathematical
n −1
induction. Let P(n): n !  2 . Here n0 is 1.

39
Solution:

Basic Step:

P (1) is the statement 1!  20 . Since 1! is 1, this statement is true.

Inductive Step:

We want to show P(k ) → P(k + 1) is a tautology. It will be a tautology if P(k ) true

guarantees P(k + 1) is true.

Suppose k !  2k −1 for some k  1 . Then by recursive definition, the left side of

P(k + 1) is
(k + 1)! = (k + 1)k !
 (k + 1)2k −1 using P(k )
 2  2k −1 k + 1  2, since k  1
= 2k RHS of P(k + 1)

Thus, P(k + 1) is true. By the principle of mathematical induction, it follows that P(n)
is true for all n 1.

Notes:
A slightly different form of mathematical induction is easier to use in some proofs. In
the strong form of mathematical induction or strong induction, the induction step
is to show that
P(n0 )  P(n0 +1)  P(n0 +2)   P(k ) → P(k + 1)

is a tautology. As before, the only case we need to check is that if each

P(j ) , j = n0 , , k is true, then P(k + 1) is true. The strong form of induction is
equivalent to the form we first presented so it is matter of convenience which we use
in a proof.

40
 TUTORAN 1: PROPOSITIONS AND LOGICAL OPERATIONS

1. Which of the following are statements?

a. Is 2 a positive number?
b. x2 + x + 1 = 0
c. Study logic.
d. There will be snow in January.
e. If stock prices fall, then I will lose money.

2. Give the negation of each of the following statements.

a. It will rain tomorrow or it will snow tomorrow.

b. If you drive, then I will walk.

3. In each of the following, form the conjunction and the disjunction of p and q .

a. p : I will drive my car. q : I will be late.

b. p : NUM  10 q : NUM  15

4. Determine the truth or falsity of each of the following statements.

a. 2  3 or 3 is a positive integer.
b. 2  3 or 3 is a positive integer.
c. 2  3 or 3 is not a positive integer.
d. 2  3 or 3 is not a positive integer.

5. Find the truth value of each proposition if p and r are true and q is false.

a. ~ p  (q  r ) b. p  (~ (q ~ r ))
c. ( r  ~ q)  ( p  r ) d. (q  r )  ( p ~ r )

41
 TUTORAN 2: CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

1. State the converse of each of the following implications.

a. If 2 + 2 = 4 , then I am not the Queen of England.

b. If I am not Prime Minister of the Canada, then I will walk to work.
c. If I late, then I did not take the train to work.
d. If I have time and I am not too tired, then I will go to the store.
e. If I have enough money, then I will buy a car and will buy a house.

2. Determine the truth value for each of the following statements.

a. If 2 is even, then Proton City has a large population.

b. If 2 is even, then Proton City has a small population.
c. If 2 is odd, then Proton City has a large population.
d. If 2 is odd, then Proton City has a small population.

3. Construct truth tables to determine whether the given statement is a tautology,

a contingency, or an absurdity.

a. p → (q → p)
b. q → (q → p)

4. If p → q is false, can you determine the truth value of (~ ( p  q)) → q ?

Explain your answer.

5. Find the truth value of each statement if p and q are true and r , s, and t are
false.

a. ~ ( p → q)
b. (~ p) → r
c. ( p → s)  ( s → t )
d. t →~ q

42
 TUTORAN 3: METHODS OF PROOF

1. Write each argument as a single compound statement.

a. ( p → q)  (q → r ) b. ~ ( p → q)
(~ q)  r p
p ~ q

2. Prove that the sum of two odd numbers is even.

3. Give a direct proof for each of the following.

a. For all integers k and l , if k , l are both even, then k + l is even.

b. For all integers k and l , if k , l are both even, then kl is even.

4. For each of the following statements, provide an indirect proof by stating and
proving the contrapositive of the given statement.

a. For all integers k and l , if kl is odd, then k , l are both odd.

b. For all integers k and l , if k + l is even, then k and l are both even
or both odd.

5. Prove that for every integer n , if n is odd, then n 2 is odd.

6. Provide a proof by contradiction for the following:

For every integer n , if n 2 is odd, then n is odd.

7. Prove that for every integer n , n 2 is even if and only if n is even.

8. Prove the following result in three ways:

If n is an odd integer, then n + 11 is even.

9. Let m, n be two positive integers. Prove that if m, n are perfect squares, then
the product mn is also a perfect square.

10. Prove or disprove: If m, n are positive integers and m, n are perfect squares,
then m + n is a perfect square.

11. Prove or disprove: There exist positive integers m, n , where m, n and m + n

are all perfect squares.

12. Prove that for all real numbers x and y , if x + y  100 , then x  50 or y  50.

13. Prove that for every integer n , 4n + 7 is odd.

43
14. Let n be an integer. Prove that n is odd if and only if 7n + 8 is odd.

15. Let n be an integer. Prove that n is even if and only if 31n + 12 is even.

16. Prove that the structure (odd integers, +,* ) is closed with respect to * .

17. Prove that A = B if and only if A  B and B  A .

18. Prove or disapprove: n2 + 41n + 41 is a prime number for every integer n .

44
 TUTORAN 4: MIXED QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following are propositions?

a. Buy local car!

b. The Apple Macintosh is a 16 bit computer.
c. There is a largest even number.
d. Why are we here?
e. 8 + 7 = 13 .
f. a = b = 13 .

2. p :1024 bytes is known as 1MB.

q : A computer keyboard is an example of a data input device.

Express the following compound propositions as English sentences in as

natural a way as you can. Are the resulting propositions true or false?

a. pq b. pq
c. ~p d. ~q

3. p : x  50
q : x  40

Write as simple as you can:

a. ~p b. ~q
c. pq d. pq
e. ~ pq f. ~ p ~ q

One of these compound propositional functions always produces the output

true, and one always output false. Which one?

4. Construct truth tables for:

a. p ~ q
b. q  (~ p  q)
c. p → (q ~ r )
d. ( p  q)  r

45
5. Propositions p, q, r and s are defined as follows:

p : I shall finish my coursework assignment.

q : I shall work for forty hours this week.
r : I shall pass Introduction to Discrete Mathematics.
s : I like Introduction to Discrete Mathematics.
Write each sentence in symbols:

a. I shall not finish my coursework assignment.

b. I don’t like Introduction to Discrete Mathematics, but I shall finish my
coursework assignment.
c. If I finish my coursework assignment, I shall pass Introduction to
Discrete Mathematics.
d. I shall pass Introduction to Discrete Mathematics only if I work for forty
hours this week and finish my coursework assignment.

In Exercises 6 and 7, use P( x) : x is even, Q( x) : x is a prime number, R( x, y) : x + y

is even. The variables x and y represent integers.

6. Write an English sentence corresponding to each of the following.

a. ( x P( x) ) b. (y Q( y) )
c. ~ ( x P( x) ) d. ~ ( y Q( y) )

7. Write each of the following in terms of P( x), Q( x), R( x, y) , logical connectives

and quantifiers. Then determine the truth value of each statement.

a. Every integer is an odd integer.

b. The sum of any two integers is an even number.
c. There are no even prime numbers.
d. Every integer is even or a prime.

8. Determine the truth value for each of the following statements. Assume
x, y  .

a. x, y, x + y is even. b. xy, x + y is even.

c. x, y, x + y is even. d. xy, x + y is even.
e. 2
x, x is positive. f. xy, x + y = y.
g. x, y, x − y is nonnegative. h. x, y, x 2 = y 2

46
9. Construct truth tables to determine whether the given statement is a tautology,
a contingency, or an absurdity.

a. q  (~ q  p)
b. p → (q → p )
c. (q  p)  (q  ~ p)
d. ( p  q) → p
e. p  (q  ( p → r ))

10. For each pair of expressions, construct truth tables to see if the two compound
propositions are logically equivalent.

a. p → q, ~ q → ~ p
b. p  q, ( p → q )  (q → p )
c. ~ ( p  q), ( p  ~ q)  (q  ~ p)
d. ~ p → (q  r ), ( p  q)  p
e. p → q, q → p

11. By constructing truth tables, verify each of the following is a tautology.

a. ( p  ( p → q)) → q Modus Ponens

b. (~ p  ( p  q)) → q Disjunction Syllogism
c. (~ q  ( p → q)) → ~ p Modus Tolens
d. (( p → q)  (q → r )) → ( p → r ) Hypothetical Syllogism

47
 TUTORAN 5: MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

1. Prove the statement is true by using mathematical induction.

n ( 2n + 1)( 2n − 1)
12 + 32 + 52 + ... + ( 2n − 1) =
2
a.
3
5n ( n + 1)
b. 5 + 10 + 15 + ... + 5n =
2
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
c. 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n2 =
6
a −1n
d. 1 + a + a 2 + ... + a n−1 =
a −1

e. a + ar + ar + ... + ar
2 n −1
=
(
a 1− rn ) for r  1
1− r

2. Let P(n) :1 + 5 + 9 + ... + ( 4n − 3) = ( 2n + 1)( n − 1) .

a. Use P ( k ) to show P ( k + 1) .
b. Is P(n) true for all n  1?

n 2 ( n + 1) + 4
2

3. Let P(n) :1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =

3 3 3 3
.
4
a. Use P ( k ) to show P ( k + 1) .
b. Is P(n) true for all n  1?

4. Let P(n) be the statement n2 + n is an odd number for nZ+ .

a. Prove that P ( k ) → P ( k + 1) is a tautology.
b. Is P(n) true for all n ? Explain.

 n ( n + 1) 
2

Show that 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = 

3 3 3 3
5.  whenever n is a positive integer.
 2 

6. Prove that 1.1! + 2.2! + 3.3! + ... + n.n ! = ( n + 1)! − 1 whenever n is a positive
integer.

48
7. Prove using mathematical induction that:

n ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 + ... + n ( n + 1) =
3
Whenever n is a positive integer.

8. Show that:
( −1) n ( n + 1)
n −1

1 − 2 + 3 − ... + ( −1)
n −1
2 2 2
n 2
=
2
Whenever n is a positive integer.

9. Prove the following statement is true by using mathematical induction.

1 + 5 + 9 + 13 + ... + ( 4n − 3) = n ( 2n − 1) .

10. Prove 1 + 2  3 for

n n
n  2.

11. Prove n  2 for

n
n  1.

(2n + 1)2
12. Prove 1 + 2 + 3 + +n  .
8

13. Find the least n for which the statement is true and then prove that
(1 + n 2 ) < 2n .

14. Find the least n for which the statement is true and then prove that 10n < 3n.

(n + 1)2
15. Use mathematical induction to prove that 1 + 2 + 3 + +n  .
2

16. Use mathematical induction to prove that 4n − 1 is divisible by 3 .

49