Data Structures Introduction to data structures Data structure operations Algorithmic notations. Control structures. Arrays - Representation in memory, traversing, inserting, deleting, sorting, binary search in an array, pointe arrays, records in memory using array Linked list, Representation of linked list in memory. Trees, binary trees, representing binary tree in memory.Data Structures [3a] Computer Science-XIl Introduction to Data Structure Data are simply values or sets of values. A data item refers to a single unit of values. Data items that are divided into subitems are called group items. Data items which are not divided into subitems are called elementary items. For example, name of a student can be divided into three subitems-first name, middle name and last name. So name is a group item. The pincode number can not be divided into subitems, So it is elementary item. An entity is something that has certain attributes or properties ‘which may be assigned values. The values can be numeric or non-numeric. For example employee of an organisation is entity. The attributes associated with this entity are employee number, name, age, sex, address etc. Every attribute has certain value. The collection of all entities form an entity set. All the employees in an organisation forms entity set. The term “information” is also used for data with given attributes. Information means meanigful data. ‘Field’ is single elementary unit of information representing an attribute of entity. For example, name, age, sex are all fields. A record is a collection of field values of a given entity. ie. we can have one record for one employee. A file is a collection of records of the entities. i.e. collection of all records of all employees forms a file. A record in a file may contain several fields. There are certain fields having unique value. Such a field is called primary key. For example employee number can be a primary key. A file can have fixed length records or variable length records. In fixed length records, all the records contain the same data items with same amount of space assigned to each data item. In variable length records, file records may contain different lengths. Apart from fields, records and files, the data can also be organised into more complex types of structures. Data can be organised in different ways. The logical or mathematical model of a particular organisation is called a Data structure. The model should reflect the actual relationships of data in real world and it should be simple enough so that data can be processed whenever required. Some of the data structures are arrays, linked lists, trees, queue and graph. An array is list of finite number of elements. For example an array of names of an array of marks. A linked list is a list of elements associated with a link to elements of other list. Tree represents hierarchical relationship between various elements. Queue is first in first out linear list where deletion can take place only at one end. Graph represents relationship between pairs of elements. _| Data structure operations Following are operations that can be performed on a data structure. 1. Traversing : Traversing means accessing each record (element) only once so that it can be processed.Data Structures Computer Science-XII [35 ] 2. Searching : Searching means finding the location of record (element) with given key value or finding all records that satisfies condition. Inserting : Inserting means adding new record (element) to the structure. 4. Deleting :Deleting means removing the record (element) from the structure. 5. Sorting : Sorting means arranging records (elements) in some logical order. For example, arranging names in alphabetical order or arranging numbers in ascending order. 6. Merging : Merging means combining the records in two different files into a single file, Algorithmic notation An algorithm, is a finite step-by-step list of well defined instructions for solving a particular problem, We will be needed to writ te algorithms for different data structure operations. So lets understand what algo: rithm consist of. In the first part of algorithm we tell the purpose of algorithm. It lists for variables and input data. The second part is a list of steps. The steps in algorithm are executed one after the other. Control may be transferred to step n by using statement like ‘Go to step n’. The exit and stop statements completes the al to variables by using read statement and it is dis For example, the algorithm looks as shown belo’ gorithm. The data may be assigned played by write or print statement. wt Algorithm 1: Purpose of algorithm and input data and variables used, Step 1 Step 2 Step n Control structures There are three types of flow of control (or logic) : 1. Sequential flow (Sequential logic) 2. Conditional flow (Selection logic) 3. Repetitive flow (Iteration logic) 1. Sequential flow: Algorithms consists of modules. Each module In sequential flow the modules are executed one after the other. Module A Module B Module C isa set of steps.Science-X1 D. Structures 2. Conditional flow: In conditional flow, one or other module is selected depending on condition. There are three conditional structures - 1) Single alternative This has the form - Vi condition, then (Module A] [End of IF structure) Tt is shown in figure (2.1). Fig. 2.1 : Single alternative. ii) Double alternative This structure has the form - No. If condition, then ae [Module A] Vea ELSE Module A Module B [Module B] [End of IF structure] This logic shown in figure (2.2). Fig, 2.2 : Double alternative. iii) Multiple alternatives This structure has the form - If condition (1), then [Module Aj] ELSE if condition (2), then : [Module A] ELSE if condition (M), then : [Module Ay] ELSE [Module B] [End of IF structure] The logic of this structure allows only one module to be executed. 3. Repetitive flow: Here certain module is executed repetdly unity condition satisfies. The repeat for loop has the from : Repeat for K = R to S by T [Module] {End of if loop} Here K is index variable. Initial value of K is R and final value is S. T is increment. The logic is shown in figure (2.3),Data Structures, Computer Science-XII K-R > No Module K=KeT ae Fig. 2.3 : Repeat for structure. Repeat while is another repetitive flow. It has from : . Repeat while condition : [Module] ral [End of loop] washers Here looping continues until condition is false. It is shown in figure (2.4), ;—! Fig. 2.4: Repeat while structure Problem 2.1 Write an algorithm to find roots of quadratic equation ax?+bx+c=0 Where a # 0 and roots are given by, Solution : Algorithm 2.1. This algorithm inputs coefficients A, B and C of a quadratic equation and finds real roots, if any. Step 1. Read: A, B,C Step 2. Set D=B?-4 AC Step 3. If D>0 then (a) SetX1 = (-B+ JD)/2Aand X2 = (-B-VD)/2A (b) Write : X1, X2 ELSE if D = 0 then, (a) Set X =-B/2A (b) Write : ‘unique solution’, X38 ] Computer Science-XI1 Dake Besetered ELSE: Write : ‘No real roots’ [End of IF structure] Step 4. EXIT A linear array is a list of finite number n of homogeneous data elements. i.e. the data elements are of same type. The elements of the array are referenced respectively by an index set consisting of n consecutive numbers. The elements of array are stored respectively in successive memory locations. The number n of elements is called the length or size of the array. In general, the length or number of elements in array can be obtained by using formula Length = UB-LB+1 where UB is upper bound (largest index) and LB is (smallest index) lower bound Here LB = 0. If LB = 1, then length = UB - LB. The elements of array A may be denoted by subscript notation Ag Ay, Ay Ag cones Ag OF A[O], A[L] AL2], eee AD] For example, let marks be a 6-element array. Marks 0 75 1 87 2 o1 3[ 92 Marks [0] = 75, Marks [1] = 87, Marks [2] = 91, Marks [3] = 92, 4l_95 Marks [4] = 95, Marks [5] = 99 s) 09 Here UB =5 and LB=0. Length=5-0+1=6 Representation of linear arrays in memory The elements of linear array are stored in successive memory cells. The numbet of memory cells required depends on type of data elements. Computer keep track 0! address of the first element of array. If LA is linear array then address of first element is denoted by base (LA) and called base address of LA. Using this base address computer calculates the address of any element of LA by using the formula - LOC (LA [K]) = Base (LA) + W (K - LB) where W = number of words per memory cell for LA.——_—_—_—_—_—_—— Computer Science-XIl | 39 ‘ation of array is shown in figure (2.5). Data Structures The memory represent. Memory address 1000) Array elements are 1001 stored sequentially 1002 Fig. 2.5 : Memory representation of array Traversing linear arrays Traversing array means accessing each element of the array only once. We need to performs this operation several times in a program. The algorithm for this operation is described below. Algorithm - Traversing a linear array. Suppose LA is linear array with lower bound LB and upper bond UB. This algorithm apply PROCESS to each élement of LA. 1. Initialize counter Set K=LB 2. Repeat steps 3 and 4 while K < UB 3. Visit element Apply PROCESS to LA [K] 4. Increase counter Set K=K+1 [End of step 2 loop] 5. EXIT. Inserting and deleting Inserting refers to the operation of adding another element to the existing elements. Deleting refers to the operation of removing one of the element from existing elements. The element can be inserted at the end of array or in the middle of the array. Insertion at end can be eaisily done provided memory space is available. But when we want to insert element in the middle of array, then we need to create space for the element, by moving down the other elements, Similarly deleting an element at end of array is easy. But when element in the middle of array is deleted, then we have to move other elements upward to fill the gap. ; Figure (2.6) shows insertion and deletion operation.Data Structure! [40 ] Computer Science-XII : Name Name Name Anil Anil Atul Millind | Rajesh Millind Rajesh sh Sanjay |_ Sanjay | Rajes! Sanjay Original array Addition of name Deletion of name @) in middle of array from array (b) © Fig. 2.6: Insertion and deletion operation. Algorithm for inserting into linear array is given below : Algorithm - Inserting element into linear array. INSERT (LA, N, K, ITEM) Here LA is linear array with N elements and K is positive integ: such that K = N. This algorithm inserts an element ITEM into # Kt position in LA. . Initialize counter. Set J=N Repeat steps 3 and 4 while J > K. Move J" element downward. Set LA(J+1]=LA[J] Decrease the counter. Set J=J-1. Insert the element Set LA [K]=ITEM . Reset N. N=N+1, 7. EXIT. The algorithm for deleting element from array is given below : Algorithm - Deleting element from linear array. : DELETE (LA, N, K, ITEM) . Here LA is linear array with such that K < N. This algori 1. Set ITEM=LA [kK] 2. Repeat for J=K to N=1 Move J + Ist element upward. Set LA J] =LA(J +1] [End of loop] eR » s 2 N elements and K is a positive integet thm deletes the K'* element from LApata Structures c jence-XI [ 41 3. Reset N Computer Science: N=N-1, 4. EXIT, Sorting Sorting means rearranging elements of array in increasing order. i.e. ALO} DATA [PTR + 1] then : Interchange DATA [PTR] and DATA [PTR + 1] =ltoN-17 [22 [computer Sciencextt Data Structures [End of IF structure} (b) Set PTR=PTR+1 [End of inner loop] [End of step 1 outer loop] 4. EXIT. The time required for sorting algorithm is measured in terms of number of comparisions, There are n = 1 comparisions during first pass, n - 2 comparisions in second pass and so on. Complexcity of algorithm f(n) = (n-1)+(n-2)+. n(n=1) 2 2 W 5 ton) = o(n’) The time required to execute bubble sort algorithm is proportional to n?, where n is number of input items. Searching, linear search Searching refers to the operation of finding the location of given element in the list. The search is said to be successful if item is found. There are many searching algorithms. The most commonly used algorithms are linear search and binary search. Lets first discuss linear search. In linear search the given element is compared with each element of list one by one. This method is also called sequential search. Algorithm - Linear search LINEAR (DATA, N, ITEM, LOC) Here DATA is a linear array with N elements, and ITEM is given element. This algorithm finds the location LOC of ITEM in DATA, or sets LOC = 0 if search is unsuccessful. . Insert ITEM at the end of DATA. Set DATA [N+1]=ITEM . Initialize counter. Set LOC=1 Search for item Repeat while DATA [LOC] # ITEM : Set LOC=LOC+1 [End of loop] 4. If LOC=N +1, then set LOC =0 5. EXIT. In worst case, the running time of algorithm is proportional to n. v »Structures Data Computer Science-Xil [43 Binary search / Suppose a list sorted in increasing order is given and an element for searching is given. In such a case we can use more efficient algorithm called binary search. Binary search algorithm works as follows : Suppose DATA is array in increasing order, DATA [BEG], DATA [BEG # 1], ...scccccn, DATA. {END} are element of DATA. BEG and END denote the beginning and end locations of segment under consideration, This algorithm compares the ITEM with middle element DATA [MID] of segment, where MID = INT ((BEG + END) / 2) INT gives integer value. IfDATA [MID] = ITEM then search is successful and we set LOC = MID. Otherwise there are two possibilities - a) IfITEM DATA [MID], then ITEM can appear only in the right half of the segment. ie. DATA [MID +1)........, DATA [END] So we reset BEG = MID + 1 and begin searching again. If ITEM is not in DATA, then eventually we obtain END < BEG. This signals that search is unsuccessful. Algorithm - Binary search Binary (DATA, LB, UB, ITEM, LOC) Here DATA is sorted array with lower bound LB and upper bound UB. ITEM is given element. BEG denotes beginning, MID denotes middle and END denotes end locations of segment of DATA. This algorithm finds the location LOC of ITEM in DATA or set LOC = NULL. 1. Set BEG = LB, END = UB and MID = INT ((BEG + END) / 2) 2. Repeat steps 3 and 4 while BEG < END and DATA [MID] # ITEM. 3. IF ITEM < DATA [MID], then : Set END=MID~1. EISE : Set BEG=MID +1 [End of IF structure] 4, Set MID = INT (BEG + END) / 2) [End of step 2 loop]Data Structures [4a] Computer Science-XIl 5. If DATA [MID] = ITEM, then Set LOC = MID ELSE Set LOC = NULL F structure] The number of comparisions required here are approximately equal to logan, Which are less than that of linear search. Pointer arrays A variable is called pointer if it points to an element in list. The pointer variable contains the address of an element in the list. called pointer array if each element of array is a pointer. The use of pointer array can be discussed as below : Suppose we have four groups. Each group consist of list of members. The membership list is to be stored in memory. The most efficient method is to form two arrays. One is member consisting of list of all members one after the other and another pointer array group containing the starting locations of different groups. It is shown in figure (2.7). Group Member 1 5 “ 1 2 3 4 “ 8 16 [END Fig. 2.7: Pointer array. Observe that the el i y are si Eee elements of pointer array are starting location addresses of Records Records is a collection of fields, A record may contain non homogeneous data i.e. data items in a record may have different dat ordering of element is not possible, eepata Structuy The elements in records can be described , ed by level numbers. For example, a hospital ents io record i new born baby. It contains following data theme "Name, sex, birthday, father, mother: Birthday is a group item consisting, of month, day and ear. Father and mother are also group items wah acta Yructure of this record is shown below, co ame ene oe ihe 1. New born 2. Name 2. Sex 2. Birthday. 3. Month 3. Day 3. Year 2. Father 3. Name 3. Age 2. Mother 3. Name 3. Age The number to left of each variable is called a level number. Each group item is followed by its subitem. The level of subitem is 1 more than the level of group item To indicate number of records in a file we may write 1 Newborn (20) It indicates a file of 20 records. Any particular field in record can be accessed by using period. For example in above record, if we want to refer to the age of the father then it can be done by writing Newborn. father.Age If there are 20 records and we want to refer to sex of sixth newborn then it can be done by writing Newborn.sex[6]- Representation of records in memory Records contains non homogeneous data. To store record in memory we may use linear arrays. For above example of newborn record, we requires nine linear arrays such as, Name, sex, month, day, year, father name, father age, mother name, mother age. One array for each element of data item. All the arrays should be parallel that is for subscript K the elements Name[K], sex{K], .........., mother age[K] must belong to same record. Figure (2.8) shows parallel arrays.x [Ge] Computer Science-XI1 Data Structures Name Sex Month Mother aj foo) fee) foe) - meres! ea ee [sree a Re = Fig, 2.8 : Parallel arrays for records A linked list is a linear collection of data elements, called nodes, where the linear order is given by means of pointers. i.e. each node is divided into two parts. The first part contains the information of the element and second part is link field which contains the address of the next node in the list. Figure shows a linked list with 6 nodes. Name or start =] wee leew Information Pointer of part next node Fig, 2.9 : Linked list. The left part represents the information part of the node. The right pointer is next pointer field of node. The arrow is drawn from this field to next node. The pointer field of last node contains null pointer. (i.e. 0) In figure (2.9) it is shown by X. The list pointer variable is start or name. This contains address of first node in list. We need only this address to trace the list. When list do not have any node then it is called null list or empty list and start variable contains null pointer. In comparision with lists i.e. arrays, linked list have certain advantages. Insertion and deletion of array element is expensive. Array elements also requires consecutive memory locations. In linked lists, insertion and deletion is easy. Linked list also do not require consecutive memory locations. Representation of linked list in memory 9 10 10 Fig. 2.10 ; Linked list representation in memory.pata Structures Computer Science-XII Linked I a Sede BURL by two linear arrays. One is INFO, containing information part and other is LINK, containing next pointer field. Thi ist, start, contains beginning of the list P . ne Figure (2.10) is one example of linked list represented in memory. Start points to sth element. INFO[5] = A and LINK[5] = 2. So the next node is 2. INFOf2- B and LINK[2} = 9. The next node is 9. INFO[9] = C and LINK[9} = 1 - ie null. The list is ended here Centre ee Tree is a non linear data structure. It is used to represent data containing a hierarchical relationship between elements. ‘Abinary tree is a special kind of tree. It can be eaisily maintained in the computer. Binary trees A binary tree T is defined as a finite set of elements, called nodes, such that ~ a) Tis empty (called the null tree or empty tree) or b) Tcontains a distinguished node R, called root of T and the remaining nodes of T form an ordered pair of disjoint binary trees T, and T>. @ If T contains root R, then two trees T; and (BY iQ Ty are left and right subtrees of R. If T; is non empty, then its root is called left successor of R © © » © ae ® and if T, is non empty, then its root is called right successor or R. © A binary tree T is shown in figure (2.11). Fig. 2.11 : Binary tree. T contains 11 nodes (A to L). Root of T is A at the top of figure. B is left successor and C is right successor of node A. Left subtree of node A consists of nodes B, D, E and F. Right d subtree of node A consists of nodes C, G, H, J, K and L. Any node in binary tree has 0, 1 or 2 successors. The nodes with no successors are called terminal nodes. “ wa The two binary trees are said to be similar | gig 9.4, pa(a—b)/Ue"d +8) if they have same structure. The algebraic expression E = (a - b) / ((c tree as shown in figure (2.12). Suppose N is node in T with left successor $; and right successor 2. Then N is called parent (or father) of S, and Sp. S; is left child of N and S, is right child of N. The line drawn from node N to a successor is called an edge and sequence of consecutive edges is called a path. A terminal node is leaf and path ending in a leaf is called a branch, The depth (or height) of a tree T is the maximum number of nodes in a branch of T. * d) +e) can be represented by binaryx [GE] Computer Seience-Xtt Beabe Bictithersy The tree T is said to be complete if all its ) levels, except the last, have maximum number | of possible nodes | A binary tree T is said to be a 2 tree or an | extended binary tree if each node N has either 0 or 2 children. In such a case, the nodes with 2 children are called internal nodes and the nodes with 0 children are called external nodes. It is shown in figure (2.13). Fig, 2.13 : Extended 2-tree. The depth (or height) of a tree T is the ‘maximum number of nodes in a branch of T. This is one more than the largest level number of T. For example, following tree has depth 5. The maximum number of nodes symmetric binary tree with depth 5 are 31. Fig. 2.14 Representing binary trees in memory Let T be a binary tree. T can be represented in memory either by link representation or by using array called sequential representation. The requirement in any representation is that one should have direct access to root R given any node N of T. The linked representation uses three parallel arrays, INFO, LEFT and RIGHT and a pointer variable ROOT. Each node N of T will correspond to a location K such that: 1. INFO [K] contains the data at node N. 2. LEFT [K] contains the location of left child of node N. 3. RIGHT [K] contains the location of right child of node N. Root will contain location of root R of T. A sample representation is shown in figure (2.15) wor = xX BX ‘ INFO. LEFT RIGHT 1 RooT | 2? A 4 5 4B o 0 5 oc 0 0 Fig, 2.15 : Link representation of binary tree. Another method is sequential representation. Here a linear array is used. The root Ris stored in TREE [1]. Ifa node n occupies TREE [K], then its left child is stored in TREE [2 * K] and right child in TREE [2° K +1}. An example is shown in figure 2 16)pata Structures Computer Science-XI1 mm, vo Ne miclele Fig. 2.16 : Sequential representation of binary tree. Stack and Queue Many times we want to restrict insertion and deletion operations, so that they can take place only at beginning or the end of list, not in the middle. The data structures stack and Queue are useful in such situations. A Stack is a data structure in which items may be added or removed only at one end. The common examples of stack are stack of dishes, a stack of books etc. Observe that the item can be removed or added only from the top of the stack. “Push” is the term used to insert an element into a stack. “Pop” is the term used to delete an element from a stack. A stack is also called as last-in-first-out (LIFO) list. A queue is a linear list in which items may be added only at one end and items may be removed only at other end. The common example of queue is the queue waiting for a bus at bus stop. The queue is also called as first-in-first-out (FIFO) list. Another example of queue is a batch of jobs waiting to be processed 10. nL 12, 13, 4, 15, 16, 1, 18, een aueene QUESTIONS What is data ? What are group items ? What is information ? What is file ? What is record ? What is primary key ? What is data structure ? What operations can be performed on data structure ? Brifly describe them. What is algorithm ? Describe conditional structure. Describe logic of repeat while structure. What are arrays ? How arrays are represented in memory ? What is traversing a linear array ? Write algorithm for traversing a linear array. Write algorithm for inserting an element into array. Write algorithm for deleting an element from array. What is sorting ? Write bubble sort algorithm for sorting.x [50] Computer Science-XiI Data Structures 19, What is searching ? 20. Write algorithm for linear search. 21. Write algorithm for binary search. 22, Whatis pointer? 23. What are pointer arrays ? 24. How records are represented in memory ? 25. What is linked list ? 26. What are advantages of linkded lists over lists ? 27. How linked lists are represented in memory ? 28. What is tree ? 29. What is binary tree ? 30. What is extended 2-tree ? 31. How algebraic expressions are represented by binary tree ? 32. How binary trees are represented in memory ? 33. Select the correct alternative and rewrite the following : a) Pin code number is, i) group item ii) Elementary item iii) subitem iv) none of these b) A record is collection of i) files ii) arrays iv) none of these ©) Accessing each element only once is called i) traversing ii) _ searching inserting iv) deleting 4) The elements in array are i) homogeneous ii) non homogeneous iii) equal iv) none of these e) Finding location of given element is called . i) sorting ii) searching iii) traversing _iv)_ none of these £) Number of comparisions in binary search are . to that of linear search i) equal ii) greaterthan iii) less than iv) none of these g) Pointer variable contains i) address ii) floatnumber iii) character iv) string h) Record contains... data. i) homogeneous ii) non homogeneous iii) same iv) none of these i) Tree is .. data structure. i) linear ii) non linear iii) homogeneous iv) non homogeneous. ooo