Control and Analysis For Food and Agricultural Products

Control and Analysis
for Food and

Agricultural Products
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
Control and Analysis
for Food and
Agricultural Products
Editor
Kavita Marwaha
2010
Gene-Tech Books
New Delhi - 110 002
2010, Publisher
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Preface
Agriculture contemporarily involves the use of the latest
scientific principles and methodology, constantly improvising
upon itself to meet the ever-growing demand for food and
fuel. In such a scenario, analysis and control methods for farm
practices and production has been a considerable increase in
utilisation, particularly through the emergence of such
sciences and precision agriculture, which involves the use of
state-of-the-art technology in field practice agricultural needs
as per spatial variability of the farm. As such, analysis and
control methods for farm management entails the next level
for agriculture, heightening its technological revolution.
This book has been designed keeping in mind the need of
a text which acquaint readers with the emergence of analysis
and control procedures in agricultural practice. The book
highlights the principles and techniques which define this
science, bringing within purview the changes, advantages and
challenges offered by it. A comprehensive discussion of
sampling methods, measurement devices, sensors, computer
analysis, data interpretation standardisation, etc., has been
brought under cover, along with a review of their efficacy in
agriculture. Upto-date with the latest in the field, the text
manages to incorporate a pertinent account of what analysis
and control methods in agriculture offers for the present as
well as the future.
Kavita Marwaha
Contents
Preface v
l. Principles of Food Analysis 1
2. Quality Control in Food Industry 17
3. Food Sampling and Data Analysis 51
4. Food Protein Analysis 69
5. Analysis of Lipid Concentration in Food 89
6. Determination of Ash and Minerals 115
7. Analysis of Moisture and Total Solids in
Food Products 133
8. Instrumental Techniques for Food Analysis 151
9. Evaluation of Milk Quality 189
10. Quality Management in Fish Processing 215
11. Microbial Safety in Food Preservation 233
12. Food Safety Risk Analysis 243
Bibliography
269
Index
271
1
Principles of Food Analysis
Food analysis is the discipline dealing with the development,
application and study of analytical procedures for
ch::tracterising the properties of foods and their constituents.
These analytical procedures are used to provide information
about a wide variety of different characteristics of foods,
including their composition, structure, physicochemical
properties and sensory attributes. This information is critical
to our rational understanding of the factors that determine the
properties of foods, as well as to our ability to economically
produce foods that are consistently safe, nutritious and
desirable and for consumers to make informed choices about
their diet.
Foods are analysed by scientists working in all of the
major sectors of the food industry including food
manufacturers, ingredient suppliers, analytical service
laboratories, government laboratories, and University
research laboratories.
GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Government regulations and recommendations are designed
to maintain the general quality of the food supply, to ensure
the food industry provides consumers with foods that are
wholesome and safe, to inform consumers about the
nutritional composition of foods so that they can make
knowledgeable choices about their diet, to enable fair
2 Control and Analysis for Food and Agricultural Products
competition amongst food companies, and to eliminate
economic fraud.
There are a number of Government Departments
Responsible for regulating the composition and quality of
foods, including the Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and the
Environmental- Protection Agency ( E P A ) ~ Each of these
government agencies is responsible for regulating particular
sectors of the food industry and publishes documents that
contain detailed information about the regulations and
recommendations pertaining to the foods produced within
those sectors.
Voluntary and Mandatory Standards
Government agencies have specified a number of voluntary
and mandatory standards concerning the composition,
quality, inspection, and labelling of specific food products.
Mandatory Standards:
Standards oj Identity: These regulations specify the type
and amounts of ingredients that certain foods must
contain if they are to be called by a particular name on
the food label. For some foods there is a maximum or
minimum concentration of a certain component that
they must contain, e.g., "peanut butter" must be less
than 55% fat, "ice-cream" must be greater than 10%
milk fat, "cheddar cheese" must be greater than 50%
milk fat and less than 39% moisture.
Standards oj Quality: Standards of quality have been
defined for certain foods (e.g., canned fruits and
vegetables) to set minimum requirements on the colour,
tenderness, mass and freedom from defects.
Standards oj Fill-oj-Container: These standards state how
full a container must be to avoid consumer deception,
as well as specifying how the degree of fill is measured.
Voluntary Standards:
. ~

Principles of Food Analysis 3
Standards of Grade: A number of foods, including meat,
dairy products and eggs, are graded according to their
quality, e.g. from standard to excellent. For example
meats can be graded as "prime", "choice", "select",
"standard" etc according to their origin, tenderness,
juiciness, flavour and appearance. There are clear
definitions associated with these descriptors that
products must conform to before they can be given the
appropriate label. Specification of the grade of a food
product on the label is voluntary, but many food
manufacturers opt to do this because superior grade
products can be sold for a higher price. The government
has laboratories that food producers send their
products too to be tested to receive the appropriate
certification. This service is requested and paid for by
the food producer.
Nutritional Labelling and Education Act
In 1990, the US government passed the Nutritional Labelling
and Education Act (NLEA), which revised the regulations
pertaining to the nutritional labelling of foods, and made it
mandatory for almost all food products to have standardised
r.utritional labels. One of the major reasons for introducing
these regulations was so that consumers could make informed
choices about their diet. Nutritional labels state the total
calorific value of the food, as well as total fat, saturated fat,
cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrate, dietary fibber, sugars,
protein, vitamins, calcium and iron.
The label may also contain information about nutrient
content claims (such as "low fat", "low sodium" "high fibber"
"fat free" etc), although government regulations stipulate the
minimum or maximum amounts of specific food components
that a food must contain if it is to be given one of these nutrient
content descriptors. The label may also contain certain FDA
approved health claims based on links between specific food
components and certain diseases. The information provided
on the label can be used by consumers to plan a nutritious and
balanced diet, to avoid over consumption of food component$
linked with health problems, and to encourage greater
consumption of foods that are beneficial to health.
Authenticity
The price of certain foods is dictated by the quality of the
ingredients that they contain. For example, a packet of
premium coffee may claim that the coffee beans are from
Columbia, or the label of an expensive wine may claim that
it was produced in a certain region, using a certain type of
grapes in a particular year. There are many instances in the
past where manufacturers have made false claims about the
authenticity of their products in order to get a higher price.
It is therefore important to have analytical techniques that can
be used to test the authenticity of certain food components,
to ensure that consumers are not the victims of economic fraud
and that competition among food manufacturers is fair.
Food Inspection and Grading Services
The government has a Food Inspection and Grading Service
that routinely analyses the properties of food products to
ensure that they meet the appropriate laws and regulations.
Hence, both government agencies and food manufacturers
need analytical techniques to provide the appropriate
information about food properties. The most important
criteria for t!1is' type of test are often the accuracy of the
measurements and the use of an official method.
The governn,e:lt has recently carried out a survey of many
of the official analytical techniques developed to analyse
foods, and has specified which techniques must be used to
analyse certain food components for labelling purposes.
Techniques have been chosen which provide accurate and
reliable results, but which are relatively simple and
inexpensive to perform.
Analysing Foods
One of the most important reasons for analysing foods from
both the consumers and the manufacturers standpoint is to
ensure that they are safe. It would be economicdlly disastrous,
5
as well as being rather unpleasant to consumers, if a food
manufacturer sold a product that was harmful or toxic. A food
may be considered to be unsafe because it contains harmful
microorganisms, toxic chemicals or extraneous matter. It is
therefore important that food manufacturers do everything
they can to ensure that these harmful substances are not
present, or that they are effectively eliminated before the food
is consumed.
This can be achieved by following "good manufacturing
practice" regulations specified by the government for specific
food products and by having analytical techniques that are
capable of detecting harmful substances. In many situations
it is important to use analytical techniques that have a high
sensitivity, i.e., that can reliably detect low levels of harmful
material. Food manufacturers and government laboratories
routinely analyse food products to ensure that they do not
contain harmful substances and that the food production
facility is operating correctly.
Quality Control
The food industry is highly competitive and -food
manufacturers are continually trying to increase their market-
share and profits. To do this they must ensure that their
products are of higher quality, less expensive, and more
desirable than their competitors, whilst ensuring that they are
safe and nutritious. To meet these rigorous standards food
manufacturers need analytical techniques to analyse food
materials before, during and after the manufacturing process
to ensure that the final product meets the desired standards.
In a food factory one starts with a number of different raw
materials, processes them in a certain manner (e.g. heat, cool,
mix, dry), packages them for consumption and then stores
them, The food is then transported to a warehouse or retailer
where it is sold for consumption.
One of the most important concerns of the food
manufacturer is to produce a final product that consistently
has the same overall properties, i.e. appearance, texture,
flavour and shelf life. When we purchase a particular food
product we expect its properties to be the same (or very
similar) to previous times, and not to vary from purchase-to-
purchase. Ideally, a food manufacture wants to take the raw
ingredients, process them in a certain way and produce a
product with specific desirable properties. Unfortunately, the
properties of the raw ingredients and the processing
conditions vary from time to time which causes the properties
of the final product to vary, often in an unpredictable way.
How can food manufacturers control these variations?
Firstly, they can understand the role that different food
ingredients and processing operations play in determining the
final properties of foods, so that they can rationally control the
manufacturing process to produce a final product with
consistent properties. This type of information can be
established through research and development work.
Secondly, they can monitor the properties of foods during
production to ensure that they are meeting the specified
requirements, and if a problem is detected during the
production process, appropriate actions can be taken to
maintain final product quality.
Characterisation of raw materials: Manufacturers measure
the properties of incoming raw materials to ensure that they
meet certain minimum standards of quality that have
previously been defined by the manufacturer. If these
standards are not met the manufacturer rejects the material.
Even when a batch of raw materials has been accepted,
variations in its properties might lead to changes in the
properties of the final product. By analysing the raw materials
it is often possible to predict their subsequent behaviour
during processing so that the processing conditions can be
altered to produce a final product with the desired properties.
For example, the colour of potato chips depends on the
concentration of reducing sugars in the potatoes that they are
manufactured from: the higher the concentration, the browner
the potato chip. Thus it is necessary to have an analytical
technique to measure the concentration of reducing sugars in
the potatoes so that the frying conditions can be altered to
produce the optimum coloured potato chip.
7
Monitoring of food properties during processing: It is
advantageous for food manufacturers to be able to measure
the properties of foods during processing. Thus, if any
problem develops, then it can be quickly detected, and the
process adjusted to compensate for it. This helps to improve
the overall quality of a food and to reduce the amount of
material and time wasted. For example, if a manufacturer
were producing a salad dressing product, and the oil content
became too high or too low they would want to adjust the
processing conditions to eliminate this problem. Traditionally,
samples are removed from the process and tested in a quality
assurance laboratory.
This procedure is often fairly time-consuming and means
that so'me of the product is usually wasted before a particular
problem becomes apparent. For this reason, there is an
increasing tendency in the food industry to use analytical
techniques which are capable of rapidly measuring the
properties of foods on-line, without having to remove a
sample from the process. These techniques allow problems to
be determined much more quickly and therefore lead to
improved product quality and less waste. The ideal criteria for
an on-line technique is that it be capable of rapid and precise
measurements, it is non-intrusive, it is nondestructive and that
it can be automated.
Characterisation of final product: Once the product has been
made it is important to analyse its properties to ensure that
it meets the appropriate legal and labelling requirements, that
it is safe, and that it is of high quality. It is also important to
ensure that it retains its desirable properties up to the time
when it is consumed. A system known as Hazard Analysis
and Critical Control Point (HACCP) has been developed,
whose aim is to systematically identify the ingredients or
processes that may cause problems (hazard analysis), assign
locations (critical control points) within the manufacturing
process where the properties of the food must be measured
to ensure that safety and quality arc maintained, and to
specify the appropriate action to take if a problem is identified.
The type of analytical technique required to carry out the
analysis is often specified.
PROPERTIES ANALYSED
Food analysts are interested in obtaining information about a
variety of different characteristics of foods, including their
composition, structure, physicochemical properties and
sensory attributes.
Composition of Food
The composition of a food largely determines its safety,
nutrition, physicochemical properties, quality attributes and
sensory characteristics. Most foods are compositionally
complex materials made up of a wide variety of different
chemical constituents. Their composition can be specified in
a number of different ways depending on the property that
is of interest to the analyst and the type of analytical procedure
used: specific atoms; specific molecules, types of molecules, or
specific substances. Government regulations state that the
concentration of certain food components must be stipulated
on the nutritional label of most food products, and are usually
reported as specific molecules or types of molecules.
The structural organisation of the components within a
food also plays a large role in determining the
physicochemical properties, quality attributes and sensory
characteristics of many foods. Hence, two foods that have the
same composition can have very different quality attributes
if their constituents are organised differently. For example, a
carton of ice cream taken from a refrigerator has a pleasant
appearance and good taste, but if it is allowed to melt and then
is placed back in the refrigerator its appearance and texture
change dramatically and it would not be acceptable to a
consumer.
Thus, there has been an adverse influence on its quality,
even though its chemical composition is unchanged, because
of an alteration in the structural organisation of the
constituents caused by the melting of ice and fat crystals.
Another familiar example is the change in egg white from a
transparent viscous liquid to an optically opaque gel when it
is heated in boiling water for a few minutes. Again there is
no change in the chemical composition of the food, but its
physiochemical properties have changed dramatically
because of an alteration in the structural organisation of the
constituents caused by protein unfolding and gelation.
The structure of a food can be examined at a number of
different levels:
Molecular structure ( 1 -100 nm). Ultimately, the overall
physicochemical properties of a food depend on the
type of molecules present, their three-dimensional
structure and their interactions with each other. It is
therefore important for food scientists to have analytical
techniques to examine the structure and interactions of
individual food molecules.
Microscopic structure ( 10 nm - 100 m). The microscopic
structure of a food can be observed by microscopy (but
not by the unaided eye) and consists of regions in a
material where the molecules associate to form discrete
phases, e.g., emulsion droplets, fat crystals, protein
aggregates and small air cells.
Macroscopic structure ( > 100 m). This is the structure
that can be observed by the unaided human eye, e.g.,
sugar granules, large air cells, raisons, chocolate chips
All of these different levels of structure contribute to the
overall properties of foods, such as texture, appearance,
stability and taste. In order to design new foods, or to improve
the properties of existing foods, it is extremely useful to
understand the relationship between the structural properties
of foods and their bulk properties. Analytical techniques are
therefore needed to characterise these different levels of
structure. A number of the most important of these techniques
are considered in this course.
Physicochemical Properties of Foods
The physiochemical properties of foods (rheological, optical,
stability, "flavour") ultimately determine their perceived
quality, sensory attributes and behaviour during production,
storage and consumption.
The optical properties of foods are determined by the
way that they interact with electromagnetic radiation in
the visible region of the spectrum, e.g., absorption,
scattering, transmission and reflection of light. For
example, full fat milk has a "whiter" appearance than
skim milk because a greater fraction of the light incident
upon the surface of full fat milk is scattered due to the
presence of the fat droplets.
The rheological properties of foods are determined by
the way that the shape of the food changes, or the way
that the food flows, in response to some applied force.
For example, margarine should be spreadable when it
comes out of a refrigerator, but it must not be so soft
that it collapses under its own weight when it is left on
a table.
The stability of a food is a measure of its ability to resist
changes in its properties over time. These changes may
be chemical, physical or biological in origin. Chemical
stability refers to the change in the type of molecules
present in a food with time due to chemical or
biochemical reactions, e.g., fat rancidity or non-
enzymatic browning. Physical stability refers to the
change in the spatial distribution of the molecules
present in a food with time due to movement of
molecules from one location to another, e.g., droplet
creaming in milk. Biological stability refers to the
change in the number of microorganisms present in a
food with time, e.g., bacterial or fungal growth.
The flavour of a food is determined by the way that
certain molecules in the food interact with receptors in
the mouth (taste) and nose (smell) of human beings. The
perceived flavour of a food product depends on the
type and concentration of flavour constituents within it,
the nature of the food matrix, 3::' well as how quickly
the flavour molecules Cdn move from the food to the
sensors in the mouth and nose. Analytically, the flavour
of a food is often characterised by measuring the
concentration, type and release of flavour molecules
within a food or in the headspace above the food.
Foods must therefore be carefully designed so that they have
the required physicochemical properties over the range of
environmental conditions that they will experience during
processing, storage and consumption, e.g., variations in
temperature or mechanical stress. Consequently, analytical
techniques are needed to test foods to ensure that they have
the appropriate physicochemical properties.
Sensory Attributes
Ultimately, the quality and desirability of a food product is
determined by its interaction with the sensory organs of
human beings, e.g., vision, taste, smell, feel and hearing. For
this reason the sensory properties of new or improved foods
are usually tested by human beings to ensure that they have
acceptable and desirable properties before they are launched
onto the market. Even so, individuals' perceptions of sensory
attributes are often fairly subjective, being influenced by such
factors as current trends, nutritional education, climate, age,
health, and social, cultural and religious patterns.
To minimise the effects of such factors a number of
procedures have been developed to obtain statistically
relevant information. For example, foods are often tested on
statistically large groups of untrained consumers to determine
their reaction to a new or improved product before full-scale
marketing or further development Alternatively, selected
individuals may be trained so that they can reliably detect
small differences in specific qualities of particular food
products, e.g., the mint flavour of a chewing gum.
Although sensory analysis is often the ultimate test for the
acceptance or rejection of a particular food product, there are
a number of disadvantages: it is time consuming and
expensive to carry out, tests are not objective, it cannot be used
on materials that contain poisons or toxins, and it cannot be
used to provide information about the safety, composition or
nutritional value of a food. For these reasons objective
analytical tests, which can be performed in a laboratory using
standardised equipment and procedures, are often preferred
for testing food product properties that are related to specific
sensory attributes. For this reason, many attempts have been
made to correlate sensory attributes to quantities that can be
measured using objective analytical techniques, with varying
degrees of success.
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE
There are usually a number of different analytical techniques
available to determine a particular property of a food material.
It is therefore necessary to select the most appropriate
technique for the specific application. The analytical technique
selected depends on the property to be measured, the type of
food to be analysed, and the reason for carrying out the
analysis. Information about the various analytical procedures
available can be obtained from a number of different sources.
An analytical procedure may already be routinely used in the
laboratory or company where you are working. Alternatively,
it may be possible to contact an expert who could recommend
a certain technique, e.g., a University Professor or a
Consultant. Often it is necessary to consult scientific and
technical publications. There are a number of different sources
where information about the techniques used to analyse foods
can be obtained:
Tabulated Official Methods of Analysis
A number of scientific organisations have been setup to
establish certain techniques as official methods, e.g<
Association of the Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) and
American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS). Normally, a
particular laboratory develops a new analytical procedure and
proposes it as a new official method to one of the
organisations. The method is then tested by a number of
independent laboratories using the same analytical procedure
and type of equipment stipulated in the original proposaL
The results of these tests are collated and compared with
expected values to ensure that the method gives reproducible
and accurate results. After rigorous testing the procedure may
be accepted, modified or rejected as an official method.
Organisations publish volumes that contain the officially
recognised test methods for a variety of different food
components and foodstuffs. It is possible to consult one of
these official publications and ascertain whether a suitable
analytical procedure already exists or can be modified for
your particular application.
Journals
Analytical methods developed by other scientists are often
reported in scientific journals, e.g., Journal of Food Science,
Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, Journal of the
American Oil Chemists Society, Analytical Chemistry.
Information about analytical methods in journals can often be
obtained by searching computer databases of scientific
publications available at libraries or on the Internet.
Equipment and Reagent Suppliers
Many companies that manufacture equipment and reagents
used to analyse foods advertise their products in scientific
journals, trade journals, trade directories, and the Internet.
These companies will send you literature that describes the
principles and specifications of the equipment or test
procedures that they are selling, which can be used to
determine the advantages and limitations of each technique.
Role of Internet
The Internet is an excellent source of information on the
various analytical procedures available for analysing food
properties. University lecturers, book suppliers, scientific
organisations, scientific journals, computer databases, and
equipment and reagent suppliers post information on the web
about food analysis techniques. This information can be
accessed using appropriately selected keywords in an Internet
search engine.
Developing a New Technique
In some cases there may be no suitable techniques available
and so it is necessary to develop a new one. This must be done
with great care so as to ensure that the technique gives
accurate and reliable measurements. Confidence in the
accuracy of the technique can be obtained by analysing
samples of known properties or by comparing the results of
the new technique with those of well-established or official
methods.
One of the most important factors that must be considered
when developing a new analyticaJ technique is the way in
which lithe analyte" will be distinguished from "the matrix".
Most foods contain a large number of different components,
and therefore it is often necessary to distinguish the
component being analysed for (lithe analyte") from the
multitude of other components surrounding it (lithe matriX;').
Food components can be distinguished from each other
according to differences in their molecular characteristics,
physical properties and chemical reactions:
Molecular characteristics: Size, shape, polarity,
electrical charge, interactions with radiation.
Physical properties: Density, rheology, optical
properties, electrical properties, phase transitions
(melting point, boiling point).
Chemical reactions: Specific chemical reactions between
the component of interest and an added reagent.
When developing an appropriate analytical technique that is
specific for a particular component it is necessary to identify
the molecular and physicochemical properties of the analyte
that are sufficiently different from those of the components in
the matrix. In some foods it is possible to directly determine
the analyte within the food matrix, but more often it is
necessary to carry out a number of preparatory steps to isolate
the analyte prior to carrying out the analysis. For example, an
analyte may be physically isolated from the matrix using 'one
procedure and then analysed using another procedure.
In some situations there may be one or more components
within a food that have very similar properties to the analyte.
These "interferents" may make it difficult to develop an
analytical technique that is specific for the analyte. It may be
necessary to remove these interfering substances prior to
carrying out the analysis for the analyte, or to use an analytical
procedure that can distinguish between substances with
similar properties.
Selecting an Appropriate Technique
Some of the criteria that are important in selecting a technique
are listed below:
Precision: A measure of the ability to reproduce an
answer between determinations performed by the same
scientist (or group of scientists) using the same
equipment and experimental approach.
Reproducibility: A measure of the ability to reproduce an
answer by scientists using the same experimental
approach but in different laboratories using different
equipment.
Accuracy: A measure of how close one can actually
measure the true value of the parameter being
measured, e.g., fat content, or sodium concentration.
Simplicity of operation: A measure of the ease with which
relatively unskilled workers may carry out the analysis.
Cost: The total cost of the analysis, including the
reagents, instrumentation and salary of personnel
required to carry it out.
Speed: The time needed to complete the analysis of a
single sample or the number of samples that can be
analysed in a given time.
Sensitivity: A measure of the lowest concentration of a
component that can be detected by a given procedure.
Specificity: A measure of the ability to detect and
quantify specific components within a food material,
even in the presence of other similar components, e.g.,
fructose in the presence of sucrose or glucose.
Safety: Many reagents and procedures used in food
analysis are potentially hazardous e.g. strong acids or
bases, toxic chemicals or flammable materials.
Destructive/Nondestructive: In some analytical methods
the sample is destroyed during the analysis, whereas in
others it remains intact.
On-line!Off-line: Some analytical methods can be used to
measure the properties of a food during processing,
whereas others can only be used after the sample has
been taken from the production line.
Official Approval: Various international bodies have
given official approval to methods that have been
comprehensively studied by independent analysts and
shown to be acceptable to the various organisations
involved.
Nature of Food Matrix: The composition, structure and
physical properties of the matrix material surrounding
the analyte often influences the type of method that can
be used to carry out an analysis, e.g., whether the matrix
is solid or liquid, transparent or opaque, polar or non-
polar.
If there are a number of alternative methods available for
measuring a certain property of a food, the choice of a
particular method will depend on which of the above criteria
is most important. For example, accuracy and use of an official
method may be the most important criteria in a government
laboratory whic;:h checks the validity of compositional or
nutritional claims on food products, whereas speed and the
ability to make nondestructive measurements may be more
important for routine quality control in a factory where a large
number of samples ha ve to be analysed rapidly.
REFERENCES
Covello VT, MerkilOfer MW Risk assessment methods: approaches for assessing
health and ellvmmmentai risks, Plenum Press, New York, 1993.
Kramer, A. and Twigg, B.A., flllldami'lltals of quality control for the food
industry, AVI Publishing Co., Westport. Conn. USA, 1962.
2
Quality Control in Food Industry
Quality control is the sum of all those controllable factors that
ultimately influence positively or negatively the quality of the
finished product e.g. selection of raw materials, processing
methods, packaging, methods of storage distribution etc.
Quality is defined as any of the features that make something
what it is or the degree of excellence or superiority. The word
"quality" is used in varioUs ways as applied to food.
Quality product to the salesman means one of high quality
and usually at an expensive nature e.g. champagne is
considered a quality as compared to fish and chips. Likewise
for fresh produce, the word "quality" refers to the attributes
of the food which make it agreeable to the person who eats
it. This involves positive factors like colour, flavour, texture
and nutritive value as well as the negative characteristic such
as freedom from harmful microorganisms and undesirable
substances.
The term control does not imply that a poor raw material
can be converted into a good finished product. In food
processing, the general rule is .that the effective methods must
be carefully applied to conserve the original qualities of the
raw materials. Processing cannot improve the raw material.
The aim of quality control is to achieve as good and as
consistent a standard of quality in the product being produced
as is compatible with the market for which the product is
designed.
IMPORTANCE OF QUALITY ASSURANCE
Small and medium sized food processing businesses all over
the world increasingly have to consider the production of
good quality products as essential to their survival.
Consumers and buyers are becoming more aware of the
importance of safe, high quality products. Large companies
that can afford advertising space on the radio, television or in
the press emphasise the quality of their goods, often in a very
subtle way. This quality image is given by stating for example
"our foods are made only from high quality ingredients."
They also project a quality image through packaging etc.
Producers who sell intermediate products, such as dried
fruits, to a secondary processor ~ i l l find that the buyer expects
the foods to meet an agreed standard: In the case of exporters,
these standards are becoming more and more strict. In order
to improve and control product quality it is essential to fully
understand the meaning of the term quality. A common
definition is "achieving agreed customer expectations or
specifica tions".
The following examples using baked goods illustrate tile
difference between quality control and quality assurance. A
customer may specify that bread should be white, with a good
loaf volume and pleasant flavour and taste. The manufacturer
then needs to focus on the process to ensure that the raw
materials are consistently handled to produce uniform white
loaves with the expected volume and taste. .
Controlling quality may be achieved by:
Inspection of raw materials to ensure that no poor
quality ingredients are used.
Carrying out checks on the process to ensure that the
weights of the ingredients and temperature and time of
baking are correct.
Inspecting the fip,at product to ensure that no poor
quality loaves are sent to the consumer.
However, this Quality Control dPproach is focused on the
process whereas the problems that customers may face can
Quality Control in Food Industry 19
also occur elsewhere in the production and distribution chain.
The following examples highlight the shortcomings of a
simple quality control approach.
Problem:
Reason:
Problem:
Reason:
Problem:
Reason:
Many of the loaves are contaminated with pieces of
wood.
The distribution system involves transporting the
loaves on wooden trays to retail stores where the
loaves are packaged and then sold to customers. The
wooden trays are not part of the quality control
system because they are used after the product has left
the bakery.
A particular customer has asked for loaves of a
different size and colour but these do not arrive as
requested.
The sales staff have no formal procedure for informing
the production staff about changes in this customer's
specification. The problem has occurred because of
missing links in quality management in the bakery.
Bread has been returned because of a bad flavour and
some customers have complained that they have been
made ill.
The flour has been stored next to cleaning chemicals
in the dry goods store. One old unlabelled chemical
container has been found to have leaked. The company
have no documented rules for the storage and
handling of chemicals.
The staff who routinely clean the store are not trained
and receive lower wages than other members of the
production team. The container is old and unlabelled.
In order to overcome the types of problems outlined above,
a wider approach than quality control is required. This is
termed Total Quality Assurance. Quality Assurance systems
take a much wider view of what is involved in satisfying
customers' needs. The quality assurance system focuses on the
prevention of problems and not simply on their cure. Curing
problems is expensive and quality cannot be 'inspected into'
a product. A quality assurance approach therefore, includes
the ,,,,hole production and distribution system, from the
suppliers of important raw materials, through the internal
business management to the customer. Quality assurance
systems should be documented in a simple way to show who
has responsibility for doing what and when. The focus of
quality assurance is prevention and this should mean that
action is taken to meet a specification and prevent failures
from occurring a second time. This is done by planning,
management action, agreements with key suppliers and other
people in the distribution chain.
Quality assurance can only be operated when staff are well
trained and motivated. Workers are normally well aware of
the causes of most problems and when quality assurance is
used properly they can resolve most quality problems within
their control. It is the responsibility of business owners to
ensure that the quality assurance system, together with any
necessary equipment and information, are available to the
workers to allow them to exercise this controL
It is important to recognise that any system is operated by
people. It is people who manufacture a food product and
ensure that it has the right quality. People working together
ensure that the information, materials and equipment are all
correct to allow the production of a product. People also store
the product and deliver it on time. All therefore need the
necessary training and skills to complete their tasks correctly.
They need to know what their own responSibilities are in this
quality chain and where they fit into the overall system.
Business owners must not regard communication as a one-
way process. The information they send to workers must also
be modified by feedback from the staff. Well trained and
informed staff are an essential element of the Quality
Assurance approach.
ANALYSING FOOD PROCESSES
All food companies, including the smallest manufacturers,
have a responSibility to provide consumers with safe,
wholesome foods. Safety is not an option but it is an essential
part of the planning, preparation and production of foods.
21
Any lack of consideration of safety can result in a serious
threat to public health. This is recognised by the law in most
countries and serious penalties exist for those who contravene
hygiene and food safety legislation. At present in many
countries, enforcement staff are not always sufficiently
resourced to be fully effective, but this situation is changing
as consumers become more concerned about food safety.
An important management method to ensure the safety of
foods is the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)
system. This is based on quality control, microbiology and risk
management and it has been adopted throughout the world,
although some countries have tailored the approach to the
needs of their particular food sectors. Many small producers
may consider that the development of HACCP systems is not
feasible or appropriate to their current needs. However larger
manufacturers and producer groups who export to
industrialised countries are increasingly finding that HACCP
is not a matter of choice but is demanded by the importing
company. With time, it is likely that the use of HACCP will
be more broadly required by food manufacturers.
An alternative approach is for the processor to carefully
examine every stage in a process to see where and how
improvements can be made in the quality and safety of the
finished products. The aim of such an exercise is to focus the
attention of operators and the manager on the prevention of
problems rather than cures, by identifying potential hazards
or quality failures and then developing preventative measures
for their control. To implement such an analysis it is necessary
to first decide whether the work will focus on improvements
to product quality or improvements to the safety of foods.
These are obviously connected as food safety is one aspect of
quality, but they should be treated as separate exercises.
The level of risks is then assessed and procedures are
implemented to monitor and control these risks. If analysis of
safety is selected, it is necessary to identify the hazards in a
process. This is especially true for high-risk foods (those that
can support the growth of food poisoning microorganisms).
If high-risk foods are involved then the severity of the hazard
is greater and these food products must be investigated
thoroughly as very stringent controls are needed. It is for this
reason that inexperienced producers should not be
encouraged to make high-risk foods such as canned meats and
fish.
If quality improvement is selected, it is necessary to
identify where a loss in quality is likely to occur in the raw
materials or the process and then find methods to control the
procedures that are used in order to improve quality in the
finished product. Most small-scale processors do not have the
necessary skills or time to conduct such a study, and it is likely
that assistance will be needed from other people who have the
necessary experience. Ideally a small team of people should
be assembled to effectively analyse the process and then
develop and implement the improvements for the selected
product. Those selected should have appropriate expertise of
the product, the processing operations, microbiology and
quality control. Staff from a manufacturer's association, the
local Bureau of Standards, Government Regulatory Food
Control Office, a University, Trading Standards Department
or suppliers may be suitable resource people to assist staff
from the food business itself. For example if the focus of the
group is to improve product safety it should conduct its work
in the following way:
Gather Information
Identify sources and routes of contamination by
microorganisms, biological, chemical or physical
contaminants. It is easier to select one type of hazard
which is most important to the product and complete
the analysis. Other hazards should then be reviewed
later in decreasing order of importance and added to
the plan of action.
Study the effect of the process on levels of
contamination and assess the probability of
microorganisms surviving the process to grow in the
finished product, This should include all parts of the
process, from growing foods or buying ingredients to
storage and consumption of the finished product.
The production process for the food is then shown
diagrammatically by constructing a process flow
diagram, which is taken to the processing building and
checked for accuracy.
Find Solutions
The team then prepares a diagram showing the hazards
that have been identified and where they occur in the
process. This should be the focal point for discussions
by the team.
The seyerity of risk of each of the above hazards should
be assessed and any areas of doubt should be
investigated further.
This shoulQ be considered in relation to microorganisms of
concern. Stages in the process that destroy, reduce or allow
survival of microorganisms should be evaluated.
Implementation
The owner or manager of the business also needs to be
fully convinced that the new procedure is necessary, or
else it will fall into disuse after a short time. Operators
need to be involved and made aware of problems so
that they will understand why new procedures are
introd uced.
Control procedures are introduced at the control points
using a "decision tree" to help in this procedure. Target
limits and tolerances are given for each critical control
point. Staff are trained how to operate the new methods
and the limits that are placed on any variation from the
specified methods.
Monitoring and Documentation
The group sets up a procedure to monitor the changes
that have been introduced and to ensure that everyone
involved in the process understands his or her
responsibilities. A system for monitoring these is
produced, together with a plan for corrective actions,
should the tolerances be exceeded.
Where action is taken it should be clear who has the
authority to make decisions and who is responsible for
checking that the action was properly done. These
responsibilities should be discussed and written down
so that everyone is aware of each other's part in the new
system. The system is checked and reviewed each year.
When the focus is on quality improvement, a similar sequence
of events is t!.sed. The quality problems are first identified and
possible causes and solutions are discussed. If the problem is
associated with poor quality raw materials or ingredients for
example, this should be negotiated with suppliers and if
needed, quality testing methods can be introduced with
agreed tolerance limits. If the problem is associated with the
process, for example a critical heating time, then improved
process control measures are introduced. In all cases staff
must be fully involved and trained so that the improved
quality management is sustainable. The effects of any changes
should be carefully monitored and recorded.
Such systems need not be complex. Only limited
documentation is required and this should assist the small
scale processor rather than prevent flexible working. These
simple systems are designed to control the key parts of the
process and help producers to concentrate valuable
manpower where it is most effective.
DESIGN OF BUILDINGS EQUIPMENT LAYOUT
The type of building in which food products are manufactured
and the general level of plant hygiene have a major influence
on product quality. Ideally a food manufacturer should have
a building constructed specifically for the purpose, but in
reality this rarely happens and an existing building has to be
modified. If care is taken in the way that the building is
adapted, it adds little extra to the total cost but it ensures that
the unit is appropriate for food processing.
Location of the Building
The location of the building is very important but is often
ignored at the outset. The site should be on cleared ground,
away from sources of insects, rodents or smells. It should have
a good supply of potable water and if required, electricity. A
road access for bringing in raw materials and packaging, and
sending out products is usually essential.
Appearance of the Building
The external appearance of the building is a key factor that
can influence customers to believe that the company has good
management. Externally and internally the building should be
clean and painted, with a professionally made nameplate.
Ideally the surrounding area should be planted with grass, as
short grass acts as a very efficient trap for airborne dust.
Washing and toilet facilities must be provided, preferably in
a separate building. If this is not possible there must be two
closed doors between the toilet and the processing area to
prevent insects and odours from entering.
All internal walls of the building should be smooth
plastered and painted with a water-resistant paint so that they
can be washed. Ideally walls should be tiled to about one to
one point five metres above ground level. If this is too
expensive then tiling should be carried out around sinks and
on walls where food may be splashed. The bottom of the wall,
where it meets the floor, is often forgotten. A right angle joint
is difficult to clean and can collect dirt. The concrete floor
should be curved up to meet the wall and so provide a smooth
surface that is easily cleaned. Similarly window ledges should
slope so that they do not collect dust, dirt or old cloths that
may be left there by workers.
Most manufacturers are aware that windows should be
fitted with fly-proof mesh, but they often forget other points
. through which insects, birds and rodents can enter the
processing room or storeroom. Important areas are gaps
where the roof meets the walls and gaps in the roof. Rats are
also able to get into buildings along power lines and these
should be fitted with metaJ discs at least twenty five
centimetres in diameter.
In tropical climates, a large overhanging roof shades the
walls, making working conditions better and providing a
useful area for activities such as bottle washing. Most types
of food processing involve the use of large amounts of water,
and floors must be des,igned so that they drain efficiently. The
best way to do this is to slope all floors to a central drainage
channel. The drain should be covered with a removable
grating to allow cleaning. Drains are a favourite entry point
for pests such as rats and cockroaches and the outlets must
be fitted with a removable fine mesh.
All electric power points should be fixed at least one to
one point five metres high on the walls to keep them dry. Any
3-phase equipment should be installed by a competent
electrician. Although they are expensive, waterproof power
points are preferred in wet areas. Fluorescent tubes provide
good lighting for general work but it must be remembered
that normal bulbs should be used near to with fast
moving parts. This is because fluorescent light can cause a
rotating machine to appear stationary at certain speeds; an
obvious hazard to workers.
Many food processing operations involve heating, often
with the production of stearn. Good ventilation is therefore
essential and large mesh covered windows, roof vents and
ceiling fans should be used. Extraction fans may be required
above boiling pans if the heat cannot be removed from the
room by other means. Water quality is essential to quality
assurance and food processing requires a good supply of
clean, potable water for cleaning equipment, cooling filled
containers and sometimes as a food ingredient. In many parts
of the world the main water supply is unreliable and the
manufacturer must use other methods to overcome water
supply problems.
Equipment and Layout
Poor equipment layout can be blamed for many quality
problems in food factories.
27
Figure 1. Double tank water purification system
In many small factories workers can be seen almost working
against each other, colliding and dropping things. However,
good planning and risk assessment can be used to avoid many
such errors. The two broad principles to remember are:
There should be smooth flow of materials around the
processing room, from incoming raw materials to
finished products.
Cross-contamination should be avoided. It is easy for
example, for spray from unprocessed foods to enter a
container of product being filled after processing. This
results in contamination and wasted food.
SANITATION AND HYGIENE
The building and equipment must be kept clean at all times
as part of a planned quality assurance programme. A
thorough clean-down at the end of the day is essential but this
alone is not sufficient. Workers must also be trained to keep
equipment clean throughout the day and to remove wastes
from the building as they accumulate. The type and frequency
of cleaning depends on the food being processed. The most
important point is that the manager identifies all areas of
potential hazard, then develops a cleaning plan and makes
sure all staff are trained and know their particular
responsibilities.
Most importantly, the manager should allow adequate
time for cleaning down Too often the final clean-down is
carried out in a rush during the last few minutes of the day.
In dry processing, or in processes that use dry powders such
as flour, it is essential that all dust is cleaned from the building,
not forgetting high window ledges, old ~ a c k s etc. The objective
is to prevent any areas collecting dust where insects can breed.
For wet processes, cleaning involves the use of both
detergents and sterilants. Detergents remove food residues
but do not kill microorganisms. Sterilants (mainly chlorine)
kill microorganisms but do not remove residues. Therefore for
good cleaning the residues are first removed with a detergent
and the equipment is then treated with a sterilant. A large
range of detergents is available for different uses.
Manufacturers should investigate which types are available
locally and consult suppliers to find the best type for their
process.
Chlorinated Water
Chlorinated water is needed for cleaning, washing raw
materials and as an ingredient in some products. The required
level of chlorine depends on the use of the water. Water for
cleaning requires a high level of chlorine; up to 200 ppm.
Water used in a product should contain about 0.5 ppm to
avoid giving a chlorine flavour to the product. There are a
number of ways of preparing chlorinated water for use in the
processing plant. The simplest way is to use household bleach,
which is readily available in most countries. Table 1 shows the
dilutions needed to give different chlorine concentrations.
Table 1. Dilution of bleach
Amount of Amount of Chlorine concentration
bleach (ml) water (litres) (ppm)
-----
1000 250 200
500 250 100
25 250 5
2.5 250 0.5
Alternatively bleaching powder can be used. This is cheap and
when fresh, contains 33 % chlorine. The powder does however
weaken with time and tins should always be kept sealed when
not in use. Bleaching powder is used by making up a 1%
chlorine solution (30-40g per litre). This is then diluted for use:
for example 6mls in 45 litres of water gives a Ippm solution.
In cases where a pumped water supply from a well is being
used it is common practice to use the action of the pump to
automatically dose the water supply with a strong chlorine
solution.
Figure 2. A typical chlorine dosing installation
Although chlorine has the great advantage of killing a wide
variety of microorganisms, it also has several disadvantages:
it may corrode equipment, particularly aluminium; it can
leave flavour taints if it is not rinsed well with potable water;
pure bleach Must be Handled with care as it can damage the
skin and particularly the eyes, as well as cause breathing
difficulties. In addition water in many rural areas of
developing countries may be slightly cloudy. This suspended
material can be cleared by allowing the water to stand for a
few hours before use. A double chambered tank combining
settling and chlorination can be fitted onto the roof of a
building.
The tank should have a sloping bottom and be fitted with
drain valves at each end. Both tanks are filled at the end of
the day and chlorine solution is added at the required level.
30 Control and Analysis fOI Food and Agricultural Products
By the morning the suspended solids will have settled. In use,
water is drawn off from the high level valve and when the tank
is almost empty the low level valve is opened to flush out any
settled material. The tank is then refilled and the water
allowed to settle while the second chamber is used.
Operator Hygiene
Operators are a potential source of contamination of foods but
to a considerable exten.t the risk depends on the type of food
products. For example, a food that is hot-filled into a bottle,
sealed and then heat-treated carries a far smaller risk than a
baked meat pie which is handled after it has been cooked. The
manager should evaluate the risk and ensure that hygiene
procedures are established in the factory and that they are
appropriate to the types of products being made. Such
measures include the following:
All workers should use clean uniforms, shoes and hats
that cover the hair.
All workers should scrub their hands and fingernails
with unscented soap at the start of each production
session. Clean towels or disposable paper towels should
be provided.
Workers should be trained to understand the
importance of good hygiene. Local public health
departments can usually provide training, posters etc.
The training will include:
Hands should always be washed after using the toilet.
Smoking and spitting should be banned from the
processing rooms.
No food (including the products) should be eaten in the
processing room.
If affordable, showers should be provided and an area
to change clothing.
Workers who are ill, and especially if suffering from
diarrhoea or skin infections should not under any
circumstances, be allowed to handle foods.
- . Workers with infected cuts, boils or abrasions on their
hands should be removed from the production area.
It is very important that workers do not get penalised for
having an infection, otherwise they will tend to hide their
problem. They should be found other duties; for example,
there is always a backlog of cleaning, painting and repairs to
be carried out in a production unit. The task of a good
manager is to ensure that staff are aware of the risks associated
with infections and in this connection wall posters of good and
bad practices are very useful. Some of these are available in
blank form so that a message can be written in any local
language ..
Cleaning Schedules
The overall cleanliness of a food processing unit, however
small, can have a major impact on the quality of finished
products. Cleaning schedules should be seen as an integral
part of an overall quality assurance system and a responsible
producer carries out a HACCP analysis of cleaning. Areas of
hazard need to be identified, the severity of risk evaluated and
cleaning procedures put into place. All areas need attention
but some carry a greater risk than others.
Each worker should know their cleaning responsibilities
within the overall schedule, The owner must take overall
responsibility to ensure that cleaning takes place to the correct
standard. It is useful to use cleaning cloths and brushes made
of brightly coloured materials as these show up easily if they
contaminate foods. It is recommended that a cleaning
schedule book is maintained which details the area or item to
be cleaned, how, when and who is responSible.
REGULATORt QUALITY CONTROL
Almost all countries in the world now have laws governing
the production, composition, labelling and safety of processed
food and an Agency that is responsible for their
implementation. In some countries this agency is the Bureau
of Standards in others it may be a division of a Ministry such
as Agriculture, Health or Trade and Industry. Although the
degree to which national food legislation is currently applied
varies greatly from country to country, food manufacturers
should be aware that the overall trend is to more stringent
application, inspection and control by the responsible
authority. National food legislation varies considerably in
detail from country to country but applies to three broad
areas:
the plant in which the food is made, its correct design
and construction, cleanliness and worker hygiene.
the physical characteristics of the food (including
foreign bodies and adulteration), the chemical
composition and microbiological quality.
the correct labelling of the product including related
aspects such as sell-by date, etc.
A food manufacturer contravening national food legislation is
subject to penalties which can, in extreme cases, be very severe
and involve forced closure of the plant and heavy fines.
Manufacturers should be aware that consumers are becoming
increasing concerned about food safety and quality issues and
are thus more likely to take complaints to the local food
control authority. This greatly increases the likelihood of
inspection of the premises and products with the resulting risk
of penalties.
Food processors should therefore ensure that they know
how local legislation applies to their production unit and
products. Copies of relevent laws should be obtained and the
entire production system should be monitored to ensure that
it meets the requirements. Producers that export foods face an
even more difficult situation and need obtain copies of
relevent food legislation of the importing country as this may
vary from their own. In some cases for example, it may be
found that a product will need to be reformulated or specially
labelled to meet the laws of the importing country.
Unfortunately the authorities ChcHgt'd with the
application of food laws are often seen by manufacturers as
being threatening and simply "policing" production activities
33
Ideally food producers should try to use these authorities as
advisers. In many cases they will be able to provide useful
guidance to avoid a problem developing.
SIMPLE METHODS FOR QUALITY CONTROL
The methods described below have been included because:
They are each relatively simple to use.
- They have sufficient accuracy for quality control.
- They do not require or expensive
equipment.
They do not require a high level of skill to operate.
They are sufficiently inexpensive that they may be used
regularly by small food businesses.
Acidity Measurement
To measure the amount of acid (such as citric acid, acetic acid,
lactic acid, etc.), it is necessary to titrate a sample of the food
with sodium hydroxide solution. It is not sufficient to measure
the pH of a food as this does not tell you the amount of acid
present.
The method involves the following steps:
take a 10 ml sample of liquid food or 10 g of solid food
if solid, the food should be liquidised to a fine pulp
mix the sample with 90 ml of distilled water, making
sure that it is completely mixed
add about 0.3 ml of an indicator solution
fill a burette with 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution
(obtainable from larger pharmacies) and titrate the
sample until there is a pink colour that does not change.
calculate the amount of acid as " % acid per ml of liquid
food" or "per g of solid food" using the formula: % acid
= number of ml of sodium hydroxide x one of the
conversion factors below:
- acetic acid (vinegar) 0.060
34 Control and Analy .. if> fm I-ood and Agricultural Products
citric acid 0.070
tartaric acid 0.075
lactic acid 0.090
Figure 3. A burette llsed jar titration
It is necessary to know what is the major acid present in a type
of food before selecting the conversion factor.
Chlorine Measurement
The determination of levels of chlorine in water is usually
carried out using a calorimetric test in which a chemical dye,
which reacts with chlorine, produces a colour that is
proportional to the amount of chlorine present The test
requires the USl' of a 'Lovibond Comparator'. This is supplied
with a number of discs of coloured glass thai are calibrated
for different (hlorine levels.
In use, a few drops of the dye are placed in tube. The
water under te:,-t is added and a colour The tube is
then placed in the (ompdTator and the colour is matched with
one of the callbrdted discs.
35
Figure 4. A comparator, used to test chlorine levels in w a t e r ~
These chlorine test kits are available from a number of
suppliers and it is suggested that those considering testing
chlorine levels in water should consult the local Water
Department which will be able to advise on the nearest source
of supply and possibly provide training in the method.
Fill-weight Measurement
In most countries there are legal requirements which state that
a container has the weight of its contents written on the label
and that the net weight of food inside is not less that this
weight. This should be routinely checked by taking regular
samples of filled containers and placing them on a scale. On
the other side of the scale there is the heaviest empty container
from a batch plus a metal weight that is equal to the net weight
shown on the label. Filled containers that are underweight
should be removed and re-filled. The results of these checks
should be recorded on a chart and related back to the worker
who is filling the containers or operating a filling machine to
ensure that accuracy of filling increases with experience
gained.
It should be noted that this is the "minimum weight"
method of checking fill-weights. It is intended to ensure that
all packs contain more than the net weight shown on the label
and it is a simple system for small scale producers to operate.
36 Control and Analysis for Food and Agricultural PTOducts
There is however another system, known as the "average
weight" system, which relies on the statistical probability that
a known proportion of packs will be above the net weight.
This system was developed in Europe for automatic filling
operations and is unnecessarily complex for small scale
producers. However if exports to Europe, USA or some other
countries are contemplated, then it is recommended that
details of this system should be obtained from a local Export
Development Board or its equivalent.
Flour Infestation
100 grams of flour is weighed onto a flat surface.
Flour is flattened using a ruler.
Flour is examined after two minutes for evidence of
pimpling.
Pimpling indicates the presence of flour mites breaking the
surface for air.
Glass Container Measurement
Glass containers have more variable dimensions than either
plastic or metal containers because of the nature of their
manufacture. It is therefore important to check particular
dimensions to ensure that,
a container has the expected capacity;
that the neck is properly formed and will allow the lid
to fit properly;
that the container is vertical to prevent it breaking in
a filling machine, and
that the weight of a sample of empty containers is
checked to find the heaviest in a batch for use in check-
weighing.
Glass p i ~ c e s are also a particular danger to customers if they
become mixed into the product. It is therefore essential that
the checks described below are routinely performed on aU
glass containers. Finally glass containers are often fe-used and
may have become contaminated by kt'rosene, pesticides or
other materials. They should be thoroughly washed and
inspected by looking and smelling to ensure that no residues
remain before the food is filled.
Weight of Containers
Take a random sample of empty containers from an incoming
batch (for example 1 in 50) and weigh them, together with
their lids. The required check-weight is calculated as the
weight of the heaviest container plus the net weight of
product.
Weigh a dried container and then fill it to the top with
distilled water at 20C. Reweigh the filled container and the
difference in weight (in grams) is equivalent to the capacity
in ml. This capacity should be great enough to allow sufficient
food to be filled to meet the net weight declared on the label.
Headspace Gauge
A space is required between the surface of a hot-filled product
in a jar and the underneath surface of the lid. This allows a
partial vacuum to form when the product cools and thus helps
to prevent spoilage. The volume of the headspace does not
normally exceed 10% of the capacity of the container.
Measuring the depth of the headspace is a quick method of
assessing the volume, but the depth varies according to the
capacity of the container (larger containers require a deeper
headspace). A headspace gauge is a cheap and simple way of
routinely checking that product has been filled to the correct
level. It consists of a series of prongs of different lengths fixed
onto a bar and it is placed on the rim of the jar before fitting
the lid. The level of product may then be seen where it touches
one of the prongs.
Partial Vacuum
The partial vacuum in hot-filled glass jars may be measured
using a Bourdon tube vacuum gauge. The gauge is fitted with
a sharp needle, surrounded by a rubber seal. The needle is
pushed through the lid of the container and the moistened
rubber seal prevents air from entering. The partial vacuum
may then be read directly from the gauge as 'mm of mercury'
or 'minus kPa'. As the product is not saleable after this test,
it is usually only applied to a small sample or when a problem
arises.
Dimensions of Containers
The important routine checks are to measure the height of
containers, their neck diameter and outside diameter, and
their ovality (to ensure that they are round and not oval).
Simple equipment may be manufactured to perform these
checks. A vertical ruler on a stand is used to measure height.
Different "go/no-go" rings can be made for each size of
container that is used. Rings are slipped over the neck of a
container to quickly show whether the diameter is too large
or too small for the intended lid and also to show if the neck
is not circular. Different sized rings can similarly be used to
check the outside diameter of the container and its ovality.
Faults in Glass
It is essential that all glass containers are visually checked to
make sure that no glass splinters or cracks are present.
Common faults in glass are bubbles, cracks and strings. A
light-box, in which a light bulb is placed behind a translucent
plastic screen, is useful to view glass containers dearly.
Operators who check glass containers should be fully trained
in which faults to look for and they should be moved from
inspection after 3060 minutes to prevent tiredness and lack of
concentra tion.
Gluten Measurement
Weigh 10 + 0.01 g of flour and place in a basin.
Add 6ml of water to the basin, (5 ml will be sufficient
for weak flour).
Using a spatula, mix the flour and water into a dough.
Form the dough into a round ball by rolling between
the palms of the hands.
Replace the dough in the basin and cover it with water.
Leave for a time, at least 10 minutes, preferably 45-60
minutes.
Holding the dough ball in one hand under cold running
water, wash out the starch. Squeeze the dough
frequently between the fingers and the palm to help the
process.
When all the starch has been removed the wash water
will run clear and the remaining gluten will be free from
lumps.
Remove the excess water with blotting paper.
Weigh the wet gluten and record this as a percentage
of the flour weight.
The gluten may be dried in an oven at 103C to
determine dry gluten.
Label Measurement
It is often forgotten that labels are an integral and important
part of a food product. They need to be tested and checked
in the same way as any ingredient. On delivery, samples
should be taken from each pack of labels for examination as
faults may develop in a print run. All packets of labels should
then be repacked and sealed.
Label faults may be divided into major and minor faults.
Major faults include:
The use of incorrect colours.
Major variations in dimensions.
Information missing, wrongly printed or mix-spelt.
Major print errors, slippage.
No glue, if applicable.
Labels showing major faults should not be used and should
be returned to the printer.
Minor faults include:
Detectable but acceptable colour variations.
- Size error but label usable.
Minor colour registration errors.
Labels with minor faults may be used but the problems should
be discussed with the printer and possibly a reduction in price
negotiated.
Loaf Volume Measurement
It is usual to use a simple device in which the displacement
of rapeseed or mustard seed is measured. This is accurate
because the individual seeds are hard and quite round, flow
easily, do not disintegrate and a given weight always occupies
the same volume. There are two rectangular compartments,
connected by a graduated cylinder made of glass or
transparent plastic.
The equipment may easily be inverted, allowing either
compartment to be uppermost. An adequate amount of seed
is placed inside and flows from one compartment to the other
as the apparatus is inverted.
With the seed in one compartment in the lower position,
the loaf under test is placed in the top compartment which is
then closed and the apparatus is inverted so that the seed fills
the space around the loaf and levels off in the tube. The bigger
the loaf, the higher up the tube will be the surface of the seed
layer.
The actual volume is read off from the graduations on the
tube, which is previously calibrated. Loaf volume is usually
expressed in cc's and the volume of 1 Ib loaves may vary
between 1,400 cc's and 1,600 cc's, depending on the flour used.
An indication of volume may quickly be obtained by
measuring the maximum height of the loaf. This is useful but
because of the irregular shape involved, it is not very accurate.
Moisture Content Measurement
With experience, an operator may assess the correct moisture
content of grains by placing them on a hard surface and
tapping them with a metal or stone weight. The hardness (or
softness) of the grain indicates the approximate moisture
content. A more accurate but m(lre time consuming method
is to dry a weighed sample of grain in an oven at 100C for
5 hours (or 104C for 2 hours) and re-weigh. Certain items of
equipment are needed to determine the moisture content: a
balance accurate to three decimal places (ie 0.001 g), a
thermostatically controlled oven and a laboratory desiccator.
A sample of material is dried to constant weight and the loss
reported as moisture content.
Approximately 2 g of the material under test is accurately
weighed (to 0.001 g) into a small dish. This is then placed in
the oven for 1 hour, removed from the oven and put in the
desiccator to cool. It is then weighed. The dish is replaced in
the oven for 30 minutes and the process repeated to constant
weight.
The moisture content is found using the following
formula:
, (inital weight - final weight)
%molsture= , ., I 'h x\OO
Inltla welg t
A faster but more expensive method is to use a moisture
meter. This measures the conductance of electricity through
a sample of grain to indicate the amount of water it contains.
The instrument is expensive and therefore likely to be
affordable only by larger scale millers.
Solids Content Measurement
The method involved is the same as that described for
moisture content above, but the result is expressed as I %
solids'. This is calculated using the following formula:
o I'd _ final weight of sam pie
Yo so I S -, " , f I x \ 00
initial weight 0 sam p e
Packaging Film Measurement
Made-up plastic bags and rolls of film need to be checked and
there are a number of simple tests that a small food processor
may carry out. It should be remembered that there is no way
of checking for faults inside a roll of film as only the outer part
may be seen. Rolls thus need to be examined during use.
Typical faults in plastic bags and films include:
Incorrect yield: The barrier properties of a given type of
film depend on its thickness. The normal way to
measure thickness is by weight per square metre. Using
a template 10 squares of film, each IOcm by Wcm are
cut out. These are then carefully weighed. The result (in
grams/square metre) is then checked against the
supplier's specifications.
Incorrect printing: This is described in more detail under
quality control of labels.
Odour: Some films are manufactured using solvents and
rolls should be checked for any such smell by
crumpling a sample in the hand and smelling it.
Blocking: This fault results from layers of film on a roll
sticking together. Blocking rarely causes serious
problems unless automatic packaging machines are
used.
Seal strength: Samples of film should be heat sealed and
the seal strength checked by pulling the seal apart. The
same test should be applied to made-up bags.
Curl: This causes the film to curl up rather than lay flat.
It is caused by the film being poorly stored, particularly
in conditions that are too damp or too dry.
pH Measurement
pH is a scale that is used to describe acidity (pH 1-6),
neutrality (pH 7) or alkalinity (pH 814). There are two
methods of measuring the pH of a sample of liquid food: the
simplest and cheapest is to dip a piece of pH paper into the
sample.
The paper is impregnated with chemicals that change
colour and the colour may be compared to a chart supplied
with the paper to give the pH of the sample. This method is
often sufficiently accurate for routine Q checks.
If greater accuracy is required a pH meter should be used.
These may be mains powered bench models or battery
powered portable models. In general bench models are more
accurate than portable types, although newer equipment has
reduced this difference.

Figure 5. Bench mounted and portable pH meters
Bench types are more expensive than portable types and,
when properly maintained, may have a longer working life.
If voltage fluctuations are a problem, bench models require a
voltage regulator to be fitted.
Modern portable pH meters are fitted with a container
filled with buffer solution when they are delivered. This
should be replaced as directed in the suppliers instructions.
New electrodes for bench models should be soaked for several
hours in distilled water or buffer solution.
Afterwards they should be stored with their tips in one of
these solutions. Older electrodes may be cleaned by placing
in 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution for 1 minute and then in
0.1 M hydrochloric acid for 1 minute, repeated twice. They are
then rinsed in water and carefully blotted (not wiped) with
a soft cloth or tissue paper.
pH meters should be standardised against buffer solutions
which have a known pH. The standardisation and later pH
measurements should all be done at the same temperature
(between 20-30C) to avoid errors in the results.
In use the instructions supplied with the equipment
should be carefully followed. For example the instrument has
a temperature compensation control that should be set to the
local ambient temperature.
The general procedure for measuring pH is as follows:
1. Standardise the instrument using a commercially
supplied pH 4.0 buffer or freshly made 0.05 M
potassium acid phthalate solution (10.12 g of the
chemical in 1 litre of distilled water). Dip the electrode
into the buffer and adjust the standardisation control so
that the scale reads pH 4.0.
2. Rinse the electrode in water and carefully blot (not
wipe) clean with a soft tissue.
3. Check the pH of a commercially supplied pH 7.0 buffer
or 0.025 M potassium dihydrogen phosphate solution
(3.387 g of the chemical dissolved in 1 litre of distilled
water).
4. Repeat step 2.
5. Place the electrode in a sample at the same temperature
as the buffers (between 20-30
D
C) and allow the
instrument to stabilise for 1 minute. Repeat step 2 and
take a second reading. The two results should be within
0.1 pH units of each other.
6. Store the cleaned electrode in distilled water or buffer
solution and switch the instrument to 'stand by' when
it is not being used.
Plastic Container Measurement
There are fewer checks thctt are needed on plastic containers,
compared to glass containers This is because the method of
manufacture results in more uniform dimensions, the weight
of the container is small compared to glass and variations are
therefore less important.
The main faults are likely to be splits, punctures, a badly
formed neck and the use of non food-grade plastic. With the
exception of the last fault, each can be checked visually by
operators involved in filling the containers.
There are no simple checks to ensure that a container is
made from food grade plastic and if there is any doubt the
processor should consult a reputable supplier for advice. They
may be checked to ensure that the seal or cap is watertight by
simply inverting a sample of filled containers to detect leaks.
Salt Measurement
There are three methods that can be used for measuring the
salt concentration in foods: hydrometry, refractometry or salt
titration. Refractometers are expensive and the titration
method is more complex and requires training and laboratory
chemicals. Hydrometers are hollow glass rods with a bulb at
one end. They are sealed at both ends so that they float when
immersed in a liquid.
The bulb is weighted so that the hydrometer partially
sinks to a level that depends on the specific gravity of the brine
(the more salt that there is in a solution, the higher the specific
gravity). A scale on the stem of the hydrometer is calibrated
and may read from 0-100 degrees, where 0 is pure water and
100 is saturated salt solution (26.5%).
It is important that the measurements are made at the
reference temperature for the hydrometer (usually 20C)
because the specific gravity of the brine changes at different
temperatures.
The method of measurement involves placing a sample of
brine at the correct temperature into a large clear glass or
plastic cylinder and gently lowering the hydrometer into the
liquid. When it has stopped moving, the scale is read at the
surface of the liquid and the reading is converted to % salt
using a conversion table supplied with the hydrometer. It is
important that a salt hydrometer is specified a& there are other
types that are calibrated for alcohol or for sugar solutions.
Sieving Tests
A 500 g sample of flour or ground spice is sieved through a
stack of metal sieves with the largest mesh at the top of the
stack and the smallest at the base. Typically the range of sieve
aperture sizes is 1.6 mm to 0.038 mm.
The sieves may be placed on a shaker to achieve a
consistent amount of shaking. The amount of material that is
collected on each sieve is weighed and expressed as a
percentage of the total weight. This method can also be used
to detect gross contamination with stalks, stones, string,
cigarette ends, leaves etc as these are retained on the larger
aperture sieves and can be examined, recorded or weighed.
Filth Test
This is a modified method that allows detection of insect parts,
rodent hairs or ground faeces in milled spices or flours. The
sample of food is mixed with petrol and thoroughly stirred.
The insect parts, etc. are preferentially wetted by the petrol
and when the suspension of particles settles, these may be seen
floating on the surface of the 'petroL If required they may be
filtered through a filter paper and examined or identified.
Sodium Benzoate Measurement
Although it is possible to measure the amount of sodium
benzoate in a food by measuring the benzoic acid content, this
is a fairly complex method that requires laboratory facilities
and it is unlikely to be routinely done by a small scale
producer.
Sodium Metabisulphite Measurement
The amount of sulphur dioxide that is produced from sodium
metabisulphite is approximately two thirds, For example if 1.5
g of sodium metabisulphite is added to one litre of juice it will
form 1 g of sulphur dioxide. (la per litre = 0.001 %. This is
equivalent to 1000 ppm). The amount of sulphur that is
required to produce sulphur dioxide in a sulphur cabinet is
usually only estimated approximately because of the large
number of variables that influence the absorption of sulphur
dioxide by fruits.
As an approximate estimate, 350400 g of sulphur can be
used per 100 kg of fresh fruit. Although it is possible to
measure the sulphur dioxide content of a food item, this
requires relatively sophisticated laboratory equipment and is
not usually done by small scale producers.
Starch Gelatinisation Measurement
100 g of flour is mixed with 900 g of hot water in a pot.
The pot is heated until the flour mixture has gelatinised.
The mixture is poured into a 1 litre measuring vessel.
The measuring vessel is stood in hot water.
A steel ball is dropped into the mixture and the time
to drop 200 ml recorded.
The time (in seconds) is compared against the standard
batch.
Sugar Measurement
Fruit jams, juices, sauces, confectionery, etc. contain sugar as
the main soluble solid. For these products the sugar content
can be measured directly using a refractometer.
Table 2. Boiling temperatures of different sugar syrup concentrations
Sugar concentration (% sucrose)
40
50
60
711
Boiling point (QC)
101.4
102
103
105.5
Although this equipment is relatively expensive for a smali
scale producer, it does give an accurate measurement of sugar
concentration which is a vital control point for many products.
Two types of refractometers are available: the bench type and
a hand held type. For quality control purposes the hand held
type is cheaper and it is usually sufficiently accurate.
The method involves taking a small sample of the food
and placing it on the lower glass prism of the instrument. The
upper prism is then closed and the refractometer is held
against the eye, pointing in the direction of a window or bright
light. It is focused until the scale can be read against a clearly
defined division between black and orange colours. The
reading is recorded as degrees Brix which corresponds to %
sucrose.
Simple sugar syrups may also be measured using
hydrometry. The hydrometers are similar to those described
for salt, but they are calibrated for sugar (sucrose). The
method used is the same as that described for salt and the scale
is read as % sucrose. The samples should be at the reference
temperature for the hydrometer.
The sugar content of products such as jams and confecti-
onery can be estimated in a less accurate way by measuring
the temperature of boiling.
As the sugar content increases the temperature of boiling
also increases. Note tnat the boiling temperature also changes
according to the amount of invert sugar or glucose syrup in
the boiling mixture and experience of making the product is
needed before using boiling temperature as a control measure.
The boiling point also changes according to height above
sea level and this should be checked if a producer is operating
.in a mountainous region.
A special thermometer that reads up to 150C is required
and the bulb of the thermometer should be protected by a
metal casing to protect it against breaking. In general mercury
thermometers should not be used in food premises.
A crude estimate of the solids content of jam and
confectionery products may be made by placing a sample on
a jar lid which is floating in cold water and noting the texture
of the product after it has cooled to see if a firm gel is formed.
Quality Control in Food Industry ~ 9
Table 3. Simple tests for sugar boiling
Approx Test Name Result
Temperature (cC)
103 A Thread Thin strands
105 B Small pearl Forms small droplets
105 C Jam set Forms a strong gel
106 B Large pearl Forms large droplets
111 B Feather Forms hard feathery
strands
116 B Small ball Forms soft ball
120 B Large ball Forms hard ball
129 B Light crack Forms thin sheet
133 B Medium crack Sheet forms, slightly
brittle
143 B Hard crack Sheet forms rapidly
180 B Caramel Brown brittle sheet
forms
With experience this may be used as a simple check to ensure
that products have been boiled to the correct consistency, but
a more accurate measurement using a refractometer is
recommended to ensure uniform product quality. A summary
of the methods and expected results is given in Table 3.
REFERENCES
Anon, Procedures to implement HACCP systems, IAMFES, Published by
International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental
Sanitarians, USA, 1991.
____ , Quality Control for the Food Industry, ITC UNCT AD /GATT,
Geneva, Switzerland, 1991.
Bryan, F.l., Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point Evaluations, WHO,
Geneva, Switzerland, 1992.
____ , HACCP in street vending in developing countries, Food
Australia, 45. (2), 1993.
Caplen, R.H., A practical approach to qllality control, Hutchinson Publishing
Group, London, UK, 1982.
Hobbs, B.C. and Roberts, D., Food Poisoning and Food Hygiene, Edward
Arnold, London, UK, 1987.
Kramer, A. and Twigg, B.A., Fundamentals of quality control for the food
industry, AVI Publishing Co., Westport, Conn. USA, 1962.
Manuals of Food Quality Control. Vols 1-9, FAD Publications, Via delle
Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
Shapton, D.A., and Shapton, N.F., Safe Processing oj Foods, Butterworth-
Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 19Q3
3
Food Sampling and Oata Analysis
A food analyst often has to determirie the characteristics of a
large quantity of food material, suchias the contents of a truck
arriving at a factory, a days worth of production, or the
products stored in a warehouse. Ideally, the analyst would
like to analyse every part of the matE/rial to obtain an accurate
measure of the property of interest, but in most cases this is
practically impossible. Many analytical techniques destroy the
food and so there would be nothing left to sell if it were all
analysed.
Another problem is that many analytical techniques are
time consuming, expensive or labour intensive and so it is not
economically feasible to analyse l a r ~ amounts of material. It
is therefore normal practice to select a fraction of the whole
material for analysis, and to assume that its properties are
representative of the whole material. Selection of an
appropriate fraction of the whole material is one of the most
important stages of food analysis procedures, and can lead to
large errors when not carried out correctly.
POPULATION, SAMPLES AND LABORATORY SAMPLES
It is convenient to define some terms used to describe the
characteristics of a material whose properties are going to be
analysed.
Population: The whole of the material whose properties
we are trying to obtain an estimate of is usually referred
to as the "population".
Sample: Only a fraction of the population is usually
selected for analysis, which is referred to as the
"sample". The sample may be comprised of one or more
sub-samples selected from different regions within the
population.
Laboratory Sample: The sample may be too large to
conveniently analyse using a laboratory procedure and
so only a fraction of it is actually used in the final
laboratory analysis. This fraction is usually referred to
as the "laboratory sample".
The primary objective of sample selection is to ensure that the
properties of the laboratory sample are representative of the
properties of the population, otherwise erroneous results will
be obtained. Selection of a limited number of samples for
analysis is of great benefit because it allows a reduction in
time, expense and personnel required to carry out the
analytical procedure, while still providing useful information
about the properties of the population. Nevertheless, one must
always be aware that analysis of a limited number of samples
can only give an estimate of the true value of the whole
population.
SAMPLING PLANS
To ensure that the estimated value obtained from the
laboratory sample is a good representation of the true value
of the population it is necessary to develop a "sampling plan".
A samrling plan should be a clearly written document that
contains precise details that an analyst uses to decide the
sample size, the locations from which the sample should be
selected, the method used to collect the sample, and the
method used to preserve them prior to analysis.
It should also stipulate the required documentation of
procedures carried out during the sampling process. The
choice of a particular sampling plan depends on the purpose
of the analysis, the property to be measured, the nature of the
total population and of the individual samples, and the type
of analytical technique used to characterise the samples. For
Food Sampling and Data Analysis 53
certain products and types of population sampling plans have
already been developed and documented by various
organisations which authorise official methods, e.g., the
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC).
PURPOSE OF ANALYSIS
The first thing to decide when choosing a suitable sampling
plan is the purpose of the analysis. Samples are analysed for
a number of different reasons in the food industry and this
affects the type of sampling plan used:
Official samples: Samples may be selected for official or
legal requirements by government laboratories. These
samples are analysed to ensure that manufacturers are
supplying safe foods that meet legal and labelling
requirements. An officially sanctioned sampling plan
and analytical protocol is often required for this type of
analysis.
Raw materials: Raw materials are often analysed before
acceptance by a factory, or before use in a particular
manufacturing process, to ensure that they are of an
appropriate quality.
Process control samples: A food is often analysed during
processing to ensure that the process is operating in an
efficient manner. Thus if a problem develops during
processing it can be quickly detected and the process
adjusted so that the properties of the sample are not
adversely effected. Techniques used to monitor process
control must be capable of producing precise results in
a short time. Manufacturers can either use analytical
techniques that measure the properties of foods on-line,
or they can select and remove samples and test them
in a quality assurance laboratory.
Finished products: Samples of the final product are
usually selected and tested to ensure that the food is
safe, meets legal and labelling requirements, and is of
a high and consistent quality. Officially sanctioned
methods are often used for determining nutritional
labelling.
Research and Development: Samples are analysed by food
scientists involved in fundamental research or in
product development. In many situations it is not
necessary to use a sampling plan in R&D because only
small amounts of materialb with well-defined
properties are analysed
TYPE OF PROPERTY MEASURED
Once the reason for carrying out the analysis has been
established it is necessary to clearly specify the particular
property that is going to be measured, e.g., colour, weight,
presence of extraneous matter, fat content or microbial count.
The properties of foods can usually be classified as either
attributes or variables. An attribute is something that a
product either does or does not have, e.g., it does or does not
contain a piece of glass, or it is or is not spoilt. On the other
hand, a variable is some property that can be measured on a
continuous scale, such as the weight, fat content or moisture
content of a material. Variable sampling usually requires less
samples than attribute sampling.
The type of property measured also determines the
seriousness of the outcome if the properties of the laboratory
sample do not represent those of the population. For example,
if the property measured is the presence of a harmful
substance (such as bacteria, glass or toxic chemicals), then the
seriousness of the outcome if a mistake is made in the
sampling is much greater than if the property measured is a
quality parameter (such as colouror texture). Consequently,
the sampling plan has to be much more rigorous for detection
of potentially harmful substances. than for quantification of
quality parameters.
NATURE OF POPUl.ATION
It is extremely important to cleariy define the nature of the
population from which samples are to be selected when
deciding which type of sampling plan to use. Some of the
important points to consider are listed below:
- A population may be either finite or infinite: A finite
population is one that has a definite size, e.g., a
truckload of apples, a tanker full of milk, or a vat full
of oil. An infinite population is one that has no definite
size, e.g., a conveyor belt that operates continuously,
from which foods are selected periodically. Analysis of
a finite population usually provides information about
the properties of the population, whereas analysis of an
infinite population usually provides information about
the properties of the process. To facilitate the
development of a sampling plan it is usually convenient
to divide an "infinite" population into a number of
finite population, e.g., all the products produced by one
shift of workers, or all the samples produced in one day.
A population may be either continuous or
compartmentalised: A continuous population is one in
which there is no physical separation between the
different parts of the sample, e.g., liquid milk or oil
stored in a tanker. A compartmentalised population is
one that is split into a number of separate sub-units, e.g.,
boxes of potato chips in a truck, or bottles of tomato
ketchup moving along a conveyor belt. The number and
size of the individual sub-units determines the choice
of a particular sampling plan.
A population may be either homogenous or heterogeneous: A
homogeneous population is one in which the properties
of the individual samples are the same at every location
within the material, whereas a heterogeneous
population is one in which the properties of the
individual samples vary with location. If the properties
of a population were homogeneous then there would be
no problem in selecting a sampling plan because every
individual sample would be representative of the whole
population. In practice, most population are
heterogeneous and so we must carefully select a
number of individual samples from different locations
within the population to obtain an indication of the
properties of the total population.
NATURE OF PROCEDURE
The nature of the procedure used to analyse the food may also
determine the choice of a particular sampling plan, e.g., the
speed, precision, accuracy and cost per analysis, or whether
the technique is destructive or non-destructive. Obviously, it
is more convenient to analyse the properties of many samples
if the analytical technique used is capable of rapid, low cost,
nondestructive and accurate measurements.
DEVELOP A SAMPLING PLAN
After considering the above factors one should be able to select
or develop a sampling plan which is most suitable for a
particular application. Different sampling plans have been
designed to take into account differences in the types of
samples and population encountered, the information
required and the analytical techniques used. Some of the
features that are commonly specified in official sampling
plans are listed below.
Sample Size
The size of the sample selected for analysis largely depends
on the expected variations in properties within a population,
the seriousness of the outcome if a bad sample is not detected,
the cost of analysis, and the type of analytical technique used.
Given this information it is often possible to use statistical
techniques to design a sampling plan that specifies the
minimum number of sub-samples that need to be analysed to
obtain an accurate representation of the population.
Often the size of the sample is impractically large, and so
a process known as sequential sampling is used. Here sub-
samples selected from the population are examined
sequentially until the results are sufficiently definite from a
statistical viewpoint.
Sample Location
In homogeneous population it does not matter where the
sample is taken from because all the sub-samples have the
same properties. In heterogeneous population the location
from which the sub-samples are selected is extremely
important.
In random sampling the sub-samples are chosen
randomly from any location within the material being tested.
Random sampling is often preferred because it avoids human
bias in selecting samples and because it facilitates the
application of statistics. In systematic sampling the samples
are drawn systematically with location or time, e.g., every 10th
box in a truck may be analysed, or a sample may be chosen
from a conveyor belt every 1 minute.
This type of sampling is often easy to implement, but it
is important to be sure that there is not a correlation between
the sampling rate and the sub-sample properties. In judgment
sampling the sub-samples are drawn from the whole
population using the judgment and experience of the analyst.
This could be the easiest sub-sample to get to, such as the
boxes of product nearest the door of a truck.
Alternatively, the person who selects the sub-samples may
have some experience about where the worst sub-samples are
usually found, e.g., near the doors of a warehouse where the
temperature control is not so good. It is not usually possible
to apply proper statistical analysis to this type of sampling,
since the sub-samples selected are not usually a good
representation of the population.
Sample Collection
Sample selection may either be carried out manually by a
human being or by specialised mechanical sampling devices.
Manual sampling may involve simply picking a sample from
a conveyor belt or a truck, or using special cups or containers
to collect samples from a tank or sack. The manner in which
samples are selected is usually specified in sampling plans.
LABORATORY SAMPLES PREPARATION
Once we have selected a sample that represents the properties
of the whole population, we must prepare it for analysis in the
laboratory. The preparation of a sample tor analysis must be
done very carefully in order to make accurate and precise
measurements.
Making Samples Homogeneous
The food material within the sample selected from the
population is usually heterogeneous, i.e., its properties vary
from one location to another. Sample heterogeneity may either
be caused by variations in the properties of different units
within the sample (inter-unit variation) and/or it may be
caused by variations within the individual units in the sample.
The units in the sample could be apples, potatoes, bottles of
ketchup, containers of milk etc.
An example of inter-unit variation would be a box of
oranges, some of good quality and some of bad quality. An
example of intra-unit variation would be an individual
orange, whose skin has different properties than its flesh. For
this reason it is usually necessary to make samples
homogeneous before they are analysed, otherwise it would be
difficult to select a representative laboratory sample from the
sample.
A number of mechanical devices have been developed for
homogenising foods, and the type used depends on the
properties of the food being analysed. Homogenisation can be
achieved using mechanical devices, enzymatic methods or
chemical methods.
Reducing Sample Size
Once the sample has been made homogeneous, a small more
manageable portion is selected for analysis. This is usually
referred to as a laboratory sample, dnd ideally it will have
properties which are representative of the population from
which it was originally selected. Sampling plans often define
the method for reducing the size of a sample in order to obtain
reliable and repeatable results.
Preventing Changes in Sample
Once we have selected our sample we have to ensure that it
does not undergo any significant changes in its properties
from the moment of sampling to the time when the actual
analysis is carried out, e.g., enzymatic, chemical, microbial or
physical changes. There are a number of ways these changes
can be prevented.
Enzymatic Inactivation: Many foods contain active
enzymes they can cause changes in the properties of the
food prior to analysis, e.g., proteases, cellulases, lipases,
etc. If the action of one of these enzymes alters the
characteristics of the compound being analysed then it
will lead to erroneous data and it should therefore be
inactivated or eliminated. Freezing, drying, heat
treatment and chemical preservatives (or a
combination) are often used to control enzyme activity,
with the method used depending on the type of food
being analysed and the purpose of the analysis.
Lipid Protection: Unsaturated lipids may be altered by
various oxidation reactions. Exposure to light, elevated
temperatures, oxygen or pro-oxidants can increase the
rate at which these reactions proceed. Consequently, it
is usually necessary to store samples that have high
unsaturated lipid contents under nitrogen or some
other inert gas, in dark rooms or covered bottles and in
refrigerated temperatures. Providing that they do not
interfere with the analysis antioxidants may be added
to retard oxidation.
Microbial Growth and Contamination: Microorganisms
are present naturally in many foods and if they are not
controlled they can alter the composition of the sample
to be analysed. Freezing, drying, heat treatment and
chemical preservatives (or a combination) are often
used to control the growth of microbes in foods.
60 Control and Analysis for food and Agricultural Products
Physical Changes: A number of physical changes may
occur in a sample, e.g., water may be lost due to
evaporation or gained due to condensation; fat or ice
may melt or crystallise; structural properties may be
disturbed. Physical changes can be minimised by
controlling the temperature of the sample, and the
forces that it experiences.
Sample Identification
Laboratory samples should always be labelled carefully so
that if any problem develops its origin can easily be identified.
The information used to identify a sample includes:
Sample description,
Time sample was taken,
Location sample was taken from,
Person who took the sample, and,
Method used to select the sample.
The analyst should always keep a detailed notebook clearly
documenting the sample selection and preparation
procedures performed and recording the results of any
analytical procedures carried out on each sample. Each
sample should be marked with a code on its label that can be
correlated to the notebook. Thus if any problem arises, it can
easily be identified.
,
DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORTING
Food analysis usually involves making a number of repeated
measurements on the same sample to provide confidence that
the analysis was carried out correctly and to obtain a best
estimate of the value being measured and a statistical
indication of the reliability of the value. A variety of statistical
techniques are available that enable us to obtain this
information about the laboratory sample from multiple
measurements.
Measure of Central Tendency of Data
The most commonly used parameter for representing the
overall properties of a number of measurements is the mean:
_ X l + X ~ + X 3 + .... Xn
X=-------
n
n
LX,
~
n
(1)
Here n is the total number of measurements, x is the
individually measured values and X is the mean value.
The mean is the best experimental estimate of the value
that can be obtained from the measurements. It does not
necessarily have to correspond to the true value of the
parameter one is trying to measure.
There may be some form of systematic error in our
analytical method that means that the measured value is not
the same as the true value. Accuracy refers to how closely the
measured value agrees with the true value.
The problem with determining the accuracy is that the
true value of the parameter being measured is often not
known. Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to purchase or
prepare standards that have known properties and analyse
these standards using the same analytical technique as used
for the unknown food samples.
The absolute error Eabs, which is the difference between
the true value (xtrue) and the measured value (x,), can then
be determined: Eabs = (x, - xtrue). ,For these reasons, analytical
instruments should be carefully maintained and frequently
calibrated to ensure that they are operating correctly.
Spread of Data
The spread of the data is a measurement of how closely
together repeated measurements are to each other. The
standard deviation is the most commonly used measure of the
spread of experimental measurements. This is determined by
assuming that the experimental measurements vary randomly
about the mean, so that they can be represented by a normal
distribution. The standard deviation SO of a set of
experimental measurements is given by the following
equation:
SD =
n 2
.L(X.-X)
I-I
n -1
(2)
Measured values within the specified range:
x SD means 68% values within range (x - SD) to (x +
SD)
X 2SD means 95% values within range (x - 2SD) to (x
+ 2SD)
X 3SD means >99% values within range (x - 3SD) to (x
+ 3SD)
Another parameter that is commonly used to provide an
indication of the relative spread of the data around the mean
is the coefficient of variation, CV =- rSD / X ] 100%.
Common Sources of Error
There are three common sources of error in any analytical
technique:
Personal Errors (Blunders): These occur when the
analytical test is not carried out correctly: the wrong
chemical reagent or equipment might have been used;
some of the sample may have been spilt; a volume or
mass may have been recorded incorrectly; etc. It is
partly for this reason that analyticaJ measurements
should be repeated a number of times using freshly
prepared laboratory samples. Blunders are usually easy
to identify and can be eliminated by carrying out the
analytical method again more carefully.
Random Errors: These produce data that vary in a non-
reproducible fashion from one measurement to the next
e.g., instrumental noise. This type of error determines
the standard deviation of a measurement. There may be
a number of different sources of random error and these
are accumulative.
Systematic Errors: A systematic error produces results
that consistently deviate from the true answer in some
systematic way; e.g., measurements may always be 10%
too high. This type of error would occur if the volume
of a pipette was different from the stipulated value. For
example, a nominally 100 cm
3
pipette may always
deliver 101 cm
3
instead of the correct value.
To make accurate and precise measurements it is important
when designing and setting up an analytical procedure to
identify the various sources of error and to minimise their
effects. Often, one particular step will be the largest source of
error, and the best improvement in accuracy or precision can
be achieved by minimising the error in this step.
Propagation of Errors
Most analytical procedures involve a number of steps, and
there will be an error associated with each step. These
individual errors accumulate to determine the overall error in
the final result. For random errors there are a number of
simple rules that can be followed to calculate the error in the
final result:
Addition (Z = X+Y) and Subtraction (Z = X-Y):
(3)
Multiplication (Z = XY) and Division (Z = X/Y):
ll.Z !ll.X 2 ll. Y 2
Z= ~ [ x - l +[yJ
(4)
Here, LiX is the standard deviation of the mean value X, LiY
is the standard deviation of the mean value Y, and tJ,Z is the
standard deviation of the mean value Z. These simple rules
should be learnt and used when calculating the overall error
in a final result As an example, let us assume that we want
to determine the fat content of a food and that we have
previously measured the mass of extracted fat extracted from
the food (M
F
) and the initial mass of the food (M
1
):
ME = 3.1 0.3 g
M
j
:= 10.5 0.7 g
% Fat Content = 100 M
f
/ M
j
To calculate the mean and standard deviation of the fat
content we need to use the multiplication rule (Z=X/Y) given
by Equation 4. Initially, we assign values to the various
parameters in the appropriate propagation of error equation:
x = 3.1; L1 X = 0.3
Y = 10.5; L1Y = 0.7
% Fat Content = Z = 100 X/y = 100 3.1/10.5 = 29.5%
L1 Z = Z [(L1X/X)2+( L1 YjY)2] = 29.5% [(0.3/3.1)2+(0.7/
10.5)'] = 3.5%
Hence, the fat content of the food is 29.5 3.5%. In reality, it may
be necessary to carry out a number of different steps in a
calculation, some that involve addition/subtraction and some
that involve multiplication/ division. When carrying out
multiplication/ division calculations it is necessary to ensure
that all appropriate addition/ subtraction calculations have
been completed first.
Significant Figures and Rounding
The number of significant figures used in reporting a final
result is determined by the standard deviation of the
measurements. A final result is reported to the correct number
of significant figures when it contains all the digits that are
known to be correct, plus a final one that is known to be
uncertain. For example, a reported value of 12.13, means that
the 12.1 is known to be correct but the 3 at the end is uncertain,
it could be either a 2 or a 4 instead.
For multiplication (Z = X x Y) and division (Z = XjY), the
significant figures in the final result (Z) shou'Id be equal to the
significant figures in the number from which it was calculated
(X or Y) that has the lowest significant figures.
When rounding numbers: always round any number with
a final digit less than 5 downwards, and 5 or more upwards,
e.g. 23.453 becomes 23.45; 23.455 becomes 23.46; 23.458
becomes 23.46. It is usually desirable to carry extra digits
throughout the calculations and then rolmd off the final result.
Standard Curves
When carrying out certain analytical procedures it is
necessary to prepare standard curves that are used to
determine some property of an unknown material. A series of
calibration experiments is carried out using samples with
known properties and a standard curve is plotted from this
data. For example, a series of protein solutions with known
concentration of protein could be prepared and their
absorbance of electromagnetic radiation at 280 nm could be
measured using a UV-visible spectrophotometer. For dilute
protein solutions there is a linear relationship between
absorbance and protein concentration:
Absorbance

y=ax+-b
Protein C onc entration
A best-fit line is drawn through the date using regression
analysis, which has a gradient of a and a y-intercept of b. The
concentration of protein in an unknown sample can then be
determined by measuring its absorbance: x = (y-b)/a, where in
this example x i ~ the protein concentration and y is the
absorbance.
How well the straight-line fits the experimental data is
expressed by the correlation coefficient r2, which has a value
between 0 and 1,
The closer the value is to 1 the better the fit between the
straight line and the experimental values: r2 = 1 is a perfect
fit. Most modern calculators and spreadsheet programmes
have routines that can be used to automatically determine the
regression coefficient, the slope and the intercept of a set of
data.
Rejecting Data
When carrying out an experimental analytical procedure it
will sometimes be observed that one of the measured values
is very different from all of the other values, e.g., as the result
of a "blunder" in the analytical procedure.
Occasionally, this value may be treated as being incorrect,
and it can be rejected. There are certain rules based on
statistics that allow us to decide whether a particular point can
be rejected or not. A test called the Q-test is commonly used
to decide whether an experimental value can be rejected or
not.
Q = XBAD - XNEXT
XHIGH-XLOW
Here X
BAD
is the questionable value, X
NEX7
is the next closet
value to X
BAD
, X
H1GH
is the highest value of the data set and Xww
is the lowest value of the data set. If the Q-value is higher than
the value given in a Q-test table for the number of samples
being analysed then it can be rejected:
Food Sampling and Data Analysis
Number of Observations
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
67
Q-value for Data Rejection (90%
confidence level)
0.94
0.76
0.64
0.56
0.51
0.47
0.44
0.41
For example, if five measurements were carried out and one
measurement was very different from the rest (e.g.,
20,22,25,50,21), having a Q-value of 0.84, then it could be safely
rejected (because it is higher than the value of 0.64 given in
the Q-test table for five observations).
REFERENCES
Amigo L., et al., "Genetic polymorphism of ovine milk proteins: its
influence on technological properties of milk" - a review,
IlIternational Dl1lliry Journal, 10: 135-149, 2000.
Bania J., et aI., "Application of polymerase chain reaction for detection
of goats' milk adulteration by milk of cow", Journal of Dairy Research,
68: 333-336, 200l.
Cattaneo T.M.P., et al., "Analysis of cow, goat and ewe milk mixtures
by capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE): preliminary approach",
Milchwissenschaft, 51: 616-619, 1996.
CoveIIo VT, Merkhofer MW Risk assessment methods: approaches for assessing
health and environmental risks, Plenum Press, New York, 1993.
Morgan MG, Henrion M Uncertainty: A guide to dealing with uncertainty
in quantitative risk and policy analysis, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1990.
Kramer, A. and Twigg, B.A., Fundamentals of quality control for the food
Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment, Committee on Risk Assessment
of Hazardous Air Pollutants, Board on Environmental Studies and
Toxicology, National Research Council (NRC), National Academy of
Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington DC, 1994 ..
Nielsen, 5.5., Food Analysis, 2nd Edition, Aspen Publication,
Gaithersberg, Maryland, 1998.
Procter, A. and Meullenet, J.F., "Sampling and Sample Preparation", In:
Food Analysis, 2nd Edition, Aspen Publication, Gaithersberg,
Maryland, 1998.
4
Food Protein Analysis
Proteins are important constituents of foods for a number of
different reasons. They are a major source of energy, as well
as containing essential amino-acids, such as lysine,
tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine and valine, which
are essential to human health, but which the body cannot
synthesize. Proteins are also the major structural components
of many natural foods, often determining their overall texture.
Isolated proteins are often used in foods as ingredients
because of their unique functional properties, i.e., their ability
to provide desirable appearance, texture or stability.
Typically, proteins are used as gelling agents, emulsifiers,
foaming agents and thickeners.
Many food proteins are enzymes which are capable of
enhandng the rate of certain biochemical reactions. These
reactions can have either a favourable or detrimental effect on
the overall properties of foods. Food analysts are interested
in knowing the total concentration, type, molecular structure
and functional properties of the proteins in foods.
DETERMINATION OF PROTEIN CONCENTRATION
Kjeldahl Method
The Kjeldahl method was developed in 1883 by a brewer
called Johann Kjeldahl. A food is digested with a strong acid
so that it releases nitrogen which can be determined by a
suitable titration technique. The amount of protein present is
then calculated from the nitrogen concentration of the food.
The same basic approach is still used today, although a
number of improvements have been made to speed up the
process and to obtain more accurate measurements.
It is usually considered to be the standard method of
determining protein concentration. Because the Kjeldahl
method does not measure the protein content directly a
conversion factor (F) is needed to convert the measured
nitrogen concentration to a protein concentration. A
conversion factor of 6.25 (equivalent to 0.16 g nitrogen pel
gram of protein) is used for many applications, however, this
is only an average value, and each protein has a different
conversion factor depending on its amino-acid composition,
The Kjeldahl method can conveniently be divided into three
steps: digestion, neutralisation and titration.
Principles
Digestion
The food sample to be analysed is weighed into a digestion
flask and then digested by heating it in the presence of sulfuric
acid (an oxidizing agent which digests the food), anhydrous
sodium sulfate (to speed up the reaction by raiSing the boiling
point) and a catalyst, such as copper, selenium, titanium, or
mercury (to speed up the reaction).
Digestion converts any nitrogen in the food (other than
that which is in the form of nitrates or nitrites) into ammonia,
and other organic matter to CO
2
and H
2
0. Ammonia gas is not
liberated in an acid solution because the ammonia is in the
form of the ammonium ion (NH4 +) which binds to the sulfate
ion (50/) and thus remains in solution:
(1)
Neutralisation
After the digestion has been completed the digestion flask is
connected to a receiving flask by a tube. The solution in the
digestion flask is then made alkaline by dddition of sodium
Food Protein Analysis 71
hydroxide, which converts the ammonium sulfate into
ammonia gas:
(2)
The ammonia gas that is formed is liberated from the solution
and moves out of the digestion flask and into the receiving
flask-which contains an excess of boric acid. The low pH of
the solution in the receiving flask converts the ammonia gas
into the ammonium ion, and simultaneously converts the
boric acid to the borate ion:
Titration of the ammonium borate
The nitrogen content is then estimated by titration of the
ammonium borate formed with standard sulfuric or
hydrochloric acid, using a suitable indicator to determine the
end-point of the reaction.
(4)
The concentration of hydrogen ions (in moles) required to
reach the end-point is equivalent to the concentration of
nitrogen that was in the original food (Equation 3). The
following equation can be used to determine the nitrogen
concentration of a sample that weighs m grams using a xM
HCl acid solution for the titration:
xm ales (vo - v.)cm 3 149-
% N = 1 OOOcm 3 x m 9 x m ales x 100 (5)
Where Vs and Vb are the titration volumes of the sample and
blank, and 14g is the molecular weight of nitrogen N. A blank
sample is usually ran at the same time as the material being
analysed to take into account any residual nitrogen which may
be in the reagents used to carry out the analysis. Once the
nitrogen content has been determined it is converted to a
protein content using the appropriate conversion factor:
%Protein = F %N.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages: The Kjeldahl method is widely used
internationally and is still the standard method for
comparison against all other methods. Its universality, high
precision and good reproducibility have made it the major
method for the estimation of protein in foods
Disadvantages: It does not give a measure of the true
protein, since all nitrogen in foods is not in the form of protein.
Different proteins need different correction factors because
they have different amino acid sequences The use of
concentrated sulfuric acid at high temperatures poses a
considerable hazard, as does the use of some of the possible
catalysts The technique is time consuming to carry-out.
Dumas Method
Recently, an automated instrumental technique has been
developed which is capable of rapidly measuring the protein
concentration of food samples. This technique is based on a
method first described by a scientist called Dumas over a
century and a half ago. It is beginning to compete with the
Kjeldahl method as the standard method of analysis for
proteins for some foodstuffs due to its rapidness.
Principles
A sample of known mass is combusted in a high temperature
(about 900C) chamber in the presence of oxygen. This leads
to the release of CO
2
, H
2
0 and N
2
, The CO
2
and H
2
0 are
removed by passing the gasses over speciaJ columns that
absorb them. The nitrogen content is then measured by
passing the remaining gasses through a column that has a
thermal conductivity detector at the end. The column helps
separate the nitrogen from any residual CO
2
and H
2
0 that may
have remained in the gas stream.
The instrument is calibrated by analysing a material that
is pure and has a known nitrogen concentrrttion, :-uch as EDT A
73
(= 9.S9%N). Thus the signal from the thermal conductivity
detector can be converted into a nitrogen content. As with the
Kjeldahl method it is necessary to convert the concentration
of nitrogen in a sample to the protein content, using suitable
conversion factors which depend on the precise amino acid
sequence of the protein.
Advantages: It is much faster than the Kjeldahl method (under
4 minutes per measurement, compared to 1-2 hours for
Kjeldahl). It doesn't need toxic chemicals or catalysts. Many
samples can be measured automatically. It is easy to use.
Disadvantages: High initial cost. It does not give a measure
of the true protein, since all nitrogen in foods is not in the form
of protein. Different proteins need different correction factors
because they have different amino acid sequences. The small
sample size makes it difficult to obtain a representative
sample.
UV-visible Spectroscopy Methods
A number of methods have been devised to measure protein
concentration, which are based on UV-visible spectroscopy.
These methods use either the natural ability of proteins to
absorb (or scatter) light in the UV-visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum, or they chemically or physically
modify proteins to make them absorb (or scatter) light in this
region. The basic principle behind each of these tests is similar.
First of all a calibration curve of absorbance (or turbidity)
versus protein concentration is prepared using a series of
protein solutions of known concentration.
The absorbance (or turbidity) of the solution being
analysed is then measured at the same wavelength, and its
protein concentration determined from the calibration curve.
The main difference between the tests are the chemical groups
which are responsible for the absorption or scattering of
radiation, e.g., peptide bonds, aromatic side-groups, basic
groups and aggregated proteins. A number of the most
74 Control and Analysis for Food and Agricultural Productf>
commonly used UV-visible methods for determining the
protein content of foods are highlighted below:
Principles
Direct measurement at 280nm
Tryptophan and tyrosine absorb ultraviolet light strongly at
280 nm. The tryptophan and tyrosine content of many proteins
remains fairly constant, and so the absorbance of protein
solutions at 280nm can be used to determine their
concentration. The advantages of "this method are that the
procedure is simple to carry out, it is nondestructive, and no
special reagents are required.
The major disadvantage is that nucleic acids also absorb
strongly at 280 nm and could therefore interfere with the
measurement of the protein if they are present in sufficient
concentrations. Even so, methods have been developed to
overcome this problem, e.g., by measuring the absorbance at
two different wa velengths.
Biuret Method
A violet-purplish colour is produced when cupric ions (Cu
2
-)
interact with peptide bonds under alkaline conditions. The
biuret reagent, which contains all the chemicals required to
carry out the analysis, can be purchased commercially. It is
mixed with a protein solution and then allowed to stand for
15-30 minutes before the absorbance is read at 540 nm.
The major advantage of this technique is that there is no
interference from materials that adsorb at lower wavelengths,
and the technique is less sensitive to protein type because it
utilises absorption involving peptide bonds that are common
to all proteins, rather than specific side groups. However, it
has a relatively low sensitivity compared to other UV-visible
methods.
Lowry Method
The Lowry method combines the biuret reagenl with another
reagent (the Folin-Ciocalteau phenol reagent) which reacts
75
with tyrosine and tryptophan residues in proteins. This gives
a bluish colour which can be read somewhere between 500 :-
750 nm depending on the sensitivity required. There is a small
peak around 500 nm that can be used to determine high
protein concentrations and a large peak around 750 nm that
can be used to determine low protein concentrations. This
method is more sensitive to low concentrations of proteins
than the biuret method.
Dye Binding Methods
A known excess of a negatively charged (anionic) dye is added
to a protein solution whose pH is adjusted so that the proteins
are positively charged. The proteins form an insoluble
complex with the dye because of the electrostatic attraction
between the molecules, but the unbound dye remains soluble.
The anionic dye binds to cationic groups of the basic
amino acid residues (histidine, arganine and lysine) and to
free amino terminal groups. The amount of unbound dye
remaining in solution after the insoluble protein-dye complex
has been removed is determined by measuring its absorbance.
The amount of protein present in the original solution is
proportional to the amount of dye that bound to it: dyebound
= dyeinitial - dyefree.
Turbimetric Method
Protein molecules which are normally soluble in solution can
be made to precipitate by the addition of certain chemicals,
e.g., trichloroacetic acid. Protein precipitation causes the
solution to become turbid. Thus the concentration of protein
can be determined by measuring the degree of turbidity.
Advantages: UV -visible techniques are fairly rapid and simple
to carry out, and are sensitive to low concentrations of
proteins.
Disadvantages: For most UV-visible techniques it is
necessary to use dilute and transparent solutions, which
c o n t a ~ n no contaminating substances which absorb or scatter
l.
light at the same wavelength as the protein being analysed.
The need for transparent solutions means that most foods
must undergo significant amounts of sample preparation
before they can be analysed, e.g., homogenisation, solvent
extraction, centrifugation, filtration, which can be time
consuming and laborious.
In addition, it is sometimes difficult to quantitatively
extract proteins from certain types of foods, especially after
they have been processed so that the proteins become
aggregated or covalently bound with other substances. In
addition the absorbance depends on the type of protein
analysed (different proteins have different amino acid
sequences).
Instrumental Methods
There are a wide variety of different instrumental methods
available for determining the total protein content of food
materials. These can be divided into three different categories
according to their physicochemical principles:
(i) measurement of bulk physical properties,
(ii) measurement of adsorption of radiation, and
(iii) measurement of scattering of radiation.
Each instrumental methods has its own advantages and
disadvantages, and range of foods to which it can be applied.
Principles
Measurement of bulk physical properties
Density: The density of a protein is greater than that of
most other food components, and so there is an increase
in denSity of a food as its protein content increases. Thus
the protein content of foods can be determined by
measuring their density.
Refractive index: The refractive index of an aqueous
solution increases as the protein concentration increases
and therefore RI measurements can be used ,to
determine the protein content.
Measurement of adsorption of radiation
UV-visible: The concentration of proteins can be
determined by measuring the absorbance of ultraviolet-
visible radiation.
Infrared: Infrared techniques can be used to determine
the concentration of proteins in food samples. Proteins
absorb IR naturally due to characteristic vibrations
(stretching and bending) of certain chemical groups
along the polypeptide backbone. Measurements of the
absorbance of radiation at certain wavelengths can thus
be used to quantify the concentration of protein in the
sample. IR is particularly useful for rapid on-line
analysis of protein content. It also requires little sample
preparation and is nondestructive. Its major
disadvantages are its high initial cost and the need for
extensive calibration.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance: NMR spectroscopy can be
used to determine the total protein concentration of
foods. The protein content is determined by measuring
the area under a peak in an NMR chemical shift spectra
that corresponds to the protein fraction.
Measurement of scattering of radiation
Light scattering: The concentration of protein aggregates
in aqueous solution can be determined using light
scattering techniques because the turbidity of a solution
is directly proportional to the concentration of
aggregates present.
Ultrasonic scattering: The concentration of protein
aggregates can also be determined using ultrasonic
scattering techniques because the ultrason,ic velocity
and absorption of ultrasound are related to the
concentration of protein aggregates present.
A number of these instrumental methods have major
advantages over the other techniques mentioned above
because they are nondestructive, require little or no sample
preparation, and measurements are rapid and precise. A
major disadvantage of the techniques which rely on
measurements of the bulk physical properties of foods are that
a calibration curve must be prepared between the physical
property of interest and the total protein content, and this may
depend on the type of protein present and the food matrix it
is contained within.
In addition, the techniques based on measurements of
bulk physicochemical properties can only be used to analyse
foods with relatively simple compositions. In a food that
contains many different components whose concentration
may vary, it is difficult to disentangle the contribution that the
protein makes to the overall measurement from that of the
other components.
Comparison of Methods
As food scientists we may often be in a position where we have
to choose a particular technique for measuring the protein
concentration of a food. How do we decide which technique
is the most appropriate for our particular application? The
first thing to determine is what is the information going to be
used for. If the analysis is to be carried out for official
purposes, e.g., legal or . labeling requirements, then it is
important to use an officially recognised method,
The Kjeldahl method, and increasingly the Dumas
method, have been officially approved for a wide range of
food applications. In contrast, only a small number of
applications of UV-visible spectroscopy have been officially
recognised. For quality control purposes, it is often more
useful to have rapid and simple measurements of protein
content and therefore IR techniques are most suitable.
For fundamental studies in the laboratory, where pure
proteins are often analysed, UV-visible spectroscopic
techniques are often preferred because they give rapid and
reliable measurements, and are sensitive to low
concentrations of protein. Other factors which may have to be
..
considered are the amount of sample preparation required,
their sensitivity and their speed.
The Kjeldahl, Dumas and IR methods require very little
sample preparation. After a representative sample of the food
has been selected it can usually be tested directly. On the other
hand, the various UV-visible methods require extensive
sample preparation prior to analysis. The protein must be
extracted from the food into a dilute transparent solution,
which usually involves time consuming homogenisation,
solvent extraction, filtration and centrifugation procedures. In
addition, it m'ay be difficult to completely isolate some
proteins from foods because they are strongly bound to other
components.
The various techniques also have different sensitivities,
i.e., the lowest concentration of protein which they can detect.
The UV-visible methods are the most sensitive, being able to
detect protein concentrations as low as 0.001 wt%. The
sensitivity of the Dumas, Kjeldahl and IR methods is
somewhere around 0.1 wt%. The time required per analysis,
and the number of samples which can be run simultaneously,
are also important factors to consider when deciding which
analytical technique to use. IR techniques are capable of rapid
analysis 1 minute) of protein concentration once they have
been calibrated. The modern instrumental Dumas method is
fully automated and can measure the protein concentration of
a sample in less than 5 minutes, compared to the Kjeldahl
method which takes between 30 minutes and 2 hours to carry
out.
The various UV -visible methods range between a couple
of minutes to an hour (depending on the type of dye that is
used and how long it takes to react), although ibdoes have the
advantage that many samples can be run simultaneously.
Nevertheless, it is usually necessary to carry out extensive
sample preparation prior to analysis in order to get a
transparent solution. Other factors which may be important
when selecting an appropriate technique are: the equipment
available, ease of operation, the desired accuracy, and whether
or not the technique is nondestructive.
CHARACTERISATION OF PROTEIN SEPARATION
Food analysts are often interested in the type of proteins
present in a food because each protein has unique nutritional
and physicochemical properties. Protein type is usually
determined by separating and isolating the individual
proteins from a complex mixture of proteins, so that they can
be subsequently i d e n t i f i ~ d and characterised. Proteins are
separated on the basis of differences in their physicochemical
properties, such as size, charge, adsorption characteristics,
solubility and heat-stability.
The choice of an appropriate separation technique
depends on a number of factors, including the reasons for
carrying out the analysis, the amount of sample available, the
desired purity, the equipment available, the type of proteins
present and the cost. Large-scale methods are available for
crude isolations of large quantities of proteins, whereas small-
scale methods are available for proteins that are expensive or
only available in small quantities.
One of the factors that must be considered during the
separation procedure is the possibility that the native three
dimensional structure of the protein molecules may be altered.
A prior knowledge of the effects of environmental conditions
on protein structure and interactions is extremely useful when
selecting the most appropriate separation technique. Firstly,
because it helps determine the most suitable conditions to use
to isolate a particular protein from a mixture of proteins, and
secondly, because it may be important to choose conditions
which will not adversely affect the molecular structure of the
proteins.
Separation Techniques
Proteins can be separated by exploiting differences in their
solubility in aqueous solutions. The solubility of a protein
molecule is determined by its amino acid sequence because
this determines its size, shape, hydrophobicity and electrical
charge. Proteins can be selectively precipitated or solubilized
by altering the pH, ionic strength, dielectric constant or
81
temperature of a solution. These separation techniques are the
most simple to use when large quantities of sample are
involved, because they are relatively quick, inexpensive and
are not particularly influenced by other food components.
They are often used as the first step in any separation
procedure because the majority of the contaminating
materials can be easily removed.
Salting Out
Proteins are precipitated from aqueous solutions when the salt
concentration exceeds a critical level, which is known as
salting-out, because all the water is "bound" to the salts, and
is therefore not available to hydrate the proteins. Ammonium
sulfate [(NH4)2S04] is commonly used because it has a high
water-solubility, although other neutral salts may also be
used, e.g., NaCI or KCl. Generally a two-step procedure is
used to maximise the separation efficiency. In the first step,
the salt is added at a concentration just below that necessary
to precipitate out the protein of interest.
The solution is then centrifuged to remove any proteins
that are less soluble than the protein of interest. The salt
concentration is then increased to a point just above that
required to cause precipitation of the protein. This precipitates
out the protein of interest (which can be separated by
centrifugation), but leaves more soluble proteins in solution.
The main problem with this method is that large
concentrations of salt contaminate the solution, which must be
removed before the protein can be resolubilsed.
Isoelectric Precipitation
The isoelectric point (pI) of a protein is the pH where the net
charge on the protein is zero. Proteins tend to aggregate and
precipitate at their pI because there is no electrostatic
repulsion keeping them apart. Proteins have different
isoelectric points because of their different amino acid
sequences, and thus they can be separated by adjusting the pH
of a solution. When the pH is adjusted to the pI of a particular
protein it precipitates leaving the other proteins in solution.
--- .. ;--
Solvent Fractionation
The solubility of a protein depends on the dielectric constant
of the solution that surrounds it because this alters the
magnitude of the electrostatic interactions between charged
groups. As the dielectric constant of a solution decreases the
magnitude of the electrostatic interactions between charged
species increases. This tends to decrease the solubility of
proteins in solution because they are less ionized, and
therefore the electrostatic repulsion between them is not
sufficient to prevent them from aggregatingo
The dielectric constant of aqueous solutionb can be
lowered by adding water-soluble organic solvents, such as
ethanol or acetone. The amount of organic solvent required to
cause precipitation depends on the protein and therefore
proteins can be separated on this basis. The optimum quantity
of organic solvent required to precipitate a protein varies from
about 5 to 60%. Solvent fractionation is usually performed at
OC or below to prevent protein denaturation caused by
temperature increases that occur when organic solvents are
mixed with water.
Denaturation
Many proteins are denatured and precipitate from solution
when heated above a certain temperature or by adjusting a
solution to highly acid or basic pHs. Proteins that are stable
at high temperature or at extremes of pH are most easily
separated by this technique because contaminating proteins
can be precipitated while the protein of interest remains in
solution.
Adsorption Chromatography
Adsorption chromatography involves the separation of
compounds by selective adsorption-desorption at a solid
matrix that is contained within a column through which the
mixture passes. Separation is based on the different affinities
of different proteins for the solid matrix. Affinity and ion-
exchange chromatography are the two major types of
adsorption chromatography commonly used for the
separation of proteins. Separation can be carried out using
either an open column or high-pressure liquid
chromatography.
Ion Exchange Chromatography
Ion exchange chromatography relies on the reversible
adsorption-desorption of ions in solution to a charged solid
matrix or polymer network. This technique is the most
commonly used chromatographic technique for protein
separation. A positively charged matrix is called an anion-
exchanger because it binds negatively charged ions (anions).
A negatively charged matrix is called a cation-exchanger
because it binds positively charged ions (cations).
The buffer conditions (pH and ionic strength) are adjusted
to favour maximum binding of the protein of interest to the
ion-exchange column. Contaminating proteins bind less
strongly and therefore pass more rapidly through the column.
The protein of interest is then eluted using another buffer
solution which favors its desorption from the column.
Affinity Chromatography
Affinity chromatography uses a stationary phase that consists
of a ligand covalently bound to a solid support. The ligand
is a molecule that has a highly specific and unique reversible
affinity for a particular protein. The sample to be analysed is
passed through the column and the protein of interest binds
to the ligand, whereas the contaminating proteins pass
directly through.
The protein of interest is then eluted using a buffer
solution which favors its desorption from the column. This
technique is the most efficient means of separating an
individual protein from a mixture of proteins, but it is the
most expensive, because of the need to have columns with
specific ligands bound to them. Both ion-exchange and affinity
chromatography are commonly used to separate proteins and
amino-acids in the laboratory. They are used less commonly
for commercial separations because they are not suitable for
rapidly separating large volumes and are relatively expensive.
Separation Due to Size Differences
Proteins can also be separated according to their size.
Typically, the molecular weights of proteins vary from about
10,000 to 1,000,000 daltons. In practice, separation depends on
the Stokes radius of a protein, rather than directly on its
molecular weight. The Stokes radius is the average radius that
a protein has in solution, and depends on its three dimensional
molecular structure. For proteins with the same molecular
weight the Stokes radius increases in the following order:
compact globular protein < flexible random-coil < rod-like
protein.
Dialysis
Dialysis is used to separate molecules in solution by use of
semipermeable membranes that permit the passage of
molecules smaller than a certain size through, but prevent the
passing of larger molecules. A protein solution is placed in
dialysis tubing which is sealed and placed into a large volume
of water or buffer which is slowly stirred. Low molecular
weight solutes flow through the bag, but the large molecular
weight protein molecules remain in the bag. Dialysis is a
relatively slow method, taking up to 12 hours to be completed.
It is therefore most frequently used in the laboratory. Dialysis
is often used to remove salt from protein solutions after they
have been separated by salting-out, and to change buffers.
Ultrafiltration
A solution of protein is placed in a cell containing a
semipermeable membrane, and pressure is applied. Smaller
molecules pass through the membrane, whereas the larger
molecules remain in the solution. The separation principle of
this technique is therefore similar to dialysis, but because
pressure is applied separation is much quicker.
Semipermeable membranes with cutoff points between about
500 to 300,000 are available. That portion of the solution which
is retained by the cell (large molecules) is called the retentate,
whilst that part which passes through the membrane (small
molecules) forms part of the ultrafiltrate. Ultrafiltration can be
used to concentrate a protein solution, remove salts, exchange
buffers or fractionate proteins on the basis of their size.
Ultrafiltration units are used in the laboratory and on a
commercial scale.
Size Exclusion Chromatography
This technique, sometimes known as gel filtration, also
separates proteins according to their size. A protein solution
is poured into a column which is packed with porous beads
made of a cross-linked polymeric material. Molecules larger
than the pores in the beads are excluded, and move quickly
through the column, whereas the movement of molecules
which enter the pores is retarded. Thus molecules are eluted
off the column in order of decreasing size. Beads of different
average pore size are available for separating proteins of
different molecular weights.
Manufacturers of these beads provide information about
the molecular weight range that they are most suitable for
separating. Molecular weights of unknown proteins can be
determined by comparing their elution volumes Vo, with
those determined using proteins of known molecular weight:
a plot of elution volume versus log(molecular weight) should
give a straight line. One problem with this method is that the
molecular weight is not directly related to the Stokes radius
for different shaped proteins.
Electrophoresis
Electrophoresis relies on differences in the migration of
charged molecules in a solution when an electrical field is
applied across it. It can be used to separate proteins on the
basis of their size, shape or charge.
Non-denaturing Electrophoresis
In non-denaturing electrophoresis, a buffered solution of
native proteins is poured onto a porous gel and a voltage is
applied across the gel. The proteins move through the gel in
a direction that depends on the sign of their charge, and at a
rate that depends on the magnitude of the charge, and the
friction to their movement:
. . applied voltage x molecular ch arg e
mobtltty = I I fr .
mo ecu ar tcflon
Proteins may be positively or negatively charged in solution
depending on their isoelectic points (pI) and the pH of the
solution. A protein is negatively charged if the pH is above
the pI, and positively charged if the pH is below the pI. The
magnitude of the charge and applied voltage will determine
how far proteins migrate in a certain time. The higher the
voltage or the greater the charge on the protein the further it
will move.
The friction of a molecule is a measure of its resistance to
movement through the gel and is largely determined by the
rela tionship between the effective size of the molecule, and the
size of the pores in the gel. The smaller the size of the molecule,
or the larger the size of the pores in the gel, the lower the
resistance and therefore the faster a molecule moves through
the gel.
Gels with different porosity's can be purchased from
chemical suppliers, or made up in the laboratory. Smaller
pores sizes are obtained by using a higher concentration of
cross-linking reagent to form the gel. Gels may be contained
between two parallel plates, or in cylindrical tubes. In non-
denaturing electrophoresis the native proteins are separated
based on a combination of their charge, size and shape.
Denaturing Electrophoresis Proteins
In denaturing electrophoresis proteins are separated primarily
on their molecular weight. Proteins are denatured prior to
analysis by mixing them with mercaptoethanol, which breaks
down disulfide bonds, and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS),
which is an anionic surfactant that hydrophobically blnds to
protein molecules and causes them to unfold because of the
repulsion between negatively charged surfactant hepd ..
groups. Each protein molecule binds approximately the same
amount of SDS per unit length. Hence, the charge per unit
length and the molecular conformation is approximately
similar for all proteins.
As proteins travel through a gel network they are
primarily separated on the basis of their molecular weight
because their movement depends on the size of the protein
molecule relative to the size of the pores in the gel: smaller
proteins moving more rapidly through the matrix than larger
molecules. This type of electrophoresis is commonly called
sodium dodecyl sulfate -polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis,
or SD5-PAGE.
To determine how far proteins have moved a tracking dye
is added to the protein solution, e.g., bromophenol blue. This
dye is a small charged molecule that migrates ahead of the
proteins. After the electrophoresis is completed the proteins
are made visible by treating the gel with a protein dye such
as Coomassie Brilliant Blue or silver stain. The relative
mobility of each protein band is calculated:
dis tan ce protein moves
Rm = d d
lS tan ce ye moves
Electrophoresis is often used to determine the protein
composition of food products. The protein is extracted from
the food into solution, which is then separated using
electrophoresis.
SDS-PAGE is used to determine the molecular weight of
a protein by measuring R
m
, and then comparing it with a
calibration curve produced using proteins of known
molecular weight: a plot of log (molecular weight) against
relative mobility is usually linear. Denaturing electrophoresis
is more useful for determining molecular weights than non-
denaturing electrophoresis, because the friction to movement
does not depend on the shape or original charge of the protein
molecules.
Isoelectric Focusing Electrophoresis
This technique is a modification of electrophoresis, in which
proteins are separated by charge on a gel matrix which has
a pH gradient across it. Proteins migrate to the location where
the pH equals their isoelectric point and then stop moving
because they are no longer charged. This methods has one of
the highest resolutions of all techniques used to separate
proteins. Gels are available that cover a narrow pH range (2-
3 units) or a broad pH range (3-10 units) and one should
therefore select a gel which is most suitable for the proteins
being separated.
Two Dimensional Electrophoresis
Isoelectric focusing and SDS-Page can be used together to
improve resolution of complex protein mixtures. Proteins are
separated in one direction on the basis of charge using
isoelectric focusing, and then in a perpendicular direction on
the basis of size using SDS-Page.
Amino Acid Analysis
Amino acid analysis is used to determine the amino acid
composition of proteins. A protein sample is first hydrolyzed
to release the amino acids, which are then separated using
chromatography.
REFERENCES
Cox G., "Famine Symposium-the Ecology of Famine: An Overview,"
Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 1978, 6:207-220.
Francks P., "Agriculture and State in Industrial East Asia: The Rise and
Fall of the Food Control System in Japan," Japan Forum, 1998, 10:1.
Hopfenberg R., "Human Carrying Capacity is Determined by Food
Availability," Population and Environment, 2003, 25:109-117(9).
Lee R., "Monogongo: The Ethnography of a Major Wild Food Resource,"
Ecology of Food alld Nutrition, 1973, 3:89105.
5
Analysis of Lipid Concentration in Food
In many foods the lipid component plays a major role in
determining the overall physical characteristics, such as
flavour, texture, mouthfeel and appearance. For this reason,
it is difficult to develop low-fat alternatives of many foods,
because once the fat is removed some of the most important
physical characteristics are lost. Finally, many fats are prone
to lipid oxidation, which leads to the formation of off-flavours
and potentially harmful products. Some of the most important
properties of concern to the food analyst are:
Total lipid concentration
Type of lipids present
Physicochemical properties of lipids, e.g.,
crystallisation, melting point, smoke point,. rheology,
density and colour
Structural organisation of lipids within a food
PROPERTIES OF LIPlDS
Lipids are usually defined as those components that are
soluble in organic solvents (such as ether, hexane or
chloroform), but are insoluble in water. This group of
substances includes triacylglycercols, diacylglycercols,
monoacylglycercols, free fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols,
caretonoids and vitamins A and D. The lipid fraction of a fatty
food therefore contains a complex mixture of different types
of molecule.
Even so, triacylglycercols are the major component of
most foods, typically making up more than 9S to 99% of the
total lipids present. Triacylglycerols are esters of three fatty
acids and a glycerol molecule. The fatty acids normally found
in foods vary in chain length, degree of unsaturation and
position on the glycerol molecule. Consequently, the
triacylglycerol fraction itself consists of a complex mixture of
different types of molecules.
Each type of fat has a different profile ot lipids present
which determines the precise nature of its nutritional and
physiochemical properties. The terms fat, oil and lipid are
often used interchangeably by food scientists. Although
sometimes the term fat is used to describe those lipids that are
solid at the specified temperature, whereas the term oil is used
to describe those lipids that are liquid at the specified
temperature.
Sample Prep<rration Procedure
As with any analytical procedure, the validity of the results
depends on proper sampling and preservation of the sample
prior to analysis. Ideally, the composition of the sample
analysed should represent as closely as possible that of the
food from which it was taken. The sample preparation
required in lipid analysis depends on the type of food being
analysed, the nature of the lipid component and the type of
analytical procedure used.
In order, to decide the most appropriate sample
preparation procedure it is necessary to have a knowledge of
the physical structure and location of the principal lipids
present in the food. Since each food is different it is necessary
to use different procedures for each one. Official methods
have been developed for specific types of foods that stipulate
the precise sample preparation procedure that should be
followed.
In general, sample preparation should be carried out using
an environment that minimises any changes in the properties
of the lipid fraction. If lipid oxidation is a problem it is
important to preserve the sample by using a nitrogen
Analysis of Lipid Concentration in Food 91
atmosphere, cold temperature, low light or adding
antioxidants. If the solid fat content or crystal structure is
important it may be necessary to carefully control the
temperature and handling of the sample.
DETERMINATION OF LIPID CONCENTRATION
It is important to be able to accurately determine the total fat
content of foods for a number of reasons:
Economic (not to give away expensive ingredients)
Legal (to conform to standards of identity and
nutritional labelling laws)
Health (development of low fat foods)
Quality (food properties depend on the total lipid
content)
Processing conditions depend on the total
lipid content)
The principle physicochemical characteristics of lipids (the
"analyte") used to distinguish them from the other
components in foods (the "matrix") are their solubility in
organic sOlvents, immiscibility with water, physical
characteristics and spectroscopic properties. The
techniques based on these principles can be conveniently
categorised into three different types:
(i) solvent extraction;
(ii) non-solvent extraction and
(iii) instrumental methods.
Solvent Extraction Techniques
The fact that lipids are soluble in organic solvents, but
insoluble in water, provides the food analyst with a
convenient method of separating the lipid components in
foods from water soluble components, such as proteins,
carbohydrates and minerals. In fact, solvent extraction
techniques are one of the most commonly used methods of
isolating lipids from foods and of determining the total lipid
content of foods.
92 Control and Analysis for Food and Agricultural Product!'>
Sample Preparation for Solvent Extraction
The preparation of a sample for solvent extraction usually
involves a number of steps:
Drying sample: It is often necessary to dry samples prior
to solvent extraction, because many organic solvents
cannot easily penetrate into foods containing water, and
therefore extraction would be inefficient.
Particle size reduction: Dried samples are usually finely
ground prior to solvent extraction to produce a more
homogeneous' sample and to increase the surface area
of lipid exposed to the solvent. Grinding is often carried
out at low temperatures to reduce the tendency for lipid
oxidation to occur.
Acid hydrolysis: Some foods contain lipids that are
complexed with proteins (lipoproteins) or
polysaccharides (glycolipids). To determine the
concentration of these components it is necessary to
break the bonds which hold the lipid and non-lipid
components together prior to solvent extraction. Acid
hydrolysis is commonly used to release bound lipids
into easily extractable forms, e.g. a sample is digested
by heating it for 1 hour in the presence of 3N HCl acid.
Solvent Selection: The ideal solvent for lipid extraction
would completely extract all the lipid components from
a food, while leaving all the other components behind.
In practice, the efficiency of solvent extraction depends
on the polarity of the lipids present compared to the
polarity of the solvent. Polar lipids (such as glycolipids
or phospholipids) are more soluble in polar solvents
(such as alcohols), than in non-polar solvents (such as
hexane).
On the other hand, non-polar lipids (such as triacylglycerols)
are more soluble in non-polar solvents than in polar ones. The
fact that different lipids have different polarities means that
it is impossible to select a single organic solvent to extract
them all. Thus the total lipid content determined by solvent
extraction depends on the nature of the organic solvent used
to carry out the extraction: the total lipid content determined
using one solvent may be different from that determined
using another solvent.
In addition to the above considerations, a solvent should
also be inexpensive, have a relatively low boiling point (so that
it can easily be removed by evaporation), be non-toxic and be
nonflammable (for safety reasons). It is difficult to find a single
solvent which meets all of these requirements. Ethyl ether and
petroleum ether are the most commonly used solvents, but
pentane and hexane are also used for some foods.
Batch Extraction Process
T1"!ese methods are based on mIxmg the sample and the
solvent in a suitable container, e.g., a separatory funnel. The
container is shaken vigorously and the organic solvent and
aqueous phase are allowed to separate (either by gravity or
centrifugation). The aqueous phase is then decanted off, and
the concentration of lipid in the solvent is determined by
evaporating the solvent and measuring the mass of lipid
remaining: %Lipid = 100 This procedure may
have to be repeated a number of times to improve the
efficiency of the extraction process.
In this case the aqueous phase would undergo further
extractions using fresh solvent, then all the solvent fractions
would be collected together and the lipid determined by
weighing after evaporation of solvent. The efficiency of the
extraction of a particular type of lipid by a particular type of
solvent can be quantified by an equilibrium partition
coefficient, K = c I / c , where csolvent and caqueous are
so vent aqueous
the concentration of lipId in the solvent and aqueous phase,
respectively. The higher the partition coefficient the more
efficient the extraction process.
Semi-Continuous Solvent Extraction Methods
Semi-continuous solvent extraction methods are commonly
used to increase the efficiency of lipid extraction from foods.
The Soxhlet method is the most commonly used example of
a semi-continuous method. In the Soxhlet method a sample is
- ",,-.
dried, ground into small particles and placed in a porous
thimble. The thimble is placed in an extraction chamber,
which is suspended above a flask containing the solvent and
below a condenser.
The flask is heated and the solvent evaporates and moves
up into the condenser where it is converted into a liquid that
trickles into the extraction chamber containing the sample.
Eventually, the solvent builds up in the extraction chamber
and completely surrounds the sample. The extraction chamber
is designed so that when the solvent surrounding the sample
exceeds a certain level it overflows and trickles back down
into the boiling flask. As the solvent passes through the
sample it extracts the lipids and carries them into the flask.
The lipids then remain in the flask because of their low
volatility. At the end of the extraction process, which typically
lasts a few hours, the flask containing the solvent and lipid
is removed, the solvent is evaporated and the mass of lipid
remaining is measured (Mlipid). The percentage of lipid in the
initial sample (Msample) can then be calculated: %Lipid = 100
(Mlipid/Msample). A number of instrument manufacturers
have designed modified versions of the Soxhlet method that
can be used to determine the total lipid content more easily
and rapidly.
Continuous Solvent Extraction
The Goldfish method is similar to the Soxhlet method except
that the extraction chamber is designed so that the solvent just
trickles through the sample rather than building up around
it. This reduces the amount of time required to carry out the
extraction, but it has the disadvantage that channelling of the
solvent can occur, i.e., the solvent may preferentially take
certain routes through the sample and therefore the extraction
is inefficient. This is not a problem in the Soxhlet method
because the sample is always surrounded by solvent.
Accelerated Solvent Extraction
The efficiency of solvent extraction can be increased by
carrying it out at a higher temperrltuTe and pressure than are
Analysis of Lipid Concentration in Food 9S
normally used. The effectiveness of a solvent at extracting
lipids from a food increases as its temperature increases, but
the pressure must also be increased to keep the solvent in the
liquid state. This reduces the amount of solvent required to
carry out the analysis, which is beneficial from a cost and
environmental standpoint. Special instruments are available
to carry out solvent extraction at elevated temperatures and
pressures.
Supercritical Fluid Extraction
Solvent extraction can be carried out using special instruments
that use supercritical carbon dioxide (rather than organic
liquids) as the solvent. These instruments are finding greater
use because of the cost and environmental problems
associated with the usage and disposal of organic solvents.
When pressurised CO
2
is heated above a certain critical
temperature it becomes a supercritical fluid, which has some
of the properties of a gas and some of a liquid. The fact that
it behaves like a gas means that it can easily penetrate into a
sample and extract the lipids, while the fact that it behaves like
a fluid means that it can dissolve a large quantity of lipids
(especially at higher pressures).
Instruments based on this principle heat the food sample
to be analysed in a pressurised chamber and then mix
supercritical CO
2
fluid with it. The CO
2
extracts the lipid, and
forms a separate solvent layer, which is separated nom the
aqueous components. The pressure and temperature of the
solvent are then reduced which causes the CO
2
to turn to a
gas, leaving the lipid fraction remaining. The lipid content of
a food is determined by weighing the percentage of lipid
extracted from the original sample.
Nonsolvent Liquid Extraction
A number of liquid extraction methods do not rely on organic
solvents, but use other chemicals to separate the lipids from
the rest of the food. The Babcock, Gerber and Detergent
methods are examples of nonsolvent liquid extraction
methods for determining the lipid content of milk and some
other dairy products.
Babcock Method
A specified amount of milk it; accurately pipetted into a
specially designed flask (the Babcock bottle). Sulfuric acid is
mixed with the milk, which digests the protein, generates heat,
and breaks down the fat globule membrane that surrounds the
droplets, thereby releasing the fat. The sample is then
centrifuged while it is hot (55-60C) which causes the liquid
fat to rise into the neck of the Babcock bottle The neck is
graduated to give the amount of milk fat present in wt%. The
Babcock method takes about 45 minutes to carry out, and is
precise to within 0.1%. It does not determine phospholipids
in milk, because they are located in the aqueous phase or at
the boundary between the lipid and aqueous phases.
Gerber Method
This method is similar to the Babcock method except that a
mixture of sulfuric acid and isoamyl alcohol, and a slightly
different shaped bottle, are used. It is faster and simpler to
carry out than the Babcock method. The isoamyl alcohol is
used to prevent charring of the sugars by heat and sulfuric
acid which can be a problem in the Babcock method since it
makes it difficult to read the fat content from the graduated
flask. This method is used mainly in Europe, whilst the
Babcock method is used mainly in the USA. As with the
Babcock method, it does not determine phospholipids.
Detergent Method
This method was developed to overcome the inconvenience
and safety concerns associated with the use of highly corrosive
acids. A sample is mixed with a combination of surfactants in
a Babcock bottle. The surfactants displace the fat globule
membrane which surrounds the emulsion droplets in milk
and causes them to coalesce and separate. The sample is
centrifuged which allows the fat to move into the graduated
neck of the bottle, where its concentration can then be
determined.
There are a wide variety of different instrumental methods
available for determining the total lipid content of food
materials. These can be divided into three different categories
according to their physicochemical principles:
(i) measurement of bulk physical properties,
(ii) measurement of adsorption of radiation, and
(iii) measurement of scattering of radiation.
Each instrumental methods has its own advantages and
disadvantages, and range of foods to which it can be applied.
Measurement of Bulk Physical Properties
Density: The density of liquid oil is less than that of most
other food components, and so there is a decrease in
density of a food as its fat content increases. Thus the
lipid content of foods can be determined by measuring
their density.
Electrical conductivity: The electrical conductivity of
lipids is much smaller than that of aqueous substances,
and so the conductivity of a food decreases as the lipid
concentration increases. Measurements of the overall
electrical conductivity of foods can therefore be used to
determine fat contents.
Ultrasonic velocity: The speed at which an ultrasonic
wave travels through a material depends on the
concentration of fat in a food. Thus the lipid content can
be determined by measuring its ultrasonic velocity.
This technique is capable of rapid, nondestructive on-
line measurements of lipid content.
Measurement of Adsorption of Radiation
UV-visible: The concentration of certain lipids can be
determined by measuring the absorbance of ultraviolet-
visible radiation. The lipid must usually be extracted
and diluted in a suitable solvent prior to analysis, thus
the technique can be quite time-consuming and labour
intensive.
Infrared: This method is based on the absorbance of IR
energy at a wavelength of 5.73 m due to molecular
vibrations or rotations associated with fat molecules:
the greater the absorbance the more fat present. IR is
particularly useful for rapid and on-line analysis of
lipid content once a suitable calibration curve has been
developed.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance: NMR spectroscopy is
routinely used to determine the total lipid
concentration of foods The lipid content is determined
by measuring the area under a peak in an NMR
chemical shift spectra that corresponds to the lipid
fraction. Lipid contents can often be determined in a
few seconds without the need for any sample
preparation using commercially available instruments.
X-ray absorption: Lean meat absorbs X-rays more
strongly than fat, thus the X-ray absorbance decreases
as the lipid concentration increases. Commercial
instruments have been developed which utilise this
phenomenon to determine the lipid content of meat and
meat products.
Measurement of Scattering of Radiation
Light scattering: The concentration of oil droplets in
dilute food emulsions can be determined using light
scattering techniques because the turbidity of an
emulsion is directly proportional to the concentration
of oil droplets present.
Ultrasonic scattering: The concentration of oil droplets in
concentrated food emulsions can be determined using
ultrasonic scattering techniques because the ultrasonic
velocity and absorption of ultrasound by an emulsion
is related to the concentration of oil droplets present.
A number of these instrumental methods have major
advantages over the extraction techniques mentioned above
because they are nondestructive; require little or no sample
preparation, and measurements are usually rapid, precise and
simple. A major disadvantage of the techniques which rely on
measurements of the bulk physical properties of foods are t p . a ~
a calibration curve must be prepared between the physical
property of interest and the total lipid content, and this may
depend on the type of lipid present and the food matrix it is
contained in.
In addition, these techniques can only be used to analyse
foods with relatively simple compositions. In a food that
contains many different components whose concentration
may vary, it is difficult to disentangle the contribution that the
fat makes to the overall measurement from that of the other
components.
Comparison of Methods
Soxhlet extraction is one of the most commonly used methods
for determination of total lipids in dried foods. This is mainly
because it is fairly simple to use and is the officially recognised
method for a wide range of fat content determinations. The
main disadvantages of the technique are that a relatively dry
sample is needed (to allow the solvent to penetrate), it is
destructive, and it is time consuming. For high moisture
content foods it is often better to use batch solvent or
nonsolvent extraction techniques.
Many instrumental methods are simple to operate, rapid,
reproducible, require little sample preparation and are
nondestructive. Nevertheless, they are often expensive to
purchase and can only be used for certain types of foods, i.e.,
where there is no interference from other components. In
addition, calibration curves prepared for instrumental
methods usually require that the fat content be measured
using a standard method.
Extraction techniques tend to be more accurate and more
generally applicable and are therefore the standard methods
for official analysis of many food materials. Instrumental
methods are most useful for rapid measurements of fat
content on-line or in quality assurance laboratories of food
factories where many samples must be measured rapidly.
LIPID COMPOSmON
Lipids are an extremely diverse group of compounds
consisting of tri-, di- and monoacylg1ycercols, free fatty acids,
phospholipids, sterols, caretonoids and vitamins A and D. In
addition, most of these sub-groUpb are themselves chemically
complex. All triacylglycerols are esters of glycerol and three
fatty acid molecules, nevertheleSb, the fatty acids can have
different chain lengths, branching, unsaturation, and positions
on the glycerol molecule.
Thus even a lipid which consistb of only triacylglycerols
may contain a huge number of different chemical species. It
is often important for food scientists to either know or to be
able to specify the concentration of the different types of lipid
molecules present, as well as the total lipid concentration.
Some of the most important reasons for determining the type
of lipids present in foods are listed below:
Legal: Government regulations often demand that the
amounts of saturated, unsaturated and polyunsat-
urated lipids, as well as the amount of cholesterol, be
specified on food labels,
Food Quality: Desirable physical characteristics of foods,
such as appearance, flavour, mouthfeel and texture,
depend on the type of lipids present.
Lipid oxidation: Foods which contain high concentrations
of unsaturated lipids are particularly susceptible to
lipid oxidation, which can lead to the formation of
undesirable off-flavours and aromas, db well as
potentially toxic compounds e.g., cholesterol oxides.
Adulteration: Adulteration of fats and oil& can be
detected by measuring the type of lipids present, and
comparing them with the profile expectE'd for an
unadulterated sample.
Food Processing: The manufacture of many foods relies
on a knowledge of the typE' of lipids prebenl in order
to adjust the processing conditions to their optimum
values, e.g. temperatures, flow rates etc.
Sample Chosen for Analysis
It is important that the sample chosen for analysis is
representative of the lipids present in the original food, and
that its properties are not altered prior to the analysis.
Analysis of the types of lipids present in a food usually
requires that the lipid be available in a fairly pure form. Thus
foods which are almost entirely lipids, such as olive Bil,
vegetable oil or lard, can usually be analysed with little
sample preparation. Nevertheless, for many other foods it is
necessary to extract and purify the lipid component prior to
analysis. Lipids can sometimes be extracted by simply
applying pressure to a food to squeese out the oil, e.g., some
fish, nuts and seeds.
For most foods, however, more rigorous extraction
methods are needed, such as the solvent or nonsolvent
extraction methods described in the previous lecture. Once the
lipids have been separated they are often melted and then
filtered or centrifuged to remove any extraneous matter. In
addition, they are often dried to remove any residual moisture
which might interfere with the analysis. As with any analytical
procedure it is important not to alter the properties of the
component being analysed during the extraction process.
Oxidation of unsaturated lipids can be minimised by adding
antioxidants, or by flushing containers with nitrogen gas and
avoiding exposure to heat and light.
Chromatography
Chromatography is one of the most powerful analytical
procedures for separating and analysing the properties of
lipids, especially when combined with techniques which can
be used to identify the chemical structure of the peaks, e.g.,
mass spectrometry or NMR. A chromatographic analysis
involves passing a mixture of the molecules to be separated
through a column that contains a matrix capable of selectively
retarding the flow of the molecules.
Molecules in the mixture are separated because of their
differing affinities for the matrix in the column. The stronger
102 <.:ontrol and Analysis for Food and Agricultural Products
the affinity between a specific molecule and the matrix, the
more its movement is retarded, and the slower it passes
through the column. Thus different molecules can be
separated on the basis of the strength of their interaction with
the matrix. After being separated by the column, the
concentration of each of the molecules is determined as they
pass by a suitable detector
Chromatography can be used to determine the complete
profile of molecules present in a lipid. This information can
be used to: calculate the amounts of saturated, unsaturated,
polyunsaturated fat and cholesterol; the degree of lipid
oxidation; the extent of heat or radiation damage; detect
adulteration; determine the presence of antioxidants. Various
forms of chromatography are available to analyse the lipids
in foods, e.g. thin layer chromatography (TI.C), gas
chromatography (GC), and high pressure liquid
chromatography (HPLC).
Lipid Fractions by TLC
TLC is used mainly to separate and determine the
concentration of different types of lipid groups in foods, e.g.
triacylglycerols, diacylglycerols, monoacylglycerols,
cholesterol, cholesterol oxides and phospholipids. A TLC
plate is coated with a suitable absorbing material and placed
into an appropriate solvent. A small amount of the lipid
sample to be analysed is spotted onto the TLC plate. With time
the solvent moves up the plate due to capillary forces and
separates different lipid fractions on the basis of their affinity
for the absorbing material.
At the end of the separation the plate is sprayed with a
dye so as to make the spots visible. By comparing the distance
that the spots move with standards of known composition it
is possible to identify the lipids present. Spots can be scraped
off and analysed further using techniques, such as GC, NMR
or mass spectrometry. This procedure is inexpensive and
allows rapid analysis of lipids in fatty foods.
Fatty Acid Methyl Esters by GC
Intact triacylglycerols and free fatty acids are not very volatile
and are therefore difficult to analyse using GC (which requires
that the lipids be capable of being volatised in the instrument).
For this reason lipids are usually derivitised prior to analysis
to increase their volatility. Triacylglycerols are first saponified
which breaks them down to glycerol and free fatty acids, and
are then methylated.
CH10H,N20H
Triacylglycerol ~ Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) +
methylated glycerol
Saponification reduces the molecular weight and methylation
reduces the polarity, both of which increase the volatility of
the lipids. The concentration of different volatile fatty acid
methyl esters (FAMEs) present in the sample is then analysed
using Gc. The FAMES are dissolved in a suitable organic
solvent that is then injected into a GC injection chamber.
The sample is heated in the injection chamber to volatilise
the FAMES and then carried into the separating column by a
heated carrier gas. As the FAMES pass through the column
they are separated into a number of peaks based on
differences in their molecular weights and p<?larities, which
are quantified using a suitable detector. Determination of the
total fatty acid profile allows one to calculate the type and
concentration of fatty acids present in the original lipid
sample.
Chemical Techniques
A number of chemical methods have been developed to
provide information about the type of lipids present in edible
fats and oils. These techniques are much cruder than
chromatography techniques, because they only give
information about the average properties of the lipid
components present, e.g. the average molecular weight,
degree of unsaturation or amount of acids present.
Nevertheless, they are simple to perform and do not require
expensive apparatus, and so they are widely used in industry
and research.
Iodine Value (IV)
The iodine value (IV) gives a measure of the average degree
of unsaturation of a lipid: the higher the iodine value, the
greater the number of C=C double bonds. By definition the
iodine value is expressed as the grams of iodine absorbed per
lOOg of lipid. One of the most commonly used methods for
determining the iodine value of lipids is "Wijs method". The
lipid to be analysed is weighed and dissolved in a suitable
organic solvent, to which a known excess of iodine chloride
is added. Some of the ICI reacts with the double bonds in the
unsaturated lipids, while the rest remains:
R-CH=CH-R + IClmes; - ~ R-CHI-CHCI-R + IClremammg
The amount of ICI that has reacted is determined by
measuring the amount of ICI remamm after the reaction has gone
to completion (ICl cted =ICl - I ~ l . ). The amount of ICI
rea excess. rematnmg
.. is determined by adding excess potassium iodide to the
remammg
solution to liberate iodine, and then titrating with a sodium
thiosulfate (Na
2
S
2
0
3
) solution in the presence of starch to
determine the concentration of iodine released:
IClrema,mng + 2KI ~ KCI + KI + 11
Iodine itself has a reddish brown colour, but this is often not
intense enough to b ~ used as a good indication of the end-
point of the reaction. For this reason, starch is usually used
as an indicator because it forms a molecular complex with the
iodine that has a deep blue colour. Initially, starch is added
to the solution that contains the iodine and the solution goes
a dark blue. Then, the solution is titrated with a sodium
thiosulfate solution of known molarity.
While there is any 12 remaining in the solution it stays blue,
but once all of the 12 has been converted to I it turns colourless.
Thus, a change in solution appearance from blue to colourless
can be used as the end-point of the titration. The concentration
of C=C in the original sample can therefore be calculated by
measuring the amount of sodium thiosulfate needed to
complete the titration. The higher the degree of unsaturation,
the more iodine absorbed, and the higher the iodine value. The
iodine value is used to obtain a measure of the average degree
of unsaturation of oils, and to follow processes such as
hydrogenation and oxidation that involve changes in the
degree of unsaturation.
Saponification Number
The saponification number is a measure of the average
molecular weight of the triacylglycerols in a sample.
Saponification is the process of breaking down a neutral fat
into glycerol and fatty acids by treatment with alkali:
Triacylglycerol + 3 KOH ~ Glycerol + 3 Fatty acid salts of
potassium
The saponification number is defined as the mg of KOH
required to saponify one gram of fat. The lipid is first extracted
and then dissolved in an ethanol solution which contains a
known excess of KOH. This solution is then heated so that the
reaction goes to completion. The unreacted KOH is then
determined by adding an indicator and titrating the sample
with HCl. The saponification number is then calculated from
a knowledge of the weight of sample and the amount of KOH
which reacted. The smaller the saponification number the
larger the average molecular weight of the triacylglycerols
present.
Acid Value
The acid value is a measure of the amount of free acids present
in a given amount of fat. The lipids are extracted from the food
sample and then dissolved in an ethanol solution containing
an indicator. This solution is then titrated with alkali (KOH)
until a pinkish colour appears. The acid value is defined as
the mg of KOH necessary to neutralise the fatty acids present
in 19 of lipid. The acid value may be overestimated if other
acid components are present in the system, e.g. amino acids
or acid phosphates. The acid value is often a good measure
of the break down of the triacylglycrols into free fatty acids,
which has an adverse effect on the quality of many lipids.
A variety of instrumental methods can also be used to provide
information about lipid composition. The most powerful of
these is nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. By
measuring the chemical shift spectra it is possible to determine
the concentration of speCific types of chemical groups present,
which can be used to estimate the concentration of different
types of lipids. Indirect information about the average
molecular weight and degree of unsaturation of the oils can
be obtained by measuring physical properties, such as density
or refractive index.
The refractive index increases with increasing chain length
and increasing unsaturation, whereas the density decreases
with increasing chain length and decreasing unsaturation.
Measurements of the refractive index or density can therefore
be used to monitor processes that involve a change in the
composition of oils, e.g. hydrogenation, which decreases the
degree of unsaturation.
ANALYSING LIPID OXIDATION IN FOODS
Foods which contain high concentrations of unsaturated lipids
are particularly susceptible to lipid oxidation. Lipid oxidation
is one of the major forms of spoilage in foods, because it leads
to the formation of off-flavours and potentially toxic
compounds. Lipid oxidation is an extremely complex process
involving numerous reactions that give rise to a variety of
chemical and physical changes in lipids:
primary secondary products
(unsaturated lipids and 02) (peroxides and coniugatpd dienes)
(ketones,aldehydes,alcohols,hydrocarbons)
Food scientists have developed a number of methods to
characterise the extent of lipid oxidation in foods, and to
determine whether or not a particular lipid is susceptible to
oxidation.
Chromatography
Chromatography is the most powerful method of monitoring
lipid oxidation because it provides a detailed profile of the
fatty acids and other molecules present in lipids. Valuable
information about the lipid oxidation process is obtained by
measuring changes in this profile with time, especially when
peaks are identified using mass spectrometry or NMR. It is
possible to monitor the loss of reactants and the formation of
specific reaction products using chromatography. These
measurements may be made on non-polar lipids extracted
from the food, water-soluble reaction products present in the
aqueous phase of a food or volatile components in the head-
space of a food.
Lipid Oxidation
Lipid oxidation depends on the reaction between unsaturated
fatty acids and oxygen. Thus it is possible to monitor the rate
at which it occurs by measuring the uptake of oxygen by the
sample as the reaction proceeds. Usually, the lipid is placed
in a sealed container and the amount of oxygen that must be
input into the container to keep the oxygen concentration in
the head-space above the sample constant is measured. The
more oxygen that has to be fed into the container, the faster
the rate of lipid oxidation. This technique is therefore an
example of a measurement of the reduction in the
concentration of reactants.
Peroxides
Peroxides (R-OOH) are primary reaction products formed in
the initial stages of oxidation, and therefore give an indication
of the progress of lipid oxidation. One of the most commonly
used methods to determine peroxide value utilises the ability
of peroxides to liberate iodine from potassium iodide. The
108 Control and Analysis for Food and AgriculturaJ Products
lipid is dissolved in a suitable organic solvent and an excess
of KI is added:
ROOH + Kle"eso ~ ROH + KOH f [,
Once the reaction has gone to completion, the amount of
ROOH that has reacted can be determined by measuring the
amount of iodine formed, This is dorlf' by titration with
sodium thiosulfate and a starch indicator:
12 + starch + 2Na
z
Sp, (blue) ~ 2NaJ + starch i Na?Sp, (colourless)
The amount of sodium thiosulfate required to titrate the
reaction is related to the concentration of peroxide& in the
original sample. There are a number of problems with the use
of peroxide value as an indication of lipid oxidation. Firstly,
peroxides are primary products that are broken down in the
latter stages of lipid oxiddtion.
Thus, a low value of PV may represent either the initial
or final stages of oxidation. Secondly, the results of the
procedure are highly sensitive to the conditions used to carry
out the experiment, and so the test must always be
standardised. This technique is an example of a measurement
of the increase in concentration of primary reaction products.
Conjugated Dienes
Almost immediately after peroxides are formed, the non-
conjugated double bonds (C=CC-C=C) that are present in
natural unsaturated lipids dre converted to conjugated double
bonds (C=C-C=C). Conjugated dienes absorb ultraviolet
radiation strongly at 233nm, whereas conjugated trienes
absorb at 268nm. Thus oxidation can be followed by
dissolving the lipid in a suitable organic solvent and
measuring the change in its absorbance with time using a UV-
visible spectrophotonwh.>r.
In the later stages of Lipid oxidation the conjugated dienes
(which are primary products) are broken down into secondary
products (which do nol adsorb UV-visiblt' light strongly)
which leads to a decrease in absorbance. This method is
therefore only useful for monitoring the early stages of lipid
oxidation. This technique is an example of a measurement of
the increase in concentration of primary reaction products.
Thiobarbituric Acid (TBA)
This is one of the most widely used tests for determining the
extent of lipid oxidation. It measures the concentration of
relatively polar secondary reaction products, i.e., aldehydes.
The lipid to be analysed is dissolved in a suitable non-polar
solvent which is contained within a flask. An aqueous solution
of TBA reagent is added to the flask and the sample is shaken,
which causes the polar secondary products to be dissolved in
it. After shaking the aqueous phase is separated from the non-
polar solvent, placed in a test-tube, and heated for 20 minutes
in boiling water, which produces a pink colour.
The intensity of this pink colour is directly related to the
concentration of TBA-reactive substances in the original
sample, and is determined by measuring its absorbance at 540
nm using a UV-visible spectrophotometer. The principle
source of colour is the formation of a complex between TBA
and malanoaldehyde, although some other secondary reaction
products can also react with the TBA reagent. For this reason,
this test is now usually referred to as the thiobarbituric acid
reactive substances (TBARS) method. TBARS is an example of
a measurement of the increase in concentration of secondary
reaction products.
Lipid Oxidation Tests
Rather than determining the extent of lipid oxidation in a
particular food, it is often more important to know its
susceptibility to oxidation. Normally, oxidation can take a
long time to occur, e.g., a few days to a few months, which
is impractical for routine analysis. For this reason, a number
of accelerated oxidation tests have been developed to speed
up this process. These methods artificially increase the rate of
lipid oxidation by exposing the lipid to heat, oxygen, metal
catalysts, light or enzymes. Even so there is always some
concern that the results of accelerated tests do not adequately
model lipid oxidation in real systems
A typical accelerated oxidation test is the active oxygen
method (AOM). A liquid sample is held at 98C while air is
constantly bubbled through it. Stability is expressed as hours
of heating until rancidity occurs, which may be determined
by detection of a rancid odour or by measuring the peroxide
value. Another widely used accelerated oxidation test is the
Schaal Oven Test. A known weight of oil is placed in an oven'
at a specified temperature (about 65 uC) and the time until
rancidity is detected is recorded by sensory evaluation or
measuring the peroxide value.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES
In addition to their nutritional importance lipids are also used
in foods because of their characteristic physicochemical
properties, such as mouthfeeL flavour, texture and
appearance. They are also used as heat transfer agents during
the preparation of other foods, e.g. for frying. It is therefore
important for food scientists to haw analytical techniques that
can be used to characterise the physicochemical properties of
lipids.
Solid Fat Content (SFC)
The solid fat content (SFC) of a lipid influences many of its
sensory and physical properties, such as spreadability,
firmness, mouthfeel, processing and stability. Food
manufacturers often measure the variation of SFC with
temperature when characterising lipids that are used in
certain foods, e.g., margarine and butter. The solid fat content
is defined as the percentage of the total lipid that is solid at
a particular temperature, i.e. SF(' = lOOMsoh/Mtotal' where
Msohd is the mass of the lipid that is solid and Mtalal is the total
mass of the lipid in the food.
A variety of methods have been developed to measure the
temperature dependence of the solid fat content. The density
of solid fat is higher than the density of liquid oil, and so there
is an increase in density when a fat crystallises and a decrease
when it melts. By measuring the density over a range of
temperatures it is possible to determine the solid fat content-
temperature profile:
where p is the density of the lipid at a particular temperature,
and P
L
and Ps are the densities of the lipid if it were completely
liquid or completely solid at the same temperature. The
density is usually measured by density bottles or dilatometry.
More recently, instrumental methods based on nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) have largely replaced density
measurements, because measurements are quicker and
simpler to carry out (although the instrumentation is
considerably more expensive).
Basically, the sample is placed into an NMR instrument
and a radio frequency pulse is applied to it. This induces a
NMR signal in the sample, whose decay rate depends on
whether the lipid is solid or liquid. The signal from the solid
fat decays much more rapidly than the signal from the liquid
oil and therefore it is possible to distinguish between these two
components.
Techniques based on differential scanning calorimetry are
also commonly used to monitor changes in SFC. These
techniques measure the heat evolved or absorbed by a lipid
when it crystallises or melts. By making these measurements
over a range of temperatures it is possible to determine the
melting point, the total amount of lipid involved in the
transition and the SFC-temperature profile.
Melting Point
In many situations, it is not necessary to know the SFC over
the whole temperature range, instead, only information about
the temperature at which melting starts or ends is required.
A pure triacylglycerol has a single melting point that occurs
at a specific, temperature. Nevertheless, foods lipids contain
112 Control and Analysis foy Food and Agricultural Products
a wide variety of different triacylglycerols, each with their
awn uniCflue melting point, and so they melt over a wide range
of temperatures. Thus the "melting point" of a food lipid can
be defined in a number of different ways, each corresponding
to a different amount of solid fat remaininK Some of the most
commonly used "melting points" are:
Clear point: A small amount of fat is placed in a capillary
tube and heated at a controlled rate. The temperature
at which the fat completely melts and becomes
transparent is called the II clear point".
Slip point: A small amount of fat is placed in a capillary
tube and heated at a controlled rate. The temperature
at which the fat just starts to move downwards due to
its weight is called the "slip point".
Wiley melting point: A disc of fat is suspended in an
alcohol-water mixture of similar density dnd is then
heated at a controlled rate. The temperature at which
the disc changes shape to a sphere is called the "Wiley
melting point".
Cloud Point
This gives a measure of the temperature at which
crystallisation begins in a liquid oil. A fat sample is heated to
a temperature where all the crystals are known to have
melted. The sample is then cooled at a controlled rate and the
temperature at which the liquid just goes cloudy is
determined. This temperature is known as the cloud point,
and is the temperature where crystals begin to form and
scatter light. It is often of practical importance to have an oil
which does not crystallise when stored at oce for prolonged
periods. A simple test to determine the ability of lipids to
withstand cold temperatures without forming crystals, is to
ascertain whether or not a sample goes cloudy when stored
for 5 hours at oe.
Smoke, Flash and Fire Points
These tests give a measure of the effect of heating on the
physicochemical properties of lipids. They are particularly
important for selecting lipids that are going to be used at high
temperatures, e.g.-during baking or frying. The tests reflect the
amount of volatile organic material in oils and fats such as free
fatty acids.
The smoke point is the temperature at which the sample
begins to smoke when tested under specified
conditions. A fat is poured into a metal container and
heated at a controlled rate in an oven. The smoke point
is the temperature at which a thin continuous stream of
bluish smoke is first observed.
The flash point is the temperature at which a flash
appears at any point on the surface of the sample due
to the ignition of volatile gaseous products. The fat is
poured into a metal container and heated at a controlled
rate, with a flame being passed over the surface of the
sample at regular intervals.
The fire point is the temperature at which evolution of
volatiles due to the thermal decomposition of the lipids
proceeds so quickly that continuous combustion occurs
(a fire).
Rheology of Lipids
The rheology of lipids is important in many food applications.
Rheology is the science concerned with the deformation and
flow of matter. Most rheological tests involve applying a force
to a material and measuring its flow or change in shape. Many
of the textural properties that people perceive when they
consume foods are largely rheological in nature, e.g.,
creaminess, juiciness, smoothness, brittleness, tenderness,
hardness, etc. The stability and appearance of foods often
depends on the rheological characteristics of their
components. The flow of foods through pipes or the ease at
which they can be packed into containers are also determined
by their rheology.
Liquid oils are usually characterised in terms of their flow
properties (viscosity), whereas viscoelastic or plastic "solids"
are characterised in terms of both their elastic (elastic
modulus) and flow properties. A wide variety of experimental
techniques are available to characterise the rheological
properties of food materials, One of the most important
rheological characteristics of lipids is their "plasticity",
because this determines their "spreadability".
The plasticity of a lipid is due to the fact that fat crystals
can form a three-dimensional network that gives the product
some solid-like characteristics. Below a certain stress (known
as the "yield stress") the product behaves like a solid with an
elastic modulus because the crystal network is not disrupted,
but-alJove this stress it flows like a liquid because the crystal
--network is continually disrupted. Rheological techniques are
therefore needed to measure the change in deformation of a
lipid when stresses are applied.
REFERENCES
Ackman, R.C., "Application of TLC to lipid separation: detection
methods," In: Analyses oj Fats, Oils and Lipoproteins, E.G. Perkins,
American Oil Chemists' Society, Champaign, U.s.A (ed.),. 1991,
pp. 97-121.
Aitzetmuller, K., "The use of HPLC in modern fat analysiS," Fat Sci.
Technol., 93, 501-510, 1991.
Christie,W.W., "Methods for stereospecific analysis ot triacyl-sn-
glycerols," In: Contemporary Lipid Analysis, 2nd Symposium
Proceedings, N.U. Olsson & B.G. Herslof, LipidTeknik, Stockholm
(ed.)., pp. 63-71, 1992.
Ebeler,S.E. and Shibamoto,l., "Overview and recent developments in
solid-phase extraction for separation of lipid classes," In: Lipid
Chromatographic Analysis, 1. Shibamoto, Dekker, NY (ed .)., pp. 1-48,
1993.
Hetherington, A.M. and Drobak, B.K., "Inositol-containing lIpids in
higher plants," Prog. Lipid Res., 31, 5.3 63, 1992.
Laker, M.F. and Game, F.L. "Approaches to lipid and lipoprotein
analysis," Baillieres Clin. Endocrin. Metab., 4, 693-717, 199(1,
Patton,C.M. and Robins, S.]., "Extraction of phospholipids and a n a l y s i ~
of phospholipid molecular species," Methods Ellzymol., 187, 19521 '5,
1990.
6
Determination of Ash and Minerals
Ash is the inorganic residue remaining after the water and
organic matter have been removed by heating in the presence
of oxidising agents, which provides a measure of the total
amount of minerals within a food. Analytical techniques foi
providing information about the total mineral content are
based on the fact that the minerals (the "analyte") can be
distinguished from all the other components (the "matrix")
within a food in some measurable way. The most widely used
methods are based on the fact that minerals are not destroyed
by heating, and that they have a low volatility compared to
other food components.
The three main types of analytical procedure used to
determine the ash content of foods are based on this principle:
dry ashing, wet ashing and low temperature plasma dry
ashing. The method chosen for a particular analysis depends
on the reason for carrying out the analysis, the type of food
analysed and the equipment available. Ashing may also be
used as the first step in preparing samples for analysis of
specific minerals, by atomic spectroscopy or the various
traditional methods described below. Ash contents of fresh
foods rarely exceed 5%, although some processed foods can
have ash contents as high as 12%, e.g., dried beef.
PREPARING SAMPLES
As with all food analysis procedures it is crucial to carefully
select a sample whose composition represents that of the food
116 Control and Analysis for Food and Agrkultural Products
being analysed and to ensure that its composition does not
change significantly prior to analysis Typically, samples of 1-
109 are used in the analysis of ash content Solid foods are
finely ground and then carefully mixed to facilitate the choice
of a representative sample. Before carrying out an ash
analysis, samples that are high in moisture are often dried to
prevent spattering during ashing High fat samples are
usually defatted by solvent extraction, a& this facilitates the
release of the moisture and prevents spattering. Other possible
problems include contamination of samples by minerals in
grinders, glassware or crucibles which come into contact with
the sample during the analysis. For the same reason, it is
recommended to use deionised watet when preparing
samples.
DRY ASHING PROCEDURES
Dry ashing procedures use a high temperature muffle furnace
capable of maintaining temperatures of between 500 and 600
dc. Water and other volatile materidls are vaporised and
organic substances an' burned in the presence of the oxygen
in air to CO
2
, H
2
0 and N
2
Most minerab are converted to
oxides, sulphates, phosphates, chlorides or silicates. Although
most minerals have fairly low volatility at these high
temperatures, some are volatile and may be partially lost, e.g.,
iron, lead and mercury. If an analysis is being carried out to
determine the concentration of one of these substances then
it is advisable to use an alternative ashing method that uses
lower temperatures.
The food sample is weighed before and after ashing to
determine the concentration of ash present 1he ash content
can be expressed on either a dry or wet basis:
M,,"
% Ash( dry basis) = -M - x 100
QF(Y
M A S ~ l
% Ash (wet basis)::: -----)< 100
MWET
Determinations of Ash and Minerals 117
where MASH refers to the mass of the ashed sample, and ~ R Y
and MASH refer to the original masses of the dried and wet
samples.
There are a number of different types of crucible available
for ashing food samples, including quartz, Pyrex, porcelain,
steel and platinum. Selection of an appropriate crucible
depends on the sample being analysed and the furnace
temperature used. The most widely used crucibles are made
from porcelain because it is relatively inexpensive to purchase,
can be used up to high temperatures 1200C) and are easy
to clean.
Porcelain crucibles are resistant to acids but can be
corroded by alkaline samples, and therefore different types of
crucible should be used to analyse this type of sample. In
addition, porcelain crucibles are prone to cracking if they
experience rapid temperature changes. A number of dry
ashing methods have been officially recognised for the
determination of the ash content of various foods (AOAC
Official Methods of Analysis). Typically, a sample is held at
500-600 oC for 24 hours.
WET ASHING PROCEDURES
Wet ashing is primarily used in the preparation of samples for
subsequent analysis of specific minerals. It breaks down and
removes the organic matrix surrounding the minerals so that
they are left in an aqueous solution. A dried ground food
sample is usually weighed into a flask containing strong acids
and oxidising agents and then heated. Heating is continued
until the organic matter is completely digested, leaving only
the mineral oxides in solution. The temperature and time used
depends on the type of acids and oxidising agents used.
Typically, a digestion takes from 10 minutes to a few hours
at temperatures of about 350C The resulting solution can
then be analysed for specific minerals.
Low TEMPERATURE PLASMA ASHING
A sample is placed into a glass chamber which is evacuated
118 Control and Analysis. for Food and Agricultural Products
using a vacuum pump. A small amount of oxygen is pumped
into the chamber and broken down to nascent oxygen by
application of an electromagnetic radio frequency field. The
organic matter in the sample is rapidly oxidised by the nascent
oxygen and the moisture is evaporated because of the elevated
temperatures. The relatively cool temperatures 150C) used
in low-temperature plasma ashing cause less loss of volatile
minerals than other methods.
WATER SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBl.E ASH
As well as the total ash content, it is sometimes useful to
determine the ratio of water soluble to water-insoluble ash as
this gives a useful indication of the quality of certain foods,
e.g., the fruit content of preserves and jellies. Ash is diluted
with distilled water then heated to nearly boiling, and the
resulting solution is filtered. The amount of soluble ash is
determined by drying the filtrate, and the insoluble ash is
determined by rinsing, drying and ashing the filter paper.
COMPARISON OF ASHING METHODS
The conventional dry ashing procedure is simple to carry out,
is not labor intensive, requires no expensive chemica If. and can
be used to analyse many samples simultaneously.
Nevertheless, the procedure is time-consuming and volatile
minerals may be lost at the high temperatures used.
Microwave instruments are capable of speeding up the
process of dry ashing. Wet ashing and low temperature
plasma ashing are more rapid and cause less loss of volatile
minerals because samples are heated to lower temperatures.
Nevertheless, the wet ashing procedure requires the use of
hazardous chemicals and is labor intensive, while the plasma
method requires expensive equipment and has iI low sample
throughput.
SPECIFIC MINERAL CONTENT
Knowledge of the concentration and type of specific minerals
present in food products is often important in the food
industry. The major physicochemical characteristics of
minerals that are used to distinguish them from the
surrounding matrix are: their low volatility; their ability to
react with specific chemical reagents to give measurable
changes; and their unique electromagnetic spectra.
The most effective means of determining the type and
concentration of specific minerals in foods is to use atomic
absorption or emission spectroscopy. Instruments based on
this principle can be used to quantify the entire range of
minerals in foods, often to concentrations as low as a few ppm.
For these reasons they have largely replaced traditional
methods of mineral analysis in institutions that can afford to
purchase and maintain one, or that routinely analyse large
numbers of samples. Institutions that do not have the
resources or sample throughput to warrant purchasing an
atomic spectroscopy instrument rely on more traditional
methods that require chemicals and equipment commonly
found in food laboratories. Many of the minerals of
importance to food scientists can be measured using one of
these traditional methods.
Sample Preparation
Many of the analytical methods used to determine the specific
mineral content of foods require that the minerals be dissolved
in an aqueous solution. For this reason, it is often necessary
to isolate the minerals from the organic matrix surrounding
them prior to the analysis. It is important that the ashing
procedure does not alter the mineral concentration in the food
due to volatilisation. Another potential source of error in
mineral analysis is the presence of contaminants in the water,
reagents or glassware. For this reason, ultrapure water or
reagents should be used, and/or a blank should be run at the
same time as the sample being analysed.
A blank uses the same glassware and reagents as the
sample being analysed and therefore should contain the same
concentration of any contaminants. The concentration of
minerals in the blank is then subtracted from the value
determined for the sample. Some substances can interfere with
120 Control and AIldtysis tor Food and Agricultural Products
analysis of certain minerals, and should therefore be
eliminated prior to the analysis or accounted for in the data
interpretation. The principles of a number of the most
important traditional methods for analysing minerals are
described below. Many more traditional methods can be
found in the AOAC Official Methods of Analysis.
Gravimetric Procedures
The element to be analysed is precipitated from solution by
adding a reagent that reacts with it to form an insoluble
complex with a known chemical formula. The precipitate is
separated from the solution by filtration, rinsed, dried and
weighed. The amount of mineral present in the original
sample is determined from a knowledge of the chemical
formula of the precipitate For example, the amount of
chloride in a solution can be determined by adding excess
silver ions to form an insoluble silver chloride precipitate,
because it is known that CI is 24.74% of AgCl. Gravimetric
procedures are only suitable for large food samples, which
have relatively high concentrations of the mineral being
analysed. They are not suitable for analysis of trace elements
because balances are not sensitive enough to accurately weigh
the small amount of precipitate formed.
Calorimetric Methods
These methods rely on a change in colour of a reagent when
it reacts with a specific mineral in solution which can be
quantified by measuring the absorbance of the solution at a
specific wavelength using a spectrophotometer. Calorimetric
methods are used to determine the concentration of a wide
variety of different minerals. Vandate is often used as a
calorimetric reagent because it changes colour when it reacts
with minerals. For example, the phosphorous content of a
sample can be determined by adding a vandate-molybdate
reagent to the sample. This forms a coloured complex (yellow-
orange) with the phosphorous which can be quantified by
measuring the absorbance of the solution at 420nm, and
comparing with a calibration curve. Different reagents are also
available to colorimetrically determine the concentration of
other minerals.
Effect of Titrations
. EDT A Compleximetric Titration
EDTA is a chemical reagent that forms strong complexes with
multivalent metallic ions. The dis odium salt of EDTA is
usually used because it is available in high purity: Na2H2Y.
The complexes formed by metal ions and EDTA can be
represented by the following equations:
The calcium content of foods is often determined 'by this
method. An ashed food sample is diluted in water and then
made alkaline (pH 12.5 to 13). An indicator that can form a
coloured complex with EDTA is then added to the solution,
and the solution is titrated with EDTA. The EDTA-indicator
complex is chosen to be much weaker than the EDTA-mineral
complex. Consequently, as long as multivalent ions remain in
the solution the EDTA forms a strong complex with them and
does not react with the indicator.
However, once all the mineral ions have been complexed,
any additional EDTA reacts with the indicator and forms a
coloured complex that is used to determine the end-point of
the reaction. The calcium content of a food sample is
determined by comparing the volume of EDrA required to
titrate it to the end-point with a calibration curve prepared for
a series of solutions of known calcium concentration.
If there is a mixture of different multivalent metallic ions
present in a food there could be some problems in determining
the concentration of a specific type of ion. It is often possible
to remove interfering ions by passing the solution containing
the sample through an ion-exchange column prior to analysis.
Redox Reactions
Many analytical procedures are based on coupled reduction-
oxidation (redox) reactions. Reduction is the gain of electrons
by atoms or molecules, whereas oxidation is the removal of
electrons from atoms or molecules. Any molecular species that
gains electrons during the course of a reaction is said to be
reduced, whereas any molecular species that loses electrons
is said to be oxidised, whether or not oxygen is involved.
Electrons cannot be created or destroyed in ordinary chemical
reactions and so any oxidation reaction is accompanied by a
reduction reaction. These coupled reactions are called redox
reactions:
x n ~ Xn+l + e (Oxidation reaction - loss of electrons)
ym + e ~ ym I (Reduction reaction - gain oj electrons)
X" + y"' ~ Xn+l -+ ym 1 (Coupled reaction- transfer oj electrons)
Analysts often design a coupled reaction system so that one
of the half-reactions leads to a measurable change in the
system that can be conveniently used as an end-point, e.g., a
colour change. Thus one of the coupled reactions usually
involves the mineral being analysed (e.g., X =: analyte),
whereas the other involves an indicator (e.g., Y ;: indicator).
For example, permanganate ion (Mn0
4
-) is a deep purple
colour (oxidised form), while the mangenous ion (Mn2') is a
pale pink colour (reduced form). Thus permanganate
titrations can be used as an indicator of many redox reactions:
Mn0
4
- + 8H+ + Se ~ Mn
2
-+ 4Hp (Reduction reaction)
(Deep Purple) (Pale Pink)
The calcium or iron content of foods can be determined by
titration with a solution of potassium permanganate, the end
point corresponding to the first change of the solution from
pale pink to purple. The calcium or iron content is determined
from the volume of permanganate solution of known molarity
that is required to reach the end-point. For iron the reaction
is:
5Fe
2
+ ~ 5Fe
3
+ + 5e- (Oxidation reaction)
Mn0
4
- + BH+ + 5e- ~ Mn
2
+ + 4HzO (Reduction reaction)
5Fe
2
+ + MnO - + BH+ ~ 5Fe
3
+ + Mn
2
+ + 4H 0 (Coupled
4 2
reaction)
Potassium permanganate is titrated into the aqueous solution
of ashed food. While there is Fe
2
+ remaining in the food the
Mn0
4
- is converted to Mn2+ that leads to a pale pink solution.
Once all of the Fe
2
+ has been converted to Fe
3
+ then the Mn0
4
-
remains in solution and leads to the formation of a purple
colour, which is the end-point.
Precipitation Titrations
When at least one product of a titration reaction is an insoluble
precipitate, it is referred to as a precipitation titration. A
titrimetric method commonly used in the food industry is the
Mohr method for chloride analysis. Silver nitrate is titrated
into an aqueous solution containing the sample to be analysed
and a chromate indicator.
AgN03 + N a C l ~ AgCl(s) + NaN0
3
The interaction between silver and chloride is much stronger
than that between silver and chromate. The silver ion
therefore reacts with the chloride ion to form AgCl, until all
of the chloride ion is exhausted. Any further addition of silver
nitrate leads to the formation of silver chromate, which is an
insoluble orange coloured solid.
Ag+ + CI- ~ AgCl (colourless) - until all CI- is complexed
2Ag+ + Cr04
2
- ~ Ag
2
Cr0
4
(orange) - after all Cl- is complexed
The end point of the reaction is the first hint of an orange
colour. The volume of silver nitrate solution (of known
molarity) required to reach the endpoint is determined, and
thus the concentration of chloride in solution can be
calculated.
Ion-Selective Electrodes
The mineral content of many foods can be determined using
ion-selective (ISE), These devices work on the same
principle as pH meters, but the composition of the glass
electrode is different so that it is sensitive to specific types of
ion (rather than H+). Special glass electrodes are commercially
available to determine the concentration of K', Na t, NH/, Li+,
Ca
2
+ and Rb+ in aqueous solution. Two electrodes are dipped
into an aqueous solution containing the dissolved mineral: a
reference electrode and a ion-selective electrode, The voltage
across the electrodes depends on the concentration of the
mineral in solution and is measured at extremely low current
to prevent alterations in ion concentration,
The concentration of a specific mineral is determined from
a calibration curve of voltage versus the logarithm of
concentration. The major advantages of this method are its
simplicity, speed and ease of use. The technique has been used
to determine the salt concentration of butter, cheese and meat,
the calcium concentration of milk and the CO
2
concentration
of soft drinks. In principle, an ion selective electrode is only
sensitive to one type of ion, however, there is often
interference from other types of ions. This problem can often
be reduced by adjusting pH, complexing or precipitating the
interfering ions.
Finally, it should be noted that the ISE technique is only
sensitive to the concentration of free ions present in a solution.
If the ions are complexed with other components, such as
chelating agents or biopolymers, then they will not be
detected. The ISE technique is therefore particularly useful for
quantifying the binding of minerals to food components. If
one wants to determine the total concentration of a specific ion
in a food (rather than the free concentration), then one needs
to ensure that ion binding does not occur, e.g., by ashing the
food.
Atomic Spectroscopy
The determination of mineral type and concentration by
atomic spectroscopy is more sensitive, specific, and quicker
than traditional wet chemistry methods. For this reason it has
largely replaced traditional methods in laboratories that can
afford it or that routinely analyse for minerals.
Principles of Atomic Spectroscopy
The primary cause of absorption and emission of radiation in
atomic spectroscopy is electronic transitions of outer shell
electrons. Photons with the energy associated with this type
of transition are found in the UV -visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. In this respect atomic spectroscopy
is similar to UV -visible spectroscopy, however, the samples
used in atomic spectroscopy are individual atoms in a gaseous
state, whereas those used in UV-visible spectroscopy are
molecules dissolved in liquids. This has important
consequences for the nature of the spectra produced.
In atomic spectroscopy the peaks are narrow and well
defined, but in UV -visible spectroscopy they are broad and
overlap with one another. The are two major reasons for this.
Firstly, because absorption or emission is from atoms, rather
than molecules, there are no vibrational or rotational
transitions superimposed on the electronic transitions.
Secondly, because the atoms are in a gaseous state they are
well separated from each other and do not interact with
neighbouring molecules.
The energy change associated with a transition between
two energy levels is related to the wavelength of the absorbed
radiation: DE = he/A, where, h = Planks constant, e = the speed
of light and the wavelength. Thus for a given transition
between two energy states radiation of a discrete wavelength
is either absorbed or emitted. Each element has a unique
electronic structure and therefore it has a unique set of energy
levels. Consequently, it absorbs or emits radiation at specific
wavelengths. Each spectrum is therefore like a "fingerprint"
that can be used to identify a particular element In addition,
because the absorption and emission of radiation occurs at
different wavelengths for different types of atom, one element
can be distinguished from others by making measurements at
a wavelength where it absorbs or emits radiation, but the other
elements do not.
Absorption occurs primarily when electrons in the ground
state are promoted to various excited states. Emission occurs
when electrons in an excited state fall back to a lower energy
level. Atoms can exist in a number of different excited states,
and can fall back to one of many different lower energy states
(not necessarily the ground state). Thus there are many more
lines in an emission spectra than there are in an absorption
spectra.
Atomic spectroscopy is used to provide information about
the type and concentration of minerals in foods. The type of
minerals is determined by measuring the position of the peaks
in the emission or absorption spectra. 'Ine concentration of
mineral components is determined by measuring the intensity
of a spectral line known to correspond to the particular
element of interest.
The reduction in intensity of an electromagnetic wave that
travels through a sample is used to determine the absorbance:
A = -log(I/I). The Beer-Lambert law can then be used to relate
the absorbance to the concentration of atoms in the sample:
A = a.b.c, where A is absorbance, a is extinction coefficient, b
is sample pathlength and ( is concentration of absorbing
species. In practice, there are often deviations from the above
equation and so it is often necessary to prepare a calibration
curve using a series of standards of known concentration
prepared using the same reagents as used to prepare the
sample. It is also important to run a hlank to take into account
any impurities in the reagents that might interfere with the
analysis.
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is an analytical
method that is based on the absorption of UV-visible radiation
by free atoms in the gaseous state. The food sample to be
analysed is normally ashed and then dissolved in an aqueous
solution. This solution is placed in the instrument where it is
heated to vaporise and atomise the minerals. A beam of
radiation is passed through the atomised sample, and the
absorption of radiation is measured at specific wavelengths
corresponding to the mineral of interest. Information about
the type and concentration of minerals present is obtained by
measuring the location and intensity of the peaks in the
absorption spectra.
Instrumentatioll
The radiation source: The most commonly used source of
radiation in AAS is the hollow cathode lamp. This is a hollow
tube filled with argon or neon, and a cathode filament made
of the metallic form of the element to be analysed. When a
voltage is applied across the electrodes, the lamp emits
radiation characteristic of the metal in the cathode Le., if the
cathode is made of sodium, a sodium emission spectrum is
produced. When this radiation passes through a sample
containing sodium atoms it will be absorbed because it
contains radiation of exactly the right wavelength to promote
transition from one energy level to another. Thus a different
lamp is needed for each type of element analysed.
Chopper: The radiation arriving at the detector comes from
two different sources:
radiation emitted by the filament of the lamp (which is
partially absorbed by the sample);
radiation that is emitted by the atoms in the sample that
have been excited to higher energy levels by absorption
of energy from the atomiser.
To quantify the concentration of minerals in a sample using
AAS it is necessary to measure the reduction in amplitude of
the beam of radiation that has passed through the sample,
rather than the radiation emitted by the excited sample. This
can be done using a mechanical device, called a chopper, in
conjunction with an electronic device that distinguishes
between direct and alternating currents,
The chopper is a spinning disk with a series of slits which
is placed between the radiation source and the sample, The
radiation from the light source is therefore continuously being
switched on and off at a specific frequency, i.e" it is an
alternating current. On the other hand, the radiation emitted
from the excited atoms in the sample is constant i.e., it is direct
current. The overall detected radiation is therefore the sum of
a varying component and a constant component
Electronic devices are available which can separate
alternating and constant current. These devices are used in
AAS instruments to isolate the signal generated by the light
from that emitted by the atoms in the sample,
Atomiser: Atomisers are used to convert the sample to be
analysed into individual atoms, The atomisation process is
achieved by exposing the sample to high temperatures, and
involves three stages:
removal of water associated with molecules,
- conversion of molecules into a gas, and
- atomisation of molecules.
At higher temperatures the atoms may become ionised, which
is undesirable because the atomic spectra of ionised atoms is I
different from that of non-ionised ones. Consequently, it is
important to use a high enough temperature to atomise the
molecules, but not so high that the atoms are ionised. Two
types of atomiser are commonly used in atomic absorption
instruments: flame and electrothermal atomisation.
Flame-atomisers consist of a nebuliser and a burner.
The nebuliser converts the solution into a fine mist or
aerosol. The sample is forced through a tiny hole into
a chamber through which the oxidant and fuel are
flowing. The oxidant and fuel carry the sample into the
flame. The burner is usually 5 -10 centimetres long so
as to give a long pathlength for the radiation to travel
along. The characteristics of the flame can be altered by
Determinations of Ash and Minerals U9
varying the relative proportions and types of oxidant
and fuel used in the flame. Air-acetelyne and Nitrogen
oxide-acetylene are the most commonly used mixtures
of oxidant and fuel. Thus flames with different
temperatures can be produced. This is important
because the energy required to cause' atomisation, but
not ionisation, varies from substance to substance.
Instrument manufactures provide guidelines with their
instruments about the type of flame to use for specific
elements.
In electrothermal AAS the sample is placed in a small
graphite cup which is electrically heated to a
temperature (typically 2,000 - 3,000C) high enough to
produce volatilisation and atomisation. The cup is
positioned so that the radiation beam passes through
the atomised sample. The advantage of electrothermal
atomisers is that smaller samples are required and
detection limits are lower. Major disadvantages are that
they are more expensive to purchase, have a lower
sample throughput, are more difficult to operate and
have a lower precision than flame-atomisers.
Wavelength selector: A wavelength selector is positioned in the
optical path between the flame (or furnace) and the detector.
It's purpose is to isolate the spectral line of interest from the
rest of the radiation coming from the sample, so that only the
radiation of the desired wavelength reaches the detector.
Wavelength selectors are typically, monochromatic gratings
or filters.
Detector/Read-out: The detector is a photomultiplier tube
that converts electromagnetic energy reaching it into an
electrical signal. Most modern instruments have a computer
to display the signal output and store the spectra.
Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (AES)
Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is different from AAS,
because it utilises the emission of radiation by a sample, rather
than the absorption. For this reason samples usually have to
be heated to a higher temperature so that a greater proportion
of the atoms are in an excited state (although care must be
taken to ensure that ionisation does not occur because the
spectra from ionised atoms is different from that of non-
ionised atoms). There are d number of ways that the energy
can be supplied to a sample, including heat, light, electricity
and radio waves.
In AES the sample itself acts as the source of the detected
radiation, and therefore there is no need to have a separate
radiation source or a chopper. The sample is heated to a
temperature where it is atomised and a significant proportion
of the atoms is in an excited state.
, Atomic emissions are produced when the electrons in an
excited state fall back to lower energy levels. Since the allowed
energy levels for each atom are different, they each have
characteristic emission spectrum from which they can be
identified.
Since a food usually contains a wide variety of different
minerals, each with a characteristics emission spectrum, the
overall spectrum produced contains many absorption peaks.
The emitted radiation is therefore passed through a
wavelength selector to isolate specific peaks in the spectra
corresponding to the atom of interest, and the intensity of the
peak is measured using a detector and displayed on a read-
out device.
Atomisation-Excitation SourCf: The purpose of the
atomisation-excitation source is to atomise the sample, and to
excite the atoms so that they emit a significant amount of
detectable radiation. The two most commonly used forms of
atomisation-excitation sources in food analysis are Flame and
Inductively Coupled Plasma (K'P) devices.
In flame-AES a nebuliser-burner system is used to
atomise the mineraLc; in the sample and excite a large
proportion of them to higher energy levels.
In ICP-AES a special devin' is used that heats the
sample to very high temperature" (6,000 to 10,000 K) in
the presence of argon ions. The minerals in the sample
are not ionised at these temperatures because (If the
high concentration of argon ions (Ar ~ Ar+ + e-) leads
to the release of electrons that push the equilibrium
towards the non-ionised form of the mineral (M+ + e-
~ M ) .
Wavelength selectors: Wavelength selectors are used to isolate
particular spectral lines, which are characteristic of the
material being studied, from all the other spectral lines. A
number of different types of wavelength selector are available
including filters and gratings.
A filter can only be used to measure the intensity at a
particular fixed wavelength, whereas a grating can be used to
measure the intensity at many different wavelengths. A filter
can therefore only be used to analyse for one type of mineral,
whereas a grating can be used to measure many different
types of minerals.
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7
Analysis of Moisture and Total Solids in
Food Products
Moisture content is one of the most commonly measured
properties of food materials. It is important to food scientists
for a number of different reasons:
Legal and Labelling Requirements: There are legal limits
to the maximum or minimum amount of water that
must be present in certain types of food.
Economic: The cost of many foods depends on the
amount of water they contain-water is an inexpensive
ingredient, and manufacturers often try to incorporate
as much as possible in a food, without exceeding some
maximum legal requirement.
Microbial Stability: The propensity of microorganisms to
grow in foods depends on their water content. For this
reason many foods are dried below some critical
moisture content.
Food Quality: The texture, taste, appearance and stability
of foods depends on the amount of water they contain.
Food Processing Operations: A knowledge of the moisture
content is often neLessary to predict the behaviour of
foods during processing, e.g. mixing, drying, flow
through a pipe or packaging.
It is therefore important for food scientists to be able to reliably
measure moisture contents. A number of analytical techniques
have been developed for this purpose, which vary in their
accuracy, cost, speed, sensitivity, specificity, ease of operation,
etc. The choice of an analytical procedure for a particular
application depends on the nature of the food being analysed
and the reason the information is needed.
The moisture content of a food material is defined through
the following equation:
% Moisture = (mjm
samP1
) x 100
Where mw is the mass of the water and msample is the mass
of the sample. The mass of water is related to the number of
water molecules (nw) by the following expression: mw = nwMj
N A' where Mw is the molecular weight of water (18.0 g per
mole) and NA is Avadagro's number (6.02 102:1 molecules per
mole). In principle, the moisture content of a food can
therefore be determined accurately by measuring the number
or mass of water molecules present in a known mass of
sample.
It is not possible to directly measure the number of water
molecules present in a sample because of the huge number of
molecules involved. A number of analytical techniques
commonly used to determine the moisture content of foods
are based on determinations of the mass of water present in
a known mass of sample. There are a number of practical
problems associated with these techniques that make highly
accurate determinations of moisture content difficult or that
limit their use for certain applications. For these reasons, a
number of other analytical methods have been developed to
measure the moisture content of foods that do not rely on
direct measurement of the mass of water in a food. Instead,
these techniques are based on the fact that the water in a food
can be distinguished from the other components in some
measurable way.
An appreciation of the principles, advantages and
limitations of the various analytical techniques developed to
determine the moisture content of foods depends on an
understanding of the molecular characteristics of water. A
water molecule consists of an oxygen atom covalently bound
Analysis of Moisture and Total Solids in Food Products 135
to two hydrogen atoms (H
2
0). Each of the hydrogen atoms has
a small positive charge (8+), while the oxygen atom has two
lone pairs of electrons that each has a small negative charge
(8-). Consequently, water molecules are capable of forming
relatively strong hydrogen bonds (O-Ho+ ~ 0-0) with four
neighbouring water molecules.
The strength and directionality of these hydrogen bonds
are the origin of many of the unique physicochemical
properties of water. The development of analytical techniques
to determine the moisture content of foods depends on being
able to distinguish water (the "analyte") from the other
components in the food (the "matrix"). The characteristics of
water that are most commonly used to achieve this are: its
relatively low boiling point; its high polarity; its ability to
undergo unique chemical reactions with certain reagents; its
unique electromagnetic absorption spectra; and, its
characteristic physical properties (density, compressibility,
electrical conductivity and refractive index).
Despite having the same chemical formula (H
2
0) the
water molecules in a food may be present in a variety of
different molecular environments depending on their
interaction with the surrounding molecules. The water
molecules in these different environments normally have
different physiochemical properties:
Bulk water: Bulk water is free from any other
constituents, so that each water molecule is surrounded
only by other water molecules. It therefore has
physicochemical properties that are the same as those
of pure water, e.g., melting point, boiling point, density,
compressibility, heat of vaporisation, electromagnetic
absorption spectra.
Capillary or trapped water: Capillary water is held in
narrow channels between certain food components
because of capillary forces. Trapped water is held
within spaces within a food that are surrounded by a
physical barrier that prevents the water molecules from
easily escaping, e.g., an emulsion droplet or a biological
cell. The majority of this type of water is involved in
normal water-water bonding and so it has
physicochemical properties similar to that of bulk
water.
Physically bound water: A significant fraction of the water
molecules in many foods are not completely
surrounded by other water molecules, but are in
molecular contact with other food constituents, e.g.
proteins, carbohydrates or minerals. The bonds
between water molecules and these constituents are
often significantly different from normal water-water
bonds and so this type of water has different physicoch-
emical properties than bulk water e.g., melting point,
boiling point, density, compressibility, heat of
vaporisation, electromagnetic absorption spectra.
Chemically bound water: Some of the water molecules
present in a food may be chemically bonded to other
molecules as water of crystallisation or as hydrates, e.g.
NaS0
4
.10Hp. These bonds are much stronger than the
normal water-water bond and therefore chemically
bound water has very different physicochemical
properties to bulk water, e.g., lower melting point,
higher boiling point, higher density, lower compres-
sibility, higher heat of vaporisation, different
electromagnetic absorption spectra.
Foods are heterogeneous materials that contain different
proportions of chemically bound, physically bound, capillary,
trapped or bulk water. In addition, foods may contain water
that is present in different physical states: gas, liquid or solid.
The fact that water molecules can exist in a number of different
molecular environments, with different physicochemical
properties, can be problematic for the food analyst trying to
accurately determine the moisture content of foods,
Many analytical procedures developed to measure
moisture content are more sensitive to water in certain types
of molecular environment than to water in other types of
molecular environment. This means that the measured value
of the moisture content of a particular food may depend on
the experimental technique used to carry out the
measurement. Sometimes food analysts are interested in
determining the amounts of water in specific molecular
elwironments, rather than the total water content. For
example, the rate of microbial growth in a food depends on
the amount of bulk water present in a food, and not
necessarily on the total amount of water present. There are
analytical techniques available that can provide some
information about the relative fractions of water in different
molecular environments.
SAMPLE PREPARATION
Selection of a representative sample, and prevention of
changes in the properties of the sample prior to analysis, are
two major potential sources of error in any food analysis
procedure. When determining the moisture content of a food
it is important to prevent any loss or gain of water. For this
reason, exposure of a sample to the atmosphere, and excessive
temperature fluctuations, should be minimised. When
samples are stored in containers it is common practice to fill
the container to the top to prevent a large headspace, because
this reduces changes in the sample due to equilibration with
its environment.
USE OF EVAPORATION METHODS
Principles
These methods rely on measuring the mass of water in a
known mass of sample. The moisture content is determined
by measuring the mass of a food before and after the water
is removed by evaporation:
M INITIAL - M DRIED
% Moisture = M x\OO
INITIAi.
Here, MINITIAL and MDRlED are the mass of the sample before and
after drying, respectively. The basic principle of this technique
is that water has a lower boiling point than the other major
components within foods, e.g., lipids, proteins, carbohydrates
and minerals. Sometimes a related parameter, known as the
total solids, is reported as a measure of the moisture content.
The total solids content is a measure of the amount of material
remaining after all the water has been evaporated:
M DRIED
% TotalSolids = -M x 100
INITIAL
Thus, % Total solids = (100 . % Moisture). To obtain an
accurate measurement of the moisture content or total solids
of a food using evaporation methods it is necessary to remove
all of the water molecules that were originally present in the
food, without changing the mass of the food matrix. This is
often extremely difficult to achieve in practice because the
high temperatures or long times required to remove all of the
water molecules would lead to changes in the mass of the food
matrix. For this reason, the drying conditions used in
evaporation methods are usually standardised in terms of
temperature and time so as to obtain results that are as
accurate and reproducible as possible given the practical
constraints. Using a standard method of sample preparation
and analysis helps to minimise sample-to-sample variations
within and between laboratories.
Evaporation Devices
The thermal energy used to evaporate the water from a food
sample can be provided directly or indirectly.
Convection and forced draft ovens
Weighed samples are placed in an oven for a specified time
and temperature and their dried mass is determined, or they
are dried until they reach constant mass. The thermal energy
used to evaporate the water is applied directly to the sample
via the shelf and air that surround it. There are often
considerable temperature variations within convection ovens,
and so precise measurements are carried out using forced
draft ovens that circulate the air so as to achieve (I more
uniform temperature distribution within the oven. Samples
that contain significant quantities of carbohydrates that might
undergo chemical changes or volatile materials other than
water should not be dried in a convection or forced draft oven.
Many official methods of analysis are based on forced draft
ovens.
Vacuum oven
Weighed samples are placed under reduced pressure
(typically 25-100 mm Hg) in a vacuum oven for a specified
time and temperature and their dried mass is determined. The
thermal energy used to evaporate the water is applied directly
to the sample via the metallic shelf that it sits upon. There is
an air inlet and outlet to carry the moisture lost from the
sample out of the vacuum oven, which prevents the
accumulation of moisture within the oven. The boiling point
of water is reduced when it is placed under vacuum. Drying
foods in a vacuum oven therefore has a number of advantages
over conventional oven drying techniques. If the sample is
heated at the same temperature, drying can be carried out
much quicker. Alternatively, lower temperatures can be used
to remove the moisture (e.g. 70C instead of 100C), and so
problems associated with degradation of heat labile
substances can be reduced. A number of vacuum oven
methods are officially recognised.
Microwave oven
Weighed samples are placed in a microwave oven for a
specified time and power-level and their dried mass is
weighed. Alternatively, weighed samples may be dried until
they reach a constant final mass - analytical microwave ovens
containing balances to continuously monitor the weight of a
food during drying are commercially available. The water
molecules in the food evaporate because they absorb
microwave energy, which causes them to become thermally
excited. The major advantage of microwave methods over
other drying methods is that they are simple to use and rapid
to carry out. Nevertheless, care must be taken to standardise
the drying procedure and ensure that the microwave energy
is applied evenly across the sample. A number of microwave
oven drying methods are officially recognised.
Infrared lamp drying
The sample to be analysed is placed under an infrared lamp
and its mass is recorded as a function of time. The water
molecules in the food evaporate because they absorb infrared
energy, which causes them to become thermally excite& One
of the major advantages of infrared drying methods is that
moisture contents can be determined rapidly using
inexpensive equipment,. This is because the IR energy
penetrates into the sample, rather than having to be conducted
and convected inwards from the surface of the sample To
obtain reproducible measurements it is important to control
the distance between the sample and the IR lamp and the
dimensions of the sample. IR drying methods are not officially
recognised for moisture content determinations because it is
difficult to standardise the procedure. Even so, it is widely
used in industry because of its speed and ease of use.
Practical Considerations
Sample dimensions: The rate and extent of moisture
removal depends on the size and shape of the sample,
and how finely it is ground. The greater the surface area
of material exposed to the environment, the faster the
rate of moisture removal.
Clumping and surface crust formation: .some samples tend
to clump together or form a semipermeable surface
crust during the drying procedure: This can lead to
erroneous and irreproducible results because the loss of
moisture is restricted by the clumps or crust. For this
reason samples are often mixed with dried sand to
prevent clumping and surface crust formation.
Elevation of boiling point: Under normal laboratory
conditions pure water boils at 100C. Nevertheless, if
solutes are present in a sample the boiling point of
water is elevated. This is because the partial vapour
pressure of water is decreased and therefore a higher
temperature has to be reached before the vapour
pressure of the system equals the atmospheric pressure.
Consequently, the rate of moisture loss from the sample
is slower than expected. The boiling point of water
containing solutes (Tb) is given by the expression, Tb =
To + 0.51
m
, where To' is the boiling point of pure water
and m is the molality of solute in solution (mol/kg of
solvent).
Water type: The ease at which water is removed from a
food by evaporation depends on its interaction with the
other components present. Free water is most easily
removed from foods by evaporation, whereas more
severe conditions are needed to remove chemically or
physically bound water. Nevertheless, these more
extreme conditions can cause problems due to
degradation of other ingredients which interfere with
the analysis.
Decomposition of other food components: If the temperature
of drying is too high, or the drying is carried out for too
long, there may be decomposition of some of the heat-
sensitive components in the food. This will cause a
change in the mass of the food matrix and lead to errors
in the moisture content determination. It is therefore
normally necessary to use a compromise time and
temperature, which are sufficient to remove most of the
moisture, but not too long to cause significant thermal
decomposition of the food matrix. One example of
decomposition that interferes with moisture content
determinations is that of carbohydrates.
The water that is released by this reaction is not the
water we are trying to measure and would lead to an
overestimation of the true moisture content. On the
other hand, a number of chemical reactions that occur
at elevated temperatures lead to water absorption, e.g.,
sucrose hydrolysis (sucrose + H
2
0 ~ fructose +
glucose), and therefore lead to an underestimation of
the true moisture content. Foods that are particularly
susceptible to thermal decomposition should be
analysed using alternative methods, e.g. chemical or
physical.
Volatilisation of other food components: It is often assumed
that the weight loss of a food upon heating is entirely
due to evaporation of the water. In practice, foods often
contain other volatile constituents that can also be lost
during heating, e.g., flavours or odours. For most foods,
these volatiles only make up a very small proportion
and can therefore be ignored. For foods that do contain
significant amounts of volatile components (e.g. spices
and herbs) it is necessary to use alternative methods to
determine their moisture content, e.g., distillation,
chemical or physical methods.
High moisture samples: Food samples that have high
moisture contents are usually dried in two stages to
prevent "spattering" of the sample, and accumulation
of moisture in the oven. Spattering is the process
whereby some of the water jumps out of the food
sample during drying, carrying other food constituents
with it. For example, most of the moisture in milk is
removed by heating on a stearn bath prior to
completing the drying in an oven.
Temperature and power level variations: Most evaporation
methods stipulate a definite temperature or power level
to dry the sample so as to standardise the procedure
and obtain reproducible results. In practice, there are
often significant variations in temperatures or power
levels within an evaporation instrument, and so the
efficiency of the drying procedure depends on the
precise location of the sample within the instrument. It
is therefore important to carefully design and operate
analytical instruments so as to minimise these
temperature or power level variations.
Sample pans: It is important to use appropriate pans to
contain samples, and to handle them correctly, when
carrying out a moisture content analysis. Typically
aluminium pans are used because they are relatively
cheap and have a high thermal conductivity. These
pans usually have lids to prevent spattering of the
sample, which would lead to weight loss and therefore
erroneous results. Pans should be handled with tongs
because fingerprints can contribute to the mass of a
sample. Pans should be dried in an oven and stored in
a desiccator prior to use to ensure that no residual
moisture is attached to them.
USE OF DISTILLATION METHODS
Distillation methods are based on direct measurement of the
amount of water removed from a food sample by evaporation:
%Moisture = 100 (MWATE/MINITIA)' In contrast, evaporation
methods are based on indirect measurement of the amount of
water removed from a food sample by evaporation:
%Moisture = 100 (MINITIAL - MDRIW)/MINITIAC Basically,
distillation methods involve heating a weighed food sample
(MINITIAt> in the presence of an organic solvent that is
immiscible with water. The water in the sample evaporates
and is collected in a graduated glass tube where its mass is
determined (M
WATER
)'
Dean and Stark Method
Distillation methods are best illustrated by exammmg a
specific example: the Dean and Stark method. A known
weight of food is placed in a flask with an organic solvent such
as xylene or toluene. The organic solvent must be insoluble
with water; have a higher boiling point than water; be less
dense than water; and be safe to use. The flask containing the
sample and the organic solvent is attached to a condenser by
a side arm and the mixture is heated. The water in the sample
evaporates and moves up into the condenser where it is cooled
and converted back into liquid water, which then trickles into
the graduated tube. When no more water is collected in the
graduated tube, distillation is stopped and the volume of
water is read from the tube.
Practical Considerations
There are a number of practical factors that can lead to
erroneous results:
emulsions can sometimes form between the water and
the solvent which are difficult to separate;
water droplets can adhere to the inside of the glassware,
decomposition of thermally labile samples can occur at
the elevated temperatures used.
Advantages: Suitable for application to foods with low
moisture contents; Suitable for application to foods
containing volatile oils, such as herbs or spices, since the
oils remain dissolved in the organic solvent, and
therefore do not interfere with the measurement of the
water; Equipment is relatively cheap, easy to setup and
operate; Distillation methods have been officially
sanctioned for a number of food applications.
Disadvantages: Destructive; Relatively time-
consuming; Involves the use of flammable solvents; Not
applicable to some types of foods.
Chemical Reaction Methods
Reactions between water and certain chemical reagents can be
used as a basis for determining the concentration of moisture
in foods. In these methods a chemical reagent is added to the
food that reacts specifically with water to produce a
measurable change in the properties of the system, e.g., mass,
volume, pressure, pH, colour, conductivity. Measurable
changes in the system are correlated to the moisture content
using calibration curves.
To make accurate measurements it is important that the
chemical reagent reacts with all of the water molecules
present, but not with any of the other components in the food
matrix. Two methods that are commonly used in the food
industry are the Karl-Fisher titration and gas production
methods. Chemical reaction methods do not usually involve
the application of heat and so they are suitable for foods that
contain thermally labile substances that would change the
mass of the food matrix on heating or foods that contain
volatile components that might be lost by heating.
Karl-Fisher method
The Karl-Fisher titration is often used for determining the
moisture content of foods that have low water contents (e.g.
dried fruits and vegetables, confectionary, coffel!. oils and
fats). It is based on the following reaction:
2H
2
0 + S02 + 1 2 ~ H
2
S0
4
+ 2HT
This reaction was originally used because HI is colourless,
whereas 12 is a dark reddish brown colour, hence there is a
mt>asurable change in colour when water reacts with the
added chemical reagents. Sulphur dioxide and iodine are
gaseous and would normally be lost from solution. For this
reason, the above reaction has been modified by adding
solvents (e.g., C5H5N) that keep the Sp and 12 in solution,
although the basic principles of the method are the same. The
food to be analysed is placed in a beaker containing solvent
and is then titrated with Karl Fisher reagent (a solution that
contains iodine).
While any water remains in the sample the iodine reacts
with it and the solution remains colourless (HI), but once all
the water has been used up any additional iodine is observed
as a dark red brown colour. The volume of iodine solution
required to titrate the water is measured and can be related
to the moisture content using a pre-prepared calibration
curve. The precision of the technique can be improved by
using electrical methods to follow the end-point of the
reaction, rather than observing a colour change. Relatively
146 Conrol and Analysis for Food and Agricultural Products
inexpensive commercial instruments have been developed
which are based on the Karl-Fisher titration, and some of these
are fully automated to make them less labour intensive.
Gas Production Methods
Commercial instruments are also available that utilise specific
reactions between chemical reagents and water that lead to the
production of a gas. For example, when a food sample is
mixed with powdered calcium carbide the amount of
acetylene gas produced is related to the moisture content.
The amount of gas produced can be measured in a number
of different ways, including (i) the volume of gas produced,
(ii) the decrease in the mass of the sample after the gas is
released, and (iii) the increase in pressure of a closed vessel
containing the reactants.
Physical Methods
A number of analytical methods have been developed to
determine the moisture content of foods that are based on the
fact that water has appreciably different bulk physical
characteristics than the food matrix, e.g. density, electrical
conductivity or refractive index. lhese methods are usually
only suitable for analysis of foods in which the composition
of the food matrix does not change significantly, but the ratio
of water-to-food matrix changes. For example, the water
content of oil-in-water emulsions can be determined by
measuring their denSity or electrical conductivity because the
density and electrical conductivity of water are significantly
higher than those of oiL
If the composition of the food matrix changes as well as
the water content, then it may not be possible to accurately
determine the moisture content of the food because more than
one food composition may give the same value for the
physical property being measured In these cases, it may be
possible to use a combination of two or more physical
methods to determine the composition of the food, e.g.,
density measurements in combination with electrical
conductivity measurements.
Spectroscopic Methods
Spectroscopic methods utilise the interaction of electrom-
agnetic radiation with materials to obtain information about
their composition, e.g., X-rays, UV-visible, NMR, microwaves
and IR. The spectroscopic methods developed to measure the
moisture content of foods are based on the fact that water
absorbs electromagnetic radiation at characteristic
wavelengths that are different from the other components in
the food matrix. The most widely used physical methods are
based on measurements of the absorption of microwave or
infrared energy by foods.
Microwave and infrared radiation are absorbed by
materials due to their ability to promote the vibration and/
or rotation of molecules. The analysis is carried out at a
wavelength where the water molecules absorb radiation, but
none of the other components in the food matrix do. A
measurement of the absorption of radiation at this wavelength
can then be used to determine the moisture content: the higher
the moisture content, the greater the absorption. Instruments
based on this principle are commerdally available and can be
used to determine the moisture content in a few minutes or
less.
It is important not to confuse infrared and microwave
absorption methods with infrared lamp and microwave
evaporation methods. The former use low energy waves that
cause no physical or chemical changes in the food, whereas
the latter use high-energy waves to evaporate the water. The
major advantage of these methods is that they are capable of
rapidly determining the moisture content of a food with little
or no sample preparation and are therefore particularly useful
for quality control purposes or rapid measurements of many
samples.
148 Control and Analysis for Food and Agricultural Products'
Determine Water in Different Molecular Environments
The overall water content of a food is sometimes not a very
reliable indication of the quality of a food because the water
molecules may exist in different environment& within foods,
e.g., "bound" or "free". Here "bound water" refers to water
that is physically or chemically bound to other food
components, whereas "free water'l refers to bulk. capillary or
entrapped water. For example, the microbial stability or
physicochemical properties of a food are often determined by
the amount of free water present. rather than by the total
amount of water present. For this reason, it is often useful for
food scientists to be able to detf'rmine the amount of water in
different molecular environments within a food, A variety of
analytical methods are available that can provide this type of
information.
Vapour Pressure Methods
A physical parameter that is closely related to the amount of
free water present in a food is the water activity,
P
8w= Po
where, P is the partial pressure of the water above the food
and Po is the vapour pressure of pure water at the same
temperature. Bound water is much less volatile than free
water, and therefore the water activity gives a good indication
of the amount of free water present. A variety of methods are
available for measuring the water activity of a sample based
on its vapour pressure. Usually, the sample to be analysed is
placed in a closed container and allowf'd to come into
equilibrium with its environment. The water content in the
headspace above the sample is then measured and compared
to that of pure water under the same conditions.
Thermogravimetric Methods
Thermogravimetric techniqut's can be used to continuously
measure the mass of a sample as it is heated at a controlled
rate. The temperature at which water evaporates depends on
its molecular environment: free water normally evaporates at
a lower temperature than bound water. Thus by measuring
the change in the mass of a sample as it loses water during
heating it is often possible to obtain an indication of the
amounts of water present in different molecular
environments.
Calorimetric Methods
Calorimetric techniques such as differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) and differential thermal analysis (DTA) can
be used to measure changes in the heat absorbed or released
by a material as its temperature is varied at a controlled rate.
The melting point of water depends on its molecular
environment: free water normally melts at a higher
temperature than bound water. Thus by measuring the
enthalpy change of a sample with temperature it is possible
to obtain an indication of the amounts of water present in
different molecular environments.
REFERENCES
Diaz, M.; Dunn, C. M.; McClements, D. J.; Decker, E. A., "Use of
Caseinophosphopeptides as Natural Antioxidants in OiI-in-Water
Emulsions", J. Agric. Food Chern., 2003.
Guzey, D., McClements, D.J. & Weiss, J., "Adsorption kinetics of BSA
Hu M, McClements OJ, Decker EA, "Lipid oxidation in corn oil-in-water
protein isolate", Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 1696-
1700,2003.
Kim HJ, Decker EA, McClements OJ., "Influence of sucrose on droplet
flocculation in hexadecane oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by
beta-lactoglobulin", J Agr Food Clzem., 50, 766-772, 2003.
Ogawa, S.; Decker, E. A.; McClements, D. J., "Production and
Characterization of O/W Emulsions Containing Cationic Droplets
Stabilized by Lecithin-Chitosan Membranes", J. Agric. Food Chern.,
2003.
Rampon, V., et ai., "Front-Face Fluorescence Spectroscopy Study of
Globular Proteins in Emulsions: Displacement of BSA by a
Nonionic Surfactant", J, Agric:. Food Chern., 2003
Undeland, I., et al., "Consistency and solubility changes in herring
(Clupea harengus) light muscle homogenates as a function of pH",
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 3992-3998, 2003
8
Instrumental Techniques for Food Analysis
Temperature changes cause alterations in the physical and
chemical properties of food components which influence the
overall properties of the final product, e.g., taste, appearance,
texture and stability. Chemical reactions such as hydrolysis,
oxidation or reduction may be promoted, or physical changes,
such as evaporation, melting, crystallization, aggregation or
gelation may occur.
A better understanding of the influence of temperature on
the properties of foods enables food manufacturers to
optimise processing conditions and improve product quality.
It is therefore important for food scientists to have analytical
techniques to monitor the changes that occur in foods when
their temperature varies. These techniques are often grouped
under the general heading of thermal analysis.
In principle, most analytical techniques can be used, or
easily adapted, to monitor the temperature-dependent
properties of foods, e.g., spectroscopic (NMR, UV -visible, IR
spectroscopy, fluorescence), sca ttering (light, X-rays,
neutrons), physical (mass, density, rheology, heat capacity)
etc. Nevertheless, at present the term thermal analysis is
usually reserved for a narrow range of techniques that
measure changes in the physical properties of foods with
temperature, e.g., mass, density, rheology, heat capacity. For
this reason, only these techniques will be considered in this
lecture.
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT PROPERTIES
Initially, it is useful to highlight some of the physical changes
that occur in food components when the temperature is
varied.
Density of Pure Materials
The density of pure materiab, which do not undergo phase
transitions, usually decrease as the temperature is increased.
This is because the atoms in the material move around more
vigorously when they gain thermal energy, and so the space
between the molecules increases. TIle mass of a material is
independent of temperature, and so an increase in volume
with temperature leads to a decrease in density (since::: m/
V). Knowledge of the temperature-dependence of the density
of a food material is often used by engineers to design
processing operations, e.g., containers for storing materials or
pipes through which materials flow.
In materials that do undergo phase transitions the
variation of the density with temperature is more dramatic.
A solid usually has a higher den.<;ity than a liquid, and so when
a solid melts or a liquid crystallises there is a significant
change in density superimposed on the normal variation of
density with temperature. The use of density measurements
to monitor melting and crystallisation of materials will be
discussed later.
Phase Transitions
The term phase transition refers to the process whereby a
material is converted from one physical state to another. The
most commonly occurring phase transitions in foods are
melting (solid-to-liquid), crystallisation (liquid-to-solid),
evaporation (liquid-to-gas), condensation (gas-to-liquid),
sublimation (solid-to-gas) and glass transitions (glassy-to-
rubbery). When a material changes from one physical state to
another it either absorbs or gives out heat. A process that
absorbs heat is an endothermic process, whereas a process that
evolves heat is an exothermic process.
Instrumental Techniques for Food Analysis 153
The overall properties of foods may be drastically altered
when key components undergo phase transitions, and so it is
important to have analytical techniques for monitoring these
processes. These techniques utilise measurements of physical
properties of a material that change when a material
undergoes a phase transition, e.g., molecular structure,
molecular mobility, density, rheology, heat capacity.
Gelation
Many foods contain components that are capable of forming
a gel when the food is heated or cooled under appropriate
conditions. Most food gels are three-dimensional networks of
aggregated or entangled biopolymers or colloidal particles
that entrap a large volume of water, to give the whole
structure "solid-like" characteristics. The physical properties
of gels, such as appearance (transparent or opaque), water
holding capacity, rheology and stability, depend ultimately on
the type, structure and interactions of the molecules or
particles that they contain.
Common examples of foods in which gelation makes an
important contribution to their overall properties are eggs,
starches, jellies, yogurts and meat products. In some foods a
gel is formed on heating (heat-setting gels), whilst in others
it is formed on cooling (cold-setting gels). Gels may also be
either thermo-reversible or thermo-irreverisble, depending on
whether gelation is reversible or not. Gelatin is an example of
a cold-setting thermo-reversible gel: when a solution of gelatin
molecules is cooled below a certain temperature a gel is
formed, but when it is reheated the gel melts. Egg-white is an
example of a heat-setting thermo-irreverisble gel.
When an egg is heated above a temperature where
gelation occurs a characteristic white gel is formed, however,
when the egg is cooled back to room temperature the gel
remains white, Le., it doesn't revert back into the liquid from
which it was formed. For ingredients that gel it is important
to know the temperature at which gelation occurs, the gelation
rate, and the nature of the gel formed. Thus thermal analytical
techniques are needed by food scientist to measure these
properties.
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
A variety of different analytical techniques have been
developed to monitor changes in the physical properties of
food components that Qccur in response to controlled changes
in temperature. A number of the most important of these
thermal analysis techniques are described below.
Thermogravimetric Techniques
Thermogravimetric techniques continuously measure the
mass of a sample as it is heated or cooled at a controlled rate,
or is held at a particular temperature for a period of time.
Thermogravimetry is useful for monitoring processes that
involve a change in the mass of a food or food component, e.g.,
drying, liberation of gasses, absorption of moisture. To mimic
the various types of processing and storage conditions that a
food might normally experience, thermogravimetric
instruments have been specially designed to allow
measurements to be carried out under specific environments,
e.g., controlled pressures or atmospheres.
Gravimetric instruments typically consist of a sensitive
balance situated within a container whose pressure,
temperature and gaseous environment can be carefully
controlled. The mass of a sample may either increase or
decrease with temperature or time depending on the specific
physicochemical processes occurring. Heating often leads to
a reduction in mass because of evaporation of volatile
components and various chemical reactions that liberate
gasses.
On the other hand, the mass of a food may increase due
to absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. The ability to
be able to carefully control the temperature, pressure and
composition of the gasses surrounding a sample is extremely
valuable for food scientists, because it allows them to model
processes such as drying, cooking, and uptake of moisture
during storage.
Dilatometry Measurements
A dilatometer is a device that is used to measure the change
in density of a material as a function of time or temperature.
Dilatometry measurements are routinely used for monitoring
the crystallisation and melting of fats in foods. A weighed
amount of melted fat is poured into a graduated glass U-tube
that is thermostatted in a temperature controlled water bath.
The sample is then cooled at a controlled rate and the c h ~ n g e
in volume of the material is measured as a function of
temperature.
The density of a solid is usually greater than that of a
liquid, thus the volume of a sample decreases when
crystallisation occurs, and increases when melting occurs.
Dilatometry can therefore be used to provide information
about the melting and crystallisation of fatty foods. For food
scientists, the most important information is the temperature
at which melting or crystallisation begins, the temperature
range over which the phase transition occurs, and the value
of the solid fat content at any particular temperature.
Rheological Techniques
Rheology is the study of the deformation and flow of matter.
Rheological techniques used for thermal analysis measure the
change in the rheological characteristics of a sample as a
function of temperature. A sample is usually contained in a
measurement cell whose temperature can be varied in a
systematic fashion. A stress is applied to the sample and the
resulting strain is measured. The relationship between the
stress and strain gives information about the rheological
properties of the material being tested.
The stress can be applied to a material in a number of
different ways, depending on the type of information
required. The stresses used are normally small enough to
prevent any changes in the properties of the material during
the test. If large stresses were applied to a material they might
promote structure breakdown, which would alter the
rheological properties of the material during the test.
156 Control and Analysis foX' Food and Agricultural Products
Rheological thermal analysis techniques are often used to
monitor the temperature dependent rheological properties of
liquids, gels and solids. For example, they are commonly used
to monitor the temperature dependence of the shear modulus
of fatty foods, the viscosity of biopolymer solutions, and the
shear modulus of biopolymer gels, These techniques provide
useful information about the temperature at which thermal
transitions occur, the rate at which these changes occur and
the final rheological properties of the food. This type of
information is used by food scientists to design foods with
improved properties, and to optimise processing conditions.
DTA and DSC Techniques
Differential Thermal Analysis (DT A) and Differential
Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) techniques rely on changes in the
heat absorbed or released by a material as its temperature is
varied at a controlled rate. These changes occur when
components within a food undergo some type of phase
transition or chemical reaction.
Differential Thermal Analysis Technique
DTA is defined as "a technique for recording the difference
in temperature between a substance and a reference material
against time or temperature as the two specimens are
subjected to identical temperature regimes in an environment
heated or cooled at a controlled rate". A typical instrument
consists of two measurement cells that are located in a
temperature-controlled environment, whose temperature can
be varied in a controlled fashion.
The sample to be tested is placed into the "sample cell",
while a reference material of known thermal properties (often
distilled water) is placed in the "reference cell". The two cells
are then heated or cooled together at a controlled rate, The
small difference in temperature between the "sample cell" and
"reference cell" ~ T = T I - T f is measured using
samp e Ie e r e n ( ~
accurate thermocouples placed below the cells as the
temperature of the external environment (T t \) is varied in
ex elna
a controlled fashion.
The output of the instrument is therefore a plot of T versus
Texternal. Information about thermal transitions that occur
within a sample can be obtained by analysing the T
versus
Texternal thermogram. If the temperature of the "sample cell"
is greater than that of the "reference cell" ( T > 0), then the
sample has undergone an exothermic reaction, i.e., it has given
out heat.
Conversely, if the temperature of the "reference cell" is
greater than that of the "sample cell" < 0), then the
sample has undergone an endothermic reaction, i.e., it has
adsorbed heat. The nature of a peak (exothermic, endothermic,
shape) provides information about the type of transition(s)
occurring. The position of the peak provides information
about the temperature that the transition occurs. The area
under a peak depends on the amount of material involved in
the transition and the enthalpy change per unit amount of
material.
Differential Scanning Calorimetry Technique
DSC is a technique for recording the energy required to keep
a zero temperature difference between a sample cell and a
reference cell which are either heated or cooled at a controlled
rate. The thermocouples constantly measure the temperature
of each cell and heaters supply heat to one or other of the cells
so that they both have exactly the same temperature. If a
sample were to undergo a phase transition it would either
absorb or release heat.
To keep the temperature of the two samples the same an
equivalent amount of energy must be supplied to either the
test or reference cells. Special electrical circuitry is used to
determine the amount of energy needed to keep the two
measurement cells at the same temperature. DSC data is
therefore reported as the rate of energy absorption (Q) by the
sample relative to the reference material as a function of the
external temperature. Information about thermal transitions
that occur within a sample are obtained by analysing the Q
versus Te'ternal It should be noted that it is also
158 Control and Analysis fot Food and Agricultural Products
possible to measure the change in the heat released by a
material as a function of time under isothermal (constant
temperature) conditions.
Isothermal Titration Calorimetry aTC)
ITC is used to measure enthalpy changes that occur a& the
result of interactions between different types of molecules. An
ITC instrument consists of a reference cell, a sample cell and
an injector. A reference material, that does not undergo any
enthalpy changes during the experiment is placed in the
reference cell. A solution of one type of molecule is placed in
the sample cell ("sample solution"), and a solution of another
type of molecule is placed in the injector ("injection solution").
Small aliquots of the injection solution are then injected
periodically into the sample solution contained within the
sample cell, and the energy required to keep the sample and
reference cells at the same temperature is measured as a
function of time. The resulting thermogram consists of a plot
of Q versus time, which consists of a series of enthalpy peaks
corresponding to the serlt's of injections. By analysing the
nature (exothermic, endothermic), magnitude (area under the
curve) and shape of the peaks it is possible to obtain valuable
information about interactions between molecules in the
injector and in the sample cell.
Applications
Specific heat capacity
The specific heat capacity is an important quantity in the food
industry because it determines the amount of energy that
must be supplied or withdrawn from a material in order to
increase or decrease its tt-'mperature by a given amount.
Knowledge of the specific heat capacity of a material is
therefore important in the design of processes such as chilling,
freezing, warming, sterilisation and cooking.
DSC and DTA can be used to measure the specific heat
capacities of food materials. A known mass of material is
placed in a sample celt which i ~ then heated or cooled at a
controlled rate. For DSC, the specific heat capacity is
determined from the equation: Q = m CP dT/dt, where Q is
the heat flow per unit time, m is the sample mass, CP is the
specific heat capacity of the material, and dT / dt is the rate of
change of the external temperature.
Phase transitions
DSC and DTA are routinely used in the food industry to
characterise phase transitions in foods, e.g. crystallisation,
melting, glass transitions and conformational changes. They
can be used to provide information about the temperature at
which transitions occur (Ttr), the enthalpy change associated
with a transition ( Htr), the type of transition involved
(exothermic or endothermic), and the quantify of material that
undergoes a transition.
When a material changes its physical state from solid-to-
liquid (melting) or from liquid-to-solid (crystallisation) it
absorbs or gives out heat, respectively. A process that absorbs
heat is an endothermic process, whereas a process that evolves
heat is an exothermic process. Pure substances usually have
very sharp melting or crystallisation points and therefore all
the heat is absorbed or evolved over a narrow range of
temperatures, leading to a sharp DSC or DTA peak.
Many food components are chemically complex materials
and therefore the phase transitions occur over a wide range
of temperatures, e.g. edible oils contain a wide variety of
different triacylglycerols each with its own melting point.
Peaks from food oils may also be complicated by the fact that
triacylglycerols can crystallise in more than one different
crystalline structure, i.e., they are polymorphic.
Molecular interactions
ITC can be used to provide valuable information about
interactions between different types of molecules, e . g ~ , .
binding interactions or conformational changes. As an
example, we will consider the use of ITC for quantifying the
binding of a ligand molecule (L) to a protein molecule (P): P
+ L PL. A solution containing the ligand is placed into the
160 Control and Analysis fOT Food and Agricultural Products
injector, while a solution containing the protein is placed into
the sample cell. Small aliquots of the ligand solution are then
injected into the sample solution at regular intervals
The interval between each injection should be long enough
to allow any reactions to go to completion. The instrument
records the enthalpy change that occurs after each injection as
a result of the interaction between the ligand and protein
molecules. By measuring the change in the enthalpy with
ligand concentration in the sample cell it is possible to obtain
information about the number of binding sites on thf' protein,
the strength of the binding interaction and the
thermodynamics of the binding interaction.
SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES
A variety of the instruments that are commonly used to
analyse food materials are based on spectroscopy, e.g., UV-
visible, fluorescence, atomic, infrared and nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopies. These instruments utilise
interactions between electromagnetic radiation and matter to
provide information about food properties, e.g., molecular
composition, structure, dynamics and interactions, An
appreciation of the operating principles of these instruments
depends on an understanding of the distribution of energy
within atoms and molecules, of the characteristics of
electromagnetic radiation, and of the interacti on of
electromagnetic radiation with atoms and molecules.
Energy Distribution in Atoms and Molecules
Atoms and molecules can only exist in a limited number of
discrete energy levels: they cannot have energies between
these levels, i.e., their energy levels are quantised. Each
molecular species has a unique set of energy leveb that
depends on its unique atomic structure (electrons, protons,
neutrons) and molecular structure (type and arrangement of
atoms and bonds).
The lowest of these energy levels b referred to as the
ground state, while higher levels are I"t-'ferred to as excitt'd
states. The potential energy of an atom or molecule is usually
defined relative to the ground state (which is arbitrarily taken
to have zero energy). The potential energy of a molecule is
made-up of contributions from a number of different sources:
electronic, vibrational, rotational, translation and nuclear.
Electronic Energy Levels: Electrons in an atom are
arranged into a number of different shells and sub-
shells. An electron can move from one of these sub-shell
levels to another by absorbing or emitting radiation of
an appropriate energy. The system is then said to have
undergone an electronic transition. Electronic
transitions may involve electrons that are in inner shells
(higher energy) or outer shells (lower energy) of atoms.
Vibrational Energy Levels: Molecules (but not atoms) can
vibrate in a number of different modes, e.g., the atoms
can compress or stretch along the axis of a bond, or they
can bend symmetrically or asymmetrically. Each of
these vibrations occurs at a characteristic frequency
(energy) which depends on the mass of the atoms and
the strength of the bonds involved.
Rotational Energy Levels: Molecules often contain
chemical groups that are capable of rotating around
certain bonds at fixed frequencies (and therefore
energies). Each group has a specific number of
frequencies at which it rotates and therefore has a
specific number of quantised rotational energy levels.
The rotation frequency is determined by the mass of the
atoms involved and their distance from the axis of
rotation.
Nuclear Energy Levels: The nuclei of certain atoms have
a property known as spin. A (charged) spinning nucleus
generates a small magnetic field and can be thought of
as being a small magnet. Normally, this magnet can be
orientated in any direction, but in the presence of an
external magnetic field it can only align itself either
with or against the field, i.e., it is quantised. Transitions
between the different energy levels within the nuclei
162 Control and Analysi& for Food and Agricultural Products
can be made to occur by applying radiation of a specific
energy to the sample.
Translational Energy Levels: Atoms and molecules are in
continual translatioI).al motion because of the thermal
energy of the system. Translational energy levels are
quantised, however, the differences between the energy
levels are so small that the molecules act ab though the
energy is distributed continuously.
Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves may be thought of a& particles of
energy (photons) that move through space with wave-like
properties, i.e., they exhibit wave-particle duality. They
consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that are
perpendicular to one another, and to the direction of
propagation.
The sinusoidal variation in the amplitude of the electric
vector of the wave can be plotted as a function of time (at a
fixed position within a material) or as a function of distance
(at a fixed point in time). A monochromatic (single
wavelength) electromagnetic wave that propagates through a
vacuum can be described completely by its frequency,
wavelength and amplitude (or parameters derived from
these):
The frequency (v) of a wave b the number of cycles per
second (Hz = S-1).
The period (T) of a wave is the time taken to complete
a cycle: T = l/v.
The wavelength (A.) is the distance between successive
maxima of a wave.
The wave number is thf:' number of cycles per unit
distance (=1/1.).
The amplitude (A) of a wave is the maximum
magnitude of the electric wctor.
The intensity (I) of a waVE' b proportional to the square
of the amplitude. It is tilt' amount of energy passing
through a given area per second. Increasing the
intensity of an electromagnetic wave increases the
number of quanta passing a given area per second, not
the energy of each individual quantum.
The velocity (c) of an electromagnetic wave is the
distance travelled per second: c = v The velocity of an
electromagnetic wave travelling through a vacuum is c
= 3 x 108 m S-I. The velocity of an electromagnetic wave
travelling through a material is always less than that in
a vacuum. The refractive index of a material is equal to
cvacuuml Cmatenar
The energy (E) of the photons in an electromagnetic
wave is related to the frequency of the wave:
E = hv = hiT = he I 'A = he
where, h = Planks constant (6.6262 x10-
34
J s). These expressions
can be used to relate the energy of an electromagnetic wave
to its frequency, period, wavelength or wave number. This
relationship indicates that monochromatic radiation contains
photons that all have the same energy.
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of radiation that
ranges in wavelength from 10-
12
m (high energy) to 10
4
m (low
. energy). The physical principles and mathematical description
of radiation across the whole of the electromagnetic spectrum
is the same, however, it is convenient to divide it into a
number of different regions depending on the origin of the
waves, i.e., cosmic rays, gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet,
visible, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves.
Radiation and Matter
Spectroscopic techniques utilise the fact that atoms and
molecules have a discrete set of energy levels and that
transitions can only occur between them. When an
electromagnetic wave propagates through a material the
atoms or molecules can absorb energy and move to an excited
state if the photons in the wave have energies that are exactly
equal to the difference between two energy levels ( E = hv).
Alternatively, if an excited atom or molecule emits energy in
the form of radiation the waves emitted must have energies
that are exactly equal to the difference between two energy
levels ( E = hv)"
The energy of the photons in different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum corresponds to different types of
energetic transition that can occur in atoms and molecules,
e.g., electronic, rotational, vibrationat translational, nuclear
transitions. Electromagnetic radiation can therefore be used to
probe different moleculal characteristics of matter.
The difference between electronic energy levels is greater
than between vibrational energy levels, which is greater than
between rotational energy levels. Th us higher energy
radiation (shorter wavelength) is needed to cause transitions
between electronic levels than between vibrational or
rotational levels. In practice, a molecule can be thought of as
having a number of different electronic energy levels, with
rotational and vibrational energy levels superimposed on
them.
Absorption Process
Absorption is the process by which energy is transferred from
an electromagnetic wave to an atom or molecule and causes
it to move to an excited state. Absorption can only occur when
an atom or molecule absorbs a photon of light that has an
energy which exactly corresponds to the difference between
two energy levels, i.e., it must be quantised. At room
temperature the ground state of atoms and molecules is
usually the one which is most highly populated and so
transitions usually occur from the ground state to higher
energy levels.
At higher temperatures, more ()f the higher energy levels
are occupied and so, transitions between higher energy levels
may also become important. If an atom or molecule is
subjected to electromagnetic radiation of different
wavelengths (energies) it will only absorb photons at those
wavelengths which correspond to exact differences between
two different energy levels within the materiaL A plot of the
fraction of photons absorbed at a particular wavelength versus
the energy of the photons at that wavelength is called an
absorption spectrum. Conventionally, the axes of absorption
spectra are specified in terms of easily measurable quantities:
x-axis transmittance or absorbance (rather than fraction of
photons absorbed); y-axis wavelength, frequency or wave
number (rather than photon energy).
Emission of Radiation
Emission of radiation is the reverse of absorption, occurring
when energy from an atom or molecule is released in the form
of a photon of radiation. When a molecule is raised to an
excited state it will only exist in this state for a very short time
before relaxing back to the ground state. This is because it will
always try to move to its lowest energy state. There are two
important relaxation processes through which an excited
molecule can dissipate its energy:
Non-radiative decay: This is the most common way that
an excited molecule loses its energy. Energy is
dissipated in a number of small (quantised) steps due
to transfer of energy from the exited molecule to
surrounding molecules in the form of kinetic energy
(heat). Nevertheless, the heat generated is usually so
small that it has little effect on the overall temperature
of the system.
Radiative decay: In some cases an atom or molecule loses
its energy in the form of a photon (emission). This is the
case in atomic emission spectroscopy.
Sometimes both of these processes occur together. In
fluorescence spectroscopy, a molecule absorbs
electromagnetic radiation, which causes it to move into an
excited state. It then returns to the ground state by dissipating
some of its energy in the form of non-radiative decay and the
rest in the form of a photon of radiation. The photon emitted
is therefore of lower energy (longer wavelength) than the
incident wave. Usually, an electron decays to the lowest
energy level in the excited electronic state, and then returns
to the ground state.
Measurement Modes
The design of an analytical instrument based on spectroscopy
depends on the nature of the energetic transitions involved,
the nature of the radiative process involved and the nature of
the food matrix. These factors determine the wavelength
(frequency) of electromagnetic radiation used, the way that
the electromagnetic radiation is generated and the way that
the electromagnetic radiation is detected. Some commonly
used designs are highlighted below:
Emission: The sample being analysed is energetically
stimulated and the amount of electromagnetic radiation
produced by the sample is measured at different
wavelengths, e.g., atomic emission spectroscopy, NMR,
fluorescence.
Transmission: An electromagnetic wave generated by
the analytical instrument is propagated directly
through the sample and the reduction in its amplitude
due to interaction with the sample is measured at
different wavelengths, e.g., atomic absorption
spectroscopy, infrared transmission measurements,
UV-visible spectrophotometery.
Reflection: An electromagnetic wave generated by the
analytical instrument is reflected from the surface of the
sample and the reduction in its amplitude due to
interaction with the sample is measured at different
wavelengths, e.g., infrared reflection measurements,
colour measurements.
Spectroscopic Analysis
Quantitative Analysis
One of the most important applications of the interaction
between electromagnetic radiation and matter is the
determination of the concentration of certain components in
167
foods. This application relies on there being a relationship
between the amount of radiation absorbed by a material and
the concentration of the components present. The power (P)
of an electromagnetic wave exiting a solution is less than the
power entering the solution (Po)' because solute molecules
absorb some of the energy.
The amount of energy absorbed is usually expressed in
terms of either the transmittance or the absorbance. The
transmittance is simply the ratio of the exiting and incoming
radiation: T = P /P 0' and is often expressed as a percentage %T
= (P /P
o
) xlOO. Unfortunately, T or % T are not proportional to
the concentration of the absorbing species and so another
parameter, known as the absorbance A, has been defined
which is proportional to the concentration:
A = -log (P/PJ = -log T
In dilute solutions the absorbance is proportional to the
concentration of the absorbing species, which is extremely
convenient for quantitative analysis of concentration. The
relationship between the absorbance of a solution and its
concentration is known as Beer's Law:
A = abc
Here a is a constant called the absorptivity which depends on
the molecular properties of the absorbing species and the
wavelength of the radiation, b is the pathlength of the sample
and c is the concentration of the sample.
Qualitative Analysis
Spectroscopy techniques can also be used to provide valuable
information about the type, structure and environment of
molecules present in food materials:
Atomicor Molecular Type: Each type of atom or molecule
has a unique set of energy levels and therefore a unique
electromagnetic spectrum. By measuring the
electromagnetic spectrum of a material and identifying
the magnitude and position of the absorption or
emission peaks it is often possible to determine the type
of atoms or molecules present.
Molecular Structure: Certain kinds of molecular groups
have characteristic absorption or emission peaks in
specific regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. For
example, certain kinds of molecular groups give
absorption peaks at specific wavelengths in an infrared
spectrum, while the number, type and organisation of
atoms and bonds within a molecule leads to
characteristic absorption peaks in a NMR spectrum. It
is therefore possible to obtain important information
about the structure of molecules by measuring their
electromagnetic spectra.
Molecular Environment: Spectroscopy techniques can
also be used to provide information about the
molecular environment of atoms and molecules within
a sample. The absorption or emission of energy between
two energy levels within a specific atom or molecule is
influenced by the presence of other atoms and
molecules in their immediate vicinity. Consequently, if
the molecular environment of an atom or molecule
within a sample is altered, then its absorption or
emission spectra may change. Spectroscopy can
therefore be used to monitor physicochemical changes
that result in an alteration in the molecular environment
of atoms and molecules, e.g., protein unfolding,
solubilisation, or aggregation.
RHEOLOGICAL TESTING
Rheology is the science concerned with the deformation and
flow of matter. Most rheological tests involve applying a force
to a material and measuring its flow or change in shape.
Rheology is important in a number of different areas of food
science. Many of the textural properties that human beings
perceive when they consume foods are largely rheological in
nature, e.g., creaminess, juiciness, smoothness, brittleness,
tenderness, hardness, etc. The stability and appearance of
foods often depends on the rheological characteristics of their
components, e.g., emulsions, spreads and pastes.
The flow of foods through pipes or the ease at which they
can be packed into containers is largely determined by their
rheology. The obvious importance of rheology in foods means
that it is essential for food scientists to have analytical
techniques to measure these properties. Instruments are
needed for routine analysis in quality assurance laboratories,
and for fundamental studies in Research and Development
laboratories.
Fundamental studies aim to better understand the
complex relationship between the overall rheological
properties of foods and the type and concentration of
ingredients that they contain. This type of information enables
food manufacturers to optimise the ingredients and
processing conditions needed to produce high quality and
reliable products. Foods are compositionally and structurally
complex systems that can exhibit a wide range of different
rheological behaviours, ranging from low viscosity fluids to
hard solids. One of the main objectives of food rheologists is
to develop instrumentation and concepts that can be used to
measure and describe these various types of rheological
behaviour.
Despite the diversity and complexity of food systems it is
possible to systematically characterise many of their
rheological properties in terms of a few simple models: the
ideal solid, the ideal liquid, and the ideal plastic. Complex
systems can then be described by combining two or more of
these simple models. In the following sections the concepts of
the ideal solid, ideal liquid and ideal plastic will be
introduced, as well as some of the deviations from these
models that commonly occur in foods.
Solid Materials
In our everyday lives we come across solid materials that
exhibit quite different rheological properties. Some may be
soft, others hard; some may be brittle, others rubbery; some
170 Control and Analysis for Food and Agricultural Proct\lcts
may break easily, others may not Despite this range of
different behaviour it is still possible to characterise the
rheological properties of many solid foods in terms of a few
simple concepts.
Ideal Solids
A material that exhibits ideal elastic behaviour is referred to
as a Hookean solid after the scientist (Robert Hooke) who first
described it. Hooke observed experimentally that there was
a linear relationship between the deformation of a solid
material and the magnitude of the applied force, In fact, he
found that the force per unit area (or stress) was proporitional
to the relative deformation (or strain). Hookes law can be
summarised by the following statement:
Stress = Modulus)<. Strain
Most elastic materials only obey Hookes law at small
deformations. Equation 1 applies to a number of different
types of deformation that a solid can experience. The actual
values of the stress, strain and constant used in the equation
depend on the nature of the deformation. For an isotropic and
homogeneous solid there are three major types of deformation
that are important: simple shear, simple compression (or
elongation) and bulk compression. Each of these different
types of deformation can be characterised by its own stress-
strain relationship.
Simple shear:
Stress = "C = F I A
Strain = y = L\L/L = cos ~
Modulus = G (shear modulus)
Simple compression:
Stress = F/A
Strain = L\L/L
Modulus = Y (Young's modulus)
Bulk compression:
Stress = 't = F I A = Pressure, P
Strain = ~ V IV
Modulus = K (Bulk modulus)
Non-Ideal Solids
171
Hooke's law is only strictly applicable to elastic materials at
low strains, and so most fundamental rheological studies of
foods have been concerned with small deformations.
Nevertheless, the rheological behaviour of foods at large
deformations is often more relevant to their actual use, e.g.,
mastication or cutting of foods. For this reason it is important
to be able to systematically characterise the behaviour of
solids at large deformations.
At strains just above the Hookes region the stress is no
longer proportional to the strain, and therefore an apparent
modulus is defined (just as an apparent viscosity is defined
for non-Newtonian liquids). It is always necessary to stipulate
the strain at which the apparent modulus of a material is
measured. Even though the material does not obey Hookes
law it still returns to its original shape once the force is
removed.
Above a certain deformation, however, a solid may not
return back to its original shape once the force is removed,
because it either breaks or flows. A material that breaks is
referred to as brittle, whereas a material that flows is referred
to as plastic. The stress at which a material ruptures is often
called the breaking strength. A material usually ruptures or
flows because the forces that hold the atoms or molecules
together are exceeded.
Liquid Foods
Liquid foods also exhibit a wide range of different rheological
properties. Some have very low viscosities and flow easily,
like water or milk, whilst others are very viscous, like honey
or syrup. Even so, it is still possible to characterise their
rheological properties using a few simple concepts.
Ideal Liquids
The ideal liquid is often referred to as a Newtonian liquid after
the scientist who first described it (Sir Isaac Newton). The
ideal liquid has the following characteristics: it is
incompressible (its volume does not change when a force is
applied to it); isotropic (its properties are the same in all
directions); and structureless (it is homogeneous). The
rheological properties of the ideal liquid are defined by the
following equation, which encapsulates the experimental
finding that the rate of shear strain is proportional to the
applied shear stress L
Stress = Viscosity x Rate of Strain
L = l']dy I dt
where, the constant of proportionalitY,ll is called the
viscosity. The viscosity arises from the friction between the
liquid layers as they slide past one another. The- lower the
viscosity of a liquid, the less resistance between the liquid
layers, and therefore the smaller the force required to cause
the top plate to move with a given velocity, or the faster the
top plate moves when a given force is applied.
The ideal viscous fluid differs from the ideal elastic solid
because the shear stress is proportional to the rate of strain,
rather than the strain. The units of shear stress L are Nm-
2
(or
Pa), and those of shear rate are S1 thus the viscosity l'] has units
of Nsm-
2
(or Pa s) in the S.l. system. Viscosity can also be
expressed in the older e.g.s. units of Poisse, where 1Pa s = 10
Poisse. Thus the viscosity of water can be quoted as 1 mPa s,
0.001 Pa s, 0.01 Poise or 1 centipoise, depending on the units
used. A number of foods exhibit idedl Newtonian behaviour
under certain conditions, e.g., water, tea, coffee, oils, honey
and milk.
Non-Ideal Liquids
Non-ideality may manifest itself in a number of different
ways, e.g., the viscosity of a liquid may depend on the rate
and/ or the time over which the shear force is applied, or the
fluid may exhibit some elastic as well as viscous properties.
Shear-rate dependent non-ideal behaviour
In an ideal liquid the viscosity is independent of the shear rate.
In many liquid foods the viscosity varies with the shear rate,
but is independent of the length of time that the food is
subjected to the shear. For example, the viscosity of a liquid
food may increase or decrease as the shear rate is increased,
rather than staying constant as for a Newtonian liquid. In
these foods the viscosity is referred to as an apparent viscosity,
because it is no longer a constant.
The dependence of the apparent viscosity on shear rate,
means that it is crucial to stipulate the shear rate used to carry
out the measurements. The choice of shear rate to use when
measuring the apparent viscosity of a non-ideal liquid is a
particularly important consideration when carrying out
rheological measurements in a laboratory which are supposed
to mimic some process which occurs in a food naturally, e.g.,
flow through a pipe, the creaming of an emulsion droplet,
mastication. The test in the laboratory should use a shear rate
which is as close as possible to that which the food actually
experiences in practice. The two most common types of shear-
rate dependent non-ideal liquids are:
Pseudoplastic fluids: Pseudoplastic flow is the most
common type of non-ideal behaviour exhibited by
liquid foods. It manifests itself as a decrease in the
apparent viscosity of a fluid as the shear rate is
increased, and is therefore referred to as shear thinning.
Pseudoplasticity may occur for a number of different
reasons, e.g., polymers may align themselves with the
flow field, solvent molecules bound to a particle may
be removed, or aggregated particles may break down.
Dilatant fluids: Dilatant behaviour is much less common
than pseudoplastic behaviour. It manifests itself as an
increase in the apparent viscosity as the shear rate is
increased, and is therefore sometimes referred to as
shear thickening.
Time-dependent non-ideal behaviour
The apparent viscosity of the fluids described in the previous
section depended only on the shear rate, and not on the length
of time that the shear was applied. There are many foods
whose rheological properties do depend on the duration of the
applied shear. In some cases this change is reversible and the
fluid will recover its original apparent viscosity if it is allowed
to stand at rest for a sufficiently long period. In other cases
the change brought about by shearing the sample is
irreversible.
An appreciation of the time-dependency of the flow
properties of foods is of great practical importance in the food
industry. The duration of pumping or mixing operations, for
instance, must be carefully controlled to assure that the food
sample has the most appropriate apparent viscosity. If a food
is mixed or pumped for too long it may become too thick or
too runny and thus loose its desirable rheological properties.
Time dependent non-Newtonian behaviour is classified in two
different ways:
Thixotropic fluids: A thixotropic fluid is one in which the
apparent viscosity decreases with time when the fluid
is subjected to a constant shear rate. Fluids of this type
are thought to contain small particles (droplets, crystals
or biopolymers) that are aggregated together by weak
forces. Shearing of the material causes the aggregated
particles to be disrupted and so they offer less resistance
to flow and the viscosity decreases with time until a
constant value is reached. This constant value may
correspond to the point where the rate of structure
disruption is equal to the rate of structure reformation,
or where there is no more structure to be broken down.
Once the shear force is removed the aggregates may
reform with time as the particles collide into one
another due to Brownian motion.
Rheopectic fluids: In some foods, the apparent viscosity
of the fluid increases with time when it is subjected to
a constant shear rate. Again there may be a number of
different reasons for this. One of the most important is
that shearing increases the frequency of collisions
between droplets or particles in fluids that can lead to
enhanced aggregation and consequently an increase in
apparent viscosity.
In some fluids the time dependent rheological properties are
irreversible, Le., once the shear force is removed the system
does not regain its initial rheological properties. Liquids fluids
that experience permanent change are called rheodestructive.
This type of behaviour might occur when aggregated particles
are permanently disrupted and do not reform with time.
Plastics
Many foods exhibit a kind of rheological behaviour known as
plasticity. A plastic material has elastic properties below a
certain applied stress, the yield stress.
Ideal Plastic Material
The ideal plastic material is referred to as a Bingham Plastic
after the scientist who first proposed this type of rheological
behaviour. Two equations are needed to describe the
rheological behaviour of a Bingham plastic, one below the
yield stress and one above it:
t = Gy (for t < 'to)
t - 'to = TJdy / dt (for t ~ 'to)
where G is the shear modulus, is the viscosity and 0 is the yield
stress. Foods that exhibit plastic behaviour usually consist of
a network of aggregated molecules or particles dispersed in
a liquid matrix. For example, margarine and butter consist of
a network of tiny fat crystals dispersed in a liquid oil phase.
Below a certain applied stress there is a smalf deformation of
the sample, but the weak bonds between the crystals are not
disrupted.
When the critical yield stress is exceeded the weak bonds
are broken and the crystals slide past one another leading to
flow of the sample. Once the force is removed the flow stopsc
A similar type of behaviour can be observed in emulsions
containing three-dimensional networks of aggregated
droplets.
Non-ideal Plastic Material
Above the yield stress the fluid flow may exhibit non-
Newtonian behaviour similar to that described earlier for
liquids, e.g. psuedoplastic, dilatant, thixotropic, rheopectic.
The material may also exhibit non-ideal elastic behaviour
below the yield stress, e.g., the yield point may not be sharply
defined, instead, the stress may increase dramatically, but non
instantaneously, as the shear rate is increased.
Viscoelasticity
Most food materials are not pure liquids, or pure solids, but
have rheological properties that are partly viscous and partly
elastic. Plastic materials exhibit elastic behaviour below the
yield stress, and viscous behaviour above the yield stress. In
contrast, viscoelastic materials exhibit both viscous and elastic
behaviour simultaneously. When a force is applied to a
viscoelastic material it does not instantaneously take-up its
new dimensions, it takes some finite time.
In addition, when the force is removed the material does
not return instantaneously back to its non-deformed state, and
it may even remain permanently deformed. Two types of
experimental tests are used by food scientists to characterise
the viscoelastic properties of foods: transient and dynamic
measurements. Both types of tests can be carried out using
simple shear, simple compression or bulk compression of
foods, depending on how the instruments are designed. Since
shear tests are the most commonly used in the food mdustry
at present only these will be considered. Nevertheless, simple
and bulk compression tests can also be carried out in a similar
manner.
Transient Experiments
In a transient experiment a conMdnt force is applied to a
material and the resulting strain is measured as a function of
time, or vice versa.
Creep: In a creep experiment a constant stress is applied
to a sample and the corresponding strain is followed as
a function of time. Results are expressed in terms of a
parameter called the compliance J = strain/stress,
because the stress remains constant. The change in
strain of a material can also be measured when the
stress is removed, i.e. creep recovery. Viscoelastic
materials can often be characterised by a modulus. and
a relaxation time, which can be determined by an
analysis of the strain curves with !time. A distinction is
usually made between a viscoelastic solid and a
viscoelastic liquid. When a constant force is applied to
a viscoelastic solid the creep compliance reaches a finite
equilibrium value (JE) at long times. When the force is
removed the compliance tends to zero. On the other
hand, when a constant force is applied to a viscoelastic
liquid the compliance continues to increase at a steady
rate, and when the force is removed the material does
not return to its initial shape.
Stress relaxation: Instead of applying a constant force
and measuring the change in the strain with time, it is
also possible to apply a constant strain and measure the
change in the stress with time. These types of
experiments are referred to as stress relaxation. The
same types of information can be obtained from either
creep or stress relaxation experiments, and the method
used usually depends on the instrument available.
Dynamic Experiments
In a dynamic experiment a sinusoidal stress is applied to a
material and the resulting sinusoidal strain is measured, or
vice versa. In a dynamic experiment, a sinusoidal stress is
applied to a material and the resulting sinusoidal strain is
measured, or vice versa. In this section, we will only consider
the case where a stress is applied to the sample and the
resultant strain is measured.
178 Control and Analysis for Food and Agricultural Products.
The applied stress is characterised by its maximum
amplitude ('to) and its angular frequency (co ) The resulting
strain has the same frequency as the applied stress, but its
phase is different because of relaxation mechanisms
associated with the material. Information about the
viscoelastic properties of the material can therefore be
obtained by measuring the maximum amplitude (Yo) and
phase shift (0) of the strain.
The amplitude of the applied stress used in this type of
test is usually so small that the material if, in the linear
viscoelastic region, i.e., the stress is proportional to the strain,
and the properties of the material are unaffected by the
experiment. The dynamic shear rheological properties of a
material can be described by the complex shear modulus G
= G' + iG", where the parameters G' and G" are referred to
as the storage modulus and loss modulus, respectively.
This is because G' is the measure of the energy stored in
the material per cycle, whereas Gil is a measure of the energy
dissipated as heat (and therefore lost) per cycle. For a perfectly
elastic material the stress and strain are completely in phase,
and for a perfectly viscous material all the energy is lost as
heat and the stress and strain are 90 out-of-phase.
The phase angle that the stress lags behind the strain is
given by the symbol o. The phase angle of a material provides
a useful insight into its viscoelastic properties: 0= 0 for a
perfectly elastic solid; 0=90 for a perfectly viscous fluid; and,
0<0<90
0
for a viscoelastic materiaL The more elastic a material
(at a particular frequency), the smaller the phase angle, and
the lower the amount of energy dissipated per cycle.
Measurement of Rheological Properties
Foods are diverse and complex materials which exhibit a wide
range of different rheological properties, e.g., solids, liquids,
plastics and viscoelastic behaviour, Consequently, a variety of
different instruments have been developed for characterising
their rheological properties. Instruments vary according to the
type of deformation they apply to the sa mple (shear,
-
compression, elongation or some combination), the property
measured, the cost, the ease of operation etc.
In many industrial applications it is necessary to have
instruments which make measurements that are rapid, low-
cost, simple to carry-out and reproducible, rather than giving
absolute fundamental data. Thus simple empirical
instruments are often used, rather than the sophisticated and
expensive instruments often used in research and
development. The information obtained from these
instruments is difficult to relate to the fundamental
rheological properties of a material because the stresses and
strains applied are not easily defined. Rather than having a
simple elongation, shear or compression, different types of
forces may be applied simultaneously.
To compare data from different laboratories it is necessary
to carefully follow standardised test procedures. These
procedures may define experimental parameters such as the
sample size and preparation procedure, the magnitude of the
force or deformation, the design of the device used, the speed
of the probe, the length of time the force is applied for and
the measurement temperature. For food scientists involved in
research and development it is often more important to use
instruments that provide information about the fundamental
rheological constants of the material being tested. These
instruments are designed to apply well-defined stresses and
strains to a material in a controlled manner so that stress-strain
relationships can be interpreted using suitable mathematical
analysis.
Rheological properties determined using these techniques
can be compared with measurements made by other workers
in the literature or in other Iaboratories. In addition, measured
rheological properties can be compared with predictions
made using various mathematical theories that have been
developed to relate the structure and composition of materials
to their fundamental rheological properties. There is an
increasing trend in the food industry to use instruments that
provide more fundamental data where ever possible.
Instruments can be conveniently categorised according to
whether they utilise simple compression (or elongation) or
shear forces. At present few instruments utilise bulk
compression to analyse the rheological properties of foods.
Compression and Elongation
These types of measurements are most frequently carried out
on solid or semi-solid foods that are capable of supporting
their own weight. Fundamental measurements are usually
carried out using instruments referred to ab Universal Testing
Machines. The solid sample to be analysed is placed between
a fixed plate and a moving probe. The probe can have many
different designs depending on the type of information
required. Some of the most commonly used designs include:
a flat plate, a blade, a cylindrical spike and a set of teeth! The
type of probe used may also depend on whether or not the
analyst is trying to mimic some actual process, e.g., cheWing,
biting or cutting.
The probe can be moved vertically, either upwards or
downwards, at a controlled speed. The lower plate usually
contains a pressure sensor that measures the force exerted on
the sample when it is deformed by the probe. Thus the
instrument measures both the stress and strain on the sample
as it is compressed. Some of the common tests carried out
using Universal Testing Machines are:
Stress and Strain: The stress on a sample is measured as
a function of strain. The resulting "rheogram" can be
used to characterise the rheological properties of a
sample. The slope of the stress versus strain relationship
at small deformations is often a straight line, whose
gradient is equal to the elastic modulus. At large
deformations the sample may rupture and the breaking
stress and strain can be determined. This type of test is
used commonly to test solid samples and gels. An
extension of this test is to cycle the probe upwards and
downwards a number of times. The rheological
properties of the food may change during each
compression cycle, which may give some indication of
what happens when a food is chewed in the mouth, i.e.,
the breakdown of food structure.
Stress (or Strain) and Time: The sample is compressed to
a known deformation and the relaxation of the stress
with time is measured (stress relaxation). Alternatively
a constant stress could be applied to the sample and the
variation of strain measured with time (creep). This
type of experiment is particularly useful for
characterising the viscoelastic properties of food
samples, e.g., relaxation times.
By using different fixtures the same instruments can be used
to carry out elongation experiments. A sample is clamped at
both ends, then the upper clamp is moved upwards at a
controlled speed and the force required to elongate the sample
is measured by the pressure sensor. Again the elastic modulus
and breaking strength can be determined. Universal Testing
Machines can also be adapted to perform various other types
of experiments, e.g., bending or slicing.
Recently a number of more sophisticated instruments,
based on dynamic rheological measurements, have been
developed to characterise the rheological properties of solids,
plastics and viscoelastic materials. As well as carrying out
standard compression measurements, they can also be used
to carry out transient or dynamic compression measurements
on viscoelastic materials. These instruments are usually
expensive, and are therefore only available to large food
companies and some Research laboratories. Nevertheless they
are extremely powerful tools for carrying out fundamental
studies on food materials.
The rheological properties of a sample can be measured
as a function of time or temperature, and thus processes such
as gelation, aggregation, crystallisation, melting and glass
transitions can be monitored. Some complications can arise
when carrying out simple compression experiments. There
may be 'friction between the compressing plates and the
sample that can lead to the generation of shear as well as
compression forces. For this reason it is often necessary to
182 Control and Analysis fOl Food and Agricultural Products
lubricate the sample with oil to reduce the effects of friction.
In addition, the cross-sectional area of the sample may change
during the course of the experiment, which would have to be
taken into account when converting the measured forces into
stresses. Finally, for viscoelastic materials, some stress
relaxation may occur during the deformation, thus the data
depends on the rate of sample deformation.
Shear Measurements
Instruments that measure shear are used to characterise the
rheological properties of liquids, viscoelastic materials,
plastics and solids. The instrument and test-method used
depends on the nature of the sample to be analysed. Some
instruments are only useful for low viscosity ideal liquids,
others for solids, and others can be used for a wide range of
different materials.
Some instruments are capable of measuring the viscosity
over a wide range of shear rates, whereas others make the
determination at a single shear rate (and are therefore only
suitable for analysing Newtonian liquids). Some instruments
are only capable of carrying out transient measurements,
whereas more sophisticated instruments are also capable of
carrying out dynamic measurements. To make accurate and
reliable measurements it is important to select the most
appropriate instrument and test method, and to be aware of
possible sources of experimental error.
Capillary Viscometers
The simplest and most commonly used capillary viscometer
is the Ostwald viscometer. This consists of a glass U-tube into
which the sample to be analysed is poured. The whole
arrangement is placed in a thermostated water-bath to reach
the measurement temperature. The viscosity of the liquid is
measured by sucking up liquid into one of the arms of the tube
using a slight vacuum and then measuring the time taken for
it to flow back through a capillary of known radius and length.
The time t taken to travel through the capillary is related to
the viscosity by the following equation:
t=CXll/P
where, P is the density of the fluid, t is the measured flow time
and C is a constant which depends on the precise size and
dimensions of the U-tube. The higher the viscosity of the fluid,
the longer it takes to flow through the tube. The simplest
method for determining the viscosity of a liquid is to measure
its flow time and compare it with that of a liquid of known
viscosity, such as distilled water:
where, the subscripts sand 0 refer to the sample being
analysed and the reference fluid, respectively. This type of
viscometer is used principally to measure the viscosity of
Newtonian liquids. It is unsuitable for analysing non-
Newtonian liquids because the sample does not experience a
uniform and controllable shear rate. U-tubes with capillaries
of various diameters are available to analyse liquids with
different viscosities: the larger the diameter, the higher the
viscosity of the sample that can be analysed.
Mechanical Viscometers and Dynamic Rheometers
A number of analytical instruments have been designed that
can measure the shear properties of liquids, viscoelastic
materials, plastics and solids. These instruments are usually
computer controlled and can carry out sophisticated test
procedures as a function of time, temperature, shear rate or
frequency. Most of these instruments can be adapted to carry
out tests using either the concentric cylinder, cone-and-plate
or parallel plate arrangements discussed below.
All of these arrangements can be used to measure the
viscosity of liquids, the viscoelasticity of semi-solid foods or
the elasticity of solids. The instruments can be divided into
two different types: constant stress instruments apply a
constant torque to the sample and measure the strain or rate
of strain generated, whereas constant strain instruments apply
a constant strain or rate of strain and measure the torque
generated in the sample. For convenience, we will just
mention constant stress instruments below.
Concentric cylinder: The sample is placed in the gap
between two concentric cylinders. The inner cylinder is
then driven at a constant torque (angular force) and the
strain (angular deflection) or rate of strain (speed at
which the inner cylinder rotates) is measured,
depending on whether one is analysing a
predominantly solid or liquid sample. For a solid, the
angular deflection of the inner cylinder from its rest
position is an indication of its elasticity: the larger the
deflection the smaller the shear modulus. For a liqUid,
the viscosity of the fluid between the plates governs the
speed at which the inner cylinder rotates: the faster it
spins at a given torque the lower the viscosity of the
liquid being analysed. The torque can be varied in a
controlled manner so that the (apparent) elastic
modulus or viscosity can be measured as a function of
shear stress. This instrument can be used for measuring
the viscosity of non-newtonian liquids, the viscoelasticy
of semi-solids and the elasticity of solids.
Parallel Plate: In this instrument the sample is placed
between two plates: the bottom one is stationary and
the top one rotates. A constant torque is applied to the
upper plate, and the angular deflection or rate of strain
is measured, depending on whether one is analysing a
predominantly solid or liquid sample. The main
problem with this type of experimental arrangement is
that the shear strain varies across the sample. The shear
strain in the middle of the sample is less than that at
the edges. Thus parallel plate arrangements are only
suitable for samples where the rheological properties
are independent of shear rate, and are therefore not
suitable for non-ideal liquids or solids.
Cone and Plate: This is essentially the same design as the
parallel plate instrument, except that a cone replaces the
upper plate. The cone is specially designed to have a
slight angle so that there is a constant shear strain across
the sample. Thus it can be used to analyse non-ideal
materials.
Any of these arrangements can be used to carry out simple
viscosity measurements on fluids, by measuring the variation
of shear stress with shear rate. However, some of them can
also be used for more expensive applications such as the
transient and dynamic rheological tests mentioned earlier.
Typically the rheological properties of samples are measured
as a function of time or temperature.
Empirical Techniques
Many of the techniques mentioned above are unsuitable for
application in the food industry because the instrumentation
is too expensive, requires highly skilled operators or
measurements take too long to carry out. For this reason a
large number of highly empirical techniques have been
developed by food scientists.
Many of these empirical techniques have become widely
accepted for analysing specific food types. Typical examples
may be penotrometers to measure the hardness of fats,
specially designed guillotines for analysing meat samples,
devices for measuring the flow of sauces when release from
a cup etc. It is difficult to analyse the data from these devices
using fundamental concepts because it is difficult to define the
stresses and strains involved. Nevertheless, these devices are
extremely useful where rapid empirical information is
required.
Some Applications
Gels: Gels are good systems for fundamental rheological
studies because they are usually isotropic and homogeneous
and can be prepared in many different shapes. Consequently,
a huge amount of work has been carried out on characterising
the rheological properties of food gels. Both simple
compression and shear measurements are used routinely.
Typical experiments might be:
Prepare a solution of the protein or polysaccharide to
be analysed. Place it in a dynamic rheological device
which measures the shear modulus of samples. Heat or
cool the sample at a controlled rate so that it gels and
measure the temperature at which gelation occurs, the
rigidity of the gel (shear modulus) and possibly the
breaking strength of the final gel
Make a gel sample of standard shape and dimensions.
Place the gel in a Universal Testing Machine and
compress it at a known speed (typically 10 mm min-I).
The variation of the stress with strain is recorded. From
this graph it is possible to determine the Youngs
modulus of the gel and its breaking strength.
The aim of these types of study is to determine the relationship
between the structure and interactions of the various
ingredients in foods and the final rheological properties of the
gel. This is important when developing functional ingredients
that act as gelling agents in foods, or to determine the best
processing conditions.
Cheese: Most cheeses are also homogeneous and isotropic
materials and are therefore amenable to fundamental studies
using standard compression or shear tests. It is often
important to find out the relationship between the rigidity or
breaking strength of a cheese and variations in its composition
or the processing conditions used to manufacture it.
Thus it is possible to determine the optimal ingredients or
processing conditions required to produce a high quality
product. This has become increasingly important recently
with the attempts of many manufacturers to develop low-fat
cheeses that have properties that mimic their full-fat analogs.
Attempts are often made to relate rheological measurements
to sensory characteristics such as firmness, chewiness and
crumbliness.
Mayonaisse: It is important that mayonnaise products have
thick and creamy textures, but that they are not so viscous that
they will not flow out of the bottle. In addition, it is often
necessary for them to have a small yield stress so that they do
not collapse tmder their own weight once they have been
poured onto a plate or salad. The rheological properties
depend on their composition, e.g., the concentration of oil
droplets present, or the concentration of thickening agents.
Rheological equipment is needed to characterise the
properties of mayonnaise products, and to elucidate the
contribution of the various ingredients which they contain.
Typically the deformation of the product may be measured as
a ftmction of shear rate in order to determine the yield stress.
Margarines and Spreads: As mentioned earlier it is
important that spreadable products such as margarines and
low-fat spreads retain their shape when they are removed
from the refrigerator, but that they spread easily when a knife
is applied. Thus they must exhibit plastic properties: i.e., have
yield stresses below which they are elastic and above which
they are viscous. It is usually necessary for these products to
exhibit their properties over a relatively wide range of
temperatures. Rheological instruments are therefore needed
to characterise the properties of these systems to ensure that
they do exhibit the appropriate plastic behaviour. Just as with
mayonnaise the deformation of a product with increasing
shear stress might be measured to determine the yield stress
of a product.
Meat: Meat is a complex biological material, which is
heterogeneous and non-isotropic. It is therefore difficult to
carry out ftmdamental rheological measurements on this type
of product. In addition, food scientists are often interested in
properties such as the tenderness or chewiness of a meat
product that are complex sensory properties, consisting of
both shear and compression, and usually involving large
deformations. For this reason tests on meat are often carried
out using empirical instruments. For example, a device has
been developed which measures the force reqUired for a blade
to slice through a piece of meat.
REFERENCES
Aguilera, Jose Miguel and David W. Stanley., Microstructural Principles
of Food Processing and Engilleerillg, Springer, 1999.
Jango-Cohen, Judith., Thl' History Of Food, Twenty-First Century Books,
2005.
Magdoff, Fred; Foster, John Bellamy; and Buttel, Frederick H., Hungry
for Profit: The Agribusiness Threat to Farmers, Food, and the
Environment, September 2000.
Regmi, Anita (ed.)., Changing Structure of Global Food Consumption and
Trade, Market and Trade Economics Division, Economic Research
Service, USDA, May 30, 2001.
9
Evaluation of Milk Quality
Milk quality control is the use of approved tests to ensure the
application of approved practices, standards and regulations
concerning the milk and milk products. The tests are designed
to ensure that milk products meet accepted standards for
Chemical Composition and Purity as well as Levels of
different Microorganisms.
Testing milk and milk products for quality and monito-
ring that Milk Products, Processors and Marketing Agencies
adhere to accepted codes of practices costs money. There must
be good reasons why we have to have a quality control system
for the dairy industry in Kenya. The reasons are:
To the Milk Producer: The milk producer expects a fair
price in accordance with the quality of milk she/he
produces.
The Milk Processor: The milk processor who pays the
producer must assure himself/herself that the milk
received for processing is of normal composition and is
suitable for processing into various dairy products.
The Consumer: The consumer expects to pay a fair price
for milk and milk products of acceptable to excellent
quality.
The Public and Government Agencies: These have to
ensure that the health and nutritional status of the
people is protected from consumption of contaminated
and substandard foodstuffs and that prices paid are fair
to the milk producers, the milk processor and the final
consumer.
All the above-is only possible through institution of a
workable quality testing and assurance system conforms to
national or internationally acceptable standards.
MILK TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROl.
Milk Sampling
Accurate sampling is the first prerequisite for fair and just
quality control system. Liquid milk in cans and bulk tanks
should be thoroughly mixed to disperse the milk fat before a
milk sample is taken for any chemical tests.
Representative samples of packed products must be taken for
any investigation on quality. Plungers and dippers me used
in sampling milk from milk cans.
IZ1
m7
Figure. 1: Equipment used for taldng milk samples
Sampling milk for bacteriological tests require a lot of care.
Dippers used must have been sterilised in an autoclave or
pressure cooker for at least ISmm at 120
0
C before hand in
order not to contaminate the sample. On the spot sterilisation
may be employed using 70% Alcohol swab and flaming or
scaling in hot steam or boiling water for 1 minute.
Sample Preservation
Chemical Tests fI
Milk samples for butterfat testing may be preserved with
chemicals like Potassium dichromate (1 Tablet or ml 14%
Evaluation of Milk Quality 191
solution in a I,4 litre sample bottle is adequate.) Milk samples
that have been kept cooling a refrigerator or ice-box must first
be warmed in water bath at 40C, cooled to 20C, mixed and
a sample then taken for butterfat determination. Other
preservative chemicals include Sodium acid at the rate of
0.08% and Bronopol (2-bromo-2-nitro-l, 3-propanediol) used
at the rate of 0.02%.
If the . laboratory cannot start work on a sample
immediately after sampling, the sample must be cooled to
near freezing point quickly and be kept cool till the work can
start. If samples are to be taken in the field e.g. at a milk
cooling centre, ice boxes with ice pecks are useful.
Labelling and Records Keeping
Samples must be clearly labelled with name of farmer or code
number and records of dates, and places included in standard
data sheets. Good records must be kept neat and in a dry
place. It is desirable that milk producers should see their milk
being tested, and the records should be made available to
them if they so require.
Common Testing of Milk
Organoleptic Tests
The organoleptic test permits rapid segregation of poor
quality milk at the milk receiving platform. No equipment is
required, but the milk grader must have good sense of sight,
smell and taste. The result of the test is obtained instantly, and
the cost of the test are low. Milk which cannot be adequately
judged organoleptically must be subjected to other more
sensitive and objective tests.
Procedure:
Open a can of milk.
Immediately smell the milk.
Observe the appearance of the milk.
If still unable to make a clear judgement, taste the milk,
but do not swallow it. Spit the milk sample into a bucket
provided for that purpose or into a drain basin, flush
with water.
Look at the can lid and the milk can to check cleanliness.
Judgement:
Abnormal smell and taste may be caused by:
Atmospheric taint.
Physiological taints (hormonal imbalance, cows in late
lactation- spontaneous rancidity).
Bacterial taints.
Chemical taints or disco louring.
Advanced acidification (pH < 6,4).
Clot on Boiling (C.O.B) Test
The test is quick and simple. It is one of the old tests for too
acid milk (pH<S.8) or ab,normal milk If a milk sample fails
in the test, the milk must contain many acid or rennet
producing microrganisms or the milk has an ahnormal high
percentage of proteins likE:' colostral milk Such milk cannot
stand the heat treatment in milk processing and must
therefore be rejected.
Procedure
Boil a small amount of milk in a spoon, test tube or other
suitable container. If there is clotting, coagulation or
precipitation, the milk has failed the test. Heavy
contamination in freshly drawn milk cannot be detected,
when the acidity is below 0.20-0.26% Lactic acid.
Alcohol Test
The test is quick and simple. It is based on instability of the
proteins when the levels of acid and/or rerIDet dTe increased
and acted upon by the alcohol. Also increased levels of
albumen (colostrum milk) and salt concentrate:; (mastitis)
results in a positive test.
Procedure
The test is done by mixing equal amounts of milk and 68%
of ethanol solution in a small bottle or test tube. (68 % Ethanol
solution is prepared from 68 mls 96% (absolute) alcohol and
28 mls distilled water). If the tested milk is of good quality,
there will be no coagulation, clotting or precipitation, but it
is necessary to look for small lumps. The first clotting due to
acid development can first be seen at 0.21-0.23% Lactic acid.
For routine testing 2 mls milk is mixed with 2 mls 68% alcohol.
Alcohol-Alizarin Test
The procedure for carrying out the test is the same as for
alcohol test but this test is more informative. Alizarin is a
colour indicator changing colour according to the acidity. The
Alcohol Alizarin solution can be bought ready made or be
prepared by adding 0.4 grammes alizarin powder to 1 litre of
61 % alcohol solution.
Acidity Test
Bacteria that normally develop in raw milk produce more or
less of lactic acid. In the acidity test the acid is neutralised with
0.1 N Sodium hydroxide and the amount of alkaline is
measured. From this, the percentage of lactic acid can be
calculated. Fresh milk contains in this test also "natural
acidity" which is due to the natural ability to resist pH
changes. The natural acidity of milk is 0.16 - 0.18%.
Apparatus
A porcelain dish or small conical flask
10 ml pipette, graduated
1 ml pipette
A Burette, 0.1 ml graduations
A glass rod for stirring the milk in the dish
A Phenophtalein indicator solution, 0.5% in 50%
Alcohol
N Sodium hydroxide solution.
194 Control and Analysi!; for Food and Agricultural Product!;
Figure. 2. Apparatus Ilsed in 10 mm. Resazurin rest
Procedure
9 ml of the milk measured into the porcelain dish/ conical
flask, 1 ml Phenopthalein is added and then slowly from the
burret, 0.1 N Sodium hydroxide under continuous mixing,
until a faint pink colour appears, The number of mb of
Sodium hydroxide solution divided by 10 expressek thE'
percentage of lactic acid.
Resazurill test
Resazurin test is the most widely used test for hygiene and
the potential keeping quality of raw milk Resawrin is a dye
indicator. Under specified conditions Resazurin is dissolved
in distilled boiled water. The Resazurin solution can later be
used to test the microbial activity in a given milk sample.
Resazurin can be carried out as:
10 min test.
1 hr test.
3 hr test.
The 10 min Resazurin test is useful and rapid, screening test
used at the milk platform. The J hr test and 3 hr tests provide
more accurate information about the milk quali.ty, but after a
fairy long time. They are usually carried Llut in the laboratory.
Apparatus and reagents:
Resazurin tablets
Test tubes with 10 mls mark
1 ml pipette or dispenser for Resazurin solution.
Water bath thermostatically controlled
Lovibond comparator with Resazurin disc 4/9
Procedure
195
The solution of Resazurin as prepared by adding one tablet
to 50 mls of distilled sterile water. Rasazurin solution must not
be exposed to sunlight, and it should not be used for more
than eight hours because it losses strength.
Mix the milk and with a sanitised dipper put 10 mls milk
into a sterile test tube. Add one ml of Resazurin solution,
stopper with a sterile stopper, mix gently the dye into the milk
and mark the tube before the incubation in a water bath, place
the test tube in a Lovibond comparator with Resazurin disk
and compare it colourimetrically with a test tube containing
10 ml milk of the same sample, but without the dye (Blank).
Reading and Results (10 Minute Resazurin Test)
Resazurin disc No. Colour Grade of milk Action
6 Blue Excellent Accept
5 Light blue v. good Accept
4 Purple Good Accept
3 Purple pink Fair Separate
2 Light pink Poor Separate
1 Pink Bad Reject
0 White Very bad Reject
Gerber Butterfat test
The fat content of milk and cream is the most important single
factor in determining the price to be paid for milk supplied
by farmers in many countries. Also, in order to calculate the
correct amount of feed ration for high yielding dairy cows, it
is important to know the butterfat percentage as well as well
as the yield of the milk produced. Further more the butterfat
percentage in the milk of individual animals must be known
in many breeding programmes. Butterfat tests are also done
on milk and milk products in order to make accurate
adjustments of the butterfat percentage in standardised milk
and milk products.
Apparatus for DF test:
Gerber butyrameters, 0-6% or 0-8% BF
Rubber stoppers for butyrometerf,
10.94 or 11 ml pipettes for milk
10 mls pipettes or dispensers for Gerber Acid
1 mls pipettes or dispensers for Amyl alcohol
stands for butyrometers
Gerber water bath Reagents:
Gerber sulphuric acid, (1.82 gl cc)
- Amyl alcohol
Treatment of samples
Fresh milk at approximately 20
0
( should be mixed well.
Samples kept cool for some days should be warmed to 40C,
mixed gently and cooled to 20(, before the testing.
Procedure
Add 10 mls sulphuric acid to the butyrometer followed by
10.94 or 11 mls of well mixed milk. Avoid wetting of the neck
of the butyrometer. Next add 1 m] of Amyl alcohol, insert
stopper and shake the butyrometer carefully until the curd
dissolves and no white particles ('an be seen. Place the
butyrometer in the water bath at 65( and keep it there until
a set is ready for centrifuging. The butyrometer must be
placed in the centrifuge with the stem (.:;;cale) pointing towards
the centre of the centrifuge.
Spin for 5 min. at noo rpm. Remove thE' butyrometers from
the centrifuge. Put the butyrumt'tt'rt- in a water bath
maintained at 65"C for 3 min. befort Lnking the rt'ading. The
fat column should be read from the lowest point of the
meniscus of the interface of the acid-fat t ~ ) the a-mark of the
scale and read the butterfat percentagt>. The butyrometers
should be emptied into a special container for the very
corrosive liquid of acid-milk, and the butyrometers should be
washed in warm water and dried before the next use.
Appearance of the Test
The colour of the fat column should be straw yellow.
The ends of the fat column should be clearly and
sharply defined.
The fat column should be free from specks and
sediment.
The water just below the fat column should be perfectly
clear.
The fat should be within the graduation.
Problems in Test Results
Curdy tests:
Too lightly coloured or curdy fat column can be due to:
Temperature at milk or acid or both too low.
Acid too weak.
Insufficient acid.
Milk and acid not mixed thoroughly.
Charred tests:
Darkened fat column containing black speck at the base
is due to:
Temperature of milk-acid mixture too high.
Acid too strong.
Milk and acid mixed too slowly.
Too much acid used.
Acid dropped through the milk.
Lactometer Test
Addition of water to milk can be a big problem where we have
unfaithful farm workers, milk transporters and greedy milk
hawkers. A few farmers may also fall victim of this illegal
practice. Any buyer of milk should therefore assure himself/
herself that the milk helshe purchases is wholesome and h a ~
not been adulterated. Milk has a specific gravity.
When its adultered with water or other materials are
added or both misdeeds are committed, the density of milk
change from its normal value to abnormaL The lactometer test
is designed to detect the change in density of such adulterated
milk. Carried out together with the Gerber butterfat test, it
enables the milk processor to calculate the milk total solids (%
TS ) and solids not fat (SNF). In norma) milk SNF should not
be below 8.5% according to Kenya Standards (KBS No 05-10:-
1976).
Procedure
Mix the milk sample gently and pour it gently into a
measuring cylinder (300-500). Let the Lactometer sink slowly
into the milk. Read and record the last Lactometer degree eL)
just above the surface of the milk. If the temperature of the
milk is different from the calibration temperature (Calibration
temperature may be=20 OC ) of the lactometer, calculate the
temperature correction. For each DC above the calibration
temperature add 0.20 L; for each DC below calibration
temperature subtract 0.2 L from the recorded lactometer
reading.
For the calculations, use lactometer degrees, and for the
conversion to density write 1.0 in front of the true lactometer
reading, i.e. 1.030 g/m!. Clever people may try to adulterate
milk in such a way that the lactometer cannot show the
adulteration. But look to see if there is an unusual sediment
from the milk at the bottom of the milk can and taste to find
out if the milk is too sweet or salty to be normal.
Samples of milk from individual cows often have
lactometer reading outside the range of average milk, while
samples of milk from herds should have readings hear the
average milk, but wrong feeding, may result in low readings.
Kenyan standards expects milk to have specific gravity of
1.026 -1.032 glml which implies a Lactometer reading range
of 26.0 -32.0 DL. If the reading is consistently lower than
199
expected and the milk supplier disputes any wrong doing
arrange to take a genuine sample from the supplier.
Freezing Point Determination
The freezing point of milk is regarded to be the most constant
of all"measurable properties of milk. A small adulteration of
milk with water will cause a detectable elevation of the
freezing point of milk from its normal values of -0.54C. Since
the test is accurate and sensitive to added water in milk, it is
used to detect whether milk is of normal composition and
adulterated.
Inhibitor Test
Milk collected from producers may contain drugs and/or
pesticides residues. These when present in significant
amounts in milk may inhibit the growth of iactic acid bacteria
used in the manufacture of fermented milk such as Mala,
cheese and Yoghurt, besides being a health hazard.
Principle of the method: The suspected milk sample is
subjected to a fermentation test with starter culture and the
acidity checked after three hours. The values of the titratable
acidity obtained is compared with titratable acidity of a
similarly treated sample which is free from any inhibitory
substances.
Materials:
test tubes
- Starter culture
1 ml pipette
- water bath
- material for determination of titratable acidity
Procedure:
Three test tubes are filled with 10 ml of sample to be
tested and three test tubes filled with normal milk.
All tubes are heated to 90 OC by putting them in boiling
water for 3 - 5 minutes.
After cooling to optimum temperature of the starter
culture (30,37, or 42C), 1 ml of starter culture is added
to each test tube, mixed and incubated for 3 hours.
After each hour, one test tube is from the test sample
and the control sample is determined.
Assessment of results:
If acid production in suspected sample is the same as
the normal sample, then the suspect samplt' does not
contain any inhibitory substances;
If acid production as suspect sample is les1'o than in the
normal milk sample, then, the suspect samplt' contains
antibiotics or other inhibitory substances,
QUALITY CONTROL OF PASTEURISED Mn.K
When milk is pasteurised at 63C for 30 min in batch
pasteuriser or 72C for 15 seconds in heat
continuous flow pasteurisers, All Pathogenic Bacteria are
Destroyed, there by rendering milk safe for human
consumption. Simultaneously various enzymes present in
milk, and which might affect its flavour, are destroyed.
In order to determine whether or not milk has been
adequately pasteurised, one of the enzymes normally present
in milk phosphatase, is measured. A negative phosphatase
result indicates that the enzyme and any pathogenic bacteria
have been destroyed during pasteursation. If it is positive, it
means the pasteurisation process was inadequate and the milk
may not be safe for human consumption and will have a short
shelf life.
Test tubes
5 mls pipettes
1 ml pipettes
100 ml volumetric flask
500 ml volumetric flask
water bath at 37C
201
Rea,gents
Buffer Solution: Is mixed by O.75g anhydrous sodium
carbonate and 1.75g Sodium bicarbonate in 500 ml
distilled water.
Buffer-substrate Solution: Place 0.15 g of di-sodium
paranitrophenylphosphate (the substrate)into a clean
100ml measuring cylinder. Add the buffer solution to
make to 100 ml mark. Store this buffer-substrate
solution in a refrigerator and protected against light. It
should not be used after one week. Prepare a fresh
stock.
Procedure
Pipette 5 mls buffer-substrate solution into a test tube, stopper
and warm the solution in the water bath at 37C. Add to the
test tube 1ml of the milk to be tested, stopper and mix well
and place in water bath at 37C. Prepare a blank sample from
boiled milk of the same type as that undergoing the test.
Incubate both the test samples and the blank sample at 37C
for 2hrs. After incubation, remove the tubes and mix them
thoroughly. Place one sample against the blank in a Lovibond
comparator "All Purposes" using A.P.T.W. disc and rotate the
disc until the colour of the test sample is matched and read
the disc number.
Interpreta tion:
Disc Reading after 2 hrs. incubation at 37"C Remarks
0-10
10-18
18-42
> 42
PRODUCTION OF QUALITY MILK
Properly pasteurised
Slightlyunder
pasteurised
Under Pasteurised
Not Pasteurised
History records cows being milked as far back as 9000 B.C. In
Florida, cows have been milked since the settlement of St.
Augustine in 1565. However, it was not until colonial times
in 1611 that dairy cows arrived in Jamestown From that time
until 1850, dairying changed very little. Most cattle were dual
purpose (used for dairy and beef purposes) and were kept to
satisfy family food needs. Milk and dairy products were in
short supply and for the most part unavailable to those not
living on or near the farm.
Milk production was seasonat creating periods of excess
as well as deficiency in the family milk supply. Stabilisation
of these production fluctuations by storage and/or further
processing into butter, cheese, or other milk products was
precluded by the lack of refrigeration. Consequently,
marketing of milk, butter, and cheese was limited to towns
which could be reached by horse-drawn wagons. Over the
years modern technology has rectified these problems and
today a wide array of safe, wholesome dairy product:;. are
available to people throughout the developed world.
Production of quality milk is the concern of:
consumers of dairy products
retail distributors (super markets)
milk and milk product processors
dairy cooperatives
state regulatory departments
veterinarians, and
dairymen.
From the list it's obvious that very few of us are left out.
Whether we derive a living from the dairy industry through
employment or otherwise, most of us are at the very least
consumers of dairy products.
Milk Composition and Nutritional Value
The Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Section 131.110
provides the following definition of milk:
"Milk is the lacteal secretion, practically free from colostrum,
obtained by the complete milking of one or more healthy
cows."
Nearly 12% of the American household's total food
expenditure is for dairy products. Milk and milk products
alone provide 10% of the total available calories in the United
States food supply, and in addition, represent one of the best
natural sources of essential amino acids for human nutrition.
These nutritional attributes of milk have long made it a
mainstay particularly in the diet of growing children. There
are estimated to be some 8 to 10,000 different types of milk
products available th1.lS making it an exceptionally versatile
raw product.
Milk is composed of water, fat, protein, lactose and
minerals (ash). The concentration of these components will
vary between cows and breeds. Total milk solids refers
specifically to fat, protein, lactose and minerals. This is to be
differentiated from solids-not-fat milk (SNF), a frequently
used term which describes the total solids content minus fat.
SNF milk is known to most people as "skim milk". The
nutritional as well as economic value of milk is directly
associated with its solids content. The higher the solids
content the better its nutritional value and the greater the milk
product yields.
Flavour and Odour Characteristics
Consumer acceptance is greatly affected by flavour. There are
several factors which may produce off-flavours and/or
odours in milk. Some of the more common causes of ~ a v o u r
and odour problems are:
Feed and weed flavours
- wild onion or garlic
- strong flavoured feedstuffs such as alfalfa silage
Cow-barny flavours - which result when milk is
obtained from unclean or poorly ventilated
environments, improperly cleaned or sanitised milking
equipment
Rancid flavours - presence of free fatty acids (FFA)
due to excessive agitation of milk during collection
or transport
breakdown of the milk fat component by
proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes present in raw
milk
Malty flavours, high acid flavours
- bacterial contamination
Oxidised flavours
exposure of milk to sunlight
contact of milk with oxidising agents such as rust,
copper, and chlorine
Foreign flavours
- fly sprays, medications, etc
Process of Delivering Milk
A multitude of events take place in the process of delivering
milk from the farm to the dinner table and all are designed
to provide the consumer with a wholesome, nutritious and
safe product. The production of quality milk and milk
products begins on the farm and continues through further
handling, processing and distribution.
Milk processing has three primary objectives:
destruction of human pathogens through pasteuri-
sation
keeping the quality of the product without significant
loss of flavour, appearance, physical and nutritive
properties, and
selective control of organisms which may produce
unsa tisfactory products
Milk processing plant procedures seek to:
prevent further bacterial contamination of raw
materials
reduce bacterial numbers in milk
protect the finished product from recontamination
through careful handling, proper packaging and
storage
Pasteurisation is the means whereby raw milk is rendered safe
for human consumptiono It is the process of heating milk to
a sufficient temperature for a sufficient length of time to make
it free of pathogens, however, not totally free of bacteria.
Bacteria in Milk
As stated earlier, certain organisms are capable of surviving
pasteurisation and/or refrigeration processes. These bacteria
are an important concern because they reduce product shelf-
life. Those of major significance are:
Thermoduric bacteria
common in raw milk
they survive pasteurisation and include
Enterococci
Micrococci
Brevibacterium
Lactobacilli
Psychrotropic bacteria
common dairy product contaminants
these grow at refrigeration temperatures
they do not survive pasteurisation
can produce off-flavours
spore-formers
common contaminants
survive pasteurisation
- Clostridial spp.
- Bacillus spp.
The primary source of these bacteria is the environment: air,
dust, dirty equipment, operators, etc. Therefore, proper
cleaning and sanitising procedures are necessary for quality
control. Grade A milk quality standards allow a maximum of
100,000 bacteria/ml. in raw bulk milk. Chronic offenders of
these limits risk losing their license to sell milk to the Grade
A market. Most dairies are able to maintain bacteria counts
between 5 to 10,000 per ml. When high counts become a
problem it is generally due to one or more of the following:
improper cleaning of milking equipment (the most
common cause of high bacteria counts in milk)
improper cooling of milk
occasionally, a herd experiencing a high prevalence of
infection due to Strep ago or Staph sp.
Role of Somatic Cells in Milk
Somatic cell counts represent another important milk quality
parameter. Milk with high somatic celJ concentrations reduces
cheese yields due to the lowered casein content. In addition,
high cell count milk generally contains increased amounts of
proteolytic and lipolytic enzymes (lipase) These presence of
these enzymes in milk increases the potential for off- flavours
and odours.
Somatic means body and thus a somatic cell is a body celL
There are three types of somatic cells typically found in milk:
epithelial cells, macrophages, and polymorphonuclear
leukocytes (PMN). Cell types found in milk obtained from
non-infected glands are predominantly epithelial cells and
macrophages. Milk from infected glands, however, generally
contains high concentrations of PMN's with little or no
increase in other cell types.
Consequently, somatic ceU counts are an important
indicator of udder health. Somatic cell counts are made
available to dairymen from a variety of sources including milk
quality laboratories operated by state and local regulatory
departments, dairy cooperatives, DHIA-SCC programme, and
veterinary diagnostic laboratories.
Mastitis causes a shift in the composition of milk. In
addition to lowered amounts of casein, lactose and fat levels
are decreased particularly in milk with somatic cell counts in
excess of 2 million. Because the bacterial quality and somatic
cell content of raw milk are important to product shelf-life,
flavour and yields (particularly cheese), milk processors strive
to obtain the highest quality raw product possible from their
producers.
Antibiotic Residues in Milk
Antibiotic residues pose a significant public health threat.
Consequently, milk in Florida is routinely monitored by dairy
cooperatives and the Florida Department of Agriculture and
Consumer Services, Division of Dairy Industry. The official
test in current use is the Bacillus stearothermophilus disc
assay. It is particularly sensitive for penicillin but can detect
other inhibitors as well. The vast majority of antibiotic
residues in milk occur by accident. Dairymen can avoid
residue problems by:
properly identifying treated cows
informing milkers of the need to withhold and the
method for withholding milk
keeping an accurate record of dates and times of
treatment
following label directions and veterinarians' advice for
withholding times
having milk tested from suspect cows if uncertain about
treatment or withholding time
having tank milk tested when it is suspected of having
milk containing antibiotic residue
isolate purchased cows and test their milk for residue
prior to their entry into the milking herd.
Dairy Cooperatives
Dairy cooperatives are organised by dairymen for the purpose
of marketing milk. Thus, instead of buying milk direct from
farms' milk processors buy their raw product from the dairy
cooperative. Dairymen are in turn paid by the cooperative for
the milk they produce. Florida's dairies supply approximately
80% of the state's marketing demands. Therefore, at certain
times of the year some milk must be imported to satisfy
processing needs.
During other times of the year, milk production is in
excess of market demand and milk must be exported out-of-
state. These daily marketing difficulties could be both
expensive and time-consuming problems for dairymen.
Consequently, the majority of producers belong to milk
marketing cooperatives. Cooperatives serve the dairymen by
promoting dairy products, providing an effective lobby for
political concerns, and informing members on a variety of
dairy industry issues such as water quality, waste
management, and milk pricing.
DIFFERENT ANIMAL MILK DETECTION IN DAIRY PRODUCTS
The adulteration of food products is a significant problem in
the food production. This is how fraudulent producers try to
cheat consumers and authorities, The adulteration affects all
commodities in the food processing. Most frequently, such
products are adulterated that are produced in big quantities
and further, the expensive products whose adulteration brings
a profit.
Detection of Adulteration
First of all, it is necessary to familiarise with the composition
of individual milks from different species and to find the
suitable marker components for the detection of adulteration
with other species. The determination of fat, crude protein,
lactose, ashes, and total dry matter in cow, ewe and goat
buffalo milk and colostrum was dealt with by
Hadjipanayiotou. The highest contents of fat, crude protein,
ashes, and total dry matter were found in ewe milk followed
by goat milk, the lowest contents of these components having
been discovered in cow milk.
We also obtained the basic composition of buffalo milk.
Table 1 presents the milk yields of individual animal species.
It is apparent that the yield of cow milk is significantly higher
than those of other species. It also follows from Table ] that
the highest content of non -protein nitrogen (NPN) can be
found in goat milk and the lowest one in cow milk.
Table 1. Output of cow, ewe, goat and bu.alo milks and their composition
Component Bovine Ewe Goat
Number of animals 44 30 30
Milk output (kg/day) 21.09 7.86 2.45 0.549 3.49.504
Fat (g/kg) 38.0 55.2 45.2
Crude protein (N x 6.38) (g/kg) 33.0 58.0 41.1
NPN (g/kg) 2.18 2.70 2.91
NPN (expressed in % of 7.43 4.66 7.13
crude protein)
It follows from the literature that the detection of adulteration
by the substitution of one milk type for another one is made
by protein analysis. This problem is a very complicated one
as it is necessary to take into account that the composition of
milk and milk proteins is very variable, both between
individual types of milk and within one type. It depends on
the breed or on the lactation level.
The quantitative determination of milk proteins is
complicated by the existence of genetic and nongenetic
polymorphism, and by the technological treatment and
processing of milk. Thermal denaturation or proteolysis, that
is common with the manufacturing of many milk products,
incurs a risk of complex formation, the formation of insoluble
new compounds, smaller peptides and amino acids whose
analysis is fairly complicated. The information on the
occurrence and quantity of individual proteins or derived
compounds is, for the reasons mentioned above, very
important for the estimation of processing, quality, and
adulteration. Protein content in individual milks and their
abundance in casein and whey fractions is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Protein composition of bovine, ewe, goat and bu.alo milk
Component (g/lOO g) Bovine Ewe Goat Bu.alo
Proteins 3.2 4.6 3.2 4.6
Caseins 2.6 3.9 2.6 4.5
Whey proteins 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.5
Many studies were published on bovine casein. "Its',
composition in both raw and processed milk is well known.
However, few studies deal with the composition of milk
casein in other types of milk (e.g. goat, ewe or buffalo). Jensen
stated that caseins make 82, 87, 80, and 77% of proteins in ewe,
buffalo, bovine and goat milk, respectively. Casein micf>lles
consist of four caseins: a51-
1
0.
52
-, P- and k-caseins that occur
in cow milk in the ratio of 39:10:36:13.
In milk are also present the products of proteolysis of all
four primary caseins. y-Casein and some proteoso-peptone
compounds are fragments of p-casein, originating from the
action of plasmin, the endogenous alkaline milk protease. "--
Caseins are presumably fragments of as I-caseins, having also
originated through plasmin cleavage. Glycornacropeptides
and para-k-caseins are fragments of k-casein:-. emerging as a
result of chymosin action.
Whey proteins contain proteins soluble at pH L!:,{; and
20C. To these proteins belong p-lactoglobulin (P-Lg), 0.-
lactoalbumin (a-La), immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM) and
serum albumin (B5A). The following minor proteins ar' also
present: lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, enzyme:" protein
compounds of milk fat globule membrane (MFGM),
proteosopeptone compounds, and glycomacropeptides. Well
known are the primary sequences a-La, ~ - L g and B5A. In
bovine milk, P-Lg and a-La occur approximately at a ratio of
3:1. P-Lg is the main whey protein in all types of milk studied.
Its highest abundance was found in ewe milk, the lowest one
in goat milk. In ewe milk, immunoglobulinf. ar(;> contained in
significant amounts; after P-Lg they represent the second
largest fraction. In bovine and goat milks, the second most
represented whey fraction is a-La,
The discovery of two variants of p-lactoglobulin in cow
milk by Aschaffenburg and Drewry in 1955 generated
considerable interest in the research of milk proteins. The
polymorphism of milk proteins is caused either by the
substitution of amino acids or by their deletion. All caseins
and main whey proteins show genetic polymorphism that can
affect milk composition and some parameters of milk
processing. For this reason, genetic variants of milk proteins
are considered to be potential selection criteria in cattle
husbandry. The identification of the genetic variant of milk
protein also enables the determination of adulteration with
various animal milk types.
Analysis of Milk Prtlteins and their Genetic Variants
For the detection of adulteration of one type of milk with
another one, namely the following methods are used:
electrophoresis, isoelectric focusing (IEF), capillary
electrophoresis (CE), reverse phase high-performance liquid
chromatography (RP HPLC) and ion exchange high-
performapce liquid chromatography (IE HPLC), hydrophobic
interactive chromatography (HIC), immunochemical methods
(ELISA), PCR techniques, and mass spectrometry.
l3lectro-migratiop Methods
Electrophoresis
Electrophoresis plays a significant role in the research of milk
proteins and genetic variants of main milk protein
components. The classification of caseins was carried out by
electrophoretic analysis; minor casein components Y
1
, Y
2
, Y
3
and para-K caseins were detected.
Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used for the
analysis of milk proteins. This employs the separation of
individual molecules both according to their electric charge
and size. In PAGE, the proteins have a negative or a positive
charge, depending on the buffer conditions. They migrate
with a speed based on their charge and size. The advantage
of this technique lies in the fact that the individual groups of
milk proteins are well separated and that the genetic protein
variants and the levels of their phosphorylation can be
detected.
Tamine et al. proved the addition of bovine milk (25% and
more) into the goat Kish product by Page technique. The
analysis was based on the mobility of bovine o.SI-casein. This
technique was also used for the identification of bovine milk
in ewe yoghurt. The marker component was bovine para-k-
casein and 1% addition of bovine milk was successfully
detected.
For the detection of adulteration also SDS and urea
electrophoresis can also be used. Urea and anion solvent
sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) possess the ability of
dissolving various types of proteins and of decomposing
polymer proteins to polypeptide SDS binds to
individual protein molecules and gives them a strong negative
charge thus removing the differences in the total charge. The
electrophoretic separation takes place only on the basis of their
molecular weights. On the contrary, with the application of
urea, proteins are separated according to their charge.
Tamine et al. used for the cow milk detection in goat Kish
product besides the above mentioned PAGE also SDS
electrophoresis. A good separation was achieved of k-, [3-,0.-
caseins of cow and goat milk. Nevertheless, the detection of
adulterants was not successful due to the extensive proteolysis
of the sample. By urea-PAGE electrophoresb, the presence of
5% and more of bovine milk in ewe and gClat milk was
detected. The detection was based on the analysis of bovine
as-casein.
Isoelectric Focusing (IEF)
The protein separation according to their isoelectric points is
especially suitable for the analysis of caseins that form many
genetic variants. For example, by using IEF instead of PAGE
electrophoresis for the analysis of the genetic variants of
bovine [3-casein, the procedure is significantly simplified. If for
same determination PAGE is to be used,
it has to apply both alkali and acid PAGE for the
differentiation of A variants from B, C and D, and Al, A2, and
A3 variants.
IEF is an EU reference method for the determination of the
presence of cow milk and caseinate in cheeses made from ewe,
goat or buffalo milk or their blends. It is based on the
identification of y-caseins after plasminolysis. The method is
suitable for the sensitive and specific detection of raw and
thermally processed cow milk and caseinate in fresh and
ripened cheeses made from ewe, goat or buffalo milk or their
blends.
This detection is based on Y2- and y
3
-caseins determination.
Their isoelectric points lie between pH 6.5 and 7.5. By using
two milk reference standards (with 0 and 1 % of cow milk), the
samples positive for the presence of cow milk can be detected.
In the case, that the amounts of bovine y
2
-casein and y
3
-casein
are equal or greater that their amounts in 1% standard, the
presence of cow milk is confirmed. The method allows the
detection of 0.5% addition. The disadvantage is that it is
impossible to determine the adulteration with goat milk in
ewe milk and vice versa. This may be changed by selecting
an appropriate marker analyte, e.g. para-k-casein.
Capillary Electrophoresis (CE)
Capillary electrophoresis is a modification of electrophO)."esis
that is carried out as a carrier-free electrophoresis via free
capillary. CE is a quickly developing technique that enables
a rapid casein and whey protein separation with a high
resolution and good quantification. The use of CE resulted in
the development of expedient and automated analyses with
a very high resolution and with the demand for only very
small amounts of samples and buffers. De Jong et al. carried
out a complete analysis of caseins and whey proteins in
bovine, ewe and goat milk by capillary electrophoresis. Based
on this analysis, he succeeded in identifying adulterants
(starting from 1%) of bovine, ewe and goat milk in all milk
blends.
The employment of capillary zone electrophoresis in the
detection of adulterants of cow milk in ewe and goat milk is
described in the paper of Cattaneo et al. us1-Casein fraction
was the marker component for the detection of cow milk and
a successful detection was carried out of the addition of cow
milk to ewe or goat milk starting from 8%. Lee et al. used the
detection of us1-casein fraction with this technique. The
authors succeeded in improving the detection and they were
able to determine 1 % of adulterants in raw and reconstituted
milk.
Whey fraction was also studied for the detection of cow
milk presence in goat milk and cheeses. Af; suitable marker
analytes, caprine a-lactalbumine and bovine rHactoglobuline
A were determined. Minimal detectable amOlmt of cow milk
was 2% in milk mixtures and 4% in cheeses,
An unusual method using CE analysis of ethanol water
protein fraction& with isoelectric iminodiacenc acid buffet was
also described as a possibility to fast identify and quantify cow
milk adulterants in goat and ewe cheeses, The authors declare
that the amount of cow milk in goat and ewe cheese can be
estimated with the relative standard deviation of 6-7%, based
on electroforegrams and statistical PLS (partial last squares)
multivariable regression.
REFERENCES
International Daairy Journal, 10: 135-149,2000.
Bania J., et aI., U Application of polymerase chain reaction for detection
of goats' milk adulteration by milk of cow", Journal of Dairy Research,
68: 333-336, 2001.
Cattaneo T.M.P., el aI., "Analysis of cow, goat and eWt- milk mixtures
Milchwissensc/zaft, 51: 616-619, 1996
10
Quality Management in Fish Processing
Quality management system should be implemented in all
companies processing seafood, in vessels where processing is
done and at fish auctions to fulfil all requirements regarding
quality and safety. It is also known that legislation and
inspection authorities recommend or require adopting the
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system in
production and include it as part of the quality system.
The need for HACCP in seafood industries is due to
growing awareness of consumers and the fear of food
illnesses. This has lead to enforced hygienic and sanitary
regulations to ensure wholesome and safe food products. The
growing trend in international trade for worldwide
equivalence of food products is also to be considered for all
producers and sellers. To guarantee safe and wholesome
fishery products, a seafood processing company must have an
appropriate quality system operating effectively.
The quality system includes Good Manufacturing
Practices (GMP), Standard Sanitation Operational Procedures
(SSOP) and a well documented HACCP plan. The HACCP
system is the basis of the regulations on fish inspection
adopted by the European Economic Community (EEC), USA,
Canada and a number of developing countries. The quality
system based on RACCP is widely used and internationally
recognised by Codex Alimentarius, which recommends its
adoption.
216 Control and Analysis for Food and Agricultural
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations
require fish processors to implement HACCP systems. The
European Union (EU) recommends the samE' in its Council
Directive 91/493. The maintenance of thE' HACCP system is
as important as its implementation. Verification procedures
and record keeping are strong elements of those activities. It
is unlikely that the products produced, the process, the
environment, likely hasards or the people in the plant will
remain unchanged over time. Recording all the parameters
concerning catching, handling, processing and quality is an
essential tool to verify how the system is working.
Record keeping also offers product traceability in the
whole chain, from catch until the final product is delivered to
the consumer, so procedures for product identification and
traceability during all stages should be established.
Traceability is becoming an important issue for prod ucers and
sellers in all countries, not only in the EO. In Iceland the
Directorate of Fisheries (DOF) through its Surveillance
Department is the competent authority responsible for
enforcing laws and regulations regarding handling,
processing and distribution of marine products. It focuses on
ensuring that fishery products are processed under
satisfactory hygienic conditions and that consumers can rely
on their wholesomeness and safety.
The department issues processing licenses to processors of
fishery products and operating permits to fish markets and
fishing vessels, provided that they meet the requirements
concerning appropriate facilities, equipment, sanitation
procedures and a documented check system based on
HACCP. The SurvE'illance DepartmE'nt issues health
certificates for exported fishery products. Developing
countries are playing an important role worldwide by
exporting their products to Europe and other markets,
characterised by increasing demand, both on quantity and
high quality products.
To be competitive, these countries also need to adopt and
implement quality management systems based on HACCP
and in the near future, be able to have an effective system for
Quality Management in Fish Processing 217
traceability of the products they are exporting. In the last
decades Cuba has been exporting seafood products to
different countries in Europe, Asia and Canada. Main
products are processed lobster and shrimp with profits from
exports in 1999 contributing nearly USD 200 million to the
country's economy. Forty fishery establishments are engaged
in fish and shellfish processing, of which 14 are certified for
export.
In 1992, the Cuban fisheries industry began HACCP
implementation to meet the requirements of its major export
markets and to put inspection and quality control activities in
line with those taking place worldwide. According to
Resolution No 344/1996 of the Minister of Fisheries Industry
it is mandatory for seafood processors and trading companies
to put a quality system based on HACCP into operation. All
the factories producing for export and most of those
producing for the domestic market in Cuba have an
appropriate quality system. However, problems have been
observed when assessing HACCP. They include different
approaches to identifying Critical Control Points (CCP),
defining critical limits, and badly documented monitoring
proced ures.
Lack of floor staff training in applying corrective actions
in case of deviations of critical limits has also been observed,
as well as corrective actions that are not appropriate to
eliminate causes giving rise to deviations. A field study to
investigate the quality system, the traceability of products and
quality monitoring in an Icelandic company is a practical
experience, which will be helpful in future work in Cuba. This
experience will be valuable and useful to promote the
improvement of quality systems in the fisheries sector in
Cuba, and especially in product traceability issues.
HACCP is a management system in which food safety is
addressed through the analysis and control of biological,
chemical and physical hazards from the raw material, to
processing, distribution and consumption of the finished
product. It was developed nearly 30 years ago by the Pillsbury
Company working together with the National Atmospheric
218 Control and Analysis for Food and Agricultural Product!.
and Space Agency (NASA) in USA, with the objective of
finding a method to provide safe food for astronauts.
The system focuses on preventing hazards that could
cause food-borne illnesses, by applying controiF- to the
production line, from raw material to the finished products.
HACCP is a tool to assess hazards and establish control
systems that focus on prevention rather than relying on end-
product testing. Implementation of HACCP food
safety and promotes trade by increasing confidence in safe
foods.
Before the application of HACCP principlei'> the following
tasks should be carried out:
Assembling of the HACCP team, involving experts
from production, quality assurance, engineering and
product development areas. It could also be useful to
have representatives from other
Product description and intended use. Includes
principal raw materials, process technologies used,
storage conditions and shelf life. This is particularly
important if the product is intended for especially
vulnerable groups of the population, such as infants or
ill people.
Process flow diagram. It should c()wr all the steps in
the process, from raw material through to distribution.
Such flow chart is the basis of the hazard analysis.
On-site verification of the flow diagram. The HACCP
team should check the operation against the flow
diagram during all stages and hours of operation and
make the amendments where appropriate.
The seven principles of HACCP are the following:
Conduct a hazard analysis. Potential hazards associated
with food and preventive mE:'asures to control those
hazards.
Identify Critical Control Points (CCP). A CCP is an
operation (practice, procedure, process or location) at
which a preventive or control mf'asure will eliminate,
prevent or minimise one or several hazards.
Establish critical limits for each preventive measure at
a CCP.
Establish CCP monitoring procedures. Include what is
to be checked, when, how and by whom.
Establish what corrective actions are to be taken when
monitoring shows that a critical limit has been
exceeded.
Establish verification procedures to verify that the
HACCP system is working correctly.
Establish an effective record keeping system to
document the HACCP system.
Records need to be kept as evidence that the system has been
working correctly. They are useful for trend analysis, which
can be used for monitoring and making the system more
effective. HACCP is not a system that stands alone, it is
supported by other programmes known as prerequisites, such
as Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and Standard
Sanitation Operational Procedures (SSOP). Prerequisite
programmes provide the basic environmental and operating
conditions that are necessary for the production of safe,
wholesome food.
The Codex Alimentarius General Principles of Food
Hygiene describe the basic conditions and practices expected
for food intended for international trade. In addition to the
requirements specified in regulations, industry often adopts
procedures specific to their operations. Prerequisite
programmes may include facilities, supplier control,
specifications of raw materials, ingredients, packaging
materials and products, equipment, cleaning and sanitation,
personal hygiene, training, traceability and recall procedures,
pest control, etc.
TRACEABtLITY IN THE FISH INDUSTRY
Traceability is defined as the ability to trace the history,
application or location of that which is under consideration.
In terms of products it relates to the origin of materials and
parts, the processing history, and the distribution of the
product after delivery. In other words traceability means the
ability to trace and follow a food through all stages of
production and distribution.
Two types of traceability can be identified.: internal and
chain traceability. Internal is within one company and relates
to data about raw materials and processes to the final product
before it is delivered. Chain traceability is focused on the
information about the product from one link in the chain to
the next, it describes what data are transmitted and received,
and how. Chain traceability is between companies and
countries and depends on the presence of internal traceability
in each linle The public confidence in food safety has been
damaged by recent food scares associated with beef because
of mouth and foot disease and BSE----mad cow disease, in
cattle, dioxin in fish meal and other This is driving the
industry and government agencies to improvf' controls at all
stages in the food chain.
Traceability is then needed to meet food safety
requirements, especially in case of product recall, for
commercial reasons to ensure supply chain standards and
because it is required by legislation relating to labelling,
animal health and welfare, fish marketing, fisheries control
and product liability and safety. The EU Fisheries Control
Regulations demand a specific traceability system from the
fishing grounds to the processors. The EU Fish Marketing
Regulations demand that from 2002, much of the fish at retail
sale will have to be labelled with its area of origin.
The proposed revision of the EU General Product Safety
Directive requires full traceability by 2003, induding product
recall systems. The EU Food Law, which is now under
revision, requires full traceability by 2004. The proposed new
Regulation on the General Principles and Requirements of
Food Law lays down the general food safety requirements.
Regarding traceability, it establishes the need for traceability
at all stages of production and distribution. It is proposed that
food and feed business operators must identify their raw
material suppliers and identify to whom they supply
products. They must have systems to provide those data to
the competent authorities, label or identify products to ensure
traceability, and withdraw and recall unsafe food from the
market.
The fish industry trades globally in a vast range of species
and products and is diverse in comparison to other protein
sources. There are hundreds of different species of fish
captured with different methods of catching, handling and
food safety requirements. A wide range of live, chilled, frozen
and value added fishery products are produced and traded
within the various distribution chains, which also have their
specialised food handling and food safety requirements.
There is a huge and complex international trade in the raw
materials and in primary and secondary processed products.
Although there are major structural differences between the
chains for different types of fish, products and countries, there
is also a degree of commonality in information requirements.
These information requirements can be categorised as:
Fundamental to traceability. Each food business has to
collect and keep information and make it available to
the competent authorities and to other food business
operators for the purpose of product withdrawal or
recall.
Specifically required information on the nature of the
food and the operations involved. This is information
required by law for particular purposes and must be
made available to the appropriate authorities.
Commercially desirable information on the nature of
the food and the operations. This information can be
requested by food business for different reasons such
as ethical, environmental, GMP, quality assurance
records, raw material or product standards and
specifications, etc.
At present, a lot of information is being recorded in the
product information system of the processing and distribution
chains. Some of that information passes from one link in the
chain to the next, either on the label or in the documents, the
rest is held by the producer or the distributor. To properly
implement traceability it is necessary to define the physical
unit and batch.
A physical unit can be an individual large fish, a box or
a tub of fish, a package, case or pallet of products, a freight
container. The batch can be a catching day, production date,
a shipment, etc. The information attached to the unit is to be
the key to traceability, i.e. the product number (code),
production date and producer's number makes it possible to
trace the product to the producer and look up the required
information.
A product can be traced either backward or forward.
Backward leads to the origin and history, everything that went
to a batch and depends on all links mapping identification (ID)
of output batches to ID of input batches, Forward trace
explains what happened to a certain batch, all the processes
and output batches that the batch in question went into.
Keeping track of batches and their properties is 'the key to
implementing chain traceability.
A step forward in the implementation of traceability will
be the development of a standard for electronic transmission
of data and information. Because of increasing information
demands from buyers and consumers, it is no longer practkal
to transmit all the data physically along with the product. A
more sensible approach is to mark each package with a unique
identifier, and then transmit or extract all the relevant
information electronically. But so far it is common to use other
ways like telephone, e-mail and fax for communication
between the links.
Definitions of Quality
Definitions of quality as applied to food products vary
according to the author. Different qualities with respect to
seafood include safety, nutritional quality, availability,
convenience and integrity, and freshness quality. The most
important is seafood safety. Seafood quality is usually
influenced by freshness or degree of spoilage of the raw
material or the product. Freshness is considered as one of the
most important factors determining quality of fish.
Handling, processing and storage techniques can also
affect the quality of fish and fishery products as they can result
in the occurrence of defects such as bruises, bloodstains,
trimming imperfections, etc. Many studies have been done on
spoilage processes of fish stored in ice and frozen storage,
considering a whole range of influencing factors, which can
affect the fish quality. Among others, these factors are related
to fish species, size and seasonal condition, fishing method,
handling, processing technology, time and temperature
development.
Freshness Parameters
Fish is a perishable commodity. Upon death a series of natural
changes start, leading to spoilage affecting the shelf life of the
fish. Freshness or the extent of spoilage during storage under
chilled conditions is the key determinant of the quality of fish
and fishery products. Shelf life of fish is defined as the length
of time it is fit for human consumption. Spoilage due to
microbial activity is the main limitation of the shelf life of iced
or refrigerated fish. Off-odours and off-flavours, slime
formation, gas production, discoloration and changes in
texture are obviOl.J.S signs of spoilage.
The development of these spoilage conditions in fish and
fishery products is due to a combination of chemical, autolytic
and microbiological changes, but the spoilage rate can be
. reduced by taking preventive measures like icing or keeping
a low temperature during storage. According to Bonnell,
controlling the temperature of fish is perhaps the most
important element in the preservation of fresh fish. The proper
cooling of fish has a number of advantages. Firstly, bacterial
activity depends very much on temperature, the closer it is to
OC, the slower the rate of bacterial spoilage. Likewise,
enzyme activity also decreases as temperature falls, so the rate
of autolytic spoilage is significantly slowed.
Chemical spoilage or development of rancidity can be
prevented by rapid handling onboard and storage of products
under anaerobic conditions. A rise in product temperature
accelerates deterioration and reduces quality. If the rate of
deterioration is known, it should be possible to determine the
quality at any time by continuously monitoring the time and
temperature history of fish post mortem. A number of authors
have attempted to derive simple mathematical relationships
that provide an acceptable measure of deterioration in fish
with a known time/temperature history. These relationships
have been used in conjunction with time/temperature
recording devices to monitor the deterioration of quality in
batches of fish. Post mortem changes in electrical properties
of fish skin and flesh are also used in determining the potential
shelf life of whole fish, but it is not useful for frozen products.
Evaluation of Defects
Sensory inspection of processed fish is used in fish industry
to find defects that have occurred during handling and
processing. These defects are well described in the technical
specifications for the products. Defects can be related to the
condition of the fish flesh, appearance, which includes colour
defects (bruises, bloodspots) and dehydration, workmanship
defects such as improper packaging and cutting and trimming
imperfections, scales, bones, foreign matters, skin and black
membrane and the size of fillets. Evaluation of deff'cts is
widely used in control of processes and to grade fish for
selling or buying purposes.
Methods to Evaluate Fish Freshness
Huss and Bonnell discuss the methods applied to evaluate the
freshness of fish, which are divided in two categories, sensory
and instrumental techniques. Instrumental methods include
biochemical and chemical, microbiological and physical. Each
of these methods measure different spoilage indicators in fish
and fishery products. Only through a combination of
instrumental and sensory analYSis can optimal information on
the product be obtained.
A1icrobiological A1ethods
The activity of microorganisms is the main factor limiting the
shelf life of fresh fish. The aim of microbiological examinations
is to evaluate the possible presence of bacteria or organisms
of public health significance and to give an impression of the
hygienic quality of the fish. This includes temperature abuse
and hygiene during handling and processing. An estimation
of the total viable count (TVC) is used as an index in standards,
guidelines and specifications. Specific spoilage organisms
(550) capable of producing hydrogen sulphide or reducing
trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) are considered more useful to
estimate spoilage and the remaining shelf life of fish and
fishery products.
Biochemical and Chemical Methods
Classical chemical methods for the analysis of total volatile
bases (TVB) and trimethylamine (TMA) are used for the
determination of fish freshness. TVB only reflect later stages
of spoilage, so it is not reliable for the first days of chilled
storage of fish. Adenosine triphosphate (A TP) is another
indicator of fish freshness. The extent of A TP degradation is
expressed as the K value, which is defined as the ratio of the
sum of inosine and hypoxanthine concentrations to the total
concentration of A TP metabolites. There are other methods
related to lipid oxidation such as determination of peroxide,
thiobarbituric acid and iodine values.
Physical Methods
6lafsd6ttir et al. describe physical methods based on changes
in the electric properties of the fish muscle. Different devices
are available to measure electrical properties: the Torrymeter,
the Fish tester and the RT-Freshness Grader, but they can only
be used for fresh fish. Changes of structure and colour also
occur in the fish flesh. Texturometers are used to measure the
structural changes. Time-temperature indicators (TIl) are
based on using some biological, chemical or physical
processes that depend on time an<.i temperature and can give
information about the time-temperature history of the food.
All methods mentioned above pmvide information on
parameters'related to fish freshness, but none of them alone
is capable to determine whether a fish is fresh or not.
Sensory Evaluation
Sensory evaluation is the most important method for assessing
freshness and quality of fish and fish products. Sensory
methods offer a rapid and accurate measurement of perceived
attributes providing information about food. Sensory
evaluation is defined as the scientific discipline used to evoke,
measure, analyse and interpret characteristics of food as
perceived by the senses of sight, smell, taste, touch and
hearing. Sensory tests can be divided into three groups:
discriminative, descriptive and affective. The first two are
analytical tests in which a trained panel is used, while the third
are subjective consumer tests based on a measure of
preference or acceptance.
The most commonly used descriptive tests are structured
scaling for quality assessment and profiling for a detailed
description of one or more attributes. Sensory evaluation is
currently the most important method used for freshness
evaluation in the fish sector. The most common sensory
method used in Europe is the EU scheme, in which three
grades of freshness are established: E, A and B, corresponding
to various stages of spoilage. Extra is the highest quality, while
B is the level where fish is considered unfit for human
consumption. This scheme does not take into account
differences between species because only general parameters
are used.
The Torry scheme, a ten score system for the evaluation
of cooked fish, is another method used for sensory evaluation
of fish freshness. The Quality Index Method (QIM) is based
on characteristic changes in raw fish that occur in the
appearance of eyes, skin and gills, and odour and texture, and
a score system from 0 to 3 demerit points.
The scores for all the attributes are summarised to give an
overall sensory score, the Quality Index, which is then
compared to a QIM calibration curve to establish the relative
freshness in terms of storage (predicted) days in ice and to
predict the remaining storage life (shelf life). The description
of each score for each parameter is listed in the QIM scheme.
The QIM and the schemes have been developed for several
fish species e.g. cod, haddock, redfish, herring, saithe, and
shrimp. In this study the QIM method is used in the evaluation
of redfish.
FIELD STUDY AT VA
The Utgerdarfelag Akureyrar eVA) Seafood Group in
Akureyri was visited for a two weeks period, from November
18
th
to the 30
th
This company, and in particular the parent
company, was chosen for the study, knowing the fact that VA
Seafood Group is one of the leading companies in Iceland,
operating fishing vessels and processing plants. The
company's role is catching, processing and selling a variety of
high quality, safe seafood products. During the field study at
VA the documentation of the quality system was accessed and
carefully studied.
The production and quality managers explained in situ the
processing flow for the different products made from redfish
and cod as well, even though cod was not a part of this study.
The processing line was visited daily for a better
understanding of the process and the quality control. It was
studied how the information about the process and products
is generated, how. this information is transmitted along the
chain and how it is recorded and stored for the purposes of
traceability. This means that information is available to attend
customer claims, recall of products and also to verify the
quality and handling of products. Data and information were
collected from evaluations conducted and from the records
stored in the company's system.
Structure of the Company and Main Products
The group consists of the parent company and four
subsidiaries: Laugafiskur ltd., specialising in drying fish;
Jokull ltd., concentrating on the processing of wholefrozen
pelagic fish; H6lmadrangur ltd., for shrimp processing; and
GPG Saltfish ltd., specialising in the production of splitted
salted .fish. The parent company operates trawlers and
processes demersal fish, either on shore or on board factory
228 Control and Analysis for Food and Agricultural Produqs
trawlers. The main species harvested are cod (Gadus morhua),
redfish (5. marinus/mentella), Greenland halibut, and prawns
(Pandalus borealis).
The main products of the group are frozen seafood and
dried fish products. The total production of the company in
2000 was more than 17,000 tons with a value of ISK 5.3 billion.
Table 1 shows the production by species/product. UA
operates a sales and marketing department which is
responsible for the group sales of fresh and frozen products.
The access to fresh fish allows the company to offer high
quality products, supported by a quality assurance system
based on HACCP, which ensures product safety. The biggest
markets for the group are in the USA and UK. Other important
markets are Germany, Nigeria, Japan and Taiwan, France and
Denmark.
Table 1: Volume of productioll of UA Seafood Group in 2000.
Product/Species tons
--------------_._--- - - - - - - . - . - - - ~ . - - . - - . - .
Cod
Redfish
Haddock
Saithe
Greenland halibut
Capelin roe
Shrimp in the shell
Cooked and peeled shrimp
Total frozen products
Stockfish
Total
6,086
2,833
287
177
1,232
248
3,224
1,255
15,342
2,215
17,557
The UA parent company operates five fishing vessels and two
land-based processing plants. lllIee of the vesseli' are fresh
fish trawlers, supplying the factories in Akureyri and
Grenivik, one vessel is a freezing trawler for demersal fish,
and the fifth vessel is a shrimp-freezing trawler. The fresh fish
trawlers concentrate on the catching of cod (G morhua),
haddock (Melanogammus aeglefinus), red fish {So marinus/ .
mentella) and saithe (Pollachius virens), while the freezing
trawlers focus on Greenland halibut (R. hippoglossoides),
redfish (5. marinus/mentella) and shrimp (P. borealis). The
VA plant in Akureyri is one of the largest of its kind in the
North Atlantic and specialises in the processing of cod and
redfish. The plan' in Grenivik is smaller and processes
haddock, saithe and cod.
Quality System
The VA Seafood company quality system was studied,
especially for redfish. Data and information from the
processing line was gathered, including information on the
traceability system. For effective quality and process control
the plant has implemented a quality system based on HACCP.
Redfish Processing
The redfish (Sebastes marinus/mentella) is a temperate
marine species, inhabiting the North Atlantic ocean waters
along the European and American coasts. The two species of
redfish: ocean perch (5. marinus) and deepwater redfish (5.
mentella) are difficult to distinguish. Ocean perch (5. marinus)
has a bright red skin and a chubby shape, it can attain a
maximum length of 100 cm and weight up to 15 kg, while
deepwater redfish attains a maximum size of 55 cm. Redfish
is utilised fresh and frozen. It is a good table fish with a firm
and tasty flesh. As a result of different storage studies it has
been estimated that redfish kept in ice at OC has a shelf life
of 18 days, granted that the fish 'was handled under good
manufacturing practices on board the vessels.
HACCP System of the Company
The HACCP system, also called own check system is fully
described in the HACCP handbook. Control points are
established to monitor both product and process in the own
check system of the plant. These points are located in the
reception area, after trimming, freezing, in casing/labelling/
palletising; after battering and breading for breaded products
and finally in weighing/packing operation in IQF products.
At each control point samples are taken and evaluated
according to the specifications and procedures. Temperature
is monitored in every step of the process including frozen
storage of final products. All the information generated is
recorded electronically or in the corresponding form for each
operation or product.
Labelling and Traceability
From the moment the fish is brought on board the vessel
information is generated and recorded until the product
reaches the end customer. Part of the information wil1 be
transmitted from one link to the next, attached to the unit. The
rest will remain in the link for internal use and will be
accessible if necessary. Most of the information originates in
the catching and processing links, Redfish fillets blocks were
chosen in our study as an example to illustrate the information
recorded during each step of the processing and distribution
chain. First it is necessary to identify batches and units within
the chain. VA receives the raw material to be processed in the
plant from its own fishing vessels,
The information about the catch and finished products
sent for export is given to the Directorate of Fisheries.
Information is transmitted between VA and the export
company about the fish products available for export At the
request of VA the transport company freights the product to
frozen storage at the carrier (EIMSKIP), The export company
interacts with the shipping company and the buyer in Europe
regarding shipments. The export company also provides the
information requested by customs about shipment of
products. Part of the information is printed out on a label
attached to the unit and transmitted to the next link in the
production and distribution chain, 1his information varies
according to the product type and packaging.
QUALITY EVALUATION OF FISH
Quality evaluation of fish is one of the most important aspects
to be considered in the quality system of a fish processing
plant. The field study carried out at VA provided a good
opportunity to perform evaluations, using the information
available in the plant and taking samples to conduct the
analysis, thus gaining skills and experience.
Evaluation of Raw Materials and Methods
Evaluation of raw material and fillets were carried out based
on the quality system of the company. Moreover, sensory
evaluation of the raw material using the QIM was done on
samples from one fishing trip of the vessel Arbakur.
At VA every batch of fish is evaluated at the moment of
landing and reception in the plant. A batch in this case is the
fish of the same species from all the catch of one fishing trip.
The samples are taken randomly from different catching days.
This form includes the vessel's name, the number of the
fishing trip and date of evaluation. Once the evaluation has
been carried out, a new form is filled with the final scores
given to the parameters checked. These results are valid for
the whole fishing trip (batch). A five score scheme is used. Fish
with score 2 or less is unsuitable for processing.
Information about the redfish received from the vessels for
a period one month, from September 23
rd
to October 24th, was
accessed and analysed. Whole ungutted redfish from 8
batches was evaluated looking at the handling on board:
weight of fish and ice, washing, how the fish was aligned in
the tub and icing, i.e. fish-ice layers and ice/fish ratio. The data
was recorded and analysed using the principal component
analysis technique (PCA) in Unscrambler (Camo, Norway).
After trimming, a random sample of fish fillets are
checked for defects in appearance (bones, parasites,
bloodspots, bruises, black membrane). Colour and smell are
evaluated on a scale from 2 to 5. In this study data collection
and evaluation were carried out for redfish fillets after
trimming. Data from the quality system on evaluation of fish
fillets after trimming were studied. Information was collected
from ten processing days, starting from September 26
th
to
October 18
th
. The raw material came from eight fishing trips
of the three vessels that the company owns.
Sensory evaluation of raw material using the QIM method
was conducted under processing conditions as part of this
study. A batch consisting of three catching days from one
vessel's fishing trip was sampled, taking five samples from
each catching day. The fishing trip in this case was 6 days long.
The samples came from the second, fourth and sixth catching
days, it means that they had been in ice for six, four and two
days, respectively. The scores for each parameter were
determined by consensus of the two untrained assessors
evaluating fish, the author of this report and the inspector in
the reception area in the plant.
REFERENCES
Agrawal V.P., Aquaculture and Fisheries Science, Delhi, S.R. Scientific,
2006,630 p.
Datta Munshi 1.5. and Singh H.R (ed.)., Advances in Fish Research, VoL
IV, Delhi, Narendera Pub., 2006, xvi, 312 p.
Khanna D.R. and Yadav P.R, Biology of Fishes, New Delhi, Discovery, x,
386 p., 2004.
Saini V.P., Sharma L.L. and Ujjania N.C., Dictionary of Aquatic Resources
and Fisheries, Udaipur, Agrotech, 2007,. 648 p.
Shafi S.M., Applied Fishery Science, New Delhi, Atlantic Pub., 2003. 2
volumes, 601 p ..
Singh H.R. and Lakra W.S., (ed.)., Coldwate1 Aquaculture and Fisheries,
Delhi, Narendra, 2000, 337 p.
11
N.J;icrobial Safety in Food Preservation
Food preservation in the broad sense of the term refers to all
measures taken against any spoilage of food. In its narrower
sense, however, food preservation connotes processes
directed against food spoilage due to microbial or biochemical
action. Preservation technologies are based mainly on the
inactivation of microorganisms or on the delay or prevention
of microbial growth. Consequently they must operate through
those factors that most effectively influence the survival- and
growth of microorganisms.
Factors used for food preservation are called 'hurdles' and
there are numerous hurdles that have been applied for food
preservation. Potential hurdles for use in the preservation of
foods can be divided into physical, physicochemical,
microbially derived and miscellaneous hurdles. Among these
hurdles, the most important have been used for centuries and
are as either 'process' or 'additive' hurdles including high
temperature, low temperature, water activity, acidity, redox
potential (Eh), competitive microorganisms and
preservatives.
Recently the underlying principles of these traditional
methods have been defined and effective limits of these factors
for microbial growth, survival, and death have been
established. Recently, about 50 additional hurdles have been
used in food preservation. These hurdles include: ultrahigh
pressure, mano-thermo-sonication, photodynamic
inactivation, modified atmosphere packaging of both
nonrespiring and respiring products, edible coatings, ethanol,
Maillard reaction products and bacteriocins. Hurdles used for
food preservation influence the quality as well as the safety
of foods. The effects of hurdles on food quality can be positive
or negative, depending on their intensity.
Some hurdles have antimicrobial properties and at the
same time improve the flavor of the products; this also applies
to nitrite used in the curing of meat. However, some hurdles
also provide a negative effect on food quality. For instance,
chilling to an unsuitably low temperature will be detrimental
to some foods of plant origin ('chilling injury'), whereas
moderate chilling is beneficial for shelf-life. Another example
is the pH of fermented sausages, which should be low enough
to inhibit pathogenic bacteria but now so low as to impair
taste. If the level of a particular hurdle in a food is too small,
it should be strengthened; if it is detrimental to the food
quality, it should be lowered and an additional hurdle
considered.
To ensure the stability and safety of foods, each hurdle
should be applied in the proper manner. However, the high
strength or concentration of any single hurdle could adversely
affect food quality such as loss of nutrients, texture, color, etc.
Therefore, if manufacturers are to achieve a product that
accommodates consumer preferences while remaining safe
and stable, they m u ~ t achieve synergies through the combined
use of these or other hurdles which, while they may not
prevent the growth of pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms
on their own, will do so collectively. And each product may
require a different combination of hurdles, depending on a
range of factors including the following;
(i) the initial microbial load of the product requiring
preserva tion,
(ii) how favourable conditions are within the product for
microbial growth,
(iii) target shelf-life.
An important current trend is toward the use of procedures
that deliver food products are less "heavily" preserved, higher
Microbial Safety in Food Preservation 235
in quality, perceived as being more "natural", contain less
additives, and are nutritionally healthier. Some new and
"emerging" techniques aim to meet some of these objectives.
Most of these techniques act by inactivating microbes.
Many naturally occurring antimicrobials have been
explored for used as food additive preservatives. But few have
yet been widely exploited. Lysozyme has gained a useful
market for the destruction of outgrowing cells from spores of
Clostridium tyrobutyricum in some cheeses. The bacteriocin,
nisin, likewise has a well-developed portfolio of uses in
cheese, canned and some other foods, and the antimycotic
natamycin (pimaricin), is employed to prevent mold growth
on cheese and surfaces of salami type products.
HURDLE TECHNOLOGY
The combined use of several preservation methods, possibly
physical and chemical, or a combination of different
preservatives is an age-old practice. It has been commonly
applied by the food industry to ensure food safety and
stability. In smoked products, for example, combination
treatment includes heat, reduced moisture content and
antimicrobial chemicals deposited from the smoke onto the
surface of the food.
Some smoked foods may also be dipped or soaked in brine
or rubbed with salt before smoking, to impregnate the flesh
with salt and thus add a further preservative mechanism. In
jam and other fruit preserves, the combined factors are heat,
a high solids content (reduced water activity) and high aCidity.
In vegetable fermentation, the desired product quality and
microbial stability are achieved by a combination of factors
such as salt, acidification, and so forth.
In recent years, the concept of combining several factors
has been developed by Leistner and others into the 'hurdle
effect'. From an understanding of the hurdle effect, hurdle
technology has been derived, which has the goal not just to
understand why a certain food is safe and stable, but to
improve the microbial quality of the food by an optimisation
and intelligent modification of the hurdles present It employs
the intelligent combination of different hurdles or
preservation techniques to achieve multi-target mild but
reliable preservation effects.
Hurdle technology has arisen in response to a number of
developments;
(i) Consumer demands for healthier foods that retain their
original nutritional properties,
(ii) The shift to ready-to-eat and convenience foods which
require little further processing by consumers,
(iii) Consumer preference for more 'natural' food which
require less processing and fewer chemical
preservatives.
Hurdle technology provides a framework for combining a
number of milder preservation techniques to achieve an
enhanced level of product safety and stability.
Mechanism
Microorganisms react homeostatically to stress factors. When
their environment is disturbed by a stress factor, they usually
react in ways that maintain some key eJement of their
physiology constant. Microorganisms undergo many
important homeostatic reactions. Preservative factors
functioning as hurdles can disturb one or more of the
homeostasis mechanisms, thereby preventing
microorganisms from multiplying and causing them to
remain inactive or even die. Therefore, food preservation is
achieved by disturbing the homeostasis of microorganisms.
The best way to do this is to deliberately disturb several
homeostasis mechanisms simultaneously thus a combination
of multiple hurdles (hurdle technology) could increase the
effectiveness of food preservation. The success of hurdle
technology depends on ensuring metabolic exhaustion. Most
stress reactions of microorganisms are active processes, and
this often involves the expenditure of energy, e.g. to transport
protons across the cell membrane, to maintain high
cytoplasmic 'concentrations of 'osmoregulatory' or
'compatible' solutes.
Restriction of the availability of energy is then a sensible
target to pursue. This probably forms the basis of many the
successful, empirically derived, mild combination
preservation procedures exemplified by hurdle technology.
As an example, if a food can be preserved by lowering the pH,
then it is sensible also to include a weak acid preservative
which will amplify the effect of the protons or to allow a
milder, higher pH to be employed. It is sensible if proton
export is made more difficult by the additional requirement
that cells be forced to regulate osmotic strength. Then, if the
food can be enclosed in oxygen-free vacuum or modified
atmosphere packaging, facultative anaerobes will be further
energy-restricted at a time when the various stress and
homeostatic reactions are demanding more energy if growth
is to proceed.
However, environmental stresses can provide varying
results because some bacteria may become more resistant or
even more virulent under stresses through stress reactions
such as synthesis of protective stress shock proteins. It has
been reported that synthesis of protective stress shock
proteins is induced by several stresses including heat, pH, aw,
ethanol, oxidative compounds, and starvation. And, although
each stress has a different spectrum of antimicrobial action,
those stress reactions might have a non-specific effect, since
due to a particular stress, microorganisms become also more
tolerant to other stresses i.e. 'cross-tolerance'.
For instance, acid-shock or acid-adapted cells became
tolerant to a range of other environmental stresses in several
pathogenic bacteria including E. coli 0157:H7, S.
typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes. Conversely, the heat
shock response that follows mild heating can result in cells
becoming more acid tolerance. Therefore, the various stress
responses of microorganisms might hamper food preservation
and could turn out to be problematic for the application of
hurdle technology when hurdles are used consequitively.
However, the use of different stresses at the same time may
also prevent the synthesis of those protective proteins because
simultaneous exposure to different stresses will require
energy-consuming synthesis of several or at least much more
protective stress shock proteins which in turn may cause the
microorganisms to become metabolically exhausted,
This antimicrobial action of combining hurdles is known
as 'multitarget preservation' introduced by Leistner, The
concept of multi target preservation increases the effectiveness
of food preservation by using a combination of different
hurdles which have different spectra of antimicrobial actions.
It has been suspected for some time that combining different
hurdles for good preservation might not have just an additive
effect on microbial stability, but they could act synergistically.
A synergistic effect could be achieved if the hurdles in a
food hit, at the same time, different targets within the
microbial cells and thus disturb the homeostasis of the
microorganisms present in several respects. T h u ~ repair of
homeostasis as well as the activation of stress shock proteins
becomes more difficult. Therefore, simultaneously employing
different hurdles in the preservation of a particular food
should lead to optimal microbial stability.
In addition, no one preservative factor is active against all
the spoilage microorganisms present in foods. An attempt is
therefore made to compensate for this deficiency by
combining various preservative factors having different
spectra of action. Since from this multitargeted approach,
hurdle technology could more effective than fo:ingle targeting,
it allows the use of individual hurdles of lower intensity for
improving product quality as well as for food preservation.
Limitations of Hurdle Technology
As described above, hurdles used in food preservation could
provide varying results depending on bacterial stress
reactions such as the synthesis of protective proteins. These
stress reactions or cross-tolerdnce may not exist when
combined hurdles are used. However, although hurdles are
applied simultaneously in combined form, there arE' three
possible results whereby the action may be changed by
combining two or more preservative factors:
(i) addition or additive effect,
(ii) synergism or synergistic effect,
(iii) antagonism or antagonistic effect.
The term additive effect denotes that the effects of the
individual substances are simply added together. Synergistic
effect is the expression used when the inhibitory action of the
combination is reached at a concentration lower than that of
the constituent substances separately. An antagonistic effect
is the opposite of this latter, i.e. one where the mixture
concentration required is higher than that of the individual
constituents. Among these results, first two are desirable
results and the main reason the hurdle technology is
employed for food preservation rather than one hurdle.
Generally, it is accepted that the combination of hurdles
has a higher inhibitory effect than any single hurdle. However,
recently, some studies showed that combination treatments
were less effective at reducing levels of microorganism than
were single treatment. These effects of combining hurdles
were antagonistic. In some cases, application of the hurdle
concept for food preservation may inhibit outgrowth but
induce prolonged survival of microorganisms in foods.
The various responses of microorganisms under mild
stress conditions of hurdle technology might hamper food
preservation and could turn out to be problematic for the
application of hurdle technology. However, no general
statements can be made about the actions of any particular
preservative method on other factors. Additionally, in many
studies, any synergistic effects observed in laboratory tests
were so weak as to have no significance for practical food
preservation. It was mainly for commercial reasons that most
combination products formerly marketed in large numbers
were preferred to straight preservations. Although some
combinations of hurdles showed less or not significant
effectiveness for killing microorganisms in foods, many
promising hurdles have been identified so far. However, the
application of the idea in the food industry has been largely
restricted to the meat sector.
Recent studies, however, emphasize a much wider
potential application, e.g., in bakery products, fish, and dairy
products, More specifically, the concept was introduced into
mild processing of fruits and vegetables. However. there is
only limited information available about the effect of
combined hurdles in these types of foods. The vast majority
of preserved foods that are consumed in different countries
rely on combinations of preservative factors for their stability
and microbiological safety. Therefore, it will be important to
understanding the interactions of different hurdles in various
foods to find types and intensity of that hurdle& are needed
for the desired microbial safety and stability of a particular
food.
PICKLING METHODS
Pickling is an age-oid method for preserving vegetables and
fruits. The manufacture of pickles, relishes, and condiments
has become one of the most important food industries.
Although the preservation of vegetables and fruits in pickled
form began as a household art, at present most of the world's
supply of pickles is produced in commercial plants. Any
vegetables or fruit may be pickled, although the quality of
some pickled foods is poor. The cucumber, one of the most
important raw material used for pickling, is packed in many
forms, e.g., in plain or spiced sweet vinegar in jars, kegs, or
cans or fermented in spiced brine as dill pickles; packed in
mustard; or in chopped form in various relishes.
Green tomatoes, peppers, cauliflower, and onions are
common ingredients of mixed pickles, chowchow, etc.
Moreover, sauerkraut and olives are also important pickled
products. Recently, more types of fruits and vegetables have
been used to produce pickled products, including asparagus,
beets, peaches, figs, pears, and so on. Ingredients used for
producing pickled products include salt, vinegar (acetic acid),
spices, sugar, and water. Pickled fruits and vegetables are
made by immersing raw materials in brine containing vinegar
(acetic acid) and salt, and then heat treated. . I.
Spices and sugar are used as additional ingredients to
improve flavor. Therefore, salt, acetic acid, and heat are
considered as major factors for increasing the microbial safety
of pickled products. However, sometimes other preservatives
are also added to enhance microbial safety. However, the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration regulations do not allow the
use of preservatives as the primary barriers to the growth of
microbial pathogens in acidified foods.
For these food products, the Code of Federal Regulations
states only that acid or acid ingredients which will be acetic
acid must be added so that the pH is maintained at or below
4.6; a heat treatment must be included in the process, if
necessary, to prevent the growth of microbial pathogens.
These regulations were designed to control the growth and
toxin production by Clostridium botulinum. The regulations
do not take into account the amount or type of organic acid
present in acidified foods.
For thermal processing, the pickle industry usually uses
a procedure established in the early 1940s that recommended
an internal pasteurizing temperature of 74C for 15 min
followed by prompt cooling. Most companies, however, have
developed their own processes for specific products. Heat
processing or pasteurisation in pickling is performed to
increase microbial food safety. However, some vegetables
used in pickling are very heat sensitive and quality indicators
such as color and texture are usually degraded to a large
extent during thermal treatment. Therefore, some pickled
vegetables such as freshpack pickles are produced without
heat processing.
Moreover, consumers insist upon the freshness of food
products. The demand for high-grade, mild (low salt and low
acid), refrigerated pickles has increased over the past 10 years,
and the pickling industry has responded with a range of
products. Overnight dills or refrigerated dills might be an
example of pickled products produced without heating. The
refrigerated dill is essentially a non-heated, well-acidified,
low-salt content, refrigerated green cucumber, containing one
or more preservatives with spices and flavouring. Typically,
overnight dills are made from the freshest cucumbers which
are washed and packed by hand into containers.
The cucumbers are then covered with a brine consisting
of water, acetic acid (vinegar), and salt The equilibration pH
desired is 4.2 to 4.3 with a titratable acidity of 0.3 to 0.5% as
acetic acid. Always dill, and usually garlic, along with other
flavouring agents, plus sodium benzoate as a preservative are
added. The containers are closed, cased, and moved to a
refrigerated warehouse. Overnight dills are kept refrigerated
in marketing channels until purchased by the consumer.
REFERENCES
Arnold, K. W., and C. W. Kaspar" "Starvation and stationary-
phaseinduced acid tolerance in Escherichia coli 01S7:H7," Appl.
Environ. Microbial., 1995, 61 :20372019.
Beuchat, L. R., "Synergistic effects of potassium sorbate dnd sodium
benzoate on thermal inactivation of yeasts," J Food Sci .. 1 g81a,
46:771-777.
Desrosier, N. W., The Technology oj Food Preservation, The A VI Publishing
Company, Inc. Westport, Connecticut, 1959, pp.52-98
Leistner, L., "Basic aspects of tood pre5ervation by hurdle technology,"
Int. J. Food Microbial, 55:181 186, 2000.
Matin, A., E. A. Auger, P. H. Blum, and J. E Schultz., "Genetil basis of
starvation survival in nondifterentiating bacteria," Annu. Rev.
Microbial., 1989, 43:293-316
12
Food Safety Risk Analysis
The importance of risk assessment lies not only in its ability
to estimate human risk, but also in its use as a framework for
organising data as well as for allocating responsibility for
analysis. Within common boundaries, it is important to
understand that risk assessment is a process that can include
a variety of models to reach conclusions. The concept of the
Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI), for example, may be
considered as a component of risk assessment, although a
notionally zero risk, when combined with exposure asses-
sments.
Common structure permits a transparent and relatively
uniform approach to the problem of providing useful infor-
mation to risk managers. Moreover, for the evaluators, it
provides a way to identify areas in which the available data
are insufficient to reach reasonable decisions. The use of a
common framework also facilitates harmonisation of food
safety evaluation processes among nations.
Risk assessment is seen primarily as a method of
systematically organising scientific and technical information,
and its associated uncertainties, to answer specific questions
about health risks. It requires evaluation of relevant inform-
ation, and selection of the models to be used in drawing
inferences from that information. Further, it requires explicit
recognition of uncertainties and, when appropriate,
acknowledgement that alternative interpretations of the
available data may be scientifically plausible. Risk assessment
is subject to uncertainties related to data and to the selection
of the appropriate model.
The process of risk assessment require& adequate
toxicological information preferably based on standardised
testing protocol which have been accepted by the international
community. Depending upon the chemical, empirically-based
answers to toxicological questions may be available for the
purpose of risk assessment However, in no case will the
scientific information be comprehensive enough to provide a
high degree of certainty. When several sets of animal
toxicology data are available, there are usually insufficient
data to identify the set that best predicts human response. As
a result, it has become traditional to rely on toxic' responses
which occur at the lowest dose in a study of acceptable quality.
Minimum data requirements for risk assessment are
difficult to specify in advance, Hazard, and
exposure data bases for substances that may become subjects
for risk assessment vary enormously in size, scope, and
quality. In some instances, the data may be very limited and
practically impossible to obtain. The latter i& especially the
case for contaminants and naturally occurring substances.
When a risk assessment is necessary, risk assessors are
required to make the best use of whatever information is
available, and to deal explicitly with data uncertainties. In
cases where this is not possible, risk assessors should provide
the reasons for such judgements. Perhaps the appropriate
option is to leave the question of minimum data requirements
open to such case-by-case judgements.
Other issues related to the process of risk assessment
include the use of default assumptions to fill knowledge and
data gaps. This provides the advantage of ensuring
consistency in approach and minimising or eliminating case-
by-case manipulation& of the conduct of risk assessment to
meet predetermined risk management objectives. One major
disadvantage, however, is the potential for displacement of
scientific judgement by rigid guidelines. One intermediate
approach is to allow risk assessors to replace defaults in
specific cases of chemicals for which relevant scientific data
Food Safety Risk Analysis 245
are available to support alternatives. Specific and explicit
justification for any such departures should be provided.
EFFECT OF HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
The goal of hazard identification is to identify potential
adverse health effects in humans associated with exposure to
a chemical, the likelihood of such effects occurring and the
certainty or uncertainty associated with such effects. The
hazard identification does not imply the quantitative
extrapolation of risk for exposed human population as in the
dose-response and risk characterisation step, but rather an
evaluation of the qualitative likelihood of the effect occurring
in exposed human population. Because data are often
insufficient, hazard identification is best conducted using the
weight-of-evidence approach.
The approach requires an adequate and documented
review of relevant scientific information obtained from
appropriate databases, peer-reviewed literature and, if
available, unpublished studies from other sources, such as
industry. This approach places emphasis on studies in the
following order: epidemiological studies, animal toxicological
studies, in vitro assays and, lastly, quantitative structure-
activity relationships.
Epidemiological Studies
Where data from positive epidemiological studies are
available, their use in the risk assessment process is
encouraged. Data derived from human clinical studies, where
they are available, should also be utilised in the hazard
identification step, as well as perhaps other steps. However,
clinical and epidemiological data are unlikely to be available
for most chemicals.
In addition, negative epidemiological data may be
difficult to interpret for risk assessment purposes because the
statistical power of most epidemiological studies is
inadequate to detect effects at relatively low levels in human
population. Finally, although the value of epidemiological
data is recognised, positive data indicate that an adverse effect
has already occurred; thus, risk management decisions should
not be delayed pending the development of epidemiological
studies. Epidemiological studies from which data for risk
assessment are derived should be based on recognised
standardised protocol.
During the design of epidemiological studies, or where
positive epidemiological data are available, consideration
must be given to the variability in human susceptibility;
genetic predisp'osition, age-related and gender-related
susceptibility, and the impacts of factors such as socio-
economic status, nutritional status, and other possibly
confounding factors. Due to the cost of epidemiological
studies and due to the paucity of data such studies provide,
hazard identification will ordinarily need to rely on data
derived from animal and in vitro studies.
Animal Studies
Most toxicological data for risk assessment are derived from
animal studies and it is, therefore, essential that these studies
be conducted following widely accepted, standardised testing
protocol. While many such protocol exist, e.g. OECD, EPA,
guidance is not available concerning the selection and use of
specific protocol for food safety risk assessment. Regardless
of which protocol are used, all studies should follow Good
Laboratory Practices (GLP) and standardised quality
assurance/quality control (QA/QC) procedures.
Adequate minimum data sets are generally available for
food safety risk assessment and should be used. These include
specification of the number of species/strains/stocks, use of
more than one sex, appropriate selection of doses, route of
exposure, and adequate sample size. In general, the source of
data (published studies, unpublished studies, corporate data,
etc.) is not a point of great concern as long as studies are
transparent and can be demonstrated to conform to GLP and
QA/QC procedures.
Animal data from long-term (chronic) studies are critical,
and should address significant toxicological effects/ end-
247
points, including cancer, reproductive/ developmental effects,
neurotoxic effects, immunotoxic effects, and others. Animal
data from short-term (acute) toxicity studies will also be useful
and should be generated. Animal studies should facilitate
identification of the range of toxicological effects/end-points
(including those listed). Data on the relationship between
toxicity and essentiality should be gathered for those
substances which are required to meet nutritional
requirements, e.g. copper, zinc, and iron. Animal toxicological
studies should be designed to identify a NOEL, a no-
observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) or a benchmark dose;
that is, doses should be selected to identify these end-points.
Doses should also be selected at levels high enough to
reduce the likelihood of false-negatives as much as possible,
while considering issues such as metabolic saturation,
cytogenic and mitogenic induced cell proliferation, etc.
Presently, the selection of the highest dose for chronic rodent
bioassays is being debated.
Animal studies should, where possible, identify not only
potential adverse effects for human health but also provide
information on the relevance of these effects for human risk.
Information on relevance may be provided by studies that
characterise the mechanism of action, the relationship
between administered and delivered dose, and by
pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies. Mechanistic
data may be supplemented by data from in vitro studies, such
as information on genotoxicity derived from reversion assays
or other similar assays. These studies should be conducted
following GLP, and other widely accepted protocol. However,
data from in vitro studies should not be used as the sole source
of information to predict human risk.
The results of in vivo and in vitro studies can enhance the
understanding of mechanisms and pharmacokinetics/
dynamics. However, such information may not be available
in many cases and the risk assessment process should not be
delayed pending development of mechanistic and
pharmacokinetic/ dynamic data.
248 Control and Analysi& for Food and Agricultural Products
Information on administered versus delivered dose will
be useful as part of the evaluation of mechanism and
pharmacokinetic data. The assessment should also consider
information on chemical speciation (administered dose) and
metabolite toxicity (delivered dose). As part of this
consideration, the issue of chemical bioavailability should be
addressed (bioavailabiIity of parent compound, metabolites,
etc.) with specific consideration given to absorption across the
appropriate membrane (Le., the gut), transport to systemic
circulation, and, ultimately, to the target organ Finally,
structure-activity relationships may be useful to increase the
weight-of-evidence for human health hazards identification.
Where classes of compounds are of interest and where
adequate toxicological data are available on one or more
members of the class, a toxic equivalence approach may be
useful to predict the human health hazard associated with
exposure to other members of the class,
CHARACTERISATION OF HAZARD
The chemicals in food being considered include food
additives, pesticides, veterinary drugs and contaminants.
They are often present in food at low Jevels--typically at a part
per million or less. However, to obtain adequate sensitivity,
animal toxicological studies must be conducted at high levels
which may exceed, depending on the intrinsic toxicity of the
chemical, several thousand parts per million. The significance
that the adverse effects detected in high-dose animal studies
have for low-dose human exposures is the major question
posed in the hazard characterisation of chemicals.
In order to be compared to human exposure leveb, animal
data need to be extrapolated to doses much lower than those
studied. This extrapolation procedure is uncertain both
qualitatively and quantitatively. The nature of the hazard may
change with dose or may disappear entirely. The selected
dose-response model may be incorrect if the nature of the
response in animals and humans is qualitatively the same. Not
only is the equivalent dose estimate in animals and humans
249
a problem in comparative pharmacokinetics, but also is the
change in metabolism with dose.
The metabolism of chemicals at high and low doses may
differ. For example, high doses often overwhelm normal
detoxification/metabolism pathways and produce adverse
effects that would not occur at lower levels. High doses can
induce higher rates of enzyme production, physiological
changes and dose related pathological changes. The
toxicologist must consider the potential impact of these and
other possible dose-related changes on the extrapolation of the
adverse effect to lower doses.
Toxicologically equivalent doses in animals and humans
is a debatable issue. JECFA and JMPR have typically used mg
per kg of body weight for interspecies scaling. Recently
regulatory authorities in the USA have proposed a scaling
equivalent to mg per 3/4 kg of body weight, which is based
on more recent pharmacokinetic information. The ideal
scaling factor would be obtained by measuring tissue
concentrations and clearance rates in the target organ of the
animal and human; blood levels would approximate this
ideal. Generic interspecies scaling factors should be
recognised as default values that are used in the absence of
better information, which is seldom available.
Traditionally, toxicologists have accepted the existence of
thresholds for adverse effects with the exception of
carcinogenicity. The tradition extends from the early 1940s
when it became evident that the initiating event in
carcinogenesis could be a somatic mutation. In theory, a few
molecules, even a single molecule, could cause a mutation that
could persist in the animal or human and ultimately be
expressed as a tumour. Theoretically, there may be no safe
dose for a carcinogen that acts through this mechanism.
In recent years it has been possible to discriminate
between carcinogens and to identify a category of non-
genotoxic carcinogens that are themselves not capable of
producing mutations but act at later stages of the cancer
process on cells already II initiated " by other carcinogens or
other processes e.g. radiation. In contrast, other carcinogens
induce genetic alterations in somatic cells with activation of
oncogenes and/or inactivation of cancer suppressor genes.
Thus, genotoxic carcinogens are defined as chemicals which
can cause genetic alterations in target cells, either directly or
indirectly.
While the major target of genotoxk carcinogens is genetic
material, non-genotoxk carcinogens act at extra-genetic sites,
leading presumably to enhanced cell proliferation and/or
sustained hyperfunction/ dysfunction at the target sites.
Regarding species differencef- in carcinogenic effects, a large
body of data has been reportf'd indicating that quantitative
differences exist in both genotoxk carcinogens and non-
genotoxic carcinogens In addition, certain non-genotoxic
carcinogens, called rodent-specific carcinogens can be raised
as examples of substance& for which there an' qualitative
differences in the ultimate carcinogenic effects. In contrast, no
such clear-cut examples have been reported for genotoxk
carcinogens.
Toxicologists and geneticists have devised tests to detect
chemicals capable of causing mutations in DNA; the Ames test
is a well known example. Several such tests, both in vitro and
in vivo tests are used, typically in the form of a battery, to
determine the mutagenic potential of chemicals. While the
exact tests to include in such a battery may be debatable, in
general these tests have been useful in distinguishing between
genotoxic and non-genotoxk carcinogens.
Food safety authorities in many countries now make a
distinction between genotoxic and non-genotoxic carcinogens.
While this distinction cannot be applied in all instances due
to insufficient information or knowledge on carcinogenesis,
the concept can still contribute to the establishment of
evaluation strategies for cancer riSK':; posed by exposure to
chemicals. In principle, non-genotoxic carcinogens may be
regulated using a threshold approach, such as the "NOEL-
safety factor" approach.
A safe level or Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) is derived
from an experimental NOEL or NOAEL by applying
appropriate safety factors. The conceptual basis for their use
is that thresholds will exist at reasonably comparable doses in
both humans and experimental animals. For humans,
however, sensitivity may be greater, genetic outbreeding may
be larger and dietary habits may be more variable. As a
consequence, a safety factor is applied by JECFA and JMPR
to take into account these uncertainties.
A safety factor of 100 is typically applied when data from
long-term animal studies are available but other safety factors
are used by different health agencies. JECFA also uses a larger
safety factor when the data are minimal or when the ADI is
assigned on a temporary basis. Other health agencies adjust
the ADI for the severity or irreversibility of the effect. These
differences in ADI values constitute an important risk
management issue which deserves some attention by
appropriate international bodies.
The message communicated with an ADI is that there is
no significant risk if the chemical is ingested at or below the
AD!. The safety factor, as indicated, is selected to subsume
anticipated variations in human responses. It is, of course,
theoretically possible that some individuals are even more
sensitive than provided for by the safety factor.
Another approach to ADI development has been to move
away from reliance on the NOEL/NOAEL and toward the use
of a lower effective dose, such as ED 10 or ED05. This
approach, called the benchmark dose, draws more heavily on
data near the observed dose-response range, but is still subject
to the application of safety factors. Thus, while it may allow
a more accurate prediction of low dose risk, the benchmark
dose-based ADI may not differ significantly from a NOELl
NOAEL-based AD!. Special population groups, like children,
are protected by an appropriate choice of the intraspecies
conversion factor and by special consideration of their
exposures, if necessary.
For genotoxic carcinogens, the "NOEL-safety factor"
approach is generally not considered a suitable method for
setting acceptable intake levels. The consensus is predicated
252 Control and Analysis for Food and Agricultural Produds
on the anticipated presence of risk at all doses, even the
lowest. At this point, two management approaches are
available:
to ban the chemical from commercial use, or
to establish a level of risk that is sufficiently small to be
deemed negligible, insignificant or societally
acceptable.
The implementation of this Latter approach has given rise to
quantitative risk assessment for carcinogens. Various
extrapolation models have been utilised for this purpose.
Currently models use experimental measurements of tumour
incidence and dose and virtually no other biological
information. None of these models have been validated
beyond the experimental range. No correction for high dose
toxicity, enhanced cellular proliferation, or DNA repair is
made. For these reasons, the current linear models are
considered to be conservative estimates of risk. This is usually
expressed by characterising the risks generated by such
models as "plausible upper bounds" or "worst-case
estimates" .
It is acknowledged by many regulatory a g e n c i e ~ that
actual or probable human risks are not being predicted Some
countries attempt to reduce the conservatism inherent in
linear extrapolation by using non-linear models. An essential
component of this approach is the determination of an
acceptable risk level. In the USA, FDA and EPA have chosen
a risk level of one in a million (10{i). This acceptable level was
chosen because it was considered to represent an insignificant
risk. But the choice of a risk level is ultimately a risk
management decision for each country to decide.
For food additives and residues of pesticides and
veterinary drugs, a fixed level of risk is practical as the
substances can be disallowed if the estimated risk exceeds the
regulatory acceptable level. But for contaminants, including
discontinued pesticides which have become environmental
contaminants, an established acceptable level can easily be
exceeded.
INFLUENCE OF EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Estimates of dietary intakes of food additives, residues of
pesticides and veterinary drugs and contaminants require
information on the consumption of relevant foods and the
concentrations of the chemical of interest in those foods. In
general, three approaches are available in exposure
assessment:
total diet studies;
selective studies of individual foods, and;
duplicate portion studies.
Guidelines for the study of dietary intakes of chemical
contaminants are available from WHO. In recent years, direct
monitoring of human tissues and body fluids has been
increasingly used to assess exposure. For example, the
determination of levels of organochlorine compounds in
breast milk, which are mainly derived from the diet, has
provided an integrated assessment of human exposure to
these substances.
Dietary intake determinations can be relatively straight-
forward for additives, pesticides and veterinary drugs as the
relevant foods and their use levels are specified by their
approved conditions of use. However, the actual levels of
additives and residues of pesticides and veterinary drugs
present in foods are often well below the maximum levels
permitted. In regard to residues of pesticides and veterinary
drugs, levels on or in food are often totally absent because only
a portion of the crop/animal population is usually treated.
Data on the levels of food additives in foodstuffs can be
obtained from the manufacturers. The dietary intake of
contaminants requires information on their distribution in
foods that can only be obtained by analysing representative
samples of foods with sufficiently sensitive and reliable
analytical methods. Guidelines for establishing or
strengthening national food contamination monitoring
programmes have been elaborated.
Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) for pesticides and
veterinary drugs and Maximum Levels for additives can be
established from their conditions of use. In the simplest case,
a food additive used at a specific level would be stable in the
food until consumption. The Maximum Level would then
equal the intake level. However, in many cases, the amount
of the chemical ofinterest may change prior to consumption.
For example, food additives may degrade during storage or
react with the food. Pesticide residues in raw agricultural
products may degrade/accumulate during further
processing. The fate of veterinary drug residuet-. in food
products is influenced by metabolism, kinetics, distribution
and withdrawal periods required for treated animals.
The establishment of MRLs must take into account any
changes in the nature or level of the residue that may occur
prior to a commodity entering commerce or that may occur
under any anticipated conditions of subsequent use.
Contaminants have no intended technlcological effect in the
food and guideline levels are usually set as low as reasonably
achievable.
The theoretical total dietary intake of additives, pesticides
and veterinary drugs must be below their corresponding
ADIs. Frequently, the actual intake is well below the ADI.
Setting guideline levels for contaminants present special
problems. There is usually a paucity of data to establish a
provisional tolerable intake. On occasion, the levels of the
contaminants are higher than what an established provisional
tolerable intake would permit. In these cases, the guideline
levels are set on economic and/or technical considerations.
Reliable food intake data are essential for exposure
assessments based on measuring levels of chemical agents in
food. Detailed food consumption data for the average and
median consumer as well as for different population groups
are important for assessing exposure, particularly by sensitive
groups. In addition, comparable food consumption data,
particularly with respect to staple foods from different regions
of the world are essential for developing an international risk
assessment approach to food safety.
GEMS/Food currently maintains a database of five
regional diets as well as a composite "global" diet. Daily
dietary intakes of nearly 250 individual primary and semi-
processed food commodities are available. The African, Asian,
East Mediterranean, European and Latin American regional
diets are based on selected national data from FAO Food
Balance Sheets. Consumption data derived using this
approach provide no information on extreme consumers. No
information is available in GEMS/Food on the intake of food
additives although intakes in developed countries are
anticipated to be greater than in developing countries because
of the higher portion of processed foods in the diet.
Risk Characterisation
The outcome of the risk characterisation is an estimate of the
likelihood of adverse health effects in human population as a
consequence of the exposure. The risk characterisation is
performed by taking into consideration the results of the
hazard identification, hazard characterisation, and exposure
assessment. For threshold acting agents, population risk is
characterised by comparison of the ADI (or other measures)
with exposure. In this case, the likelihood of adverse health
effects is notionally zero when exposure is less than the AD!.
For non-threshold acting agents, population risk is the
product of exposure and potency.
At the risk characterisation step, the uncertainties
involved in each step of the risk assessment process should
be described. Uncertainty in risk characterisation will reflect
the uncertainties in the preceding steps. The extrapolation of
results of animal studies to the human situation may produce
two types of uncertainties:
uncertainties with respect to the relevance of the
experimental findings to the humans. For example,
forestomach tumours in rats fed butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA) and neurotoxic effects in mice
produced by aspartame may not have human parallels;
and,
uncertainties with respect to specific human sensitivity
for effects of a chemical that cannot be studied in
experimental animals.
In this case, hypersensitivity to glutamate is an example" In
practice, these uncertainties are dealt with by expert
judgement and by additional studies, preferably in humans
These studies may be performed during the pre-marketing
phase as well as during the post-marketing phase,
BIOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Food will always present some minimal hiologicaJ risk and it
is the task of the food industry to maintain the level of risk
at the minimum which is practical and technologically
feasible. It should be the role of official bodies to use risk
analysis to determine realistic and achievable risk levels for
food borne hazards and to base food safety policies on the
practical application of the results of these analyses. Biological
agents (hazards) of concern to public health include
pathogenic strains of bacteria, viruses, helminths, protozoal
algae, and certain toxic products they may produce.
Of these hazards, the presence of pathogenic bacteria in
foods currently presents the most significant problems
internationally. The analysis of risk associated with bacterial
pathogens presents unique features for risk assessment. There
is a need to ensure these hazards are eliminated or reduced
to an acceptable level and the CAC and its subsidiary bodies
have elaborated a multitude of standards and Codes of
Practice which contain pro('edures designed to address this
issue. However, the need for a more formal approach to the
process of controlling biological hazard& has been recognised
by Codex. In adopting the Codex text on the Hazard Analysis
Critical Control Point (HACCP) system, the CAC
acknowledged that the HACCP system was the most cost-
effective method devised to date for controlling foodborne
hazards.
HACCP is a system which identifies specific hazards and
preventative measures for their control. The seven principles
of HACCP, as adopted by Codex, establish the framework for
developing specific HACCP plans for each food product/
production line combination. When developing a specific
HACCP plan, the identification of all potential hazards which
are "of such a nature that their elimination or reduction to
acceptable levels is essential to the production of a safe food"
is required. However, the determination of which potential
hazards are "essential" to control, will involve a risk-based
hazard assessment. This hazard assessment will result in a list
of the significant hazards which should be addressed within
the HACCP plan.
Biological Hazards
Risk assessment is the scientific evaluation of the known or
potential adverse health effects resulting from human
exposure to foodborne hazards. It provides an estimate of the
severity and likelihood of harm resulting from exposure to a
hazard. When one is considering public health risks posed by
chemical or biological hazards in food, the objective of a
quantitative risk assessment is to derive a mathematical
statement, based on the probability of certain, events, of the
chance of adverse health consequences resulting from
exposure to an agent capable of causing harm. Possible
approaches for conducting a risk assessment for foodborne
pathogens include probabalistic scenario analysis, fault tree
analysis, event tree analysis and following the quantitative
risk assessment paradigm proposed for chemicals.
Biological hazards may act through two general
mechanisms in causing human illness. One mode of action is
to produce toxins which may cause effects that range from
mild symptoms of short duration to severe intoxications that
can have long-term or life-threatening consequences. The
second mode of action is to produce pathological responses
that result from ingestion of viable organisms capable of
infecting the host. Threshold levels for concern are easier to
quantify in the former case.
In these cases, as with certain other biological agents, a
quantitative risk assessment may be possible. When
considering hazards from pathogenic bacteria, however, a
qualitative risk assessment may be the only feasible method
currently available to derive an assessment of the severity and
the likelihood of harm associated with exposure through
ingestion of a food. However, both the quantitative and
qualitative methods will depend on the typE' and quality of
information developed during the risk assessment process.
While the bask steps are the same, their application will
be different when conducting a qualitativE' assessment, as the
analyst will not have the information necessary to develop a
mathematical estimate of the probability and/ or severity of an
adverse consequence. When assessing risk for some biological
agents, sufficient data may be available to conduct a
quantitative analysis. However, the analyst will find that in
most cases the many uncertainties associated with how and
when an organism may. express pathogenic potential will
make a quantitative assessment impractical
In the absence of quantitative data to develop an exposure
assessment, measurement of hazard levels at particular
process steps, or segments of .the production chain, may
provide a qualitative indication of likely risks to consumers.
In this respect comparative studies on biological hazard levels
and qualitative estimates of the likely effects of differences to
human health can be used.
Bacterial Hazards
The analysis of risk associated with bacterial pathogens
presents unique challenges. Any method used to assess the
risk of hazards from foodbome bacteria will be complicated
by factors resulting from methods used to grow, process, store
and prepare food for consumption, These can vary greatly
depending on cultural and geographical differences. Such
factors describe the scenario set for a given food and are an
essential element in a risk assessment for bacterial hazards. In
many cases sufficient data will not be available to support a
quantitative assessment of risk associated with pathogenic
bacteria. The following present an indication of the type of
challenges that make quantitative risk assessment difficult for
pathogenic bacteria associated with foods.
Hazard Identification
Bacterial agents known to cause foodborne disease have been
identified by using epidemiological and other data to link the
organism and its source to illness. However, as only a limited
number of outbreaks are adequately investigated, it is likely
that a number of bacterial pathogens in food remain to be
identified. Limitations on hazard identification include,
the expense and difficulty involved in outbreak
investigations;
the lack of reliable or complete epidemiological data;
and,
the inability to isolate and characterize new pathogens.
Hazard Characterisation
The purpose of this step is to provide a qualitative or
quantitative estimate of the severity and duration of adverse
effects due to the presence of a pathogen in food. Dose
response data are useful when addressing toxigenic bacteria.
However, when characterising hazards from invasive strains
of pathogenic bacteria, such information may be of little
utility. For many foodborne pathogenic bacteria, dose-
response data are limited or non-existent. Information on
which to base dose-response estimates is difficult to obtain
and may also be inaccurate for a variety of reasons, such as:
host susceptibility to pathogenic bacteria is highly
variable;
attack rates from a specific pathogen vary widely;
virulence of a pathogenic species is highly variable;
pathogenicity is subject to genetic variation resultant
from frequent mutation;
antagonism from other bacteria in foods or the digestive
system may influence pathogenicity; and,
foods will modulate the ability of bacteria to infect and/
or otherwise affect the host
Exposure Assessment
An exposure assessment will give an estimate of either the
number of pathogenic bacteria or the It'vel of bacterial toxin
consumed in food. While levels of cht'mical agent,,> in food
may change slightly due to processing, population of bacterial
pathogens are dynamic and may increase or decrease
dramatically in food matrices Changes in population of
bacteria are affected by complex interactions of factors such
as those listed below:
ecology of the bacterial pathogen of concern;
processing, packaging and storing of food;
preparation steps, such a ~ cooking, which may
inactivate bacterial agents; and,
cultural factors relating to consumers.
Risk Characterisation
Characterising the risk associated with biological pathogens
will depend on the considerations and information described
in the hazard identification, hazard characterisation and
exposure assessment steps. A risk characterisation will result
in a qualitative or quantitative estimate of the potential for
adverse effects from a particular bacterial agent on a specific
population. It has not yet been determined whether a
quantitative risk assessment approach is possible and
appropriate for characterisation of risk associated with
foodborne bacterial pathogens. Thus, by default, thE'
qualitative approach to characterising risk may be the only
current alternative.
The qualitative risk assessment process depends on
experience with a specific food, a knowledge of ecology of
bacterial pathogens, epidemiological datd, and expert
judgement regarding hazarcb associated with the manner in
which the food is produCE'd, processed, stored, and prepared
for consumption.
261
OTHER BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
The steps in risk assessment for biological hazards other than
bacteria that must be followed, for example, to provide input
into HACCP plans. The variations come within the steps
where the particular properties of the biological agents
sometimes make the assessment more simple or more difficult
in terms of developing quantitative data. The factors that
complicate risk assessment for foodbome biological hazards
(other than bacterial hazards) vary, but are not as great as
those for bacterial hazards, as the agents typically do not
increase in number when in food.
Role of the CAC in Risk Assessment
Through the CAC and its subsidiary bodies, standards,
guidelines and recommendations are elaborated which are
designed to address food safety issues related to biological,
chemical, and physical hazards. Risk assessment is a key to
developing meaningful food safety standards. For the
chemical hazards, standards are generally expressed in
numerical values based on scientifically derived Acceptable
Daily Intake levels. In the case of biological hazards, Codex
has elaborated standards, guidelines and recommendations
which describe processes and procedures, the application of
which supposedly eliminates hazards or reduces them to
acceptable levels.
For many of the procedures, there is little quantitative data
or other scientific evidence to link specific procedures with
potential biological hazards, or with a specific health outcome.
These linkages are necessary to enable validation of
procedures and processes in standards and Codes that might
come before the WTO in adjudicating disputes on food safety
measures.
The current procedures and processes contained in Codex
standards, guidelines and recommendations do not permit a
comparison of relative risk or comparative risk between food
safety hazards. There is no established means of comparing
chemical hazards with biological hazards, or for comparing
262 Control and Analysis fo:! food and Agrirultural Products
biological hazards. This may result in the choice of alternatives
which increase overall health risk associated with the food.
Uncertainity and Variability in the Risk Assessment Process
As applied to hazardous agpnts in food, health-risk
assessment is a quantitative evaluation of information on
potential health hazards from exposHrt' to various agents dnd
involves four inter-related s t e p ~ dL')C'u.<;sed earlier, namely,
hazard identification;
hazard characterisation;
exposure assessment, and;
risk characterisation.
There are many sources of both uncertainty and variability in
the process of human health-risk assessment While effective
risk management policies are possible under conditions of
both uncertainty and variability, such policies must take both
into account. An uncertainty analysis is an important
component of risk characterisation" It provide1> a quantitative
estimate of value ranges for an outcome, such as estimated
numbers of health effects. lhe ranges in the outcome are
attributable to the variance and uncertainties in data and the
uncertainties in the structure of any models used to define the
relationship between exposure and adverse health effects.
Uncertainty and Variability
One of the issues in uncertainty analysis that must be
confronted is how to distinguish between the relative
contribution of variability and true uncertainty to the
characterisation of predicted population risk. Variability
refers to quantities that are distributed within a defined
population, such as: food consumption rates, exposure
duration, and expected lifetime. These are inherently variable
and cannot be represented by a single value, so that we can
only determine their moments with precision.
In contrast, true uncertainty or model-specification error
refers to a parametel that has a single value, which cannot be
known with precision due to measurement or estimation
263
error. Variability and true uncertainty may be formally
classified as follows:
Type A uncertainty that is due to stochastic variability
with respect to the reference unit of the assessment
question, and;
Type B uncertainty that is due to lack of knowledge
about items that are invariant with respect to the
reference unit of the assessment question.
There are situations in which true (Type B) uncertainty is
negligible relative to variability (Type A uncertainty). In these
situations, the outcome of a variance propagation analysis
represents the expected statistical variation in dose or risk
among the exposed population. When neither variability nor
uncertainty are negligible, the shape of the distributional
curve representation of variability is unknown because of
uncertain ties.
Model Uncertainty and Input (parameter) Uncertainty
Uncertainty in model predictions arises from a number of
sources, including specification of the problem, formulation of
conceptual and computational models, estimation of input
values, and calculation, interpretation, and documentation of
the results. Of these, only uncertainties due to estimation of
input values can be quantified with variance propagation
techniques. Uncertainties that arise from mis-specification of
the model can be assessed using decision trees and event trees
based on elicitation of expert opinions. In some cases, using
methods such as meta-analysis, model specification errors can
be handled using simple variance propagation methods.
Nature of Models
Because the magnitude of chemical or microbial risks
attributable to food can rarely be measured, such outcomes
are estimated using models or projections from historical data.
Exposure-effect models range from simple "rule-of-thumb"
models to complex stochastic models. The reliability of these
models is determined by the precision of the inputs and the
accuracy with which the model captures the relevant
264 Control and Analysis fOt" Food and Agricultural Products
biological, chemical, and physical processes. Uncertainty
analysis can be used to assess how model predictions are
impacted by model reliability and data precision.
Addressing Model Uncertainty
When there is uncertainty about the appropriate scenario OJ
model, techniques can be used to asses& the implication of
alternate models on the predicted outcome. Methods such as
probability trees, event trees, and fault trees can be used to
portray the multiple events leading to the outcome of interest
An event tree starts with some initiating event and contains
all the possible outcomes. The probability associated with
each event may be represented hy a probability distribution.
The strengths of this approach include the visual portrayal of
all the potential scenarios and the use of probability
distributions as interpretations of relevant evidence.
Representing and Propagating Input Variance
Describing uncertainty in the risk involves quantification of
the arithmetic mean value, the arithmetic or geometric
standard deviation, and upper and Lower quantile values of
risk. Convenient tools for presenting such information are the
probability density function or the cumulative distribution
function for risk. However, the probability density function or
cumulative density function of risk can often only be obtained
when there are meaningful estimates of the probability
distributions of the input variables used to estimate risk. There
are five steps in an uncertainty analysis:
identify inputs that could contribute to uncertainty in
the predictions of a model;
construct a probability density function to define the
values that an input parameter can take;
account for dependencies (correlations) among input
parameters;
propagate the uncertainties through the model to
generate a probability density function of the outcome
values; and,
derive confidence limits and intervals from the
probability density function of predicted values of the
outcome variable.
The relationship between variance in model parameter inputs
and the variance in the model predictions are estimated using
variance propagation methods. Exact analytical, approximate
analytical, and statistical simulation methods are available
that can be used to propagate variance.
Uncertainty and Variability in Hazard Identification
The hazard identification step involves the determination that
a health hazard is or may be associated with a biological,
chemical, or physical agent present in foods. The step is
generally based on screening methods and short and long-
term cell or animal assays. Some examples and assay systems
include quantitative structure-activity relationships, short-
term bioassays, and animal bioassays. This step provides a
dichotomous answer-that is, the factor is or is not thought
to be a human health hazard. The uncertainty involves the
correct classification of the agent (Le., it is or is not a human
health hazard) and performance of the assay in classification
of the agent.
If the agent is evaluated in the assay multiple times, it is
predicted to be either positive or negative with a certain
degree of precision that is related to the performance of the
assay. For example, one assay used to determine if a chemical
is a mutagen is the Ames bacterial revertant assay.
Uncertainty associated with the analysis of a chemical in this
assay derives from knowing whether the assay is actually
capable of predicting whether a positive response (or negative
response) means that the chemical is capable (or incapable) of
producing cancer in humans. The performance of the assay
involves determining how the same chemical is characterised
if analysed in this assay system at several different times and
in different assay systems.
Three issues are considered potentially significant
contributions to uncertainty and variability in hazard
identification. First, is the misclassification of an
identification of an agent as a hazard when it is not or the
reverse. Second, is the issue of the reliability of the screening
method both for appropriately identifying a hazard and the
reliability of the assays to give the same result each time the
assay is performed.
Third, is the issue of extrapolation because all screening
methods are used to extrapolate the information provided by
the test to predict human hazards. Epidemiological studies are
used to predict the impact of exposures on human population
in the future. As an example, in epIdemiological studies, the
extent of the extrapolation needed to predict health hazards
for future human population is generally minimal; whereas,
other assays have substantially greater need for extrapolation
to produce predictions of potential adverse health effects for
human population.
Uncertainty and Variability in Hazard Characterisation
Hazard characterisation is the process of defining the site,
mechanism of action and at minimum the dose-response
(proportion responding or severity of response) relationship.
In this step, it is likely that a series of models may be
developed. The modeb vary from purely mathematical
representations to biologically-based representations. As a
result, each has varying degrees of representation of the actual
human disease process and as a result varying degrees of
uncertainty.
Model uncertainty is likely to be an important issue in the
hazard characterisation step. Mathematical dose-response
relationships have the greatest uncertainty in actual repres-
entation of the biological processes. Despite the admitted large
uncertainty, dose-response models are currently the most
commonly used methods for predicting human health effects
and have often proved useful in establishing policy. As
interest in risk assessment has grown, the sophistication of the
models, including the accuracy and completeness of their
representation of the biological processes, has also grown.
An important issue of both variability and uncertainty that
arises in hazard characterisation is in the variance in the dose-
response at the dosage levels for the species studied. To
increase power and the value of a negative study, typically
large exposures are used in bioassays. These exposures are
generally substantially greater than usual human exposures.
That means that models including exposure response
information gathered at high exposures may not be accurate
at the low exposure levels of concern for human risk
assessment. In addition, there is variance by animals in
response at a given dose, despite the fact that most
experimental animals are generally inbred and expected to be
genetically identical. If outbred animals are used, the
variability in the dose response relationship is expected to be
larger, and if humans are exposed, the variance is also
expected to be large.
Another issue of both uncertainty and variability that
arises in hazard characterisation is the need to extrapolate
between species. Approaches used for extrapolation between
species include both uncertainty about the appropriate model
for performing the extrapolation as well as variability in the
parameters used for extrapolation.
Uncertainty and Variability in Exposure Assessment
Any model used to represent exposure should include several
pieces of information:
the level of an agent measured in a commodity or the
levels measured in soil, plants, or animals that supply
this commodity;
the depletion/concentration ratio which defines
changes in the level of an agent as a result of processing,
preparation, and dilution;
the frequency and magnitude of human intake of a
commodity;
the duration of contact or the fraction of a lifetime
during which an individual is exposed to a commodity;
and,
the averaging time for the type of health effects under
consideration to be clinically detectable.
These factors typically converge in the process of defining the
distribution of population exposure. The population at risk for
exposure refers to the population that consumes food
containing the hazard. An exposure assessment is the key
input to the assessment of dose, which reflects the amount of
the agent delivered to the target organ or tissue, where the
adverse effect can be induced
Defining exposure pathwaYb is an important component
of the exposure assessment. An exposure pathway is the
course a biological, chemical, or physical agent takes from a
known source to an exposed individuaL In the case of agents
in food, concentrations of chemicals and/or organisms can
change between what is measured in soil, plants, animals and
raw food and what is ingested by an individual.
In the case of chemicals, there can be some increases of
contaminant concentration due to process (Le. distillation),
but more likely the storage, processing and preparation of the
food product will result in d reduction of contaminant
concentration. For organisms, there might be significant
increases of microbe or contaminant concentration due to
replication under favourable environmental conditions. Thus,
significant uncertainties might be expected in the ratio of the
concentration of a bacterial agent in food at the time of
consumption to the concentration measured in raw foods or
measured in animals, plants, or soil.
REFERENCES
Covello VT, Merkhofer MW Risk assessme1lt methods: approaches for assessing
Morgan MG, Henrion M Uncertainty: A guide to dealing with uncertainty
in quantitative risk and policy analysis, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1990.
of Hazardous Air Pollutants, Board on EnvironmflltaJ Studies and
Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington DC, 1994.
Bibliography
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Index
Acceptable Daily Intake (AD!)
243,250
Active Oxygen Method (AOM)
110
American Oil Chemists Society
(AOCS) 12
Association of Official Analytical
Chemists (AOAC) 53
BabcQck method 96
Chain traceability 220
Chemical spoilage 223
Critical Control Points (CCP) 217
Critical yield stress 175
Differential Scanning Calorimetry
(DSC) 149
Differential Thermal Analysis
(DTA) 156
Directorate of Fisheries (DOF)
216
Education act
Electromagnetic radiation 164
Endothermic process 152
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) 2
Evaporation methods 138
Exothermic process 152
Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAMEs)
103
Fish industry trades 221
Fluorescence spectroscopy 165
Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) 2
Food safety authorities 250
Generic interspecies scaling
factors 249
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP)
246
Good Manufacturing Practices
(GMP) 215,219
Gravimetric instruments 154
Hazard Analysis Critical Control
Point (HACCP) 256
Hazard identification 245,262
Intra-unit variation 58
Iodine Value (IV) 104
Liquid extraction methods 95
Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs)
254
Multiplication rule 64
National Marine Fisheries Service
(NMFS) 2
Non-polar solvents 92
Nuclear energy levels 161
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
(NMR) 106
Official analytical techniques 4
Organic solvent 92
Pathogenic bacteria 259
Qualitative risk assessment
process 260
Quality assurance laboratory 7
Quality Index Method (QIM) 226
Rheological equipment 187
Rheological properties 179
Rheological thermal analysis
techniques 156
Rodent-specific carcinogens 250
Sampling plan 52
Semi-continuous solvent extrac-
tion methods 93
Sinusoidal variation 162
Solid Fat Content (SFC) 110
Solvent extraction techniques 91
Specific heat capacities 158
Specific Spoilage Organisms (550)
225
Spectroscopy techniques 168
Standard Sanitation Operational
Procedures (SSOP) 215
Statistical techniques 60
Thermal analytical techniques
153
Thermogravimetric techniques
148
Thin Layer Chromatography
(TLC) 102
Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive
Substances (TBARS) 109
Tirne-Temperature Indicators
(TTl) 225
Total Viable Count (rvC) 225
Total Volatile Bases (TVB) 225
Toxicologically equivalent doses
249
United States Department of
Agriculture (USDA) 2
Vibrational energy levels 164
Viscoelastic materials 182

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