BASIC THERMODYNAMICS 2018

MODULE 2

OBJECTIVES: Study the basic laws of thermodynamics including, conservation of mass,

conservation of energy or first law of Thermodynamics and second law of Thermodynamics.
STRUCTURE:
2.1 First law of Thermodynamics;
2.1.1 Joule’s Experiment
2.1.2 First law applied to closed system undergoing non-cyclic process:
2.1.3 Energy a Property of the System
2.1.4 Modes of Energy
2.1.5 First law applied to various TD processes
2.1.6 Extension of the First law to control volume
2.1.7 Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) and its important applications
2.1.8 Important applications of SFEE

2.1 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

2.1.1 Joule’s Experiment:

Joules Paddle wheel experiment setup

 Experimental apparatus consists of insulated cylindrical calorimeter, Spindle consisting of

Paddles, Weights, Pulley, String, Thermometer and a Handle.
 A known mass of water M1 was taken inside the calorimeter

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 By rotating the handle the weights where raised through a height „h‟, again by rotating the handle
in the reverse direction the weights where allowed to fall down through same height „h‟.
 The falling weights rotated the spindle and thereby stirring the water contained in the calorimeter
as a result mechanical energy was converted into heat & the temperature of the water increased.
 The process was repeated and noted the raise in temperature in each case and found that work
transfer is directly proportional to Heat transfer. By conducting a series of experiments joule
found that when the falling weights lost 4.186kJ of Mechanical Energy a temperature of 1kg of
water raised by 1°C.
 Thus potential energy of the falling masses was converted into kintetic energy and finally into
heat energy

2.1.2 First law applied to closed system undergoing non-cyclic process:

W

Q SYSTEM

“If a system undergoes a change of state during which both heat transfer and work transfer are
involved, the net energy transfer will be stored or accumulated within the system.”
If Q is the amount of heat transferred to the system and W is the work transferred from the system during
the process, then,

The Energy in storage is neither heat nor work, but is given the name internal energy.
If more than one heat transaction and more than one work transaction are happening at the same time on a
system then,
(Q1+Q2+Q3) = (W1+W2+W3) + ΔE

2.1.3 Energy a Property of the System:

Existence of property

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Consider a system undergoing a cycle, changing from state1 to state2 by process A and returning from
state2 to state1 by process B.
Then, we have from First law of Thermodynamics,
∮ ∮
For the process 1-A-2-B-1
∮ ∮ ∮ ∮
Now, consider another cycle 1-A-2-C-1, for this process we can write,
∮ ∮ ∮ ∮
Now, eqn (1) – eqn (2) gives,
∮ ∮ ∮ ∮
by rearranging, we get,
∮ ∮
Hence, we can say that the quantity is same for processes between state1 and state2. This
value depends only on end states and not on the path it follows.
Therefore,
is a point function and hence, a property of the system.
If it is integrated between the state1 and state2, we get,
Q1-2 - W1-2 = E2 - E1

2.1.4: Modes of Energy:

The property E (stored energy) in the first law of TD equation represents the sum of energy
transfers across the boundary. This may present in any forms of energy namely, Kinetic energy, Potential
energy, Chemical energy, Electrical energy etc.
However, in Thermodynamics it is a practice to consider Kinetic and Potential energies separately and
group all other types under one category known as Internal energy (U). Thus,
E= Internal energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy
In the absence of motion and gravity effect further E reduces to Internal energy only in Thermodynamics.
Hence the First law for a Non-flow process can be written as

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2.1.5: First law applied to various TD processes.

2.1.5a: Constant Volume Process:

We Know that, Work done= Zero for a constant volume process from state1 to state2,
From First law, 2
∫ ∫ ∫

or, Q1-2 = W1-2 + U2-U1

Q1-2 = U2 - U1 ………. Change in Internal energy

2.1.5b: Constant Pressure Process:

We know that for a Constant pressure process, Work done is W1-2 = P (V2-V1)
From First law,
∫ ∫ ∫
Q1-2 = P(V2-V1) + U2-U1
= (U2+P2V2) – (U1-P1V1)

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Q1-2= H2 - H1 ……Change in Enthalpy

2.1.5c: Constant Temperature process (PV=Constant):

We know that work done W1-2 = P1V1 ln(V2/V1)

From First law,
∫ ∫ ∫
Q1-2 = P1V1 ln(V2/V1) + mCv(T2 - T1) but, T1 = T2

Therefore, Q1-2 = P1V1 ln(V2/V1) = Work done

2.1.5d: Adiabatic Process. (PVγ = Constant)

We know that, Work done =

From First law,
∫ ∫ ∫

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But, Q1-2 = 0
Therefore, 0 = W1-2 + U2 – U1)
or Work done = Change in Internal energy

2.1.5e: Polytropic process (PVn = Constant):

Polytropic process

We Know that, Work done =W1-2 = and δU = mCv(T2-T1)

From First law of TD,
∫ ∫ ∫
Substituting and simplifying we get,

or Polytropic Work done

2.1.6: Extension of the First law to control volume:

Control Volume:
It is defined as any volume of fixed shape, position and orientation relative to the observer.
Comparison and differences between Control Volume and Closed system
Comparison:
Both Control Volume and Closed system are derived from the concept of boundary.

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Differences:
1) The Closed system boundary may(usually) change its shape relative to the observer, where as
control volume does not change.
2) Mass usually crosses the control volume, where as it does not cross the boundary in a closed
system.

Steady Flow process:

Steady Flow Process means that the rate of flow of Mass and Energy across the control volume
are constant.
Mass/Energy entering the Control volume per unit time is equal to Mass/Energy leaving the system per
unit time.

2.1.7: Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE) and its important applications:

Control volume for Steady flow process

Let,
P1 = Pressure of the working substance entering the control volume in N/m2.
v1 = Specific volume of the working substance in m3/kg.
V1 = Velocity of the working substance entering the control volume in m/s.
u1 = Specific internal energy of the working substance entering the control volume in kJ/kg.
Z1 = Hight above the datum for inlet in m.
P1, v1, V1, u1, and Z1 = corresponding values for the working substance leaving the control volume.

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Q1-2 = heat supplied to the control volume in kJ/kg.

W1-2 = Work done by the system in kJ/kg.
Considering 1 kg of mass of the working substance. ie., m = 1 kg.

We know that total energy entering the control volume per kg of the working substance.
e1 = Internal energy + Displacement work + Kinetic energy + Potential energy + Heat supplied.
in kJ/kg
Similarly, total energy leaving control volume per kg of the working substance is,
in kJ/kg
Assuming no loss of energy during flow (Steady Flow conditions), then according to First law of
Thermodynamics,

=
We know that,
= h1 = Enthalpy of the working substance entering the control volume in kJ/kg.
= h2 = Enthalpy of the working substance leaving the control volume in kJ/kg.
Therefore, =
This is the Steady Flow Energy Equation for unit mass of the working substance.
When this equation is multiplied by mass „m‟ , then we get total energy input and total energy output.
( ) ( )
But in a steady flow process m1 = m2
Therefore,
( ) ( )

2.1.8 Important applications of SFEE:

1) Rotary Compressor:

Rotary Compressor

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For a Rotary compressor,

a) Work is done on the system ie., W1-2 is Negative.
b) Heat rejected by the system, ie., Q1-2 is Negative and is negligible
c) Change in Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy is negligible.
Applying the above conditions to SFEE we get,
W1-2 = m (h2 – h1)

2) Blower:

Blower

For a Blower,
a) Heat Transfer is Zero, ie., Q1-2 = 0,
b) Work done on the system is negative,
c) Change in Potential Energy and Internal Energy is negligible,
d) V1 is very small when compared to V2
Applying the above conditions to SFEE we get,

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3) Steam or Gas Turbine:

Turbine

For a Turbine,
a) Work done is Positive,
b) Change in KE and PE is negligible.
c) Heat transfer is negligible
Applying the above conditions to SFEE we get,

4) Heat Exchanger(Condenser)

Heat Exchanger or Condenser

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For a heat exchanger,

a) Change in KE and PE is negligible,
b) Work done is zero,
c) Heat transfer to the surroundings is also negligible,
Applying the above conditions to SFEE we get,

or ( )
Where mW and ms are mass flow rates of water and steam respectively,
and hW1, hS1, are the enthalpy of water and steam at inlet,
hW2, hS2 are the enthalpy of water and steam at outlet.

5) Centrifugal Pump:

Centrifugal Pump

For centrifugal Pump

a) Work is done on the system which is considered as negative.
b) Heat transfer is Zero
c) Change in internal energy is Zero due to no change in temperature of water
Applying the above conditions to SFEE we get,

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IMPORTANT THEORY QUESTIONS:

1. State second law of thermodynamics and Explain equivalence of Kelvin Planck and Clausius statements
of second law of thermodynamics.
2. What is thermal energy reservoir? Explain source and sink
3. Represent schematically heat engine , heat pump, refrigerator. Give their performance.
4. Show that COP of the heat pump is greater than COP of a refrigerator by unity.
5. Explain Carnot cycle with P-V and T-s Diagram.
6. State and prove Carnot theorem.

PROBLEMS:

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LIST OF FORMULAS:

1. ∂Q= ∂U + ∂W
2. ∮ ∮
3. SFEE ( ) ( )
4. h = u +pv
5. CP = du/dt , CV = dh/dt

OUTCOMES: Determine heat, work, internal energy, enthalpy for flow & non flow process using
First Law of Thermodynamics.

FURTHER READING:
 Basic Engineering Thermodynamics, A.Venkatesh, Universities Press, 2008
 Basic and Applied Thermodynamics, P.K.Nag, 2nd Ed., Tata McGraw Hill Pub.
 http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/112104113/4#

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SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

OBJECTIVE: Determine heat, work, internal energy, enthalpy for flow & non flow process using
Second Law of Thermodynamics.

STRUCTURE:
2.2.1 Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics
2.2.2 Device Converting Heat to Work
2.2.3 Device Converting Work to Heat
2.2.4 Statements of Second Law Of Thermodynamics:
2.2.5 Equivalence of Kelvin Planck And Clausius Statements
2.2.6 PMM-II
2.2.7 Carnot Cycle & Carnot Theorem

2.2.1 Limitations of first law of thermodynamics:

1. First law explains about the inter conversion of heat and work without placing any restriction on the
direction.
2. All simultaneous processes proceed only in one particular direction and to reverse such processes,
energy from external source is required.
3. First law provides all necessary conditions for a process to occur but in doesn‟t give sufficient
conditions namely direction of the process.
2.2.2 Device converting Heat to Work:
A Heat Engine may be defined as a system operating in a cycle and producing useful work by abstracting
heat from a suitable heat source.

Heat Engine

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Consider a heat engine that receives Q1 amount of heat from a high temperature source at T1. Some of the
Heat thus received is utilized to do mechanical work W. The engine rejects Q2 amount of heat to a low
temperature sink at T2.
Applying the first law to the heat engine,
∮ ∮

Net Heat Transfer = Net Work Transfer

Generally performance of the heat engine is expressed in efficiency of the engine . Thus thermal
efficiency of heat engine,

2.2.3 Devices converting work to heat (Reversed Heat Engine):

1. Refrigerator: A refrigerator is a device which working in a cycle delivers heat from low temperature
to a high temperature region.
The performance of a refrigerator is expressed in terms of COP or coefficient of performance.

Refrigerator

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2. Heat Pump:
A heat pump is a device which working in a cycle delivers heat from low temperature region to high
temperature region.The efficiency of heat pump is expressed in terms of COP.Thus,

Heat Pump

COPHP = 1 + COP of refrigerator

2.2.4 Statements of Second Law of Thermodynamics:

Kelvin – Planck statement:
“It is impossible to construct an engine which operating in a cycle, will produce no other effect
than the extraction of heat from a single heat reservoir and performs an equivalent amount of work”

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impossible Possible

Heat engine can receive Q1 amount of heat from a high temperature source, a part of it is utilized to do
work W before Q2 amount of heat is rejected to the low temperature sink as shown in the above figure.

Clausius statement:
“It is impossible to construct an engine which is operating in a cycle, transfers heat from a body at a
lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature without the assistance of external work” or “It is
impossible for heat energy to flow from a lower temperature body to a higher temperature body without
the assistance of external work”

Impossible Possible

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2.2.5 Equivalence of Kelvin Planck and Clausius Statements:

Violation of Clausius statement leads to violation of Kelvin Planck statement

Consider fig(a) in this case a heat pump HP operates in a cycle and transfers Q2 amount of heat from a
low temperature source without any work input. This system violates Clausius statement.
Consider fig(b) in this case , a heat engine HE operates in a cycle absorbing Q1 amount of heat from a
high temperature source. The engine does W amount of work and finally rejects Q2 amount of heat to the
low temperature sin. This system operates as per Kelvin Planck statement.
Consider fig(c) in this case both the heat pump and the heat engine are combined together to form a
combined system. This system constitutes a device that receives (Q1 – Q2) amount of heat from high
temperature source and does an equivalent amount of work W = (Q1 – Q2). Hence this system violates
Kelvin Planck statement.
Thus, violation of Clausius statement leads to violation of Kelvin Planck statement.

Violation of Kelvin Planck statement leads to Violation of Clausius statement

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Consider fig(a) in this case a heat engine extracts Q1 amount of heat from a high temperature source and
does an equivalent amount of work W = Q1 without rejecting heat to the low temperature sink. This
system violates Kelvin Planck statement
Consider fig(b) in this case , a heat pump working in a cycle extracts Q2 amount of heat from a low
temperature sink. The heat pump also receives W = Q1 amount of work from an external source and
supplies (Q1+Q2) amount of heat temperature source. This system works as per clausis statement.
Consider fig(c) in this case, both the heat engine and the heat pump are clubbed together to form a
combined system. Since the output of the engine W is used to drive the heat pump, input to the combined
system is only from the Q2 amount of heat extracted from the low temperature sink. The system rejects
same amount of heat to the high temperature source without any external work input. This system
violates Clausius statement.
Thus violation of Kelvin Planck statement leads to violation of Clausius statement.

Hence we can conclude that both Kelvin Planck and Calusius statements are equivalent in sense.

2.2.6 Perpetual Motion Machine of Second Kind (PMM-II):

It is an engine working in a cycle developing net work by exchanging heat from a single heat
source. PMM-II Violates Kelvin Planck statement.

PMM-II

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2.1.8 Carnot Cycle:

Carnot cycle consists of four reversible processes

1-2: Adiabatic compression

Q1-2 = 0

2-3: Isothermal Expansion

3-4: Adiabatic Expansion

Q3-4 = 0

4-1: Isothermal Compression

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Net Work done /cycle = ∮

Thermal Efficiency of the cycle:

Carnot Theorem: “No engine, operating between two heat reservoirs each having fixed temperatures,
can be more efficient than a reversible heat engine operating between the same temperatures”

IMPORTANT THEORY QUESTIONS:

1. Write Kelvin Planck and Clausius statement of Second law of thermodynamics and prove that they are
equivalent.
2. Define i) Heat Engine ii) Refrigerator and its COP iii) Heat Pump and its COP.
3. Sate Carnot theorem and derive an expression for work done by a system undergoing Carnot cycle.

Problems:
1. A reversible engine operates between 3 heat reservoirs 1000K , 800K and 600K and rejects heat to a
reservoir at 300K, the engine develops 10kW and rejects 412kJ/min. If heat supplied by the reservoir at
1000K is 60% of heat supplied by the reservoir at 600K , find the quantity of heat supplied by each
reservoir.
Solution:

Work output = 10kW = 10×60 = 600kJ/min

From first law of thermodynamics
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Total Heat supplied = W + Heat rejected

= 600 + 412
= 1012kJ/min
Let Q1 be the heat absorbed by the engine from the source at 600K
Then , heat absorbed from the source at 1000K is (0.6×Q1)
Therefore heat taken from the source at 800K is
Q2 = 1012 - Q1 – (0.6×Q1)
As engine is reversible, Clausius theorem becomes,

Substituting the values in the above equation we get

Q1 = 405 kJ/min
Q2 = 364 kJ/min
Q3 =218.4 kJ/min

2. An inventor claims that his engine has the following specifications

Power developed = 76kW
Fuel burned per hour = 4kg
Heating value of fuel = 75000kJ/kg
Temperature limits = 727°C and 27°C

Solution:
For given Engine, Work done = 76kW = 76×3600 = 273600 kJ/hr
Heat supplied = Mass of fuel × Heating value of fuel
= 4×75000 = 3×105 kJ/hr

Thermal efficiency,

= 91.2%
Thermal efficiency of a reversible engine working between the same temperature limits

Since the thermal efficiency is greater than the efficiency of reversible engine the claim is false and
engine needs to be redesigned

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OUTCOMES: Determine efficiency and COP of refrigerator and equivalence of statement‟s of Second
law of thermodynamics, efficiency of carnot cycle

FURTHER READING:
 Basic Engineering Thermodynamics, A.Venkatesh, Universities Press, 2008
 Basic and Applied Thermodynamics, P.K.Nag, 2nd Ed., Tata McGraw Hill Pub.
 http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/112104113/4#

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