TO DETERMINE RESISTIVITY Of TWO/THREE. Y/.l~ES,: .~Y !

'LOTTING ) ~ -Gil~ PH
1.1 Of POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE VERSUS CURRENT .· 1, _ ~, · .
Resistance is defined as the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it. Ohm' s law. giv~ a relation
between potential difference and current and resisrance is proportionality constant. There is a linear relattonshtp between
potential difference and current. Slope of the graph between current and potential difference gives resistance of conductor.

Aim
To determine resistivity of two/three wires by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.

Materials Reguired • Battery • Plug key

• Resistance wire • Ammeter • Rheostat
• DC voltmeter • Screw gauge
• A piece of sand paper
• Connecting wires • Metre scale

Tbeocy
Ohm's Law
According to Ohm's law, electric current I through a given conductor is directly proportional to potential difference
V across its end; if other conditions remain constant. Other conditions include; temperature and pressure. Ohm's law
can be shown by following equation:
V oc I Or, V = RI
Here; R is the constant of proportionality and is known as the resistance of the
conductor. The S.I. unit of resistance is Ohm which is denoted by the Greek
V Rheostat
letter Omega (0).
R= -
I C
Resistance wire
R de~ends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions (length
and diameter) of the conducting wire.
A.graph be~een potential difference and current is a straight line: Slope of
this graph gives value of resistance for the conductor. b,.V Circuit diagram to find resistance of a wire
Slope = tan 0 = - - = Resistance
b,.I

Procedure A.
Setting up the elements of Circuit
+ -
• Make a circuit with battery, resistor, rheostat,
voltmeter and ammeter; as shown in the circuit
diagram.
• Before using the connecting wires, clean there One way key
ends with sand-paper so that any insulation could
be removed.
• Make clean and tight connections while making
the circuit. Battery eliminator
• Ensure that positive and negative terminals of or Battery
Resistance wire
a~meter and voltmeter are connected to the
smtable terminals of the battery.
• Determine the least count of voltmeter and
ammeter.
• Note the zero error; if any.
Ammeter
• Insert the plug key and check if ammeter and
voltmeter are working properly by sliding the Voltmeter
rheostat slider. Arrangement diagram

P RACTICAL SKILLS IN PH YSICS- 12 35

Measurement of Resistance of the Wire
• By sliding the rheostat contact, adjust the resistance so that a measurable current passes through the resiStance Wire.
Calculation
• Note down the value of potential difference and current; from voltmeter and ammeter respectively:
• Shift the rheostat contact slightly to ensure full division reading on voltmeter and ammeter. Avoid taking the From V-1 graph slope can be calculal
reading in fractional divisions.
ln t,ABC, slope = tan e= AB = t,\
• Take at least five sets of observations. CB r,,.
So tan 0 = tan 450 = I
Determination of Resistivity of wire :. slope = I o.
• Cut the resistance wire at the ends where it leaves the terminals of the voltmeter. Stretch the wire and measure its
Resistance = slope = _LQ_!.'l.
length by using a meter scale and measure the radius by using a screw gauge.

-----------
1
• Record your observations. Resistivity p = RA = R · 1tr =
' l l
• R es1st1v1ty,
.. . p = -RA
I Results

"'"I\
Obsentations. / ...!- The graph between potent
proportional to the current
Length of the resistance wire l = 34 cm / r--- Ammeter reading l(A) Voltmeter reading V(V) V
and radius of wire(r) = 0.1 cm
s. The resistivity of the give,
- -
N o. Observed Corrected Observed Corrected I =R(Ohm)
Range of ammeter: _Q]_A current (1 0 ) I = 10 + c 1 v. V = v. + C2 ilierecautions \
Range of voltmeter: _Q]_V 1. 0.6 0.5 0.5 0 .5 1.0 Use ammeter and voltrne
Least count of ammeter: _Q,_LA 1.0 1.0 • Wire should be cleaned 1
2. 1.1 1.0 1.0
Least count of voltmeter: _Q,_LV ...._ A\\ connections should 1
I\ 3. 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.0
Zero error in ammeter: _Q,_LA .,._Rheostat should be of I,
Zero error in voltmeter: __Q,Q_V 2.1\ 4. 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 • Insert the key only whi
Zero correction for ammeter: 2.6 \. 2.5 2.5 2.5 ~-0
_,/ ,_,,,
/ IJ • Check for zero error cc
c 1 = - e 1 = --=..Q,_LA Mean~ f-resistarrcl!', R = t:6-Ghm. ___./- • Use copper wire to co
Zero correction for voltmeter: c 2 = - e 2 = __Q,Q_V Sources of Error
Plotting of Graph ( • Non-uniform cross-s,
Choose appr • End resistance of w i·
a e and plot a graph between potential difference (y-axis) and current (x-axis).
• Loose screws of insl
i: m, n • Higher resistance oi
. t
-it
·HJli-1 • Resistance of coil TI

Suggested Experir
1
ti J l· t 1. Find the resistivity
I 2. For constant diam

'
: r . t
't
i
t 1 I 1

\!
H I
T
1 ,I
1t . r- -,0
I 11
i
.1tl
i~ a-
Q.
..
(
~1 (); ~1 1i - i r -~ n
l1 .v• l 1: ·:.currenU in-A J-

36 PRACTICAL SKILLS
 Calculation
From V-I graph slope can be calculated as:
AB t:N 2.5 -1.0 1.5
In MBC, slope = tan 0 = - =- = - - - =- =1
CB ~I 2.5 -1.0 1.5
So tan 0 = tan 45° = 1
:. slope= In
Resistance = slope = _LQ_n.
2 2
RA R · itr -o
Resistivity, p = - =- - =lx3.14x(0.1)
34
=9.2 x 10 n cm --4
= 9.2 x 10 n-m
Results

-- • The graph between potential difference and current is a straight line. Hence, potential difference is directly
.
proporttonal to the current.

--
• The resistivity of the given wire is 9.2 x 10-o

ii.Precautions \
..!- Use ammeter and voltmeter of appropriate range.
n-m.

• Wire should be cleaned thoroughly with sand paper before using.

_._ All connections should be tight and neat.
~eostat should be of low resistance.
• Insert the key only while taking observations to prevent heating of resistance.
• Check for zero error corrections for voltmeter and ammeter.
• Use copper wire to connect different elements and devices.

Sources of Error
• Non-uniform cross-section of wire.
• End resistance of wire may cause some error in result.
• Loose screws of instrument.
• Higher resistance of rheostat.
• Resistance of coil may change due to excess heating.

Suggested Experiments
1. Find the resistivity of wire of different materials.
2. For constant diameter, find the effect of length of wire on resistance.

IVIVAVOCE )>--- -- -- -- -- -- - -- - - -
QI. What do you understand by electric current?
Ans. The net amount of charge flowing through a conductor in forward direction in a given time is called current.
I = J_
I
where, I is current, q is charge and I is time. If the value of I is negative then its mean current is flowing in
backward direction.
The SI unit of current is ampere which is usually represented by A.
Q2. Describe Ohm's Law.
Ans. Ohm's law states that if the temperature of a conductor remains constant then current flowing through the
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference.
V oc I
or, V = RI

PRACTICAL SKIL~ S-12

.
~-~-1""'...,...,..- -:,,,-7:-~ ,,,.- ~,,--. .,~ ,~
.
.._~r I'< •~ •,~-""

37
 Q21. How will you define I ohm?
Ans. I ohm (Q) resistance is defined as the resistance when I volt of potential difference is developed across a
conductor on flow of I ampere of current.
Q22. What is an electric cell?
Ans. An electric cell is a device which generates e.m.f due to chemical reaction taking place in it:
Q23. What is a dry cell?
Ans. Dry cell is a type of Leclanche cell in which electrolyte is in paste form.
Q24. What is a battery?
Ans. Combination of more than one cells is called battery.
Q25. What do you understand by. internal resistance of a cell?
Ans. It is the resistance offered by electrolyte to the flow of electric current. It is usually about I to 2 Ohm.
Q26. What do you mean by e.m.f of a cell?
Ans. When cell is in open circuit, the potential drop across its terminals is called e.m.f.
Q27. Which are the factors affecting e.m.f of cell?
Ans. • Nature of plates • Nature of electrolytes • Area of plates immersed in electrolyte.

t 1.2 TO FIND RESISTANCE OF A GIVEN WIRE USING METRE BRIDGE

A metre bridge also known as slide wire bridge is based on the principle of Wheatstone's bridge. It is used to measure
unknown resistance of a wire by measuring its length.

Aim
To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge.
M~terials Required
• Metre bridge • Resistance wire • Connecting wires • Galvanometer • A metre scale
• Cell • Resistance box • A jockey • Wire cutter
• One way key • Sand paper
T~
The metre bridge works on Kirchhoff's rules. Kirchhoff's rules are as follows:
(a) Junction Rule: At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of currents
leaving the junction.
(b) Loop !!Y}e: The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and cells in
!neloop is zero.
Known resistance Unknown resistance

~ .e.. S
R.B.
X

It consists of a wire of length I m and of uniform cross sectional

area stretched out. This wire is clamped between two thick
metallic strips bent at right angles. The metallic strip has two gaps
across which resistors can be connected. The end points where
the wire is clamped are connected to a cell through a key. There 01020 3040

is one galvanometer situated between two gaps. One end of a 0

galvanometer is connected to the metallic strip midway between A 1, D

the two gaps. The other end of the galvanometer is connected to ---E--(100- /)

a 'jockey'. The jockey is essentially a metallic rod whose one end ~-------< 1-------
+ - K

has a knife-edge which can slide over the wire to make electrical Lecianche cell (Battery eliminator)
connection. Circuit diagram-Metre bridge

PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS-12

\ ' . ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' 39
 · where the galvanometer shows the zero d e fl ect·,on on the wire is called null or balanced poi nt. It is
The pomt
. Obta
by sliding jockey along the length of wire till galvanometer shows zero deflection. i~tq
th
Suppose we have to find an unknown resistance X. It is connected across one of e gaps. Across the 0th
· k ey ·ts c onnected to some point D on the wire ' at a ct·tstancer !, • Chang
we connect a standard known resistance S. Th e JOC
• Take 1
from the end A. The Jockey can be moved along t11e wire.
· · The portion CD of the wire
. . a resistanc e R,,,,(1 e I"-,,,
. has
·
- · · · ·
where R 1s the resistance of the wire per umt centimetre.
X (100 - l)
.
Th e po rtion DA of the wire s1m1larly has a re s1stan•e
· 0O, ,
- ·1

'>,l,
Observa

MeanResis
or X = S - - - -
s 1
Procedure Result
Setting up the Metre Bridge • The
• Clean the insulation at the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with sand paper. wir
• Tighten all the plugs of the resistance box by pressing and turning each plug.
& Pre<
One way key
~ e
cl
C<

~c
• I

.
_...!--1

--..
Sou

A C

Galvanometer
Arrangement diagram Sl
• Make tight connections as per the circuit diagram .
Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be detem1ined in the left/right gap of the metre bridge.
Testing connections for correctness
• For this, introduce a suitable resistance from the resistance box .
• Switch on the key to complete the circuit.
• Press the jockey at the start of the first gap and then at the start of the second gap of the metre bridge and note
the direction of deflection of the galvanometer needle.
• Deflections in galvanometer in opposite directions for the two ends means that connection is done properly .
• If deflections are in one s ide only, then there is some fault in the circuit.
Measuring balancing length
• Adjust the resistance from resistance box so that you can attain balance point near the midpoint of wire. Note
down the value of R and the position of jockey.

40 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS-12

 --
• Change the resistance from resistance box and try to attain balance point as earlier.
• Take more readings by changing resistances from the resistance box
........

\
Observations a nd Calculations Table for Unknown Resistance "-
xi + X2 + X3 + X4 + x!
( Unknown resistance
Resistance from B (100 - /)
Mean Resistance, R = 8 . . a1ance
5 N resistance box, X = (lOO - /) S Ohm
ohm. o. R(Ohm) length / cm cm
I
I. x, =

I
Result
2. X2=
• The value of resistance for the given
wire= n 3. X3=
I
4. X4=
_A Precautions \
Xs= /
_!.-J'erminals of connecting wires should be
cleaned by sa nd paper; before making
connections.
__!... Connections should be neat and tight.
" ....._
- /

• All the plugs in resistance box should be tight.

Balance point should be nearly in mid range of bridge wire.
7
• Jockey should be moved over bridge wire gently without rubbing.
• Position of null point should be somewhere around the 50 cm mark.
• While sliding jockey to locate null point, jockey should be lifted again and again.

Sources of Error
y oose screw of metre bridge or battery.
• Non-uniform cross-section of wire .
.,......-Plugs may not be clean.
,:!-- Effect of end resistances.
• Error in measurement of length of wire.
• Failure to check zero position of galvanometer pointer.

Suggested Experiments
I. Find the unknown resistance of a wire using a metre bridge.
2. Find the effect of temperature on resistance of wire using a metre bridge.

IVIVAVOCE ) ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Ql. A metre bridge works on the principle of which rule?

Ans. Kirchhoff's Rule
Q2. Write the junction rule.
Ans. Junction Rule: At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of currents
leaving the junction.
Q3. Write the loop rule.
Ans. Loop Rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and cells in
the loop is zero.

41
P RACTI CAL SKILLS IN PHYSI CS-12
 Q6, W naLI~ ._, , ..,~ .. ~, .. . .. ov • ~~,

Ans, The• chemical

inside th e cell force
• which
IS called facilitates the
electromotive movement
force or emf. of positive I·ons 6rom negative
· tem11nal
· to positive tenninal

Q7. Electromotive
. . force is independent of which ac tors ?.
Ans. EMF 1s independent of the following:
• Plates (electrodes) area
• Plates separation
• Electrolyte quantity
Q8. What is the potential difference of a cell?
.ffi ermma s o a cell (when the cell 1s m close circuit) is called potential
Ans, The potential difference between tw O t · I f · ·
d1 erence.
Q9. What is internal resistance of a cell?
Ans. The resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the flow of ions is called internal resistance of the cell.
Ql o. Write the principle of working of potentiometer.
Ans. ~en a co_nstant c_urre~t flows through a wire of uniform thickness and material, the potential difference between
its two pomts vanes directly to the length of the wire between the two points.

Qll. What is potentiometer?

Ans. Potentiometer is a device used for measuring the internal resistance of a cell. It is used to compare the emf of
two cells and potential difference across a resistor.
QJ2, On what factors does the potential gradient depend?
Ans. The potential gradient depends in the strength of the current flowing through a conducting wire and resistance
per cm of the wire.
Ql3. Why don't we use copper wire as a potentiometer wire?
AP'""'"" ,opp0< h,vo a low 1osi-co aod high tomporarure ,ooffioiont '"d bonoo thore wi!l ho oo appredshlo
potential drop across the ends of the potentiometer wire.
Ql4. What is the material used for making potentiometer wire?
Ans. Alloys like Manganin, constantan etc., which have low temperatures coefficient.

Ql5, Can a voltmeter measure e.m.f.?

Ans. No, voltmeter measures the terminal potential difference of a cell.

2,2 TO DETERMINE THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF GIVEN PRIMARY CELL USING

POTENTIOMETER
Tho resi-"' offored by t1re docttolyt, of' ooll to tho flow of'""' in,ido Ibo oloctri< ooll is ~nod Ibo ioton,sl
• f the cell The internal resistance of a cell can be measured usmg a potentiometer.
resistance o ·

~Aim rrnine the internal resistance of given primary cell using potentiometer.
• Voltmeter
• Ajockey
u.,,tPrials R~ . • Connecting wires • Two one-way keys
~ a•t~r • Given primary cell• Battery 1
• Potent1ome er t • Rh eos ta
• Galvanometer • Amme er
• Sand paper
• Resistance box
T~ tial difference and internal resistance of a cell is: ...(1)

Relation between E.M.F. , poten

r"'R y
(E_ y) 55
 where, E is e.m.f of the cell
r is internal resistance of the cell
V is the potential differences between
the two terminals of the cell in a closed circuit. Ammeter Observations-.anc1-ea,<;.u'
R is external resistance connected to the cell. • Least count of ammete
__ A .
If the balancing length of the cell E in the open 0cm • Range of voltmeter=
circuit is / 1 cm then the e.m.f. of the cell is • Least count of volt~
proportional to length / 1• Y.
E oc / 1 K, E
• Zero error of voltmeter
or E = k/ 1 )--=,~ + e= _ _Y. '
Key Battery
If the balancing length of the cell E is /2 when • EMF of battery E' =
it is coru1ected by a resistance R in parallel then • EMF of cell E 1' = __
potential difference between the terminals of the Potentiometer • Mean balancing length
cell, V is proportional to length /2 . 11 = __cm.
V oc / 2 • Mean balancing lengtt
or 12 = __ cm.
V = k/2
Putting value of E and V in equation (I) • Value of shunt resista,
• Value of r can be cah
. = R ( k/1kl- k/2 ) = R ( ~
I I
)
2 2

r=R(i -1)
Mean value of r

So, by detern1ining the value of balancing length / 1 and /2 and resistance R we can find internal resistance of the cell.
Result
Procedure
Internal resistance (r) of
Setting up circuit
Ai, Precautions \
• Draw a circuit diagram as shown in the given figure.
• All connections sl
• Clean the ends of connecting wires with sand paper.
• Clean the ends of
I' • Make connections according to the circuit diagram.
• Don't disturb the
Testing the correctness of the connections
• The E.M.F of ba
• Measure e.m .fofthe battery and cell E. e.m.f. of battery should be more than that of the individual cell. • The jockey shou
• Insert the plug in the key K 1 and keep the K2 open. Note the ammeter reading. • Maintain a cons
• Place the jockey at the ends A and B of the potentiometer and note the direction of deflection in the galvanometer • Don't press the
for two ends. If the ga lvanometer shows deflection in opposite directions for end A and B, then connections are • Insert a high re
correct.
any damage to
Determining balancing length, / 1 • Current shoulc
• Introduce a high resistance from the resistance box. Slide the jockey over the potentiometer wire to get the
I balanced point. Sources of Err<
• Potentiometet
• Measure the balancing length / 1 between balanced point and the end A of the wire .
• Repeat the same steps to take 3-4 readings. • Non-uniform
• Battery may
Determining balancing length, / 2
I •
•
Insert the key plug in the key Kz, so that shu nt resistance also comes in the circuit.
Slide the jockey gently over the potentiometer wire to get the balanced point.
• Heating of P

Suggested E>
• Measure the balancing length /2 and repeat the above steps to get 3-4 readings. 1. Take dry ce
• Note observations and calculate internal resistance of the cell. 2. Use a potet

56 PRACTICAL SKILLS 1
PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS-12
 ..
_.. ,..,.rvatj_Q[)S and-Calc.-ulations - - ,----- '
~,..,,TI- of ammet er: 17 Internal
Balance length (cm)

-
• Least count Shunt resistance I

A
• Range of voltmeter = __ { Ammeter
s. Reading Open Circuit (with
N o. without shunt R,
Close Circuit resistance
shunt R) R (Ohm) ( ¥)R(Ohm'

-
• Least count of voltmeter (A)
v. Mean /1 Mean /2
• zero error of voltmeter, r1=-
Ohm
e= _v. I. =-

I/
r Ohm
• EMF of battery E' = __ ' 2.
2

• EMF of cell E 1' = __ Y. r

3
=- Ohm
• Mean balancing length 3. r 4 =_0hm.1
\
-
/ = _cm.
1 '4-.... -?
• Mean balancing length - --
i2=_cm.
• Value of shunt resistance, R = __ n.
• Value of r can be calculated by using following equation:

Mean value of r

Internal resistance (r) of the given primary cell = __ n.

v recautions \
• All connections should be clean and tight.
• Clean the ends of wire with sand paper before making connections.
• Don't disturb the primary cell to prevent any change in its internal resistance.
• The E.M.F of battery must be more than the E.M.F of cell E.
• The jockey should be gently slide over the potentiometer wire.
• Maintain a constant and steady current for each set of observations.
• Don't press the jockey too hard on the potentiometer wire.
• Insert a high resistance plug from the resistance box before finding the null point. This is necessary to prevent
any damage to the galvanometer.
• Current should be passed for short time only, while taking readings.

Sources of Error
• Potentiometer wire not being taut.
• Non-uniform cross-section of potentiometer wire.
• Battery may not be fully charged.
• Heating of potentiometer wire may induce some error.

Suggested Experiments
I. Take dry cells from a torch and find their internal resistance.
2. Use a potentiometer to find the internal resistance of a primary cell.

57
P RACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS-12
 --..._ r:..,.-. ,."....
....

3.1 TO DETE RM INE RESISTANCE OF A GALVANOMETER BY HALF-DEflEt~

M ETHOD AN D TO FIND ITS FIGURE OF MERIT I(:)
A galvanometer is a sensitive device which is used to detect feeble electric current. The resistant offered b Determinatic
galvanometer to the flow of current passing through it, it is called resistance of galvanometer. Y ~Oi\ ~ • While k
• Insert tl
• Adjust
(i.e., fa
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
• Once )
Materials Required Determinir
• Moving coil galvanometer • High resistance box • Low resistance box • Voltmeter • Calcu
• Rheostat • Leclanche cell • Two one-way keys • Battery

-
• Sand paper • Connecting wires
oetermini
Theo~
• Usin
T he resistance of the coil of a galvanometer is known as the resistance of the galvanometer. It is represented by ~
• For,
symbol G. It is determined by half deflection method. The deflection is made half by using a shunt resistances.
The resistance of the galvanometer can be given mathematically as follows:
RS • Not
G= - -
R- S
where, R is the resistance introduced by high resistance box to produce deflection 0 and S is the resistance introduced
by low resistance box to produce deflection 0 / 2. If we know the value of R and S then G can be calculated. ------
Obsen
The emf
Number
Figure of Merit of a galvanometer x.___
Figure of merit of a galvanometer is the current required to produce a Low resistance Obser
deflection of one division on the galvanometer. Figure of merit can be given
mathematically as follows : S. N o.
E
k= - - - -
0(R + G) Galvanometer I.
where, k is the figure of merit, E is the emf of cell, 0 is the deflection 2.
in galvanometer, R is the resistance in circuit and G is the resistance of E
+
galvanometer.
K
Cell K, High resistance
Circuit for measuring resistance of
galvanometer by half deflection method Obs

s. r
Circuit diagram for determining figure of merit of a galvanometer

Procedure
Setting Up the Circuit
• Draw a circuit diagram for measuring resistance of galvanometer; as shown in figure.
• Clean the ends of wire (with sand paper) before making connections.
• Make the connections tight and neat as per the circuit.
• Open both the keys K 1 and K 2 by removing the plug from them.

I J
Determination of Resistance R
• Introduce a high resistance (- 3000 Q) from the resistance box Rand close the key K 1 only.
M
• Adjust the resistance from R till you get the full scale deflection on galvanometer.
• At this stage, note the deflection angle 0 and corresponding resistance R.
p
64 PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS•l
2
Determination of Resistance S
• While keeping the value of R fixed, introduce a small resistance (~50 Q) from the resistance box S.
• Insert the plug into key K2 and close it.
• Adjust the value of S, till the deflection on galvanometer is exactly half of what it was in the previous step
(i. e., for R).
• Once you achieve half deflection, note down the value of S and take out the plug from K .
2
Determining Resistance of Galvanometer G
• Calculate the value of galvanometer resistance G by using the following formula:
RS
G=--
R-S
Determining the Figure of Merit
• Using a high resistance voltmeter, measure the value of emf E of cell.
• For each set of observations, calculate the figure of merit by using the following formula:

• Note down the observations in a table. k=MR:G)

Observations and Calculations
The emf of battery, E = _ _V.
---
Number of divisions on galvanometer scale = ___ .

Observations for Resistance of Galvanometer

High resistance, R Deflection Low resistance, S Half-deflection RS
S. N o. G = - - (in Q)
(!1) (0) (Q) (0/2) R-S
I.
2.
3.
-,
4.

Observa~ fo_r ..Figure of Merit

Figure of merit
e.m.f of the cell, E High resistance, R Deflection E
S. N o.
(V) (Q) (0) k= (amp/div)
0(R +G)

I.
2.
3.
4.

Mean value of galvanometer resistance

Mean value of figure of merit

P RACTICAL SKILLS IN PH YS ICS-1 2 65

 ~•-- '::t - ~J;_:-

Result
• Resistance of given galvanometer by half deflection method, G = ___ n.
• Figure of merit of given galvanometer k = ___ A/div. QlO. The zero

A Precautions \ Ans. This is d

Q ll. What is
• Connections should be neat and tight. Ans. The resi
• The e.m.f of cell should be constant. Q12. How ca
• Use high resistance voltmeter to measure the value of e.m.f. Ans. This is
• The value of R must be very large as compared to the value of G. Q13. When
• Before inserting plug in key K 2 , always introduce some resistance from shunt resistance box to avoid Ans. When
circuit of cell. s~
3,2101
Sources of Error
OF I
• Possible error in resistance of coil in resistance box.
A ga\vano,
• The emf of battery may not be constant. difference
• Unequal size of divisions on galvanometer. across a c,
• Loose plugs in resistance box.
Aim
Suggested Experiments To conve
I verify th,
I . Plot a graph between R and - . Determine the value of G and k from the graph.
0 Materi
2. Plot a graph between RS and (R - S). Find the value of G from this graph. • G
• R
!VIVA VOCE )>--------------------- Theo1
To con
QI. What is a galvanometer?
the sec
Ans. It is an analog electromechanical transducer that produces a rotatory deflection of some type of pointer 1 the VO
response to electric current flowing through its coil. is vef)
Q2. Which type of galvanometer is usually used in school laboratories? galvar
Ans. Pivoted type galvanometer or Weston galvanometer. Ther,
Q3. Which type of galvanometer is used when more accuracy is required?
Ans. Suspension type moving coil galvanometer
II Whe
Q4. When do we say that a galvanometer has current sensitivity? resis
Ans. If a galvanometer shows large deflections for small current, it is said to have current sensitivity.
Q5. Why the scale of galvanometer has zero in the middle?
Pre
Ans. Because then the needle can deflect on both sides. De1

Q6. What is the relation between figure of merit and current sensitivity?
Ans. Figure of merit is reciprocal of current sensitivity.
Q7. Does the value of G always equals S under half deflection condition?
Ans. No, if R >> S only then G = S.
Q8. What is the figure of merit of a galvanometer? D

Ans. The current required to produce unit deflection in the galvanometer is called the figure of merit of galvanometer.
Q9. What is the use of galvanometer?
Ans. Galvanometer is used for detecting feeble currents.

66 PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYS!CS•l

......
2
 1
QIO, "~ ·: done to detect null deflection.
fhJS JS
µs,l Wh at is the resistance of a galvanometer? . f alvanometer.
Ql · resistance offered by the coil of galvanometer is taken as the resistance o g
s The
,, can we determine the resistance of galvanometer?
,All · ,
J2 no,,
1
Q · Th·s is done by half deflection method.
j\11S• I
When does the value of G equal S under half-deflection method?
QJ3,
When R » S.
J\11S•

z TO CONVERT THE GIVEN GALVANOMETER (OF KNOWN RESISTANCE AND FIGURE

3' OF MERIT) INTO A VOLTMETER OF DESIRED RANGE AND TO VERIFY THE SAME
. . h. nt and the potential
lvanometer has low resistance and hence large current flows through 11. Due to t ts curre . .,,.._
A ga th potential dtuerence
difference across a conductor decreases. Hence, the galvanometer cannot be used to measure e
a conductor. But we can convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter.
aero Ss

AilTl
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter of desired range and to
verify the same.

Materials Required
• Given galvanometer • Voltmeter of required range • Two one-way keys • Battery
• Rheostat • Resistance box • Connecting wires • Sand paper

Theory Voltmeter
To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter it must be connected in parallel with
Converted
the sectioo of the circuit. Further, it must draw a very small current, otherwise voltmeter
the voltage measurement will disturb the original set up by an amount which
is very large. To ensure this, a large resistance R is connected in series with the
galvanometer.
The resistance of the voltmeter can be calculated as follows:
V
R =- - G
lg Cell K 1 Resistance box
Where, V is the potential difference, lg is the current in galvanometer and G is the Galvanometer in circuit
resistance of galvanometer.

Procedure
Determination of Current for Full Scale Deflection
• Note the given values of resistance of galvanometer G and figure of merit k.
• Note the total number of divisions N0 on either side of the zero of the galvanometer scale.
• Calculate the value of lg i.e., the current required to produce full scale deflection in the galvanometer using the
formula, lg = Nof<.
Determination of value of large resistance
• Calculate the value of large resistance R, required to be connected in series with the galvanometer for converting
V
it into a voltmeter using the relation R = - - G.
lg

PRACTIC AL SKI LLS IN PH YSICS-12 67

 ter into Voltmeter
Conversion of Galvanome . . s with galvanometer and take out the Battery
I • Connect a high resistance box m sene .
lu s so as to introduce a resistance R from it. . r - --+----,~ ~ :
p g f l s Galvanometer is now converted mto voltmeter. Sources of Error
• Tighten the rest o P ug ·
Rheostat
• Non-uniform cross
Checking accuracy of converted Voltmeter . . • Incorrect ca\ibratic
• Connect a standard voltmeter and the converted voltmeter m parallel with V • Change in e.m.f 0
a rheostat as shown in figure. .. • Possible error in ,
• Note the readings shown by both the voltmeter for different posittons of th e • Difference in ran
rheostat slider.
G suggested Expe,
• Rheostat is connected to the battery in such a way that it acts as a potential
I . Determine potev
divider.
2. For converting ,
• Record your observations.
-----------------·
' '
Observations and Calculations Converted voltmeter lYIVAVOCE
Determination of Current for full scale deflection lg: Circuit diagram for verification
converted voltmeter
01 QI. While converti
Resistance of the given galvanometer, G = _ _!1. with the galva1
Figure of merit of the given galvanometer, k = __ Ndivision. Ans. The large resi;
Total number of division on either side of zero of the galvanometer scale, No. = _ _ divisions.
Q2. Name a hous,
Current required for full scale deflection, Ig = N 0k = _ _ A.
Ans. Voltage stabil
Determination of value of large resistance R: Q3. What is a vol
Required range of converted voltmeter, V = _ _ volts. Ans. Voltmeter is :
V circuit.
Volts of required resistance, R =- =- G n. Q4. Is there any
lg
Ans. Galvanomet,
Verification galvanomet,
V
Least count of the conve11ed voltmeter, L.C. volt/div. QS. What do yo
No
Ans. It is the ma
Observation table for verification of converted voltmeter
Q6. Can we inc
Reading of converted galvanometer into voltmeter % Error Ans. Yes, we ca1
S. N o. Standard Voltmeter Error
N o. of divisions P.D. in volts reading, V' (volts) V'-V the range 1:
11 V'-V --~x100
V = II X L.C.
I.
V' I Q7. An ideal v
2. Ans. The electn
3. I measurem
4. I Q8. What is v
I
Result Ans. The defl.e,
coil is ca
Error in actual and measured potential difference value is very small, so the conversion is verified.
Q9. Which a1
.£. Precautions\ Ans. A voltm,
• Connections should be neat and tight. • It mus
• All the plugs in resistance box should be tight. • It mui
• The resistance box connected in series with the galvanometer should be of high range. .QlO. What is
• Emf of battery should remain constant during the experiment. Ans. The hig
• A high resistance should be used to measure the emf of the battery. capaci~

• Voltmeter (connected in parallel) should be of same range as that of galvanometer. Qll . How c:
I • The calculated value of required series resistance should be accurate. Ans. A galv
, (. I 68 PRACTICAL S~
\ PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS-12
sources of Error
• Non-uniform cross-section of wire.
• Incorrect calibration of resistance.
• Change in e.m.f of battery.
• Possible error in calculated value of resistance.
• Difference in range of galvanometer and voltmeter.

suggested Experiments
1. Determine potential difference between two points in a circuit. Verify this by using your converted voltmeter.
2. For converting a galvanometer to voltmeter of range 0--1 O V, find the figure of merit.

~IVAVOCE )r-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ql. While converting a galvanometer into a voltmeter, what is the purpose of connecting a large resistance in series
with the galvanometer?
Ans. The large resistance thus connected prevents a large amount of current from passing through the galvanometer.
Q2. Name a household apparatus which has a voltmeter as its main functional unit.
Ans. Voltage stabilizer.
Q3. What is a voltmeter?
Ans. Voltmeter is an instrument which is used to measure the value of potential difference between two points in a
circuit.
Q4. ls there any difference between voltmeter and galvanometer?
Ans. Galvanometer detects feeble currents whereas voltmeter measures potential difference. Infact, a voltmeter is a
galvanometer with a very high resistance connected to it.
QS. What do you mean by the range of a voltmeter?
Ans. It is the maximum value of the potential difference that can be measured by a voltmeter.
Q6. Can we increase / decrease the range of a voltmeter?
Ans. Yes, we can increase the range of voltmeter by connecting a suitable resistance in series with it and can decrease
the range by connecting a suitable resistance in parallel with it.
Q7. An ideal voltmeter must have infinite resistance. Name such device.
Ans. The electronic voltmeter VTVM (Vacuum Tube Volt Meter) has nearly infinite resistance and is used for accurate
measurement of potential difference.
QS. What is voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer?
Ans . The deflection produced due to the current produced by unit potential difference between the ends of galvanometer
coil is called voltage sensitivity of galvanometer.
Q9. Which are the must have properties for a voltmeter?
Ans. A voltmeter must have following properties:
• It must have very large resistance; ideally infinite.
• It must have very small current carrying capacity.
QI O. What is the purpose of high resistance wire in a voltmeter?
Ans. The high resistance in series increases the overall resistance of the voltmeter and reduces its current carrying
capacity.
Qll . How can a galvanometer be converted into a voltmeter?
Ans. A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by introducing a resistance of a large value in series.

69
P RACTICAL SKILLS IN P HYSICS- 12
 --- ·- ••• , _ . -· ···-. ---· .... ·--·- ........ --·•"IY\CIER

--
The current w h. ose magrn.tude an d direction changes many times in a second, after equal intervals of rttne is
alternating current. ' Measuring the length 0
• Switch on the A.C. n
Aim
minimum separation
• Once the sonometer
To find the frequency of the A.C. mains with a sonometer.
• Note down the resor
Materials Required • increase the load ir
Take 5 observatiom
• A sonometer (with soft iron wire) • A metre scale • An electromagnet • Repeat above steps
• Step-down transformer • Hanger • Weight box
Determining the line
• Wedges: 2 • Physical balance • 500 g weights
• Switch off the AC
......Iheory • Remove the load :
• Find the mass of
\ If a wire of length I and mass per
unit length m is stretched by applying
Step-down • Find the mass per
transformer
a force T, which is the tension in
the string. If it is set into transverse
Length of sonometer w
vibrations, its frequency v is g iven by
the relation. Mass of sonometer wir
Mass per unit length, ,
V = ;,~ Mass of hanger, x = _

When an alternating current passes I

through the coil of an electromagnet, s. Load, Ten
it will be temporarily magnitised N o. M' (kg) T= l\
twice in every cycle. During first
half cycle of A.C., one of its faces \.
becomes north pole and during second Steel l'I
2.
half cycle, the same face becomes
3.
south pole. \
If the sonometer wire is held with
14. I I

Table Mean Value of the 1

its middle point very close to the
pole, it will be attracted towards the calculations
electromagnet when it is magnetised Set up for finding the frequency of AC mains using an electromagnet and sonometer
Mean frequency
and thrown back when electromagnetism is lost. So, in each cycle of A.C., the wire is pulled and released twice ana
hence at resonance, the wire will vibrate with a frequency which is twice the frequency of A.C. The frequency of ,
If v is the frequency of the sonometer wire thrown into resonance in fundamental mode, then the frequency of A.C.
V Result
would, be f = - Hertz.
2 The frequency of
Procedure li,. Precautio
Setting up the apparatus • The sonon
• The magn
• Arrange the setup as shown in the given figure.
• Using the
• Keep the sonometer in a way that the weight pan hangs outside the lab table.
• The pulle
• Pass the string over the pulley and suspend a I kg weight from the pan.
• Paper rid
• Fix the electromagnet in a stand and connect an electromagnet to the secondary step down transformer. • Keep in 1
• Connect the primary transfo1mer in the AC mains.
• Length c
• Place the electromagnet just above the middle of the sonometer wire. • Weights

76 PRACTIC AL SKIL
PR ACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS•i 2
Measuring the length of resonating wire
• Switch on the A.C. mains and adjust the wedges on the sonometer until the wire begins to vibrate. Start from
minimum separation till maximum oscillation of the sonometer wire is attained.
• Once the sonometer wire achieves resonance, the rider flies off.
• Note down the resonance length and the load on the string (weight of hanger+ slotted weights on it).
• Increase the loa_d in half kg gradations and keep measuring the resonating length for each subsequent load.
Take 5 observations for five different loads.
• Repeat above steps to get more sets of observations.
Determining the Linear Mass Density of Wire
• Switch off the AC supply.
• Remove the load and untie the sonometer wire.
• Find the mass of 100 cm of sonometer wire by using a physical balance.
• Find the mass per unit length or linear mass density m of the wire. This is done by dividing the mass by length.

~ O DS--
Length of sonometer wire, L = _ _ cm = m.
Mass of sonometer wire, M = __g = _ _ kg.
Mass per unit length, m = MIL= __kg/m.
Mass of hanger, x = - - kg.
Resonating Length with Varying Tension

s. Load, Tension
N o. M' (kg) T=M'g(N )
/ 1 (cm)
Resonating Length
Load increasing Load Decreasing
/ 2 (cm) I= (/1
Mean
+ /2)/2 (cm)
Mean Length,
/ (cm)
v= :l~
(Hz)

I.
2.
3.
4.
Mean Value of the frequency of sonometer wire v = .... Hz.

Calculations
Mean frequency
V
The frequency of A.C. mains, f= Hz
2
Result
The frequency of AC mains = ... Hz.

&Precautions \
• The sonometer wire should be magnetic and free of kinks.
• The magnet should always be positioned in the middle of the vibrating segment of wire.
• Using the AC mains can prove fatal; in case of even a little carelessness, hence use step down transformer.
• The pulley should be frictionless.
• Paper rider should be exactly at the middle of the wire.
• Keep in mind the elastic limit of the wire while loading it.
• Length of wire should be noted when the amplitude of vibration is maximum.
• Weights should be removed from the hanger after the experiment.

77
P RACTICAL SKILLS IN PH YSICS- 12
 Sources of Error
• Non-unifonn cross-section of wire.
• Wedges may not be sharp.
• Incorrect markings on slotted weights.
• Error while noting the resomint length of the wire.
• Presence of friction in pulley.

Suggested Experiment
l. Find the density of a sonometer wire by finding its resonating length with AC mains.

/VIVA VOCE ) - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -

QI. What is the difference between AC and DC current?

Ans. The flow of charge in DC current is only in one direction, while flow of charge in AC current keeps on
Q2. What is the advantage of using AC current in power supply from power stations?
Ans. Long distance power transmission leads to significant loss of power. In AC current, step up transfonn(
to increase the potential difference for more efficient transmission of power. That is why AC current is
power supply from power stations.
Q3. What is the role of inverter in domestic usage?
Ans. Inverter converts the DC of battery into AC.
Q4. How is the theory of resonating frequency used in tuning the radio for a particular station?
Ans. To hear one particular radio station, we tune the radio. In tuning, we vary the capacitance of a capa,
the tuning circuit such that the resonant frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency
radio signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the frequency of the signal
particular radio station in the circuit is maximum.
What do you understand by step up transformer?
a step up transformer the number of turns in primary coil is less than that in the secondary coil. This
stepping up the potential difference.
What do you understand by step down transformer?
. In a step down transformer the number of turns in primary coil is more than that in the secondary
This helps in stepping down the potential difference.
Q7. What is a tuning fork?
Ans. A metallic U-shaped bar with a heavy stem attached to the middle of bent portion is used as a tuning fork.
Q8. Where do you strike the tuning fork?
Ans. A tuning fork is struck against a rubber pad.
Q9. What is the S.I. unit of frequency?
Ans. Hz (Hertz).
Q10. What is the relation between length of the prong and frequency of a tuning fork?
Ans. The frequency of a tuning fork varies inversely with the length of prong.
e difference between tone and note?
e sound and is a result of simple harmonic motion. A note is a complex sound and is a result of
die motion.
significance of holes in sonometer box?
.' ,. I • • I" • • •

,o
 • opell tJie "-"1 J11P'"' ___
•• Insert the iron core co of connecting ,,. ,. -
the ends II enough w , c,.,, v , ~ ... u •l!e

• properly cJean J1leter JJ'I aY not be sma renc~.1~ .

Sollrc es of Error f A C. vo '""''". ,.a ""

core. \
The Jeast count ..10n of soft iron
• n 1nsert
accurately upo foose connections,. -,J1lents.
There cou Id be uring insu 1
• unsuitable rang e ofJJleas · core. The
·th or without p last1c
• . . • doctor w1 engih

suggested Actl""::,,,." .nd ;,nped••" of"" "'

I find the value of re th of inductor. . not fullY inside the c .
. oH '1
. is J1lore wan the f~n~ . hich the iron core is
above acuvity m w
2. perfioJ1TI
t that can store energy m a magnetic fi
Vf\/AvocE .
QI . Wb•< is "' ;,,d"'<o'7 a, is ' pa<si" e1ectrio,I compon,n <id ' \
Ans. Ao inductor or a react . through it.
the electric current passing
. th constrUction .
of an mducto r. l .
de of copper wire. . is
The c01l . wrapped
Q2. ~~~!~u:~;a;; co~posed of a coil which is
ns. which f . of [erromagne I
t~csi;::
ie:::~agnetic material.
. . h b' .
around 1
n .u
is rnade either o. air or
.
.
fan inductor 'f core material with. big
t a fi Ider pennea
d h .thty than air. is.
A
QJ Wh•< is th< ,tree< on md"'""" 0 . . . • '""'" the ,n,gnet" e an t u, "'"""" ili .
Ans." A"'"""'""'' wi<h high" penneab•htY th,O "' "' ' ....
of inductor.
Q . What !
do you mean by an ideal nductor? d ohmic resistance or capacitive reactance.
4 Ao ideal inductor has only self mductance an
Ans. no ?
5· Why d. ll · to
· can't we use D.C. ammeter and· voltmeter ACmeasure A.C..
DC ammeter an d vo1tmet er cannot mea
Ans.
Q The
· _ d' direction
· of
d ,w-reotch'"g" peno DC
· t t Hence '" Yammeter
m · · and · ·voltmeter cannot be used. '"" th, ,
m rrection an remam a res . , . •

2. TO MEASURE RESISTANCE, VOlTAGE (A.C./D.C.), CURRENT (A.C.) AND CHI

CONTINUITY OF A GIVEN CIRCUIT USING MULTIMETER Q
Multimeter is used for measuring the current, voltage (A.C.ID.C.) and resistance. It is also called AVO met
'' "'"''""' 'A" '""""' in Ampe,e. 'V" voltage ID volts ond 'O' resistance ID ohms. •• i.,

. resistance, voltage (A.C.!D.C.), current (AC.) and check continuity of a gi·ven circuit usmgm_.,,
To measure · .

~ er,als Required
• Step down transformer • Connecting wires
• Multimeter
• Rheostat • Three carbon resistors • One standard resistance coil
• Sand paper • CeJJ • Key
r11eo,Y . . . .
~ r is '.111 electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement funct10ns m one unit. A typical
~;timeter may mclude features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance.
There are two types of multimeter : Analog and digital.
Analog Multimeter
Art analog multimeter is_a D.C. gal_vanometer. This can be converted into an ammeter or a voltmeter
of different ran~e~. While m~asurmg for A.C., it measures the root mean square values of voltage
and current. Tots mstrument ts composed of a moving coil meter and a pointer with suitable scale.
When a current passes_through the coil, a magnetic field is induced in the coil. This magnetic field
eacts with the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The resultant force of this interaction causes
:he pointer to deflect on the scale to indicate the current reading. When the analog multimeter is
sed in resistance mode then the multimeter senses this current with its dial calibrated in terms of
~esistance. For measuring the potential difference between two points in a circuit, two leads of the
multimeter are connected across the two points. Thus, the multimeter gets connected in parallel Analog multimeter
combination.
Digital Multimeter
The digital multimeter consists an LCD display. There is a knob for selecting different ranges
of the three electrical quantities, viz. voltage, current and resistance. There is an internal circuit
which includes signal conditioning and there is an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC).
It is necessary to do the sampling of input voltage/current because ADC can accept a very small
input voltage. Thus, the voltage is measured directly but current is converted into proportional
voltage using standard resistors which are built in the instrument. For measuring the resistance
one needs to use a constant source of current.
The resolution of the multimeter depends on the range and also on the number of digits in
the display panel.
colour Coding for Carbon Resistors
Digital multimeter
Colour code is used to indicate the resistance value of a carbon resistor and its percentage
accuracy.
First system: Set of coloured co-axial rings/bands printed on resistor.
(i) I st band indicates I st significant figure.
(ii) 2nd band indicates 2nd significant figure. ·
(iii) 3rd band indicate power of 10 with which the above 2 significant figures must be multiplied to get resistance
value in ohms.
(iv) 4th band indicates tolerance or possible variation in % of indicated value. If this band is absent, it implies
tolerance of ± 20%.
Colour Letter N umber Multiplier Colour Tolerance
Black B 0 10° Gold 5%
Brown B I 101 Silver 10%
Red R 2 !Oz No band 20%
Orange 0 3 103
Yellow y 4 10
4

Green G 5 105
Blue B 6 10°
Violet V 7 107
Gray G 8 108
White w 9 109

PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS-12

87
 • Use different resistors and repeat above steps.
• c arefully observe_t~e_reading on the non-linear scale. Use multiplication factor appropriately to the selected range.
for example; 5 d1v1s1ons of deflection in R x 100 scale means that measured resistance is 5 x I00 n = 500 n
urement of D.C. Voltage
Meo S
• rake a source of D.C. supply.
• Set the multimeter pointer to D.C. voltage range.
• As per convention, use the red lead for positive terminal and black lead for negative terminal.
• Insert the plug key and switch on the battery.
• Record the reading from multimeter and then open the key.
• Now, insert a resistance R from the resistance box. Close the key by inserting the plug.
• Take reading from multimeter.
Measurement of A.C. Voltage
• Take an A.C. step down transformer (max output = 6 V), a rheostat, a resistance box and a plug key.
• Set the multimeter in A.C. voltage measuring mode of the range Oto IO V.
• connect the leads fr?m multimeter to the ends of secondary coil in the step down transformer. Connect the
rheostat, key and resistance box in the circuit; as shown in figure for measurement of A.C. voltage.
• Bring the variable connector Z of the rheostat close to the point x to ensure minimum value of resistance of
rheostat coil.
• Close the key and note down multimeter reading for A.C. voltage drop across the resistance R.
Measurement of D.C. Current
• Select the function switch and the range switch/sockets for proper D.C. current measurement.
• Connect the multimeter to the battery. By convention, connect the red lead to positive terminal and black lead
to negative terminal of the battery.
• Note down the reading from multimeter.
• Now, introduce a resistance in the circuit from the resistance box.
• Close the circuit by inserting the plug and then take measurement from multimeter.

-
Observations
Measuring Resistance
Range of resistance on multimeter= 0 to _n
Least count of resistance scale = n
Resistance from the resistance box, Multimeter reading for resistance,
S. N o. Difference, R - RM (Q)
R(Q) RM (Q)
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Measuring DC Voltage
Range ofD.C. voltage on multimeter= 0 to-
. _V.
Least count of voltage scale = V
S. N o. Resistance from the resistance box, R (Q) Multimeter reading for DC voltage (V)
I.
2.
3.
4.
5.

PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS-12 89

 ~g__A,C. Vo(tag~ V
Range of A. C. voltage on multimeter == 0 to - .
Least count of A.C. voltage seaIc - V.
Position of vnriablc connection (Z) or rheostat coil, XY Multimeter reading for AC voltage(_\'
S. N o.
I.
2.
Close to point X
-
3.
4.
5. Close to point Y I
~g__Q,C. Current _
Range of D.C. current on multimeter = 0 to _ mA.
Least count of DC current scale = A.
S. N o. Resistance from resistance box, R (Q) \ Multimeter reading for DC currer
I; I. I
2. I
3. I
4. I
5. I
•Results
• The A.C.ID.C. voltage, D.C. current and resistance were measured by multimeter.
• The value of A.C./D.C. voltage is same as that of A.C./D.C. source.
• Value of resistance measured by multimeter is same as that by colour coding.
Iii. Precautions\
• Ends of connecting wires should be cleaned properly to remove insulation.
• Don't handle A.C. source of 220 V or more as it can be dangerous.
• Allow the A.C. current for the least possible time; for the sake of safety.
• Select appropriate function switch and range switch for the given measurements.
• Always achieve zero ohm before using the multimeter. This is done by connecting the l)roh
adjusting the knob.
• Hold \he probe's insulating cover while dealing with high voltage.
• Select appropriate range (high or low) on multimeter scale while taking a particular readin:
Sources of Error
• Presence of insulation on connecting wires.
• Improper scale while reading voltage or current.
• improper range while reading voltage or current.
• inappropriate selection of function switch.
• Presence of small resistance across the junctions of multimeter.

Suggested Experiments
I. Take carbon composite resistors with colour codes marked on them. Verify their resistar
and multimeter.
2. Take a power supply switch and measure the voltage using multimeter. Use a step
experiment.

/VIVAVOCE ) ,__ __ __ _ _ _ __

Ql. What is a multimeter?

Ans. It is a measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one 1

90
f1VL._, -.-- . " '-' t'Y'J .,.LV V rt.\.., , cJIIU JU rt.l. \..,U l l\.:lll LdllllC) .::t V l .,, , .. . ..., .--, .

appliances hke, _bulbs, fans , fluorescent tubes etc. and 15 A is required for heavy load appliances like refngerator,
geyser, air cond1lloner etc.

To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a fuse and a power source.

~ u i r-ed--
• Three given bulbs • Three switches • A main switch • A fuse (F)
• A two pin plug • Connecting wires • A power source • Three bulb holders

~--. . .
In household wmng all appliances are connected always in parallel combination with the mams. To protect th e appliances
from damage, a fuse of a little higher rating is used. Switches are combined in series with appliances.

procedure
• Take three bulbs B 1, B 2 and B 3 and take three switches S 1, S2 and S3•
• Connect the bulb B 1 and switch S 1 in series. Similarly, connect B2
with S2 and connect B 3 with S3.
• Connect the combinations of B 1-S 1, BrS 2 and BrS 3 in parallel to
each other. (A.G.)
ammeter
• Connect a fuse in series with the set up.
• Connect main supply to a step down transformer to get voltage
from Oto 10 V. Source of supply Fuse
• Connect fuse in series with the stepdown transformer.
Circuit with bulbs in parallel
• Check the circuit to ensure that it is complete.
• Increase the current to 0.75 A gradually, check if fuse bums off.

The circuit for the connection of three bulbs is completed successfully.

J. Precautions\
• lf you are not using step down transformer and bulbs oflower potential difference then be careful while making
connections.
• Don 't insert the plug to mains before making all the connection.

PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS- 12

J
A
 • For additional safety wear nibber gloves. .
• Select a fu se of proper rating. . specified fo r the circuit.
• N ever use a fuse wi th higher rating th3 " w ha t
15
~esult
~ nts of the e\ectnc . .
· ·ty I"k electric iron, table fan , mixer g . 'fhC . Cltcutt have been
Suggested A ct1v1 .. 1
·cal appl iances: 1 e ''n<1,,, SU<:«,,
I . Assemble a household circuit compnsmg e ectn '\\
All connections should b
• 1
eccanano. ·
microwave oven. > - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - = - - - - - - - - - - ~ • open the key before connecting th til!,ht.
Take care of positive and ne _ e e\et\\enu;.
IVIVA VOCE ) . d _ t"c wiring? • h Id b 11,atwe tern,· .
- d a lianccs m o mcs t • Ammeter s ou e connected \n . \I\'a\r, ·
QI. What is the ampere rating for hghter loa PP resistor. senes W\\h
Ans. 5 Ampere. a \iances in domestic wiring? gested Activity
Q2 . What is the ampere rating for heavy load 'PP SU g bl . . b
\ . Assem e a cucu1t 'j using a resistance, I.:
Ans. 15 Ampere. .. ?
Q3. Which combination is used in household wmng. vavAVOCE
Ans. Parallel combination. _ in which combination? Q l - An ammeter_ is always connected in wl,
Q4. In a household wiring, switches are connected
j\.nS• Series comb1nat1on.
Ans. Series combination. b" . ·n a household wiring? Qi . A voltmeter is_ always connecte<l in wn
.
Q S. What is the benefit of connecting app iance
r
s in parallel com matlon '
b •ng weak If one appliance is not work" Ans- parallel combination.
Ans. Connecting in parallel combination prevents current from ecomi · ing, th,n
Q 3 . A battery is connected in whicn comt
other appliances will not be affected. . . 1·n household wirings? Ans- Series combination.
· h· ·es with an app 1iance, ·
Q6. What is the benefit of connecting a sw1tc m sen . 1 Thus a particular app\'
Ans. This enables a particular switch to work for a particular apphance on y. ' tance can b, Q 4 · What do you mean_ by battery?
switched on or off without di sturbing other appliances. Ans. Combination of pnmary cells in ser

k- 4. TO ASSEMBLE THE COMPONENTS OF A G IVEN ELECTRICAL C IRCUIT 5, TO SlUDV lHE V 1'R.\Al\Oti

SlEADV CUR.R.ENl
• • are connecte d ·m sen·es. "vo It meter is always connected in parallel and alllrnete,
· ctrcu1t
he components of an electncal
) s connected in series. potentiometer is an instrument which i,

---
~m
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
Voltmeter
V Aim
To study the variation in potential dn

~aterials Required Resistance Materials Required

• Ammeter • Voltmeter • Resistor or Resistance wire • Potentiometer • Battery
• Connecting wires • Battery • One-way key • Rheostat • Ammeter
• Rheostat • Sand paper
Theory Circuit diagram of set up Theory
liracirciiit,ammeter is always connected in series and voltmeter is connected in parallel across the device whose potential For a constant supply of electric cu,
is to be measured._ Positive terminals of voltmeter and ammeter should be connected to positive terminals of the battery to its length.
and negative terrnmals to the negative of battery.
Procedure Because of flow of constant curr
• Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit; showing all the components which are going to be used .
• Clean the connecting wires with sand paper to remove insulation from ends .
Or,
• Connect the components tightly according to the circuit diagram.
• Connect the ammeter in series with the resistor and key.
Or,
• Connect the voltmeter in parallel with the resistor.
• Insert the plug into the key to complete the circuit. Here, k is a constant which is
• Check the ammeter reading to ensure that the circuit is working. lfwe plot a graph between V
92 through the origin. 1:he slop<
PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS-12
PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHY SICS-
Result
The components of the electric circuit have been successfully assembled.
v ecautions \
• All connections should be clean and tight.
• Open the key before connecting the elements.
• Take care of positive and negative terminals while connecting the voltmeter and ammeter in the circuit.
• Ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and voltmeter should be connected in parallel wi th th e
resistor.
suggested Activity
1. Assemble a circuit by using a resistance, electric bell, key and a voltmeter.

~IVAVOCE' )>-------------------
Qt. An ammeter is always connected in which combination?
Ans. Series combination.
Q2. A voltmeter is always connected in which combination?
Ans. Parallel combination.
Q3. A battery is connected in which combination in a circuit?
Ans. Series combination.
Q4. What do you mean by battery?
Ans. Combination of primary cells in series is called a battery.

5, TO STUDY THE VARIATION IN POTENTIAL DROP WITH LENGTH OF A WIRE FOR A

STEADY CURRENT
Potentiometer is an instrument which is used to measure potential drop and e.m.f. of a cell.

Aim
To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.

Materials Required
• Potentiometer • Battery • Key
• Rheostat • Ammeter • Voltmeter

Theory
For a constant supply of electric current through a wire of uniform diameter the potential difference is directly proportional
to its length.
V oc /
Because of flow of constant current through the same cross-section the resistance per unit length of wire is constant.
V oc /
Or, V = kl
V
Or, k= -
I
Here, k is a constant which is called potential gradient.
Ifwe plot a graph between V and/; by taking them along Y-axis and X-axis respectively then we get a straight line passing
through the origin. The slope of the graph would give the value of potential gradient.

93
PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS-1 2