Electronic Devices (Book)
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QUANTUM SERIES
For
B.Tech Students of Second Year
of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University)
Electronic Devices
By
Ankit Tyagi Ishita Singhal
TM
QUANTUM PAGE PVT. LTD.
Ghaziabad New Delhi
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Electronic Devices (EC : Sem-3)
1st Edition : 2009-10 12th Edition : 2020-21
nd
2 Edition : 2010-11
3rd Edition : 2011-12
4th Edition : 2012-13
5th Edition : 2013-14
6th Edition : 2014-15
7th Edition : 2015-16
8th Edition : 2016-17
9th Edition : 2017-18
10th Edition : 2018-19
11th Edition : 2019-20 (Thoroughly Revised Edition)
Price: Rs. 80/- only
Printed Version : e-Book.
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CONTENTS
KEC 301 : ELECTRONIC DEVICES
UNIT-1 : INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
(1–1 A to 1–23 A)
Introduction to semiconductor physics: Review of quantum
mechanics, electrons in periodic lattices, E-k diagrams.
UNIT -2 : ENERGY BANDS OF SEMICONDUCTOR (2–1 A to 2–31 A)
Energy bands in intrinsic and extrinsic silicon, carrier transport,
diffusion current, drift current, mobility and resistivity, sheet
resistance, design of resistors.
UNIT-3 : GENERATION AND RECOMBINATION OF CARRIERS
(3–1 A to 3–25 A)
Generation and recombination of carriers, Poisson and continuity
equation P-N junction characteristics, I-V characteristics, and small
signal switching models.
UNIT-4 : BJT (4–1 A to 4–38 A)
Avalanche breakdown, Zener diode, Schottky diode, Bipolar
Junction Transistor, I-V characteristics, Ebers-Moll model.
UNIT-5 : MOSFET & OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES (5–1 A to 5–36 A)
MOS capacitor, C-V characteristics, MOSFET, I-V characteristics,
and small signal models of MOS transistor, LED, photodiode and
solar cell.
SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 A to SQ-15 A)
SOLVED PAPERS (2017-18 TO 2019-20) (SP–1 A to SP–9 A)
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KEC301 Electronics Devices 3L:1T:0P 4 Credits
Unit Topics Lectures
I Introduction to semiconductor physics: Review of quantum mechanics, 8
electrons in periodic lattices, E-k diagrams.
II Energy bands in intrinsic and extrinsic silicon, carrier transport, diffusion 8
current, drift current, mobility and resistivity, sheet resistance, design of
resistors.
III Generation and recombination of carriers, Poisson and continuity equation 8
P-N junction characteristics, I-V characteristics, and small signal switching
models.
IV Avalanche breakdown, Zener diode, Schottky diode, Bipolar Junction 8
Transistor, I-V characteristics, Ebers-Moll model.
V MOS capacitor, C-V characteristics, MOSFET, I-V characteristics, and 8
small signal models of MOS transistor, LED, photodiode and solar cell.
Text /Reference Books:
1. G. Streetman, and S. K. Banerjee, “Solid State Electronic Devices,” 7th edition, Pearson,
2014.
2. D. Neamen , D. Biswas, "Semiconductor Physics and Devices," McGraw-Hill Education.
3. S. M. Sze and K. N. Kwok, “Physics of Semiconductor Devices,” 3rd edition, John Wiley
&Sons, 2006.
4. C.T. Sah, “Fundamentals of Solid State Electronics,” World Scientific Publishing Co. Inc,
1991.
5. Y. Tsividis and M. Colin, “Operation and Modeling of the MOS Transistor,” Oxford univ.
press, 2011.
6. Muhammad H. Rashid, “Electronic Devices and Circuits,” Cengage publication, 2014.
Course Outcomes:
At the end of this course students will demonstrate the ability to:
1. Understand the principles of semiconductor Physics.
2. Understand and utilize the mathematical models of semiconductor junctions.
3. Understand carrier transport in semiconductors and design resistors.
4. Utilize the mathematical models of MOS transistors for circuits and systems.
5. Analyse and find application of special purpose diodes.
Electronic Devices
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1 Introduction to
Semiconductor
Physics
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction to Semiconductor ............... 1–2A to 1–17A
Physics : Review of Quantum
Mechanics
Part-2 : Electrons in Periodic Lattices ................ 1–17A to 1–19A
Part-3 : E-k Diagrams ............................................ 1–20A to 1–22A
Introduction to Semiconductor Physics 1–2 A (EC-Sem-3)
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PART-1
Introduction to Semiconductor Physics :
Review of Quantum Mechanics.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. What is semiconductor and also explain its properties ?
Answer
A. Semiconductor : A semiconductor is a substance which has resistivity
(10– 4 to 0.5 m) in between conductors and insulators e.g., germanium,
silicon, etc.
B. Properties of semiconductors :
1. The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator but more
than a conductor.
2. Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance
i.e., the resistance of a semiconductor decreases with the increase in
temperature and vice-versa. For example, germanium is actually an
insulator at low temperatures but it becomes a good conductor at high
temperatures.
3. When a suitable metallic impurity (e.g. arsenic, gallium etc.) is added to
a semiconductor, its current conducting properties change appreciably.
Que 1.2. Explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
Answer
1. According to this principle, “It is impossible to determine the exact position
and momentum of a particle simultaneously”.
2. If x and p are the uncertain position and momentum of particle then
according to this principle
h
x p
2
or x p
h
where =
2
The product of uncertainty position and uncertainty momentum of
particle is greater than or equal to h/2.
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3. Relation between uncertainty energy E and uncertainty time t is
h
Et
2
4. If and J are uncertainty angular position and angular momentum
then
h
J
2
x x small
p large
x
Narrow wave packet x large
(a) p small
Wide wave packet
(b)
Fig. 1.2.1.
Que 1.3. Apply uncertainty principle to calculate the radius of
the Bohr’s first orbit.
Answer
1. The energy of electron in a hydrogen atom is given by
p2 (– e2 )
E = KE + PE = ... (1.3.1)
2m0 4 0 x
where x is the distance between the electron and the centre of the
nucleus.
2. Eq. (1.3.1) in terms of uncertainty can be expressed as
(p)2 e2
E = – ... (1.3.2)
2m0 40 x
3. Using the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
px ... (1.3.3)
4. Putting equation (1.3.3) in equation (1.3.2)
()2 e2
E = 2
– ... (1.3.4)
2m0 (x) 4 0 x
5. For minimum energy (i.e., for ground state) of electron,
( E)
=0
(x)
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2 e2
–
(x) 2m0 (x) 2
4 0 x = 0
2 e2
( x)–2 – (x) –1 = 0
( x ) 2 m0 4 0
2 e2
–2 ( x)–3 ( x)–2 = 0
2m0 40
2 e2
– 3
=0
m0 (x) 40 (x)2
2 e2
3
=
m0 (x) 40 (x)2
4 0 2
x =
m0 e2
6. For this value of x,
2 (E)
0
( (x))2
7. Hence for the given value of x the value of E will give the minimum
or ground state energy of an electron, i.e.,
( )2 e2
Emin = [ E ] 4 0 2
2
–
x
m0 e2 2m0 (x) 40 x x 4 02
2
m0 e
( )2 e2
i.e., Emin = 2
– 2
2m 4 0
2
4 0
0
4 0 2
2
m0 e m0 e
m0 e4 m0 e4
Emin = –
32 0 162 20 2
2 2 2
– m0 e4
Emin =
322 20 2
8. This is the required expression for the minimum or ground state energy
of an electron in the hydrogen atom.
9. Also, the value of x for which the ground state energy of an electron is
obtained gives the value of radius for the first Bohr’s orbit.
10. This value is known as Bohr’s radius and it is denoted by r0.
11. Thus the Bohr’s radius is given by
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4 0 2
r0 = x =
m0 e2
12. Using the values of m, e and , we get
4 3.14 (8.85 10 – 12) (1.054 10 – 34 )2
r0 =
(9.1 10 – 31 ) (1.6 10 – 19)2
= 0.53 Å
Que 1.4. Discuss some important application of uncertainty
principle.
Answer
a. Non-existence of Electrons in the Nucleus :
1. We know that the radius of nucleus is the order of 10 – 14 m.
2. If an electron is confined within nucleus the uncertainty position of
electron is
x = 2 × 10 – 14 m
3. Now according to uncertainty principle,
h
x p
2
h 6.63 10 34
and p = = 5.276 × 10 – 21 kg m/s
2x 2 2 10 14
x
Fig. 1.4.1.
4. Using relativistic formula for the energy of the electron
E2 = p2 c2 + mo2 c4
As the rest energy moc2 of an electron is of the order of 0.511 MeV,
which is much smaller than the value of first term.
5. Hence the second term is neglected therefore,
E2 = p2 c2
E = pc = (5.276 × 10 – 21) × (3 × 108) J
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21
5.276 10 3 108
E= eV 9.9 MeV
19
1.6 10
6. Thus, if an electron exists inside the nucleus then its energy should be
of the order of 9.9 MeV. But the experiment shows that no electron in
the atom possesses kinetic energy greater than 4 MeV.
7. Hence, no electron can exist inside the nucleus.
b. Binding Energy of an Electron in Atom :
1. The uncertainty in position x of an electron is of order of 2R, where R
is radius of orbit.
2. The corresponding uncertainty in its momentum is
h
p
2.2 R
R = 10 – 10 m
then p 0.527 × 10 – 24 kg-m/s
3. Kinetic energy of electron is
2
p2 h 1 h2
Ek =
2m0 4 R 2mo 32 mo R2
2
4. Potential energy of electron in electrostatic field of the nucleus is
Ze2
V=
4 R
5. So the total energy of its orbit will be
E = Ek + V
h2 Ze2
= 2 2
32 mo R 4 o R
(6.63 10 34 )2 Z(1.6 10 19)2
= –
2
32 (3.14) 9.1 10 31
R 2
4 3.14 8.85 10 12 R
10 20 15 10 10 Z
E= 2
eV
R R
Taking R = 10 – 10 m
E = (1 – 15Z) eV
6. Now the binding energy of outermost electron in H is – 13.6 eV
7. For H atom
E = (1 – 15) = – 14 eV ( for H atom, Z = 1)
It is very near to – 13.6 eV.
8. Hence, binding energy of an electron can be calculated.
c. Radius of Bohr’s First Orbit : Refer Q. 1.3, Page 1–3A, Unit-1.
Que 1.5. The speed of an electron is measured to be 5.0 × 103 m/s to
an accuracy of 0.003 %. Find the uncertainty in determining the
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position of this electron (mass of electron is 9.1 × 10 – 31 kg and
Planck’s constant is 6.62 × 10 – 34 Js).
Answer
Given : me = 9.1 × 10 – 31 kg, h = 6.62 × 10 – 34 J s
To Find : Uncertainty in the position of electron, x
0.003
1. Uncertainty in velocity = × 5.0 × 103 = 0.15 m/s
100
h h
2. x p = x =
2 2 p
h 6.62 10 34
3. x =
2m( v) 2 3.14 9.1 10 31 0.15
x = 7.72 × 10 – 4 m.
Que 1.6. Calculate the uncertainty in the position of a dust
particle with mass equal to 1 mg if uncertainty in its velocity is
5.5 × 10 – 20 m/s.
Answer
Given : m = 1 mg = 10 – 6 kg, v = 5.5 × 10 – 20 m/s
To Find : Uncertainty in the position of a dust particle, x
1. From the uncertainty principle, we have
h
x. p
2
v = 5.5 × 10 – 20 m/s
h 6.63 10 34
2. So, x =
2 m v 2 3.14 10 6 5.5 10 20
6.63 10 34
=
34.54 10 26
x = 19.2 Å
Que 1.7. Write the postulates of quantum mechanics.
Answer
Postulates of quantum mechanics :
1. Wave function (x, t) gives information about each particle of a physical
system.
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2. Quantum mechanical operators are used to obtain measurable
information about system. The operators corresponding to the various
dynamic variables are as follows :
Dynamic variable Quantum operator
Position, x x
Momentum, Px
j x
Total energy, E
j t
Potential energy, V(x) V(x)
3. The wave function (x, t) and its space derivative must be
x
continuous, finite and single valued for all values of x.
4. The function must be normalised
*
dx =1
where * is the complex conjugate of .
Que 1.8. What is wave function ? Write its physical significance.
Answer
1. The quantity in quantum mechanics undergoes periodic changes and
gives information about the particle within the wave packet. It is called
wave function .
2. The wave function itself has no physical significance but the square of
its absolute magnitude ||2 gives the probability of finding the particle
at that time.
a. Normalization of Wave Function :
1. If the wave function of any system is such that it gives the value of
given integral a finite quantity say N.
2
*
dx = | | dx
= N (Integral) (* is complex conjugate.)
then is called normalization of wave function.
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b. Orthogonal Wave Function :
1. When the value of the integral is equal to zero (N = 0), the wave function
is known as orthogonal wave function.
2
| | dx = 0
Que 1.9. What is Schrodinger wave equation ? Derive time
independent Schrodinger wave equations.
Answer
Schrodinger’s equation :
Schrodinger’s equation which is the fundamental equation of quantum
mechanics is a wave equation in the variable .
A. Time Independent Schrodinger Wave Equation :
1. Consider a system of stationary wave to be associated with particle and
the position coordinate of the particle (x, y, z) and is the periodic
displacement of any instant time ‘t’.
2. The general wave equation in 3-D in differential form is :
1 2
2 = ...(1.9.1)
v 2 t 2
where, v = velocity of wave, and
2 2 2
2 = = Laplacian operator.
x 2 y2 z2
3. The wave function may be written as
= oe – it ...(1.9.2)
4. Differentiate eq. (1.9.2) with respect to time, we get
= – i oe – it ...(1.9.3)
t
5. Again differentiating eq. (1.9.3)
2
= + i2 2 oe – it
t 2
2
= – 2 ...(1.9.4)
t 2
6. Putting these value in eq. (1.9.1),
2
2 = ...(1.9.5)
v2
2 v 2
7. But = 2 = =
v
8. Eq. (1.9.5) becomes
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4 2
2 = – ...(1.9.6)
2
h
9. From de-Broglie’s wavelength, =
mv
4 2 m2 v 2
then 2 = ...(1.9.7)
h2
10. If E and V are the total and potential energies of a particle and Ek is
kinetic energy, then
1
Ek = E – V or mv2 = E – V or m2v2 = 2m (E – V)
2
11. Now eq. (1.9.7) becomes
4 2 2m[ E V ] h
2 = Since h 2
h2
2m[ E V ]
2 + =0 ...(1.9.8)
2
This is required time-independent Schrodinger wave equation.
12. For free particle (V = 0)
2m
2 + E = 0
2
Que 1.10. Derive time dependent Schrodinger wave equation.
Answer
1. We know that wave function is = oe – it ...(1.10.1)
2. On differentiating with respect to time, we get
= – i oe – it
t
or = – i (2) ...(1.10.2)
t
E
3. But E = h =
h
4. Eq. (1.10.2) becomes
E h
t
= – i2
h Since h 2
i
5. =– E
t
and E = –
i t
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or E = i ...(1.10.3)
t
6. Now time independent Schrodinger wave equation is
2m
2 + (E – V) = 0
2
2m
or2 + 2 [E – V] = 0
7. Using eq. (1.10.3), we get
2m
2 + i V = 0
2 t
2m 2m
2 – 2
V = – 2
i.
t
2 2m = – 2m i
2 V 2 t
2 2
or 2m V = i
t
8. This is required time dependent Schrodinger wave equation.
2 2
– V = H is known as Hamiltonian operator.
2m
i = E energy operator.
t
Then, H = E
Que 1.11. A particle is in motion along a line between x = 0 and
x = L with zero potential energy. At points for which x < 0 and
x > L, the potential energy is infinite. The wave function for the
particle in nth state is given by :
nx
n = A sin
L
Find the expression for the normalized wave function.
Answer
1. The eigen function is
nx
n (x) = A sin ...(1.11.1)
L
2. Now applying normalization condition.
L
2
| n (x)| dx = 1
0
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L
2 nx
A sin 2 dx = 1
L
0
2 L
A 2n
2 1 cos x dx = 1
L
0
L
2nx
2 sin
A L
x 2n = 1
2
L 0
A2 L = 1
2
2
A=
L
3. Equation (1.11.1) becomes
2 n x
n (x) = sin
L L
this is normalization function.
3
n=3
2
n=2
1
n=1
x=0 x=L
( 3)2
( 2)2
( 1)2
x=0 x=L
Fig. 1.11.1.
Que 1.12. Discuss quantum mechanical tunneling in brief.
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Answer
1. The quantum mechanical tunneling of an electron through a barrier of
finite height and thickness
2. Let us consider the potential barrier of Fig. 1.12.1. If the barrier is not
infinite, the boundary conditions do not force to zero at the barrier.
V(x)
V0
x
L L+W (a)
2
| |
Exponential decrease
inside barrier
2
| | 0 beyond barrier
x
W (b)
Fig. 1.12.1. (a). Potential barrier of height V 0 and thickness W;
(b). Probability density for an electron with energy E < V0 , indicating
a non-zero value of the wave function beyond the barrier.
3. Instead, we use the condition that and its slope d/dx are continuous
at each boundary of the barrier.
4. Thus must have a non-zero value within the barrier and also on the
other side.
5. Since has a value to the right of the barrier, * exists there also,
implying that there is some probability of finding the particle beyond the
barrier.
6. The particle does not go over the barrier because its total energy is less
than barrier height V0. The mechanism by which the particle penetrates
the barrier is called tunneling.
7. Quantum mechanical is intimately bound to the uncertainty principle. If
the barrier is sufficiently thin, that means the particle exists only on one
side.
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8. However, the wave function amplitude for the particle is reduced by the
barrier as shown in Fig. 1.12.1, so that by making the thickness W
greater, we can reduce on the right-hand side to the point the
negligible tunneling occurs.
Que 1.13. State wave particle duality.
Answer
1. In the photoelectric effect, light waves behave as particles. The Compton
Effect explains the particle like behaviour of EM wave.
2. In this effect, an x-ray beam was incident on a solid. A portion of the
x-ray beam was deflected and the frequency of the deflected wave had
shifted compared with the incident wave.
3. The observed change in frequency and the deflected angle corresponded
exactly to the expected results of a billiard ball collision between x-ray
quanta, or photon, and an electron in which both energy and momentum
are conserved.
4. De Broglie postulated the existence of matter waves which exhibit
particle-like behavior. The hypothesis of de Broglie was the existence of
a principle wave particle duality.
5. The momentum of a photon is given by
h
p=
where is the wavelength of the light wave.
6. Then, de Broglie hypothesized that the wavelength of a particle can be
expressed as
h
=
p
where p is the momentum of the particle and is known as the
de Broglie wavelength of the matter wave.
Que 1.14. What is the de Broglie wavelength (in Å) of an electron
at 100 eV ? What is the wavelength for electron at 12 keV ?
Answer
1. We have,
h h 6.63 10 34
v= 2E / m , = 31 1/ 2
E 1/ 2 ...(1.14.1)
mv 2 Em [2 9.1 10 ]
i. For 100 eV :
From eq. (1.14.1),
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4.9 10 19
= [100] 1/ 2 = 1.23 × 10 – 9[100] – 1/2
(1.6 10 19 )1/ 2
= 1.23 × 10 – 10 m = 1.23 Å
ii. For 12 keV :
From eq. (1.14.1),
4.9 10 19
= [1.2 104 ] 1/ 2 = 1.23 × 10 – 9[1.2 × 104] – 1/2
(1.6 10 19 )1/ 2
= 1.12 × 10 – 11 m = 0.112 Å
Que 1.15. Describe Davisson-Germer experiment to demonstrate
the wave-character of electrons.
Answer
Construction :
1. A collimated beam of electrons is produced using an electron gun. This
beam is incident on a target of nickel crystal.
2. The electrons are scattered in all directions by the atoms of the target.
3. The intensity of the scattered electrons in a given direction is measured
by allowing it to enter in a collector, which can be moved along a circular
scale.
Heated filament Charged Nickel crystal
plates
Accelerated electrons
Circular
scale
Detector
Fig. 1.15.1.
Principle :
1. If the material particles have a wave character, they are expected to
show the interference and diffraction phenomena.
2. Davisson and Germer experimentally demonstrated the diffraction of
electron beam.
Working :
1. Let an electron of rest mass m0 be accelerated by potential V, then its
kinetic energy is given by
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1
K= m0 2 eV ...(1.15.1)
2
where is the velocity of the accelerated electron.
2. From equation (1.15.1),
2eV
= ...(1.15.2)
m0
3. The wavelength of the de-Broglie wave associated with this electron is
expressed as
h
= ...(1.15.3)
m0
4. Using eq. (1.15.2) in eq. (1.15.3),
h
=
2 eV
m0
m0
h
i.e., = ...(1.15.4)
2em0V
5. Substituting m0 = 9.1 × 10 – 31 kg, e = 1.6 × 10 – 19 C
and h = 6.62 × 10 – 34 J-s in equation (1.15.4)
h 6.62 10 – 34
=
2em0V 2 1.6 10 – 19 9.1 10 – 31 V
12.24
or = Å
V
6. Davisson and Germer calculated the de-Broglie wavelength using two
different approaches.
7. In the first approach, Davisson and Germer used de-Broglie’s hypothesis.
8. They plotted the variation in the intensity of electron beam against
scattering angle for different accelerating voltages to study the effect of
increasing electron energy on the scattering angle .
9. They found that a bump begins to appear in the curve for V = 44 volts.
10. With increasing potential, the bump moves upward, and becomes more
prominent in the curve for V = 54 volts at = 50°, thereby indicating the
maximum suffering in electron beam for V = 54 volts as shown in
Fig. 1.15.2.
I I I I
44 V 48 V 54 V 60 V
= 50°
Fig. 1.15.2. Plots of intensity of electron beam against scattering
angle for different values of accelerating voltage.
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11. Thus, for V = 54 V, the de-Broglie wavelength of the electrons is
12.24 12.24
= = 1.66 Å ... (1.15.5)
V 54
12. In the second approach, Davisson and Germer calculated the de-Broglie
wavelength by treating the electron beam as a wave.
13. They used Bragg’s equation, n = 2d sin .
14. For nickel crystal, d = 0.91 Å. Also, = 65°.
15. Hence for the first order (n = 1) reflection, we have
= 2d sin = 2 × 0.91 × sin 65° = 1.65 Å... (1.15.6)
16. Eq. (1.15.5) and eq. (1.15.6) show an excellent agreement between the
two approaches.
17. Thus, the Davisson–Germer experiment provides a direct verification
of wave nature of electrons and hence it also verifies the de Broglie’s
hypothesis.
PART-2
Electrons in Periodic Lattices.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.16. Write a short note on periodic lattice potential.
Answer
1. An electron in a crystal moves in a perfectly periodic potential with a
periodicity equal to the lattice spacing. The potential has strong negative
peaks at the lattice sites.
2. A one dimensional representation of a periodic crystal potential, is shown
in Fig. 1.16.1.
3. The crystal periodicity extends to infinity in all direction. But at the
surface of any actual crystal, the periodicity is interrupted, because
within a few atomic spacing of the surface, the lattice spacing is not
uniform.
4. The solution of Schrodinger equation for a typical single electron in
such potential provides a set of ‘one electron’ states (orbitals) which the
single electron may occupy.
5. It should be noted that the one electron treatment is an approximation
in which the electron-electron interaction is ignored.
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6. One electron wave function has certain properties closely related to the
lattice periodicity. Hence, the allowed electronic energies occur in bands
of allowed states separated by forbidden energy regions.
7. In these allowed bands, the dynamic behaviour of electrons will be
found to be almost similar to that of a free electron.
V(x)
x
Ion
a
Core
Surface
Fig. 1.16.1. Variation of potential energy of a valence electron
in the periodic field of the ion cores of a one dimensional lattice.
Que 1.17. State and proof Bloch theorem.
Answer
Statement :
The Bloch theorem states that the eigen functions of the wave equation
for a periodic potential are of the form of product of a plane wave and
a function with the periodicity of the potential.
Proof :
1. Let in a crystal lattice of constant a, an electron has a periodic potential,
V(x) = V(x + a)
2. Then, the eigen functions of the electron obtained from the Schrodinger
equation,
d 2 2m
2 [ E V ( x)] = 0 ...(1.17.1)
x 2
have the form
(x) = e ikx uk(x) ...(1.17.2)
3. The function (x) is a plane wave e ikx modulated by a periodic function,
uk(x) = uk(x + a)
4. Since eq. (1.17.1) is a linear second order differential equation, its
general solution should be of the form.
(x) = Af(x) + Bg(x) ...(1.17.3)
where A and B are constants and f(x) and g(x) are two independent
solution of eq. (1.17.1).
5. Since the potential is periodic with period a, not only f(x) and g(x) but
f(x + a) and g(x + a) also should satisfy eq. (1.17.1), and expressible as a
linear combination of f(x) and g(x).
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i.e., f(x + a) = 1f(x) + 2 g(x)
g(x + a) = 1f(x) + 2 g(x) ...(1.17.4)
where 1, 2, 1, 2 are constants.
6. Then from eq. (1.17.3)
(x + a) = Af(x + a) + Bg(x + a)
7. Substituting from eq. (1.17.4), we have
(x + a) = (1 A + 1 B)f(x) + (2 A + 2 B)g(x) ...(1.17.5)
8. But, by definition, the function
(x + a) = eik(x + a) = eika eikx = (x) ...(1.17.6)
ika
where = e is constant,
9. Substituting from eq. (1.17.3) and (1.17.5) in eq. (1.17.6), we have
(1 A + 1 B) f(x) + (2 A + 2 B) g(x) = A f(x) + B g(x) ...(1.17.7)
10. Comparing the co-efficients of f(x) and g(x) on both sides of the
eq. (1.17.7), we have
(1 – ) A + 1 B = 0, 2 A + ( 2 – ) B = 0 ...(1.17.8)
11. This set of equations will have non-zero solution only if
1 1
=0
2 2
2 – (1 + 2) + (1 2 – 2 1) = 0 ...(1.17.9)
12. The two solutions 1 and 2 of this quadratic equation give, from
eq. (1.17.6)
(x + a) = 1 (x) = 2 (x) ...(1.17.10)
which define two wave vectors k1 and k2 such that
1 = eik1a, 2 = eik2a ...(1.17.11)
and also define two functions
uk (x) = e– ik1x (x)
1
uk (x) = e– ik2x (x) ...(1.17.12)
2
13. From the last three sets of relations, we have
uk (x + a)= e– ik1(x + a) (x + a) = e– ik1(x + a) 1 (x)
1
= e– ik1(x + a) eik1a (x) = e– ik1x (x)
= uk (x)
1
14. Similarly, we have
uk (x + a) = uk (x)
2 2
15. Thus the function uk(x) is periodic with period a, according to eq. (1.17.1),
then we can write
k(x) = eikx uk(x)
This is Bloch theorem.
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PART-3
E-k Diagrams.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.18. Classify semiconductors on the basis of energy band
gap with the help of suitable diagram.
Answer
1. Direct band gap semiconductors : In direct band gap semiconductors,
an electron in conduction band falls directly to valence band, giving off
the energy difference Eg as a photon of light. It cannot undergo change
in energy and momentum.
Example : GaAs, GaN etc.
E
Conduction band
Electron
EC
Eg h = E g
EV k (wave vector)
Empty state Valence band
Fig. 1.18.1.
2. Indirect band gap semiconductors : In indirect band gap
semiconductors, an electron in conduction band fall indirectly to valence
band giving a part of energy to the lattice in the form of heat. It undergoes
a change in momentum as well as energy.
Example : Si, Ge etc.
E
Conduction band
EC
Et Electron
Eg
h = Eg
EV k (wave vector)
Empty state Valence band
Fig. 1.18.2.
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Que 1.19. Describe briefly the band structure of Si with suitable
sketch. AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
Answer
1. Fig. 1.19.1(a) shows the ideal band structure of Si, while Fig. 1.19.1(b)
shows the actual band structure of Si. In Fig. 1.19.1(b), we observe that
the lowest energy gap between the bottom of conduction band and top
of valence band is 1.08 eV.
2. Here the bottom of conduction band does not lie directly above the
valence band and indicates a difference in momentum between the two
points. Such energy band structure is called indirect semiconductor
energy band.
3. Fig. 1.19.1(c) shows the indirect transition via of defect level (Et).
4. An electron in the conduction band minimum of Si cannot fall directly to
the valence band maximum but must undergo a momentum as well as
energy change as the transition is not occurring at the same value of k.
5. A photon by itself cannot excite an electron from the top of the valence
band of an indirect semiconductor to the bottom of the conduction band.
6. This is because the photon has sufficient energy to cause the transition
but does not possess the necessary momentum for this transition.
7. An electron moving between the valence band and the conduction band
of an indirect semiconductor can occur through a defect in the
semiconductor or by the action of phonons. Phonons can provide
sufficient momentum to assist indirect transitions.
E
Conduction
band C.B.
Conduction
band 1.5 Heat energy
eV Et
Forbidden 1.21 eV 1.08
band 2.5 eV eV 1.21 eV
Valence Valence k
band band V.B.
(a) ( b) (c )
Fig. 1.19.1.
Que 1.20. Derive the expression for the effective mass of an electron
in an energy band in terms of wave vector.
AKTU 2013-14, Marks 05
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Answer
1. Effective mass of electrons within a crystal is a function of the
semiconductor material and is different from the mass of electrons
within the vacuum.
2. (E, k ) relationship for the free electron and to the electron mass is
h
established as electron momentum p = mv = k where
2
1 1 p2 2 2
E= mv2 k
2 2 m 2m
The electron energy is parabolic with wave vector k .
3. As, the electron mass is inversely related to the curvature (second
derivative), of the (E, k ) relationship,
k
Fig. 1.20.1.
d2 E 2
so, =
m
d k2
4. The effective mass of an electron in a band with a given (E, k )
relationship is formed as
2
m* = 2
d2 E / dk
5. Therefore, the curvature of the band determines the electron effective
mass. The electrons near the top of the valence band have negative
effective mass.
6. The electron effective mass is denoted by m*n and hole effective mass is
denoted by m*p . The n subscript indicates the electron as negative charge
carrier and p subscript indicates the hole as positive charge carrier.
7. For holes, the top of the valence band corresponds to zero kinetic energy.
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VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. Explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.2.
Q. 2. Apply uncertainty principle to calculate the radius of the
Bohr’s first orbit.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.3.
Q. 3. What is Schrodinger wave equation ? Derive time
independent Schrodinger wave equations.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.9.
Q. 4. State and proof Bloch theorem.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.17.
Q. 5. Classify semiconductors on the basis of energy band gap
with the help of suitable diagram.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.18.
Q. 6. Describe briefly the band structure of Si with suitable
sketch.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.19.
Q. 7. Derive the expression for the effective mass of an electron
in an energy band in terms of wave vector.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.20.
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2 Energy Bands of
Semiconductor
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Energy Bands in intrinsic ........................ 2–2A to 2–12A
and Extrinsic Silicon
Part-2 : Carrier Transport, ................................... 2–12A to 2–28A
Mobility and Resistivity,
Diffusion Current and
Drift Current
Part-3 : Sheet Resistance, ..................................... 2–28A to 2–30A
Design of Resistors
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PART-1
Energy Bands in intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.1. Explain intrinsic semiconductor and also draw its
energy band diagram.
Answer
1. A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as intrinsic
semiconductor or a semiconductor in which electrons and holes are
solely created by thermal excitation is called a pure or intrinsic
semiconductor.
For example : Pure crystals (like germanium, silicon) which provide
electron-hole pairs are called intrinsic semiconductors.
2. Therefore, electron-hole pairs are the only charge carriers in an intrinsic
material.
3. The generation of electron-hole pairs (EHPs) can be explained by
considering the breaking of covalent bonds in the crystal lattice.
4. When a covalent bond of Ge crystal is broken, an electron becomes free
to move about in the lattice and a hole is left behind. The energy required
to break the bond is known as band gap energy Eg.
5. The energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor is shown in
Fig. 2.1.1.
Conduction band
Electron
energy
Eg
Valence band
Fig. 2.1.1. Energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor.
6. At 0 K, the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band has
no electrons. So, the material is an insulator.
7. At a finite temperature, thermal vibrations of lattice atoms produce a
certain concentration of electrons (say n) in conduction band and an
equal number of holes (say p) in valence band. For intrinsic material,
n = p = ni ...(2.1.1)
where ni is known as intrinsic carrier concentration.
8. If the steady state carrier concentration is maintained, then the
generation rate (gi) should be equal to recombination rate (ri),
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i.e., ri = gi ...(2.1.2)
Both are temperature dependent.
9. At any temperature, the recombination rate is proportional to equilibrium
concentration of electrons n0 and concentration of holes p0, i.e.,
ri = r p0 n0 = r ni2 = gi
where r is constant of proportionality.
Que 2.2. Discuss extrinsic semiconductor with energy band
diagram.
Answer
1. When a small amount of pentavalent impurity added to a pure
semiconductor crystal during the crystal growth, the resulting crystal as
n-type extrinsic semiconductor.
Example : Pentavalent arsenic is added to pure germanium crystal as
shown in Fig. 2.2.1.
Ge Ge Ge
Free
electron
Ge As Ge
Arsenic
atom as
impurity
Ge Ge Ge
Fig. 2.2.1. Crystal lattice with germanium atom displaced by arsenic atom.
2. The energy band as shown in Fig. 2.2.2. As seen, in addition to the
electrons and holes available in pure germanium, the addition of arsenic
greatly increases the number of conduction electrons.
Conduction band
ED
Band energy
Donor level
Valency band
Fig. 2.2.2. Energy band description of n-type semiconductor.
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3. Thus, the concentration of electrons in conduction band is increased
and exceeds the concentration of holes in the valence band.
4. When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure crystal
during the crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called a p-type extrinsic
semiconductor.
Example : Trivalent boron is added to pure germanium crystal as shown
in Fig. 2.2.3.
Ge Ge Ge
Hole
Ge B Ge
Boron
atom as
impurity
Ge Ge Ge
Fig. 2.2.3. Crystal lattice with one germanium atom displaced
by trivalent impurity atom(boron).
5. The energy band description of p-type is shown in Fig. 2.2.4. The addition
of trivalent impurity produces a large number of holes in the valence
band.
Conduction band
Band energy
EA
Acceptor level
Valence band
Fig. 2.2.4. Energy band description of p-type semiconductor.
6. However, there are few conduction band electrons due to thermal energy
associated with room temperature.
Que 2.3. Differentiate between direct and indirect band gap
semiconductor. Also discuss the variation of energy band with alloy
composition. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
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Answer
Difference :
S. No. Direct band gap Indirect band gap
semiconductor semiconductor
1. A dire ct band-gap (DBG) An indirect band-gap (IBG)
semiconductor is one in which semiconductor is one in which
the maximum energy level of the maximum energy level of
the valence band aligns with the valence band are
the minimum energy level of misaligned with the minimum
the conductio n band with energy level of the conduction
respect to momentum. band with respe ct to
momentum.
2. In a DBG semiconductor, a Due to a relative difference in
direct recombination takes the mo me ntum, first the
place with the release of the momentum is conserved by
energy equal to the energy release of energy and only after
diffe re nce be twee n the both the momentum aligns
recombining particles. themselves, a recombination
occurs accompanied with the
release of energy.
3. The efficiency factor of a DBG The probability of a radiative
semiconductor is more. recombination is less.
4. Example of DBG Examples of IBG
semiconductor is gallium semiconductors are silicon and
arsenide (GaAs) Germanium.
5. DBG semiconducto rs emit IBG semiconductors emit heat.
light.
Variation of energy bands with alloy composition :
1. The energy band gap Eg is a very important parameter of a semiconductor.
The wavelength (colour) of the light emitted by a direct semiconductor
depends on this gap.
2. This means that we can only get certain limited wavelengths from the
semiconductors. But that is not true. We can get number of wavelengths
using alloy semiconductor.
3. Alloy semiconductors provide a class of semiconductor materials where
the band gap can be varied continuously by having proper percentage of
alloying.
4. A particular alloy semiconductor may behave as direct semiconductor
for certain of its alloying range and starts behaving as an indirect
semiconductor for the remaining range.
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5. Let consider a particular case of AlxGa1 – x As. GaAs is a column III-V
compound semiconductor. Ga and Al both belong to column III, so they
can easily replace each other.
6. In this alloy, let x % of Ga are replaced by Al in GaAs and one gets
AlxGa1 – x As. The band gap variation with alloy composition is shown in
Fig. 2.3.1.
7. This alloy has three energy bands in conduction band variation of
x (i.e., x in Alx). The energy of these bands change, therefore band gap
will change. Further the alloy behaves as a direct semiconductor up to
x = 0.38.
Band
gap
energy X
(eV)
L AlxGa 1 – x As
Aluminium fraction (x)
Fig. 2.3.1. Band gap variation with alloy composition.
Que 2.4. Define Fermi level and plot the Fermi function at 0 °C.
Calculate the probabilities of finding electrons and holes at the
energy level of 0.1 eV above and below the Fermi level at temperature
0 K and 300 K.
Answer
Fermi level : It is the energy state having probability of half of being
occupied by an electron.
Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E) :
1. It gives the probability that an available energy state at E will be occupied
by an electron at absolute temperature T.
1
f(E) = ( E EF )/ kT
...(2.4.1)
1 e
where EF = Fermi energy level
k = Boltzmann constant
T = absolute temperature in Kelvin.
2. The probability that energy state E will be occupied by hole is given by
[1 – f(E)].
3. If the energy E is equal to the Fermi level EF, then occupying probability
1 1
is f(EF) =
(1 e0 ) 2
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f(E)
T=0K
1
T2 > T1
1/2 T1
T2
E
EF
Fig. 2.4.1. The Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
4. From the given Fig. 2.4.1, it indicates that at 0 K, the distribution takes
the simple rectangular form.
5. With T = 0 in the denominator of the exponent f(E) is 1/(1 + 0) = 1 when
the exponent is negative (E < EF), and is 1/(1+ ) = 0 when the exponent
is positive (E > EF).
6. Therefore, this rectangular distribution implies that at 0 K every available
energy state up to EF is filled with electrons and all states above EF are
empty.
7. At temperatures higher than 0 K, some probability exists for states
above the Fermi level to be filled.
8. For example, at T = T1 in Fig. 2.4.1 there is some probability f(E) that
states above EF are filled, and there is a corresponding probability
[1 – f(E)] that states below EF are empty.
9. The Fermi function is symmetrical about EF for all temperatures; that
is, the probability f(EF + E) that a state E above EF is filled is the
same as the probability [1 – f(EF – E)] that a state E below EF is
empty.
10. Calculation of probabilities at energy level 0.1 eV at T = 0 K :
Case 1 : When E – EF = 0.1 eV
1
i. For electrons f(E) = 0
1 e
0.1
0
ii. For holes [1 – f(E)] = 1 – 0 = 1
Case 2 : When E – EF = – 0.1 eV
1
i. For electrons f(E) = 1
1 e( 0.1/ 0)
ii. For holes [1 – f(E)] = 1 – 1 = 0
11. Calculation of probabilities at energy level 0.1 eV at T = 300 K :
Case I : When E – EF = 0.1 eV
1
i. For electrons f(E) = = 0.02061
1 e(0.1/ 0.0259)
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ii. For holes [1 – f(E)] = 1 – 0.02061 = 0.97939
Case II : When E – EF = – 0.1 eV
1
i. For electrons f(E) = = 0.9793
( 0.1/ 0.0259)
1e
ii. For holes [1 – f(E)] = 1 – 0.9793 = 0.0207
Que 2.5. Discuss the temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac
distribution function for semiconductor materials. Derive the
thermal equilibrium concentration of electron.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Derive the expression for the equilibrium carrier concentrations
for holes using Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
1. The Fermi-Dirac distribution function can be used to calculate the
concentrations of electrons and holes in a semiconductor, if the densities
of available states in the valence and conduction bands are known.
2. The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is
n0 = f ( E) N ( E) dE ...(2.5.1)
EC
where N(E) dE is the density of states (cm– 3) in the energy range dE.
The electron and hole concentration symbol (n0, p0) indicates equilibrium
conditions.
3. The number of electrons per unit volume in the energy range dE is the
product of the density of states and the probability of occupancy f(E).
4. Thus the total electron concentration is the integral over the entire
conduction band, as in eq. (2.5.1).
5. N(E) is proportional to E1/2, so the density of states in the conduction
band increases with electron energy.
6. On the other hand, the fermi function becomes extremely small for
large energies. This result that the product f(E) N(E) decreases rapidly
above EC, and very few electrons occupy energy states far above the
conduction band edge.
7. Similarly, the probability of finding an empty state (hole) in the valence
band [1 – f(E)] decreases rapidly below E, and most holes occupy states
near the top of the valence band.
8. This effect is demonstrated in Fig. 2.5.1, which shows the fermi function,
and the resulting number of electrons and holes occupying available
energy states in the conduction and valence bands at thermal
equilibrium.
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E E
Electrons
EC EC
EF
Ev Ev
Holes
(a) Intrinsic
EC EC
EF
Ev Ev
(b) n-type
N(E) f(E)
EC EC
EF
Ev Ev
N(E) [1 – f(E)]
(c) p-type
0 0.5 1.0 Carrier
f(E) concentration
Fig. 2.5.1. Schematic band diagram, Fermi-Dirac distribution,
and the carrier concentration for (a) intrinsic, (b) n-type
(c) p-type at thermal equilibrium.
9. The conduction band electron concentration is the effective density of
state (NC) at EC times the probability of occupancy at EC.
n0 = Ncf(Ec) ...(2.5.2)
10. In this expression we assume the fermi level EF lies at least several kT
below the conduction band. Then the exponential term is large compared
with unity, and the fermi function f(EC) can be simplified as
1
f(EC) = e – [(EC – EF)/kT] ...(2.5.3)
1 e( EC EF ) / kT
Since kT at room temperature is only 0.026 eV.
11. For this condition the concentration of electrons in the conduction band
is,
n0 = NCe– (EC – EF) / kT ...(2.5.4)
Here, the effective density of states NC is,
3/ 2
2mn* kT
NC = 2
h2
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m*n is the density-of-states effective mass for electrons.
12. The concentration of holes in the valence band is
p0 = Nv[1 – f(Ev)] ...(2.5.5)
where Nv is the effective density of states in the valence band.
13. The probability of finding an empty state at Ev is
1
1 – f(Ev) = 1 – e – (EF – Ev)/kT ...(2.5.6)
1 e( Ev EF ) / kT
for EF larger than Ev by several kT.
14. So, the concentration of holes in the valence band is
p0 = Nve– (EF – Ev)/kT ...(2.5.7)
15. The effective density of states in the valence band reduced to the band
edge is
3/ 2
2m*p kT
Nv = 2
h2
Que 2.6. The energy distribution function (E) is given by product
of two factor [(E) = N(E). f(E)]. What is the interpretation to be
given to each of these factors ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
1. The energy distribution function of the electrons can be interpreted as
a product of two factors.
i. The first is called the degeneracy, or the density of states per unit
energy. This factor is independent of the statistical nature of the particles.
ii. The second is the average number of electrons with energy.
Que 2.7. What do you mean by intrinsic concentration of charge
carriers ?
Answer
1. The intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are
ni = NC e ( EC Ei )/ kT , pi NV e ( Ei EV ) / kT
2. The product of n0 and p0 at equilibrium is constant for a particular material
and temperature, even if the doping is varied :
n0 p0 = ( NC e ( EC EF ) / kT )( NV e ( EF EV )/ kT )
Eg / kT
= NC NV e ( EC EV ) / kT = NC NV e
E / kT
ni pi = ( NC e ( EC Ei ) / kT ) ( NV e ( Ei EV )/ kT ) = NC NV e g
3. The intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are equal, ni = pi; thus the
intrinsic concentration is
E g / 2 kT
ni = NC NV e
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4. The constant product of electron and hole concentrations can be
written as
n0 p0 = ni2
For Si at room temperature, ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm– 3
5. Equilibrium carrier concentration can also be written as
n0 = ni e( EF Ei )/ kT
p0 = ni e( Ei EF )/ kT
Que 2.8. Si sample is doped with 1020 As atoms/cm 3. What is
equilibrium concentration of holes at 300 K ? Where is EF (i.e., Fermi
level) ? Draw the energy band diagram to show the position of Ei
and EF. Take ni = 1.5 × 1010 cc. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
Given : Nd = 1020 atoms / cm3, T = 300 K, ni = 1.5 × 1010 c.c.
To Find : p0, EF – Ei
1. Since, Nd> ni, we can approximate n0 = Nd and
ni2 2.25 10 20
p0 = = = 2.25 cc
n0 1020
n0 1020
2. Fermi level, EF – Ei = kT ln = 0.0259 ln = 0.59 eV
ni 1.5 1010
3. The resulting band diagram is as shown in Fig. 2.8.1.
EC
EF
0.59 eV
1.1 eV Ei
EV
Fig. 2.8.1.
Que 2.9. A Si sample is doped with 1016 boron atoms/ cm3. What is
the equilibrium concentration n0 at 300 K ? Where EF is relative to
Ei . Assume for Si at 300 K. ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm– 3 and Eg = 1.12 eV
Answer
Given : Na = 1016 cm– 3, T = 300 K, ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm– 3, Eg = 1.12 eV
To Find : Ei – EF
1. Since boron is a p-type dopant in Si, hence the material will be p-type.
Since NA >> ni, we can approximate
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p0 = NA = 1016 cm-3
ni2 (1.5 1010 )2
n0 = 2.25 10 4 cm 3
p0 1016
p0
2. Ei – EF = kT ln
ni
1016
Ei – EF = 0.0259 ln = 0.347 eV
1.5 1010
3. The resulting band diagram is as shown in Fig. 2.9.1.
EC
Ei 1.12 eV
0.347 eV
EF
EV
Fig. 2.9.1.
PART-2
Carrier Transport : Mobility, Resistivity, Diffusion Current
and Drift Current.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.10. What do you mean by mobility of a carrier ? How does it
depend on temperature, doping concentrations and high field ?
Explain.
Answer
Mobility : The mobility of a carrier is a measure of its ease of motion,
and is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field,
vd
i.e., =
E
where, vd = drift velocity, and E = applied electric field . It is a positive
quantity and has a unit of cm2/ V-sec.
Effect of temperature on mobility :
The mobility is determined by scattering of the carriers. Scattering
mechanism influence electron and hole mobility.
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3/2 – 3/2
T T
(cm 2 / V-s)
log scale
Lattice
Impurity
T(K)
log scale
Fig. 2.10.1.
i. Lattice scattering :
1. If scattering occurs due to vibrations of lattice atom then it is called
lattice scattering.
2. As the temperature increases, the frequency of lattice vibration
increases. As a result, the mobility decreases.
3. The approximate temperature dependency is given by T – 3/2 as shown
in Fig. 2.10.1.
ii. Impurity scattering :
1. If scattering occurs under the influence of interaction with impurity
atoms, it is called impurity scattering.
2. Such scattering dominates at low temperature. At low temperature
the thermal motion of carriers is slow. So, there is an increase in
mobility () as the temperature increases. The dependency is expressed
by T3/2 as shown in Fig. 2.10.1.
Effect of doping on mobility :
1. As the dopant concentration in a semiconductor increases, the carrier
mobility at a given temperature decreases. The reason is the increased
scattering by the impurity ions.
Effect of high field on mobility :
vd
1. Since, = , this shows that mobility decreases at high fields which
E
leads to velocity saturation.
Que 2.11. What do you mean by Fermi level ? Discuss the effect of
temperature and doping on mobility. A Si sample is doped with 1017
As atoms/cm3. What is the equilibrium hole concentration on p0 at
300 K ? Where is EF relative to Ei. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
Answer
Fermi level : Refer Q. 2.4, Page 2–6A, Unit-2.
Effect of temperature and doping on mobility : Refer Q. 2.10,
Page 2–12A, Unit-2.
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Numerical :
Given : Nd = 1017 atoms/cm3, T = 300 K.
To Find : p0, EF – Ei
1. Since, Nd > ni we can approximate n0 = Nd and ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm –3
(For Si)
ni 2 2.25 1020
p0 =
n0 1017
p0 = 2250 atoms/cm3
n 1017
2. Fermi level, EF – Ei = kT ln 0 = 0.0259 ln = 0.406 eV
ni 1.5 1010
3. The resulting band diagram is shown in Fig. 2.11.1.
EC
0.406 eV
1.1 eV Ei
EV
Fig. 2.11.1.
Que 2.12. Explain high field effect. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
1. Large electric fields (E > 103 V/cm) can cause the drift velocity and
therefore the current J = – qnvd to exhibit a sublinear dependence on
the electric field.
2. This dependence of upon E is an example of a hot carrier effect,
which implies that the carrier drift velocity vd is comparable to the
thermal velocity vth.
3. In many cases, an upper limit is reached for the carrier drift velocity in
a high field as shown in Fig. 2.12.1.
7
vd(cm/s)
10
6
10
5
10
2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10
E (V/cm)
Fig. 2.12.1. Saturation of electron drift velocity at high electric fields for Si.
4. This limit occurs near the mean thermal velocity ( 107 cm/s) and
represents the point at which added energy imparted by the field is
transferred to the lattice rather than increasing the carrier velocity.
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5. The result of this scattering limited velocity is a fairly constant current
at high field. This behaviour is typical of Si, Ge and some other
semiconductors.
Que 2.13. Derive the expression for resistivity.
Answer
Consider a semiconductor sample shown in Fig. 2.13.1 which has a
cross-sectional area A, a length L, and a carrier concentration of n
electrons/cm3. Suppose we now apply an electric field E to the sample.
In In
–3
n (cm )
L Area = A
Fig. 2.13.1. Current conduction in a uniformly doped semiconductor
bar with length L and cross-sectional area A.
1. The electron current density Jn flowing in the sample can be found by
summing the product of the charge (– q) on each electron times the
electron’s velocity over all electrons per unit volume n :
n
In
Jn = ( qvi ) qnvn qn n E ...(2.13.1)
A i1
where In is the electron current.
2. A similar process applies to holes. By taking the charge on the hole to be
positive, we have
Jp = qpvp = qppE. ...(2.13.2)
3. The total current flowing in the semiconductor sample due to the applied
field E can be written as the sum of the electron and hole current
components :
J = Jn + Jp = (qnn + qpp)E. ...(2.13.3)
4. The quantity in parentheses is known as conductivity :
= q(nn + pp) ...(2.13.4)
5. The electron and hole contributions to conductivity are simply additive.
The corresponding resistivity of the semiconductor, which is the
reciprocal of , is given by
1 1
=
q(n n p p )
Que 2.14. In a semiconductor at room temperature, the intrinsic
carrier concentration and intrinsic resistivity are 1.5 × 1016 m – 3
and 2 × 103 -m respectively. It is converted into an extrinsic
semiconductor with a doping concentration of 10 20/m 3 for the
extrinsic semiconductor. Calculate for the extrinsic minority
carrier concentration, mobility and res is tivity of doped
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semiconductor, minority carrier concentration when temperature
is increased to a value at which intrinsic carrier concentration n
is doubled n = p.
Answer
Given : ni = 1.5 × 1016 m– 3, = 2 × 103 m
Doping concentration = 1020 /m3
To Find : n, , minority carrier concentration
1. Assumptions :
i. Mobility of majority and minority carrier to be the same.
ii. kT = 26 mV at room temperature.
2. Minority carrier concentration :
ni2
=
Doping concentration
(1.5 1016 )2
= = 2.25 × 1012 atoms/m3
10 20
3. Electron mobility :
1 1
(n + p) =
qn 2 103 1.6 10 19 1.5 1016
1
2n =
4.8
1
n = = 0.1042 m2/volt-sec
9.6
4. Resistivity :
= qn(n)
As doping concentration >> minority concentration
= 1.6 × 10– 19 × 1020 × 0.1042 = 1.6672 –1 m – 1
1
Resistivity =
= 0.5998 -m
5. Minority carrier concentration when n is doubled :
(1.5 2 1016 )2 9 1032
= 20 =
10 1020
12
= 9 × 10 atoms/m 3
Que 2.15. Mobilities of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic
Germanium at room temperature are 3900 cm 2/ V-sec and
1900 cm2/ V-sec respectively. If the electrons and hole densities are
each equal to 2.5 × 1013 per cm3, calculate Germanium resistivity
and conductivity.
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Answer
Given : n = 3900 cm2/ V-sec, p = 1900 cm2/ V-sec
n0 = p0 = 2.5 × 1013 per cm3
To Find : ,
1. Conductivity of Germanium is given by
= e (nn0 + p p0)
= 1.6 × 10 – 19 × 2.5 × 1013 (3900 + 1900)
= 0.0232 (-cm) – 1
2. Resistivity of Germanium is given by
1 1
= 43 -cm
0.0232
Que 2.16. Calculate the conductivity of specimen if a donor
impurity is added to an extent of one part in 108 Ge atoms at room
temperature.
Avogadro number = 6.02 × 1023 atoms/mole
At. weight of Ge = 72.6 gm
Density of Ge = 5.32 gm/cc
Mobility = 3800 cm2 / V-s
Answer
Given : Avogadro number = 6.02 × 1023 atoms/mole, At. weight of
Ge = 72.6 gm, Density of Ge = 5.32 gm/cc,
Mobility = 3800 cm2 /V-s.
To Find : Conductivity, .
Avogadro number
1. Concentration of Ge atoms = × Density of Ge
Atomic weight of Ge
6.02 10 23
= × 5.32 = 4.41 × 1022 / cm3
72.6
2. As there is one donor atom per 108 atom of Ge.
4.41 10 22
Hence, nd = = 4.41 × 1014 per cc
108
3. Now conductivity, = nde
= (4.41 × 1014) × (3800 × (1.6 × 10– 19)) = 0.268 mho/cm
Que 2.17. A specimen of pure germanium at 300 K has a density of
charge carriers of 2.5 × 1019/m 3. It is doped with donor impurity at
the rate of one impurity atom for every 106 atoms of Ge. All impurity
atoms may be supposed to be ionized. The density of Ge atoms is
4.2 × 1028 atoms/m3. Find the resistivity of doped germanium if the
electron mobility is 0.36 m2/V-s.
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Answer
Given : Density of charge carrier = 2.5 × 1019/m3, Density of Ge
atoms = 4.2 × 1028 atoms/m3, n = 0.36 m2/V-s.
To Find : Resistivity, n
1. Intrinsic carrier concentration = 2.5 × 1019 / m3
2. Density of added impurity atoms Nd is given by
Density of Ge atom 4.2 10 28
Nd = =
Rate of one impurity atoms 106
22 3
= 4.2 × 10 atoms / m
3. Here, donor concentration is very large as compared to intrinsic carrier
concentration. Hence, the intrinsic concentration may be neglected.
4. The conductivity of doped material is
n = Nd e n
= (4.2 × 1022) × (1.6 × 10 – 19) × 0.36
= 2.492 × 103 mho / m
1 1
5. Therefore, resistivity, n =
n (2.492 103 ) mho / m
or n = 0.4133 × 10 – 3 m
Que 2.18. Calculate minimum conductivity of Si at 300 K. Derive
the expression used, if any.
OR
Show that the minimum conductivity of a semiconductor sample
p
occurs when n0 = ni . What is the expression for minimum
n
conductivity ?
Answer
Derivation :
1. As = q(nn + pp)
we know that,
ni2 = np
ni2
p=
n
ni2
so, = q n n p
n
ni2
2. = q n 2 p = 0 (for minimum conductivity)
n nmin
ni2
µn = 2
p
nmin
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2 2
p
nmin = ni
n
p
nmin = ni
n
ni2
3. min = q nmin . n . p
nmin
p
as nmin = ni
n
p ni2
min = q ni . n . p
n p
ni .
n
min = 2 qni n . p
Numerical :
Given : q = 1.6 × 10 – 19 C
ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm–3, µn = 1350 cm2/ V-s, µp = 480 cm2/ V-s
To Find : min.
min = 2 1.6 10 19 1.5 1010 1350 480
= 3.9 × 10 – 6 (-cm)–1
Que 2.19. What is Hall effect ? Derive the relation between Hall
voltage and carrier concentration.
Answer
Hall effect :
According to Hall effect, if a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carrying
a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field, then an electric
field is induced in the direction perpendicular to both I and B. This
phenomenon is known as Hall effect.
Derivation :
1. Consider, an n-type semiconductor bar carrying a current I in positive
x-direction and placed in a magnetic field B. A force is exerted in negative
y-direction.
2. If the semiconductor is of n-type, current will be carried by electrons
and these electrons will be forced downward side 1 and side 1 becomes
negatively charged thus, a potential difference VH called Hall voltage is
developed between surfaces 1 and 2.
3. The polarity of Hall vo ltage e nables to de te rmine whethe r
semiconductor is of n-type or p-type.
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y
face-2
d
H
face-1
w
l x
B Semiconductor bar
Fig. 2.19.1.
4. In equilibrium state,
qE = Bqv
or E= Bv ...(2.19.1)
where, v= Drift speed
q= Electric charge
VH I
5. As, and J v
E=
d wd
BJd BI
VH = Ed = Bvd
w
VH = BI/w ...(2.19.2)
where, w = Width of specimen and = Charge density
6. Now, Hall co-efficient
1
RH = ...(2.19.3)
VH w
hence, RH = ...(2.19.4)
BI
7. If carriers are electrons then = – nq and if carriers are holes then = pq
1
Hall coefficient for n-type semiconductor, RH –
nq
1
and for p-type semiconductor, RH =
pq
8. If both and RH are measured the mobility may be determined by the
following relation
= RH .
Que 2.20. What is Hall angle ? Show that H = tan–1 (B) where
symbols have their usual meaning.
Answer
1. The net electric field E in the specimen is a vector sum of electric field
component in the x-direction because of flow of current, Ex and electric
field due to Hall effect, i.e., EH.
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Ex
0 x
H
EH E
Fig. 2.20.1.
2. So, resultant electric field E acts at an angle of H to the x-axis and this
angle is called Hall angle.
EH
Thus, Hall angle, H = tan 1 ...(2.20.1)
Ex
VH
3. We have EH =
d
Voltage drop along the length
and Ex =
Length of specimen
IR I × resistivity × l
=
l la
I 1 J
= resistivity J
a
4. Substituting the value of EH and Ex in eq. (2.20.1)
1 EH V /d BI / wd
H = tan tan 1 H = tan 1
Ex J/ J/
I
J=
wd
1 B
H = tan = tan–1 BRH
H = tan–1 B ( =RH)
Que 2.21. An electric field of 100 V/m is applied to a specimen of
n-type s emiconductor for which the Hall co-efficient is
0.0145 m3/C. Determine the current density in the specimen. Given
that n = 0.36 m2/volt-sec.
Answer
Given : E = 100 V/m, RH = 0.0145 m3/C, n = 0.36 m2 / V-sec
To Find : J
1. Current density, J = E
J = nqnE ...(2.21.1)
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1
RH =
nq
1 1
n= = 4.31 × 1020/m3
qRH 1.6 10 19 0.0145
2. Putting the value of n in eq. (2.21.1)
J = nqn E = 4.31 × 1020 × 1.6 × 10 – 19 × 0.36 × 100
J = 2482 A / m2
Que 2.22. The res is tivity of a s ample s emiconductor is
9 milli ohm-meter. Its holes have mobility of 0.03 m2/V-s. Calculate
hall coefficient.
Answer
Given : Resistivity = 9 × 10 – 3 ohm-meter, Mobility () = 0.03 m2/V-s.
To Find : Hall coefficient.
1. We know that
1 1
Conductivity, = = = 111.11/-m
resistivity 9 × 10 3
0.03
2. Now, Hall coefficient, RH = = 2.7 × 10 – 4 m3/C
111.11
Que 2.23. The resistivity of semiconductor material was known
to 0.00912 -m at room temperature. The flux density in the hall
model was 0.48 Wb/m2. Calculate hall angle for a hall coefficient of
3.55 × 10 – 4 m 3/ coulomb.
Answer
Given : Resistivity = 0.00912 -m, Flux density (B) = 0.48 Wb/m2,
Hall coefficient (RH) = 3.55 × 10 – 4 m3/c
To Find : Hall angle H
1
1. Conductivity, =
resistivity
1
= = 109.65 (-m) – 1
0.00912
2. Hall angle, H = tan– 1 ( B RH)
= tan – 1 (109.65 × 0.48 × 3.55 × 10 – 4)
= tan – 1 (0.01868) = 1.0704°
Que 2.24. What is diffusion of carriers ? Derive the expression
for the diffusion current crossing a unit area.
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Answer
1. Diffusion is the natural result of the random motion of the individual
molecules when excess carriers are created non-uniformly in a
semiconductor, the electron and hole concentrations vary with position
in the sample.
2. Any such spatial variation in n and p calls for a net high carrier
concentration to region of low carrier concentration. This type of
phenomenon is called diffusion of carrier.
3. Let us consider an arbitrary distribution n(x) as shown in Fig. 2.24.1.
4. Since the mean free path l between collisions is a small incremental
distance, we can divide x into segments l wide, with n(x) evaluated at
the center of each segment.
n(x) n(x) n1
n2
(1) (2)
(x) x0
l
x0 – l x0 + l
( a) (b )
Fig. 2.24.1. (a) Division of n(x) into segments of length
equal to a mean free path for the electrons ;
(b) Expanded view of two of the segments centered at x . 0
5. In Fig. 2.24.1(b), the electrons in segment (1) to the left of x0 have equal
chances of moving left or right, and in a mean free time one-half of
them will move into segment (2).
6. The same is true for electrons within one mean free path of x0 to the
right; one half of these electrons will move through x0 from right to left
in a mean free time.
7. Thus, the net number of electrons passing x0 from left to right in one
mean free time is,
1 1
(n1 lA) (n2 lA) ...(2.24.1)
2 2
where, area perpendicular to x is A.
8. The rate of electron flow in the + x direction per unit area is given by,
l
n(x0) = (n1 n2 ) ...(2.24.2)
2t
9. Since the mean free path l is a small differential length, the difference
in electron concentration (n1 – n2) can be written as,
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n( x) n( x x)
n1– n2 = l ...(2.24.3)
x
where, x is taken at the center of segment (1) and x = l .
10. Eq. (2.24.2) can also be written in terms of carrier gradient dn(x)/dx
2
l n( x) n( x x)
n(x) = lim
2 t x 0 x
l2 dn( x)
= ...(2.24.4)
2 t dx
l2
Here the quantity is called the electron diffusion coefficient Dn with
2t
unit cm2/sec.
11. The minus sign in eq. (2.24.4) indicates that the net motion of electron
due to diffusion is in the direction of decreasing electron concentration.
We can say that
dn( x)
n(x) = Dn ...(2.24.5)
dx
dp( x)
p(x) = D p ...(2.24.6)
dx
where, Dp = hole diffusion coefficient
12. The diffusion current crossing a unit area (the current density) is the
particle flux density multiplied by the charge of carrier.
dn x dn x
Jn (diff) = – (– q) Dn = q Dn
dx dx
dp x dp x
Jp (diff) = – (+ q) Dp = – q Dp
dx dx
Que 2.25. What do you mean by drift and diffusion of carriers ?
Find total current density generated due to both of these transport
mechanisms of carriers.
Answer
1. There are two kinds of current flow in a semiconductor :
i. The first is drift current which is due to electric field.
ii. The second is diffusion current which is due to gradient of carrier
concentration.
2. If an electric field is present in addition to the carrier gradient, the
current densities will each have a drift component and diffusion
component
dp ( x)
Jp(x) = qp p( x) E(x) – qDp ...(2.25.1)
drift dx
diffusion
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dn ( x)
Jn(x) = qn n(x) E(x) + qDn ...(2.25.2)
dx
3. The total current density is the sum of the contribution due to electrons
and holes :
J(x) = Jn(x) + Jp(x) ...(2.25.3)
4. The relation between the particle flow and the current of eq. (2.25.1)
and (2.25.2) can be visualized by considering a diagram such as shown
in Fig. 2.25.1.
5. In Fig. 2.25.1, an electric field is assumed to be in the x-direction, along
with carrier distributions n(x) and p(x) which decrease with
increasing x.
p (diff) and p (drift)
E(x)
J p (diff) and J p (drift)
n (diff)
n(x)
n (drift)
p(x)
Jn (diff)
Jn (drift)
Fig. 2.25.1 Drift and diffusion directions for electrons and holes in a
carrier gradient and an electric field. Particle flow directions are indicated
by dashed arrows, and the resulting currents are indicated by solid lines.
6. Thus the derivatives in equations,
dn( x)
n(x) = – Dn
dx
dp( x)
p(x) = – Dp
dx
are negative, and diffusion takes place in the +x-direction.
7. The resulting electrons and hole diffusion currents [Jn(diff.) and
Jp (diff.)] are in opposite directions.
8. Holes drift in the direction of the electric filed [p (drift)], whereas electrons
drift in the opposite direction because of their negative charge. The
resulting drift current is in the +x-direction in each case.
Que 2.26. Describe diffusion of carriers and derive the current
equation resulting due to this phenomenon. Also, derive the
Einstein relation.
OR
What is Einstein relation ? Develop expressions to establish relations
between diffusion coefficient and mobility of carriers or obtain the
relation : D/ = kT/q. AKTU 2017-18, 2018-19; Marks 07
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Answer
A. Diffusion of carriers : Refer Q. 2.24, Page 2-22A, Unit-2.
B. Einstein relation :
1. Fig. 2.26.1 shows energy band diagram of a semiconductor in electric
field (x).
2. Since electrons drift in a direction opposite to the field therefore the
potential energy for electrons will increase in the direction of the field.
(x)
EC
Ei
EV
x
Fig. 2.26.1. Energy band diagram of a
semiconductor in an electric field (x).
3. The electrostatic potential V(x) varies in the opposite direction, since it is
defined in terms of positive charges therefore related to electron potential
energy (x) as,
E ( x)
V(x) = ...(2.26.1)
q
dV ( x)
4. We know, electric field (x) =
dx
choosing Ei as a convenient reference, the electric field can be related
as,
– d Ei 1 dEi
(x) = = ...(2.26.2)
dx – q q dx
5. At equilibrium, no net current flows in a semiconductor, therefore
dp( x)
Jp(x) = qp p(x) (x) – qDp =0
dx
dp( x)
qpp(x) (x) = qDp
dx
Dp 1 dp( x)
(x) = ...(2.26.3)
p p ( x) dx
1 dp( x)
6. To calculate the value of
p( x) dx
we know, p = ni e(Ei – EF) / kT
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p
= e(Ei – EF) / kT
ni
taking log on both sides,
p Ei – EF
ln =
n
i kT
Ei EF
ln p – ln ni = ...(2.26.4)
kT
7. Differentiating eq. (2.26.4) with respect to x we get
1 dp 1 dEi dEF
0 = ( ni = constant)
p dx kT dx dx
1 dp 1 dEi dEF
= ...(2.26.5)
p dx kT dx dx
8. Putting the value of eq. (2.26.5) in eq. (2.26.3)
Dp 1 dEi dEF
(x) =
p kT dx dx
9. The equilibrium Fermi level does not vary with x, and derivative of Ei is
given as q(x)
Dp 1
(x) = q( x)
p kT
1 Dp 1
=
q p kT
kT Dp
=
q p
D kT
or = ...(2.26.6)
q
10. Eq. (2.26.6) is known as Einstein relation.
Que 2.27. In Si semiconductor it is observed that three quarters
of current is carried by holes and the rest part by electrons. What
is the ratio of electrons to holes concentration ?
Answer
3 1
Given : Ip = I, In = I
4 4
To Find : n : p
J n (drift) q n En I
= J
J p (drift) q p Ep A
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1
I
4 = n . n
3 p p
I
4
1 n Dn n
= VT VT
3 p Dp p
1
n:p=
3 0.026
n : p = 12.82
PART-3
Sheet Resistance, Design of Resistors.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 2.28. Write a short note on sheet resistance.
Answer
1. Consider a uniform slab of conducting material of resistivity , of width
W, thickness t, and length between faces L. The arrangement is shown
in Fig. 2.28.1.
B
L
Resistivity
t
W
A
Fig. 2.28.1. Sheet resistance model.
2. Consider the RAB between two opposite faces.
L
RAB = ohm
A
where A = Cross-section area
L
3. Thus RAB = ohm ( A = tW)
tW
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4. If L = W, i.e., a square of resistive material, then
RAB = = RS
t
where RS = ohm per square or sheet resistance
5. Thus RS = ohm per square
t
RS is completely independent of the area of the square.
Que 2.29. A particular layer of MOS circuit has resistivity = 1
ohm cm. A section of this layer is 55 m long and 5 m wide and has
a thickness of 1 m. Calculate the resistance from one end of this
section to the other (along the length). What is the value of RS ?
Answer
Given : = 1 -cm, l = 55 m = 55 × 10 – 4 cm, W = 5 m = 5 × 10 – 4 cm,
t = 1 m = 1 × 10 – 4 cm
To Find : R, sheet resistance RS
l l
1. We have resistance, R = =
A tW
1 55 10 4
R=
10 4 5 10 4
R = 11 × 104
2. Sheet resistance, RS =
t
1
=
10 4
RS = 104/square
Que 2.30. Define the resistance. Derive the expression of resistance
of a rectangular slab of length l and area of cross-section A.
Answer
Resistance :
1. According to ohm’s law,
VI
or V = RI
2. Here V be the potential difference between the ends of a conductor, I is
the current flowing through a conductor.
3. The constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the conductor.
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Derivation :
l
A
Fig. 2.30.1.
1. Resistance R is proportional to length l,
i.e., R l ...(2.30.1)
2. Resistance R is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area A,
1
i.e., R ...(2.30.2)
A
3. Combining eq. (2.30.1) and (2.30.2), we have
l
R
A
l
4. For a given conductor, R =
A
where the constant of proportionality depends on the material of the
conductor but not on its dimensions. is called resistivity.
Que 2.31. Name and describe in brief the layouts for designing the
resistances.
Answer
1. Dogbone Layout : This layout is used in analog applications and
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) circuitry where a high degree of matching
is not required.
2. Analog interdigitated layout : Analog applications that require good
matching characteristics introduce interdigitated layout design
methodologies. In interdigitated designs, connections between resistor
segments are electrically connected using jumpers.
3. Dummy resistor layout : Dummy resistors are introduced on the
edge of the resistor segment array for good matching characteristics.
4. Thermoelectric cancellation layout : This layout introduce a
thermoelectric potential variation between the ends of a segments. It
has improper connections of segments to introduce the thermoelectric
effect and has proper connections of segments to eliminate the
thermoelectric effect.
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
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Q. 1. Discuss extrinsic semiconductor with energy band diagram.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.2.
Q. 2. Differentiate between direct and indirect band gap
semiconductor. Also discuss the variation of energy band
with alloy composition.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.3.
Q. 3. The energy distribution function (E) is given by product
of two factor [(E) = N(E). f(E)]. What is the interpretation to
be given to each of these factors ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.6.
Q. 4. What do you mean by mobility of a carrier ? How does it
depend on temperature, doping concentrations and high
field ? Explain.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.10.
Q. 5. Calculate minimum conductivity of Si at 300 K. Derive the
expression used, if any.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.18.
Q. 6. What is Hall effect ? Derive the relation between Hall voltage
and carrier concentration.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.19.
Q. 7. What is diffusion of carriers ? Derive the expression for
the diffusion current crossing a unit area.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.24.
Q. 8. Describe diffusion of carriers and derive the current
equation resulting due to this phenomenon. Also, derive
the Einstein relation.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.26.
Q. 9. In Si semiconductor it is observed that three quarters of
current is carried by holes and the rest part by electrons.
What is the ratio of electrons to holes concentration ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.27.
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3 Generation and
Recombination
of Carrier
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Generation and ............................................ 3–2A to 3–8A
Recombination of Carriers
Part-2 : Poisson and ................................................... 3–8A to 3–9A
Continuity Equation
Part-3 : P-N Junction Characteristics, ................. 3–9A to 3–23A
I-V Characteristics
Part-4 : Small Signal Switching Models ............. 3–23A to 3–24A
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PART-1
Generation and Recombination of Carriers.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.1. Evaluate the absorption of incident photons by the
material for the purpose of measuring the band gap energy of a
semiconductor.
Answer
1. The photons of selected wavelength are directed at the sample and
relative transmission of various photons is observed.
2. Photons with energy greater than band gap energy are absorbed while
photons with energy less than the band gap are transmitted and we can
accurately measure the band gap energy.
3. The optical absorption of a photon with hv > Eg is shown in Fig. 3.1.1.
(b )
EC
(a)
(c ) Eg
h >E g
EV
Fig. 3.1.1.
4. An electron excited to conduction band by optical absorption is shown in
Fig. 3.1.1 at point (a). After reaching to conduction band, excited electron
loses energy to the lattice shown at point (b). Finally the electron and
hole created by this absorption process are combined at point (c).
5. A photon with energy less than Eg is unable to excite electron from the
valence band. If a beam of photons with h > Eg falls on a semiconductor,
then some absorption take place.
6. The total amount of energy absorbed by the sample per second (J/s) can
be given by : It = I0 e –l
where, is the absorption coefficient, l is the thickness of the sample
and I0 is the photon beam intensity per cm2-s.
7. The typical behaviour of the absorption coefficient of a material with
respect to the wavelength of the incident radiation is shown in
Fig. 3.1.2.
8. The wavelength at which the transition from the opaque to transparent
behaviour occurs is known as the absorption cut-off wavelength (c) of
the material, and is given by
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c (in m) = 1.24/ Eg
where, Eg is band gap energy expressed in eV.
h = E g
(cm )
–1
= hc / Eg
Eg h (eV)
( m)
Fig. 3.1.2. Dependence of optical absorption for a
semiconductor on the wavelength of incident light.
Que 3.2. Explain absorption coefficient. A 0.46 micrometer thick
sample of GaAs is illuminated with monochromatic light of
h = 3 eV. The absorption coefficient is 6 × 104/cm. The power incident
on the sample is 11 mW.
i. Find the total energy absorbed by the sample per second.
ii. Find the rate of excess thermal energy given up by the electrons
to the lattice before recombination.
iii. Find number of photons per second given off from
recombination events, assuming perfect quantum efficiency.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
Absorption coefficient : Refer Q. 3.1, Page 3–2A, Unit-3.
Numerical :
Given : l = 0.46 m, h = 3 eV, = 6 × 104/cm
Power incident = 11 mW
To Find : Total energy rate of excess thermal energy and photon.
4 –4
i. We know, It = Io e –l
= 11 10 – 3 e– (6 10 0.46 10 )
–4
= 6.96 × 10 = 0.696 mW
thus the total energy absorbed
= 11 – 0.696 = 10.304 mJ/s
ii. The fraction of each photon energy unit which is converted to heat is,
3 1.43
= 0.785
2
thus the amount of energy converted to heat per second is
0.785 × 10.304 × 10 – 3 = 8.088 × 10 – 3J/s
Iabsorbed Iabsorbed
iii. η photon= =
Charge Ephoton q Ephoton
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10.304 10 3 J/s
=
1.6 10 19 J/eV 3 eV/photon
9 1016 photons
= = 2.15 × 1016 photons/sec
1.6 2 s
Que 3.3. Explain the mechanisms of recombination process.
Answer
1. Electron-hole pairs can recombine in a semiconductor in two ways.
2. First, an electron can drop directly from the conduction band into an
unoccupied state in the valence band. This is known as direct
band-to-band recombination.
3. Second, an electron initially makes a transition to an energy level lying
deep in the band gap, and it subsequently captures a hole from the
valence band. This is known as indirect recombination.
4. In the process of electron-hole pair recombination, an energy equal to
the difference between electron and hole energy is released.
5. This energy can be emitted as a photon, in which case the recombination
is said to be radiative.
6. Alternatively, the energy can be dissipated to the lattice in the form of
phonons.
7. A third possibility is that the energy can be imparted as a kinetic energy
to a third mobile carrier. This process is called the Auger process.
8. Both the phonon and Auger recombination are nonradiative. These
different processes will now be considered.
Que 3.4. Describe briefly the direct recombination process in a
semiconductor.
Answer
1. In this type of recombination, an excess population of electrons and
holes decays by electrons falling from the conduction band to empty
states (holes) in the valence band.
EC
h
EV
Fig. 3.4.1.
2. Energy lost by an electron in making the transition is given up as a
photon.
3. Direct recombination occurs spontaneously; i.e., the probability that an
electron and a hole will recombine is constant in time, which leads to an
exponential for the decay of the excess carriers.
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Que 3.5. Define and derive the expression for minority carrier
life time.
OR
A semiconductor sample is exposed to a photonic excitation for a
long time (t < 0). Under low level injection, derive the equation
governing the decay of excess carrier and life time of carrier if the
excitation is removed at t = 0 AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
1. In case of direct recombination of electrons and holes, at any time t, the
rate of decay of electrons is proportional to the number of electrons
remaining at time t and number of holes with constant of proportionality
for recombination r.
2. Therefore, the net rate of change in the conduction band electron
concentration is the thermal generation rate ar ni 2 minus the
recombination rate.
dn(t)
= r ni2 – r n(t) p(t) ...(3.5.1)
dt
where, n(t) = Concentration of electrons at time t.
p(t) = Concentration of holes at time t.
3. Let us assume the excess electron-hole population is created at t = 0 for
example by a short flash of light, and the initial excess electron and hole
concentrations n and p are equal.
4. If n(t) and p(t) be the instantaneous concentrations of excess carriers
respectively, then eq. (3.5.1) can be written as
d
[n(t)] = r ni2 – r[n0 +n(t)][p0 + p(t)]
dt
= – r[(n0 + p0) n(t) + n2(t)] ...(3.5.2)
[ n(t) = p(t)]
5. Considering that excess of carrier concentrations are small, we can
neglect n2(t). Furthermore, if the material is p-type, then p0 >> n0.
Applying these concepts, the eq. (3.5.2) is modified as
d
[n(t)] = – r p0 n(t) ...(3.5.3)
dt
6. The solution of eq. (3.5.3) is an exponential decay from the original
excess carrier concentration given by
n(t) = n e –rp0t ...(3.5.4)
7. Excess electrons in a p-type semiconductor recombine with a decay
constant n = (r p0) – 1, called the recombination life time. Since the
calculation is made in terms of minority carriers, n is often called the
minority carrier lifetime. The decay of excess holes in n-type material
occurs with p = (r n0) – 1
t /n
n(t) = n e ...(3.5.5)
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8. In case of direct recombination, the excess majority carriers decay
exactly at the same rate as minority carriers.
9. A more general expression for carrier life time is given by
1
n = ...(3.5.6)
r ( n0 p0 )
10. Eq. (3.5.6) is valid for n or p-type material if injection level is low.
Que 3.6. Excess electrons are generated in a semiconductor to a
concentration of n = 1016 cm–3. The excess carrier lifetime in the
semiconductor is 5 × 10 – 6 s. The source generating the excess
carriers is switched off at t = 0. Calculate the recombination rate of
excess electron for t = 5 s.
Answer
Given : n = 1016 cm – 3, n = 5 × 10 – 6 s, t = 5 s
To Find : Recombination rate Rn.
1. We know that n(t) = n e t / n
6
)/ (5 10 6 )
or n(5 s) = 1016 e (5 10
= 1016 e – 1 = 3.68 × 1015 cm – 3
2. The recombination rate Rn for excess electrons is given by
n(t)
Rn =
n
3.68 1015
or Rn = = 0.74 × 1021 cm – 3 s – 1
5 10 6
Que 3.7. Explain the principle of indirect recombination in band
gap. Discuss its mechanism. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
1. When an electron initially makes a transition to an energy level lying
deep in the band gap and it subsequently captures a hole from the
valence band, then this is known as indirect recombination.
2. Many recombination centres have more than one energy level, but in
most of the cases only one level dominates for the recombination.
3. Fig. 3.7.1 illustrates the recombination of an electron-hole pair through
deep-level centre.
4. In Figure EV and EC are valence band and conduction band respectively.
Here Er is recombination level which is below Fermi level EF at
equilibrium. Therefore, Er is substantially filled with electrons. Let the
excess electrons and holes are created in this material.
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EC
EF
Electron capture (b)
Er
(a) Hole capture
Ev
Fig. 3.7.1. Showing capture processes of recombination level.
5. The electron-hole pair (EHP) recombination at Er is followed in the
following two steps :
a. Hole capture :
i. In the hole capture process, an electron at Er falls to valence band. This
levels an empty state in recombination level.
ii. In hole capture, the energy is given up to the lattice.
b. Electron capture :
i. In the electron capture process, a conduction band electron subsequently
falls to empty state in Er.
ii. In this case too, the energy is given to the lattice.
6. When both the events [(a) and (b)] have occurred, the recombination
centre returns back to its original state, i.e., filled with electron.
7. Of course, an electron-hole pair is missing. In this way, one
electron-hole pair recombination has taken place.
Que 3.8. Write a short note on auger recombination.
Answer
1. The Auger recombination process occurs by the transfer of the energy
and momentum released by the recombination of an electron-hole pair
to a third particle that can be either an electron or a hole.
2. The example of Auger recombination process is shown in Fig. 3.8.1.
EC
EV
Fig. 3.8.1.
3. A second electron in the conduction band absorbs the energy released
by the direct recombination. After the Auger process, the second electron
becomes an energetic electron.
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4. It loses its energy to the lattice by scattering events. Usually, Auger
recombination is important when the carrier concentration is very high
as a result of either high doping or high injection level.
5. The Auger process involves three particles, the rate of Auger
recombination can be expressed as
RAug = Bn2p or Bnp2.
6. The proportionality constant B has strong temperature dependence.
PART-2
Poisson and Continuity Equation.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.9. Derive the expression for continuity equation and also
write Poisson equation.
Answer
1. Consider a differential length x of a semiconductor sample with area A
in the yz-plane.
2. The hole current density leaving the volume, Jp(x + x), can be larger or
smaller than the current density entering, Jp(x), depending on the
generation and recombination of carriers taking place within the volume.
3. The net increase in hole concentration per unit time, p/t, is the
difference between the hole flux per unit volume entering and leaving,
minus the recombination rate.
4. We can convert hole current density to hole particle flux density by
dividing Jp by q.
5. The current densities are already expressed per unit area, thus dividing
Jp(x)/q by x gives the number of carriers per unit volume entering xA
per unit time, and (1/q)Jp(x + x)/x is the number leaving per unit
volume and time.
p 1 J p ( x) J p ( x x) p
= –
t x x x q x p
Rate of hole buildup increase of hole recombination rate
concentration in xA
per unit time ...(3.9.1)
5. As x approaches zero, we can write the current change in derivation
form,
p( x, t) p 1 J P p
= ...(3.9.2)
t t q x p
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6. The eq. (3.9.2) is called the continuity equation for holes. For electrons
we can write,
n 1 Jn n
= ...(3.9.3)
t q x n
7. Since the electronic charge is negative
x
Jp(x + x)
J p(x)
x + x
x
2
Area, A cm
Fig. 3.9.1.
Poisson’s equation :
The expression of Poisson’s equation is,
E
= s
x s
where s is the semiconductor dielectric permittivity and s is the space
charge density given by the algebraic sum of the charge carrier densities
and the ionized impurity concentrations.
PART-3
P-N Junction, I-V Characteristics.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 3.10. Discuss the current flow mechanism in a p-n junction
under no bias condition.
Answer
1. This is a two terminal device consisting of a p-n junction.
2. When p-type material is intimately joined (diffused) to n-type, a p-n
junction is formed. Fig. 3.10.1 shows the p-n junction formation.
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3. As p-type has high concentration of holes and n-type has high
concentration of free electrons, hence there is a tendency of holes to
diffuse to n-side and electrons to p-side. The process is known as diffusion.
4. Thus, a region is formed which is known as depletion layer or charge
free region or space charge region.
5. The diffusion of electrons and holes continues till a potential barrier is
developed which prevents further diffusion and such condition is no
bias condition for p-n junction.
p-type n-type
Migrated Migrated
electrons
holes
from n-type
from p-type
Space charge Potential barrier / Contact
region or depletion VB potential
layer
Fig. 3.10.1. p-n junction semiconductor.
Que 3.11. Derive an expression for diode current in an ideal p-n
junction diode. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
OR
Derive the expression for the forward and reverse saturation current
for P-N junction diode. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Diode current equation :
1. The hole diffusion current at any point xn in the n-region can be obtained
with the help of following expression
dp( xn )
Ip(xn) = – qADp
dxn
d x /L
Ip(xn) = – qADp {[ pn ( eqV / kT 1)]e n p }
dxn
Dp xn / Lp
= qA [ pn (e qV / kT 1) e ]
Lp
Dp
Ip(xn = 0) = qA [pn(eqV/kT – 1)]
Lp
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2. Similarly, the electron current injected into p-region at the junction is
given by
Dn
In(xp = 0) = – qA [np (eqV/kT – 1)]
Ln
3. If we take + x-direction as the reference direction for total current, we
have :
I = Ip(xn = 0) – In(xp = 0)
Dp Dn
qV/kT
= qA [pn (e – 1)] + qA [np (eqV/kT – 1)]
L
p Ln
Dp D
= qA pn n np [eqV/kT – 1]
Lp Ln
I = I0 [eqV/kT – 1]
4. The current can also be calculated for reverse bias by letting V = – Vr
Dp D
I = qA pn n n p (e qVr / kT 1)
Lp Ln
5. If Vr is larger than a few kT/q, the total current is just the reverse
saturation current.
Dp D
I = – qA pn n n p = – I0
L
p Ln
Que 3.12. What is contact potential ? Explain. Also derive the
expression for contact potential and equilibrium Fermi levels of a
p-n junction.
Answer
A. Contact potential :
1. In p-n junction due to concentration difference between holes and
electrons, diffusion starts.
2. A layer of positive ions is formed in n-region and a layer of negative ions
is formed in p-region when the holes and electrons recombine.
3. Due to positive ions and negative ions, a barrier is formed, which is
known as potential barrier.
4. The region near the junction has immobile ions without any free electron
or hole. This region is called depletion region. This is also called
space-charge region.
5. Due to charge separation, voltage V0 is developed across the junction
under equilibrium conditions. This voltage is called contact potential
(V0).
B. Expression of contact potential :
1. The potential difference (Vn – V p) developed across the depletion region
is called as contact potential (V0).
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2. For depletion region, we have
Vp = Potential at left end of depletion region
Vn = Potential at right end of depletion region
V0 = Vn – Vp = Contact potential
Na = Concentration of acceptors (acceptors/cm3)
Nd = Concentration of donors (donors/cm3)
Vp Vn
V0
– +
p Na Nd n
– +
Fig. 3.12.1. Open-circuited p-n junction.
3. At equilibrium we have,
dp( x)
Jp(x) = q p p( x) E( x) Dp =0 ...(3.12.1)
dx
where, p(x) = Concentration of holes
Dp = Hole diffusion constant
4. The eq. (3.12.1) can be rearranged as
p 1 dp( x)
E(x) = ...(3.12.2)
Dp p( x) dx
5. Using Einstein relation, p/Dp = q/kT, and putting the value of
– dV ( x)
E(x) = in eq. (3.12.2) we get,
dx
q dV ( x) 1 dp( x)
= ...(3.12.3)
kT dx p( x) dx
6. Integrating eq. (3.12.3), we get,
V pn
q n 1
dV = dp
kT Vp pp
p
where, pp and pn are hole concentration at the edge of transition region
on either side respectively.
q
Now, (Vn – Vp) = ln pn – ln pp
kT
q p
V = ln n
kT 0 pp
kT p
V0 = ln p ...(3.12.4)
q pn
7. In terms of donor and acceptor concentrations, eq. (3.12.4) can be written
as
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kT N kT N N
V0 = ln 2 a ln a 2 d ...(3.12.5)
q ni / N d q ni
Eq. (3.12.5) gives the value of contact potential V0.
Equilibrium Fermi levels :
pp
1. From eq. (3.12.4), = eqV0 / kT
pn
2. Using equilibrium condition ppnp = ni2 = pnnn, we can write
pp n
= n = eqV0 / kT ...(3.12.6)
pn np
This expression is very useful in calculating the V-I characteristics of
p-n junction.
3. Eq. (3.12.6) can also be written as,
– ( EFp – EVp ) / kT
pp qV / kT NV e
= e 0 = – ( EF – EV )/ kT
pn NV e n n
(E – E )/ kT ( EV p – EVn )/ kT
e qV0 / kT = e
Fn Fp
e
qV0 = EVp – EVn [ at equilibrium EFn – EFp = 0]
Que 3.13. What is contact potential ? Explain. Derive an
expression for it, assuming step junction at equilibrium condition.
For Si p-n junction, donor and acceptor impurities at room
temperature are 1016 cm – 3 and 3 × 1018 cm – 3 respectively. Calculate
the contact potential and draw an equilibrium band diagram for
the junction if intrins ic carrier concentration of Si is
1.5 × 1010 cm – 3 at room temperature.
Answer
Contact potential : Refer Q. 3.12, Page 3–11A, Unit-3.
Numerical :
Given : Nd = 1016 cm – 3, Na = 3 × 1018 cm – 3, ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm – 3
To Find : V0, and energy band diagram.
kT N N
1. V0 = ln a 2 d
q ni
3 1018 1016
= 0.0259 ln 10 2 = 0.842 V
(1.5 10 )
pp 3 1018
2. Eip – EF = kT ln = 0.0259 ln 10 = 0.495 eV
ni 1.5 10
nn 1016
3. EF – Ein = kT ln = 0.0259 ln 10 = 0.347 eV
ni 1.5 10
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4. Equilibrium band diagram :
ECp
0.842 eV
Eip
ECn
0.495 eV
EF
EVp 0.347 eV
Ein
EVn
Fig. 3.13.1. Band diagram.
Que 3.14. Explain the variation of charge density, electric field
intensity and potential within depletion region.
Answer
1. The variation of charge density (), electric field intensity (E) and contact
potential (V0) within depletion region as a function of distance is shown
in Fig. 3.14.1.
W
p Depletion
n
region
+
0 (a)
– Distance
E (b )
Vn
V (c )
(Contact potential)
Vp (Vn – Vp)
Fig. 3.14.1. Showing the variation of , E and V
as a function of distance within depletion region.
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A. Charge density () :
1. Space charge region contains negative ions in p-region and positive ions
in n-region.
2. Therefore, the charge density is negative in depletion region of p-side
and positive for n-side and is zero at the junction. This is shown in
Fig. 3.14.1(a).
B. Electric field intensity (E) :
1. The depletion region towards the left of the junction contains negative
charge and towards the right a positive charge. So, the depletion region
constitutes an electric dipole layer.
2. In this way, there will be electric flux lines from right to left, i.e., an
electric field is established.
3. The electric field intensity (E) is related to charge density as
E= dx
where, is the permittivity of semiconductor material. The formation of
E is shown in Fig. 3.14.1(b).
C. Electric potential :
1. The variation of electric potential is shown in Fig. 3.14.1(c). We know
that E(x) = – dV(x)/dx. So, there will be a constant potential Vn in the
neutral n-material and a constant potential Vp in the neutral p-material.
2. The potential difference between the two region V0 = Vn – Vp, is called as
contact potential.
3. Due to the influence of strong electric field set up by barrier potential,
under open circuit condition, no mobile charge carriers (electrons and
holes) cross the junction. So, there is no current through p-n junction.
4. Therefore, the drift and diffusion currents must cancel for each type of
carrier, i.e.,
Jp (drift) + Jp (diffusion) = 0
and Jn (drift) + Jn (diffusion) = 0
Que 3.15. What do you mean by space charge region at a junction ?
Derive an expression for width of space charge region in a p-n
junction at thermal equilibrium condition.
Answer
1. The space charge on n-side is positively charged and on p-side it is
negatively charged. Fig. 3.15.1(a) shows the space charge region (or
transition region) on the two sides of the junction.
2. Within the transition region, electrons and holes are in transit from one
side of the junction to the other.
3. The charge density within W is plotted in Fig. 3.15.1(b) neglecting
carriers within space charge region, the charge density on n-side is q
times the concentration of donor ions Nd and negative charge density
o n the p-side is – q time s the co nce ntratio n o f acce pto rs
Na ( Q+ = |Q–|).
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W
p –
– –
– –
– ++ n
– – – ++
++
–xp0 0 xn0 x
(a )
qN+
d
(+) Q+ = qAxn0N d
–xp
0
(–) xn 0 x
– qN a–
Q– = – qAxp Na
0
(b )
W
x
–xp xn0
0
E0
dE = 1 dE = 1
dx (– qNa) (c ) dx (qNd)
Fig. 3.15.1.
4. The assumption of carrier depletion within W and neutrality outside W
is known as the depletion approximation. The electric field is shown in
Fig. 3.15.1(c).
5. The uncompensated charge on either side of the junction is
qAxp Na = qAxn Nd
0 0
where, xp and xn is the penetration of space charge region into p and
0 0
n material respectively.
6. The electric field distribution uses Poisson’s equation as,
dE( x) q + –
= ( p – n Nd Na ) ,
dx
7. Neglect the contribution of carriers (p – n),
dE q
= N ; 0 < x < xn
dx d 0
dE q
= – Na ; – xp < x < 0
dx 0
8. Assume the maximum value of E as E0 at x = 0
0 q xn
E0 dE = Nd 0 dx ; 0 < x < xn
0
E0 q 0
0 dE = Na xp0 dx ; – xp0 < x < 0
the maximum value of electric field is
q q
E0 = N d xn0 N a x p0
9. Using relation,
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dV ( x)
E(x) = –
dx
xn
or – V0 =
xp
0
E( x)dx
0
1 1q 1 q N a Nd
V0 = E0W = Nd xn0 W W2
2 2 2 ( Na N d )
WNa
Since, xn Nd = xp Na, W is xp + xn , and xn =
0 0 0 0 0 ( N a + Nd )
10. Solving for W, we get
1/2 1/2
2V0 N a + N d 2V0 1 1
W = =
q N + N
q N a N d a d
11. For n and p materials
1/ 2
WN d W 2V0 Nd
xp = =
0 N a + Nd 1 N a / Nd q N a ( N a + N d )
1/2
WNa W 2V0 Na
xn = = N (N + N )
0 ( N a + Nd ) 1 N d / N a q d a d
Que 3.16. Derive the expression of contact potential for p-n
homojunction diode. Boron is implanted into an n-type Si sample
(Nd = 1016 cm–3), forming an abrupt junction of square cross section
with area = 2 × 10– 3 cm2. Assume that the acceptor concentration in
p-type region is Na = 4 × 1018 cm–3. Calculate V0, Q+, E0 and depletion
region extension on either side of junction at room temperature.
(Given n i = 1.5 × 10 10 cm –3, r = 11.8, 0 = 8.85 × 10 –14 F/cm and
kT = 0.0259 eV at room temperature). AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Boron is implanted in to a n-type Si sample having donor
concentration of 1016/cm3, to form abrupt junction. If the acceptor
concentration in p-type region is 4 × 1018/cm3, determine the
i. Width of the depletion region.
ii. Depth of penetration on n-side and p-side at equilibrium. Take
room temperature as 27°C; ni = 1.5 × 1010/cm3 and relative permittivity
of boron as 11.8. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
Answer
Expression of contact potential : Refer Q. 3.12, Page 3–11A,
Unit-3.
Generation & Recombination of Carrier 3–18 A (EC-Sem-3)
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Numerical :
Given : Nd = 1016 cm–3, A = 2 × 10–3 cm2, Na = 4 × 1018 cm–3 ,
ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm–3, r = 11.80, 0 = 8.85 × 10–14 F/cm, kT = 0.0259 eV
To Find : V0, Q+, Eo, xp0, xn0
kT N N
1. Contact potential, V0 = ln a 2 d
q ni
4 1018 1016
= 0.0259 ln
(1.5 1010 ) 2
= 0.0259 ln (1.78 × 1014)
V0 = 0.85 V
1/ 2
2V0 N a N d
2. W=
q N a· Nd
1/ 2
2 (11.8 8.85 10 14 ) (0.85) 4 1018 1016
=
(1.6 10 19 ) 4 1018 1016
–5
= 3.34 × 10 cm
W = 0.334 m
WNa W
3. xn0 =
Nd Na 1 Nd / N a
0.334 m 0.334 m
=
1 {1016 / (4 1018 )} 1.0025
xn0 = 0.333 m
WNd W 0.334 m 0.334 m
4. xp0 =
Na Nd 1 Na / Nd 1 400 401
xp0 = 0.83 nm
5. Q+ = q Ax n0 Nd = q A xp0 Na
= (1.6 × 10–19) × (2 × 10–3) × 3.33 × 10–5 × 1016
Q+ = 1.07 × 10–10 C
q (1.6 10 19 ) (1016 ) (3.3 10 5 )
6. E0 = xn0 N d = –
11.8 8.85 10 14
4
E0 = – 5.1 × 10 V/cm
Que 3.17. Finding the space charge widths and the peak electric
in a p-n junction. The parameters of a uniformly doped p-n junction
for silicon semiconductors are :
VT = 26 mV, T = 25 °C, Na = 1 × 1016 cm – 3,
Nd = 2 × 1015 cm – 3, and ni = 1.5 × 1016 cm – 1.
Find (a) the depletion width W and (b) the maximum field Eo.
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Answer
Given : T = 25 °C, Na = 1 × 1016 cm – 3, Nd = 2 × 1015 cm – 3,
r = 11.7, o = 8.85 × 10 – 14, q = 1.6 × 10 – 19, ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm – 3.
To Find : a. Depletion width, W
b. Maximum field, Eo.
kT N N
a. As Vo = ln a 2 d
q ni
–3
1 1016 2 1015
= 26 × 10 × ln 10 2 = 0.655 V
(1.5 10 )
1/ 2
2 V N N
o a d
As W=
q N a N d
2 11.7 8.85 10 14 0.655 1 1016 2 1015
W= 15
1.6 10 19 16
1 10 2 10
= 0.7131 m
qN d xno
b. As Eo =
WN a
Here xno = = 0.5942 m
Na Nd
1.6 10 19 2 1015 0.5942 10 4
So, Eo =
11.7 8.85 10 14
= – 1.836 × 104 V/cm
Que 3.18. Explain the effect of a bias on the important features of
the junction.
OR
Discuss the qualitative description of current flow at junction.
Answer
1. The effect of a bias on some important features of the junction can be
explained by the Fig. 3.18.1.
2. Here, the electrostatic potential at the junction is lowered by a forward
bias Vf from the equilibrium contact potential V0 to the smaller value
(V0 – Vf).
3. This lowering of potential barrier occurs because a forward bias raises
the electrostatic potential on p-side relative to n-side.
4. For reverse bias, i.e., (V = – Vr) the electrostatic potential of the p-side is
depressed relative to n-side and thus potential barrier at the junction
becomes larger (V0 + Vr).
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(a) (b) (c)
Equilibrium Forward bias Reverse bias
(V = 0) (V = Vf) (V = –Vr)
W Vf Vr
p n p n p n
E E E
V0 (V0 – Vf)
Vn
(V0 + Vr)
Vp
q(V0 – Vf)
ECp
qVo
EFp ECn q(V0 + Vr)
EVp EFn
E Vn
Fig. 3.18.1.
5. The field decreases with forward biased as the applied electric field
opposes the built-in field whereas it increases with reverse biased.
6. The change in electric field at junction produces a change in the transition
region width W. Since proper number of positive and negative charges
are necessary to be exposed for the given value of electric field. Thus,
the width W decreased under forward biased and increased under reverse
biased.
7. The separation of the energy bands is a direct function of the electrostatic
potential barrier at the junction. Thus the bands are separated less
[q(V0– Vf)] under forward biased and more [q(V0 + Vr)] under reverse
biased.
8. The diffusion current is due to majority carriers, i.e., electron in n-side
and hole in p-side overcoming the potential barrier to diffuse to p-side
and n-side respectively.
9. The electron diffusion current is large for forward bias because barrier
is lowered and thus electrons have sufficient energy to diffuse from n to
p. The diffusion current is negligible for reverse bias.
10. Drift current is insensitive to the height of potential barrier. It is composed
of minority carriers.
11. The total current crossing the junction is sum of the diffusion and drift
current.
12. The net current crossing the junction is zero at equilibrium, since the
drift and diffusion components cancel for each type of carrier.
Que 3.19. Explain the V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode.
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Answer
i. Forward bias :
1. For the forward bias of a p-n junction, p-type is connected to the positive
terminal while the n-type to negative terminal of battery.
2. The potential can be varied with potential divider. At some forward
voltage (0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si) the potential barrier is altogether
eliminated and current starts flowing. This voltage is known as threshold
or knee voltage (VK).
3. As the forward applied voltage increases beyond threshold voltage, the
forward current rises exponentially as shown in Fig. 3.19.1.
ID(mA)
30
25
20
Ge Si
15
10
5
0.3 0.7
VD(V)
VK(Ge) VK(Si)
Fig. 3.19.1. Forward bias.
4. Beyond a certain safe value, it produces an extremely large current
which may destroy the junction due to overheating.
5. The total width W of the depletion or space charge region is
1/ 2
2 (Vo VF ) N a N d
W= N N
q a d
2(Vo VF )
6. The maximum electric field, Eo is Eo =
W
ii. Reverse bias :
1. The p-type is connected to the negative terminal while n-type is
connected to the positive terminal of a battery.
2. In this case the junction resistance becomes very high and practically no
current flows through the circuit.
3. In practical, a small current of the order of A flows in the circuit due to
minority carriers. This is known as reverse current. The reverse current
is shown in Fig. 3.19.2.
4. As the reverse bias is increased from zero, the reverse current quickly
rises to its maximum or saturation value. The slight increase is due to
impurities on the surface, which behaves as a resistor and hence obeys
ohm’s law. This gives rise to a current called surface leakage current.
5. If the reverse voltage is further increased, the kinetic energy of electrons
becomes so high that they knock out from the semiconductor atoms. At
this stage breakdown of junction occurs and there is a sudden rise of
reverse current. Now the junction is destroyed completely.
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6. Thus, p-n junction diode is one-way device which offers a low resistance
when forward biased and behaves like an insulator when reverse biased.
Thus, it can be used as a rectifier i.e., for converting alternating current
into direct current.
ID(mA)
VD(V)
5 pA
Vz(Si)
10 pA
Is(Si)
Vz(Ge) 1 A
Is(Ge)
Fig. 3.19.2. Reverse bias.
7. The total space charge width can be written as
1/ 2
2 (Vo VR ) N a N d
W= N N
q a d
2(Vo VR )
8. Maximum field is Eo =
W
Thus, the maximum field increases with VR and decreases with W.
Que 3.20. Find the depletion width in a reverse-biased p-n junction.
The parameters of a uniformly doped p-n junction for silicon
semiconductor are VR = 10 V, VT = 26 mV, T = 25° C, Na = 1 × 1016 cm – 3,
Nd = 2 × 1015 cm – 3, q = 1.6 × 10 – 19, and k = 1.3806 × 10 – 23. Find
a. The depletion width W.
b. The maximum field E0.
Answer
Given : T = 25° C, Na = 1 × 1016 cm – 3, Nd = 2 × 1015 cm – 3, r = 11.7,
0 = 8.85 × 10 – 14, q = 1.6 × 10 – 19, VR = 10 V, VT = 26 mV, k = 1.3806 × 10 – 23
To Find : (a) Depletion width, W (b) Maximum field, E0.
kT N N
a. As Vo = ln a 2 d
q ni
1 1016 cm 3 2 1015 cm 3
= 26 × 10 – 3 × ln = 0.655 V
(1.5 1010 cm 3 ) 2
1/ 2
2 (Vo VR ) ( N a N d )
As W= N N
q a d
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1/ 2
14
2 11.7 8.85 10 1 1016 2 1015
W= 19
(0.655 10) 16 15
= 2.876 m
1.6 10 (1 10 )(2 10 )
2(Vo VR )
b. As Eo =
W
2 (0.655 10) V
= = – 7.409 × 104 V/cm
2.876 10 4 cm
Que 3.21. Find the depletion width in a forward-biased p-n
junction. The parameters of a uniformly doped p-n junction for
silicon semiconductor are VF = 0.60 V, VT = 25° C, Na = 1 × 1016 cm– 3, and
Nd = 2 × 1015 cm– 3.
a. The depletion width W. b. The maximum field Eo.
Answer
Given : VF = 0.65 V, Na = 1 × 1016 cm – 3, Nd = 2 × 1015 cm – 3, r = 11.7,
o = 8.85 × 10 – 14, q = 1.6 × 10 – 19, VR = 10 V, VT = 26 mV
To Find : (a) Depletion width, W (b) Maximum field, Eo.
kT N N
a. As Vo = ln a 2 d
q ni
1 1016 2 1015
= 0.026 × ln 10 2 = 0.655 V
(1.5 10 )
2 (Vo VF ) ( N a N d )
As W= N N
q a d
2 11.7 8.85 10 14 1 1016 2 1015
W= 19
(0.655 0.65) 16 15
1.6 10 (1 10 )(2 10 )
= 0.0623 m
2(Vo – VF ) 2 (0.655 0.65)
b. As Eo = =
W 0.0623
= – 1.605 × 103 V/cm
PART-4
Small Signal Switching Model.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Generation & Recombination of Carrier 3–24 A (EC-Sem-3)
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Que 3.22. Explain small signal model of a p-n junction.
Answer
1. The small-signal model (also known as the incremental model) for a
device is developed by linearizing its behaviour around the quiescent
operating point (Q-point).
2. The diode current equation is,
ID = Io (eVD/VT – 1) ...(3.22.1)
3. The small-signal diode resistance rD can be obtained by computing the
inverse slope of the diode current-voltage characteristic around the Q
point.
4. This can be obtained by differentiating eq. (3.22.1) with respect to VD
(thus getting the diode conductance gD), and then taking the inverse of
it. Thus,
1
I VT
rD = (gD) – 1 = D ...(3.22.2)
VD I DQ
I D I DQ
5. The diode also has a capacitance CD across its junction, which can be
given by the sum of the depletion and the diffusion capacitances, i.e.,
Cdep 0 p
CD = Cdep + Cdiff = m
...(3.22.3)
VDQ rD
1 V
0
6. Here, Cdep0 is the zero bias depletion capacitance of the junction
(i.e., VD = 0), VDQ is the quiescent DC voltage drop across diode.
7. V0 is the built in potential across diode.
8. Here, p is the hole lifetime in the n-region for a p +-n diode.
9. m being referred to as the grading coefficient, and carries the information
about the doping profile of the junction.
10. The two elements rD and CD come in parallel across the junction, and for
completeness, the series resistances rp and rn of the two neutral regions
of the diode should also be added to the small-signal equivalent circuit as
shown in Fig. 3.22.1.
CD
rp rn
rD
Fig. 3.22.1.
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VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. Define and derive the expression for minority carrier life
time.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.5.
Q. 2. Excess electrons are generated in a semiconductor to a
concentration of n = 1016 cm–3. The excess carrier lifetime
in the semiconductor is 5 × 10 – 6 s. The source generating
the excess carriers is switched off at t = 0. Calculate the
recombination rate of excess electron for t = 5 s.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.6.
Q. 3. Derive the expression for continuity equation and also write
Poisson equation.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.9.
Q. 4. What is contact potential ? Explain. Also derive the
expression for contact potential and equilibrium Fermi
levels of a p-n junction.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.12.
Q. 5. What is contact potential ? Explain. Derive an expression
for it, assuming step junction at equilibrium condition.
For Si p-n junction, donor and acceptor impurities at room
temperature are 1016 cm – 3 and 3 × 1018 cm – 3 respectively.
Calculate the contact potential and draw an equilibrium
band diagram for the junction if intrinsic carrier
concentration of Si is 1.5 × 1010 cm–3 at room temperature.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.13.
Q. 6. Explain the variation of charge density, electric field
intensity and potential within depletion region.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.14.
Q. 7. Explain the effect of a bias on the important features of the
junction.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.18.
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4 BJT
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Avalanche Breakdown, ............................... 4–2A to 4–7A
Zener Diode
Part-2 : Schottky Diode ............................................. 4–7A to 4–9A
Part-3 : Bipolar Junction Transistor, ................... 4–9A to 4–35A
I-V Characteristics
Part-4 : Eber-Moll Model ....................................... 4–35A to 4–37A
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PART-1
Avalanche Breakdown, Zener Diode.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.1. What is zener diode ?
Answer
1. Zener diode is a reverse-biased heavily doped p-n-junction diode which
is operated in the breakdown region. Fig. 4.1.1 shows the symbol of
zener diode.
+ –
Cathode
Anode
Fig. 4.1.1. Zener diode.
2. When a zener diode is forward biased, its characteristics are just same
as the ordinary diode and it is shown in Fig. 4.1.2.
IF(mA)
VZ O
VR +VF
IZ( A)
Fig. 4.1.2. V-I characteristic of zener diode.
3. When zener diode is reverse biased then it gives constant current upto
a certain voltage. When the reverse bias voltage is increased beyond
that voltage, the current increased rapidly as shown in Fig. 4.1.2.
4. The cut-off value of voltage beyond which zener diode reverse current
increases rapidly is called zener voltage VZ or breakdown voltage.
5. The breakdown or zener voltage depends upon the amount of doping.
6. A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant
voltage to a load.
Que 4.2. Explain reverse breakdown of a diode.
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Answer
Reverse breakdown can occur by two mechanisms that are zener
breakdown and avalanche breakdown.
Zener breakdown :
1. It takes place in very thin junction (i.e., depletion layer is narrow due to
heavily doped junctions on both sides).
2. When a small reverse bias voltage is applied, a very strong electric field
(approximately 107 V/m) is set up across the thin depletion layer.
3. This field is enough to break the covalent bonds. This breaking of covalent
bonds produces large number of electrons and holes which constitute the
reverse saturation current (i.e., zener current).
4. Zener current is independent of the applied voltage. It depends only on
the external resistance.
5. This breakdown is called as zener breakdown as shown in Fig. 4.2.1.
This breakdown occurs at low voltage.
Zener
I
breakdown
Avalanche
breakdown
VA VZ
V
0
Fig. 4.2.1. The I-V characteristics comparison
between Zener and avalanche breakdown
Avalanche breakdown :
1. Avalanche breakdown takes place in slightly thick junction than the
zener breakdown case. It means both sides of junction are lightly doped.
2. In this case, the electric field across the depletion region (layer) is not so
strong to produce zener breakdown for the same applied voltage of
zener breakdown case.
3. Here, the minority carriers accelerated by the field collide with the
semiconductor atoms in the depletion region.
4. During collision the kinetic energy of electrons is transferred to other
covalent bonds, thus the energy transferred to covalent bonds increases
the band energy, hence covalent bonds are broken and electron-hole
pairs are generated.
5. The newly generated carriers transfer their energy to other covalent
bonds and break more bonds and thus extremely large numbers of carriers
are generated due to cumulative process of avalanche multiplication.
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6. This breakdown is called avalanche breakdown as shown in Fig. 4.2.1.
This breakdown occurs at higher voltages.
Que 4.3. What is the difference between Zener and Avalanche
breakdown ? For the given Zener diode network shown in
Fig. 4.3.1, determine VL, VR, IZ and IR.
1.5 k
+
20 V RL 1.2 k
– Vz = 10 V
Pz = 50 mW
Fig. 4.3.1.
Answer
A. Difference :
S. No. Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown
1. The process in which the The process of applying high
electrons move across the voltage and increasing the free
barrier from the valence electrons or electric current in
band of p-type material to the semiconductors and insulating
conduction band of n-type materials is called an avalanche
material is known as zener breakdown.
breakdown.
2. This is observed in zener This is observed in zener diode
diode s having a zene r having a ze ne r bre akdo wn
breakdown voltage, Vz of 5 voltage, Vz greater than 8 volts.
to 8 volts.
3. The valence electrons are The valence electrons are pushed
pulled into conduction due to to conduction due to the energy
the high electric field in the imparted by accelerated electrons,
narrow depletion region. which gains its velocity due to
its collision with other atoms.
4. The increase in temperature The increase in temperature
decreases the breakdown incre ase s the bre akdo wn
voltage. voltage.
5. It occurs in diodes that are It occurs in diodes that are lightly
highly doped. doped.
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B. Numerical :
1. Voltage across zener diode,
RL .Vi 1.2 20
Vo = VL = = 8.88 V
R RL 1.5 1.2
2. Vz = 10 V
Here, Vo < Vz.
3. So, the zener diode is OFF and no current will flow through it.
Iz = 0
4. Voltage across R, VR = Vi – VL = 20 – 8.88 = 11.12 V
8.88
IR = Iz + IL = 0 + = 7.4 mA
1.2
Que 4.4. How zener diode is used as voltage regulator ? Explain
with suitable circuits.
Answer
1. The circuit diagram for zener voltage regulator is shown in Fig. 4.4.1.
R
+ + +
Ii IL
Vi Vz V RL
Iz
– – –
Fig. 4.4.1. Zener voltage regulator.
2. The zener diode is selected with Vz equal to the voltage desired across
the load.
3. Under reverse biased condition, voltage across zener diode practically
remains constant, even if the current through it changes by a large
extent.
4. Under normal conditions, the input current Ii = IL + Iz flows through
resistor R. The input voltage Vi can be written as
Vi = Ii R + Vz = (IL + Iz) R + Vz
5. When the input voltage Vi increases, as the voltage across zener diode
remains constant, the drop across R will increase with a corresponding
increase in IL + Iz.
6. As Vz is a constant, the voltage across the load will also remains constant
and hence, IL will be a constant.
7. Therefore, an increase in IL + Iz will result in an increase in Iz which will
not alter the voltage across load. Thus, zener diode is used as a voltage
regulator.
8. To operate zener diode as voltage regulator, the reverse voltage applied
to zener diode never exceeds PIV of the diode and at the same time, the
applied input voltage must be greater than the breakdown voltage of
the zener diode.
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Que 4.5. Justify the sentence : the zener diodes are used as voltage
regulators and limiters.
Design the network of Fig. 4.5.1 to maintain VL at 12 V for a load
variation (IL) from 0 mA to 200 mA i.e., determine Rs and Vz.
Rs
+16 V IL
Vz
RL
Fig. 4.5.1.
Answer
A. Zener diode as voltage regulators and limiters : Refer Q. 4.4,
Page 4–5A, Unit-4.
B. Numerical :
1. Since load is to be maintained at 12 V, we will use a zener diode of 12 V
Vz = 12 V
2. The voltage across Rs is to be remain constant at 16 – 12 = 4 V
3. As the load current changes from 0 to 200 mA. The minimum zener
current will occur when load current will maximum.
Vi – VZ 16 – 12 4
Rs = = = 103
(I z )min ( I L )max 0 200 10 – 3 200
Rs = 20
Que 4.6. For the network of Fig. 4.6.1, determine the range of RL
and IL that will result in VRL being maintained at 10 V. Also determine
the maximum wattage rating of diode.
IR
1 k
Iz IL
R
RL
Vz = 10 V
Vi = 50 V
Izm = 32 mA
Fig. 4.6.1.
Answer
1. VR = Vi – Vz = 50 – 10 = 40 V
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VR 40 V
IR = = 40 mA
R 1 k
2. IL max = IR = 40 mA
Vz 10 V
RL min = = 250
I L max 40 mA
3. IL min = IR – Izm = 40 mA – 32 mA = 8 mA
Vz 10 V
RL max = = 1.25 k
I L min 8 mA
4. Pi max = VzIzm = (10 V) (32 mA) = 320 mW
PART-2
Schottky Diode.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.7. Explain the construction and working of Schottky diode.
Answer
Construction :
Anode (+)
Metal contact
SiO2 (rectifying)
screen
Metal
semiconductor
n-type Si
junction
+
n
Metal contact
Cathode (–) (ohmic)
(a) Cross-sectional view
Metal
+ –
N
(b) Symbol
Fig. 4.7.1. Schottky diode.
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1. Fig. 4.7.1 shows the symbol and cross-sectional view of a Schottky diode.
It is a metal-semiconductor junction diode without depletion layer.
2. On one side of the junction a metal (like gold, silver, platinum or tungsten,
etc.) is used and on the other side the n-type doped semiconductor is used.
3. p-type of material can also be used for device fabrication.
4. A layer of metal is deposited on a thin epitaxial layer of n-type silicon.
For protection purpose the metal layer is surrounded by gold or silver
leaf (thin sheet).
5. The metal film forms the positive electrode (anode) and the
semiconductor is the cathode.
Working :
1. The operation of Schottky diode is due to the fact that electrons in
different materials have different absolute potential energies.
2. n-type semiconductor electrons have higher potential energy as
compared to electrons of metal.
3. When the two are brought in contact, there is flow of electrons in both
directions across the metal-semiconductor interface when the contact is
first made.
4. The flux of electrons from the semiconductor into the metal is much
larger due to higher absolute potential energy.
5. As a result, the metal will become negatively charged and the
semiconductor will acquire a positive charge.
6. The net result is a “Surface barrier” between the two materials which
prevents any further current.
7. It is much like but not exactly the depletion layer in the p-n diode.
8. At this point, the thermal equilibrium is established. There are no minority
carriers (holes in this case) in establishing the equilibrium.
9. This is the major difference between a Schottky diode and a p-n junction
diode.
10. Schottky diodes are termed majority-carrier devices and p-n junctions
are labelled minority carrier devices or bipolar devices (since they use
both electrons and holes in their basic operation).
11. Now a voltage is applied to the Schottky diode such that metal is positive
with respect to the semiconductor.
12. This voltage will oppose the built-in potential and makes it easier for the
current to flow.
13. Biasing the metal negative with respect to the semiconductor increases
the potential barrier to majority-carrier current flow.
14. Thus, the metal-semiconductors junction has rectifying characteristics
similar to those of a p-n junction.
Que 4.8. Write advantages of Schottky diode over p-n junction
diode.
Answer
1. A Schottky diode turns-ON and OFF faster than an ordinary p-n junction
diode. The basic reason is that Schottky diodes are majority-carrier
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devices and have no stored minority carriers that must be injected into
the device during turn-ON and pulled out during turn-OFF.
2. As no minority carriers are available in metal, there is no depletion layer
or stored charges.
3. The junction contact area between semiconductor and metal is larger
than in point contact diode. Hence, the forward resistance is lower.
4. Schottky diodes have much less voltage overshoot.
PART-3
Bipolar Junction Transistor, I-V Characteristics.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
• BJT is a bipolar device which can operate in one of four possible
modes : cut-off, active, saturation, and reverse active.
• The basic principle involved is the use of the voltage between
two terminals to control the current flowing in the third
terminal.
Note : i E, i B, i C, v BE, vCE, v BC, v E, v B, vC represents AC + DC
parameters.
IE, IB, IC, VBE, VCE, VBC, VE, VB, VC represents DC parameters.
ie, ib, ic, vbe, vce, vbc, ve, vb, vc represents AC parameters.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 4.9. Explain the simplified structure of BJT.
Answer
1. BJT (bipolar junction transistor) consists of three regions, emitter region,
base region and collector region.
Emitter Metal
n-type p-type n-type contact
(E)
Emitter Base Collector Collector
region region region (C)
Emitter-base Collector-base
junction Base junction
(EBJ) (B) (CBJ)
Fig. 4.9.1. A simplified structure of the npn transistor.
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2. The transistor consists of a n-type emitter, p-type base and n-type
collector then such transistor is npn transistor. If a transistor consists of
a p-type emitter, n-type base and p-type collector, then such transistor is
pnp transistor.
3. It consists of two p-n junctions, the emitter-base junction and the
collector-base junction.
4. A transistor has following section :
i. Emitter : The main function of this region is to supply majority charge
carriers (either electrons or holes) to the base and hence it is more
heavily doped in comparison to other regions.
ii. Base : This is very lightly doped and is very thin as compared to either
emitter or collector so that it may pass most of the injected charge
carriers to the collector.
iii. Collector : The main function of the collector is to collect majority
charge carriers through the base. This is moderately doped and largest
among the three regions.
Que 4.10. Describe the structure of an npn transistor and explain
the operation in the active mode. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
A. Structure of npn transistor : Refer Q. 4.9, Page 4–9A, Unit-4.
B. Operation in the active mode :
1. The physical operation of the transistor in the active mode is shown in
the Fig. 4.10.1.
Forward biased Reverse biased
n p n
Injected electrons Diffusing electrons Collected electrons iC C
E
Injected
iE Recombined
iE holes (iB1)
electron iC
iB2
iB
–v
BE
+ iB – vCB+
iE iE B iC iC
– + – +
VBE VCB
Fig. 4.10.1. Current flow in an npn transistor biased
to operate in the active mode.
2. Here, the voltage vBE causes the p-type base to be higher in potential
than the n-type emitter, thus forward biasing the emitter-base junction
and voltage vCB causes the n-type collector to be at higher potential than
p-type base thus, reverse biasing the collector-base junction.
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3. The forward bias on the emitter-base junction will cause the current to
flow across this junction.
4. When the electrons are injected from the emitter into base then these
electrons will be minority carrier in the p-type base region because base
is very thin.
5. The collector current iC can be expressed as
iC = I S e( vBE / VT ) ...(4.10.1)
where, IS = Saturation current
6. The base current iB can be given as
iB = iC /
I
iB = S e(vBE / VT ) ...(4.10.2)
where, = Common emitter current gain.
7. The emitter current is equal to sum of collector current and base current,
i.e.,
iC ( 1)
iE = iC + iB = iC + iC ...(4.10.3)
8. From eq. (4.10.1)
( 1)
iE = I S e(vBE / VT ) ...(4.10.4)
Que 4.11. A pnp power transistor operates with an emitter to
collector voltage of 5 V, an emitter current of 10 A, and vEB = 0.85 V.
For = 15, what base current is required ? What is I S for this
transistor ? Compare the emitter-base junction area of this
transistor with that of small signal transistor that conducts
iC = 1 mA with vEB = 0.70 V. How much larger is it ?
Answer
Given : vEC = 5 V, iE = 10 A, vEB = 0.85 V, = 15, iC = 1 mA
To Find : iB, IS
1. For = 15,
iE = ( + 1)iB
10 = (15 + 1)iB
10
= iB
16
iB = 0.625 A
2. To calculate IS
1
iC = iE
1
iC = I S evEB / VT
1
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(v / V )
iE = I S1 e EB T
1
15
10 = I S e0.85/0.025
16 1
IS = 1.606 × 10 – 14 A
1
3. Comparing this to small signal transistor,
( v /V )
IS = iC e EB T = 1 × 10 – 3 × e – 0.7/0.025
2
= 6.914 × 10 – 16 A
IS Area
Area1 IS1 1.606 10 14
= = 23.2 times larger
Area 2 IS2 6.914 10 – 16
Que 4.12. Sketch a family of common base output characteristics
for a transistor. Indicate the active, cut-off and saturation region.
Answer
1. A conceptual experimental setup for measuring common base
characteristics is shown in Fig. 4.12.1(a).
2. Here, the base voltage is held constant, i.e., at ground potential, and
thus the base serves as a common terminal between the input and
output ports.
3. Consequently, the resulting set of characteristics, shown in Fig. 4.12.1(b),
is known as common base characteristics.
iC
Saturation Active region iE = IE1
region IE1
IE2 iC iE = IE2
iC
vCB
iE = 0 cut-off region
0 vCB
IE 0.4 V vCB
(a) (b )
Fig. 4.12.1. The iC – vCB characteristics of an npn transistor.
4. In the active region of operation, obtained for vCB – 0.4 V, the iC – vCB
curves deviate from the expectations in two ways.
5. First, the curves are not horizontal straight lines but show a small
positive slope, indicating that iC depends slightly on vCB in the active
mode.
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6. Second, at relatively large values of vCB, the collector current shows a
rapid increase, which is a breakdown phenomenon.
7. As indicated in Fig. 4.12.1(b), each of the characteristics curves intersects
the vertical axis at a current level equal to IE.
8. is called the common base current gain. An incremental or
small-signal can be determined by measuring the change in iC, iC,
obtained as a result of changing iE by an increment iE,
=iC/iE.
9. This measurement is usually made at a constant vCB, as shown in
Fig. 4.12.1(b).
10. Finally, turning to the saturation region, the Ebers-Moll equations can
be used to obtain the following expression for the iC – vCB curve in the
saturation region (for iE = IE),
1
iC = F I E IS F evBC / VT ...(4.12.1)
R
We can use eq. (4.12.1) to determine the value of vBC at which iC is
reduced to zero.
Que 4.13. Draw input and output characteristics of common
emitter amplifier. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 05
Answer
Transfer Characteristics :
A. Input characteristic :
1. The forward biased diode curve is expected because the base-emitter
section of transistor is a diode and it is forward-biased.
V CE= 1V 5V 10V
iB
0 vBE
Fig. 4.13.1. Input characteristics.
2. In this case, iB increases less rapidly with vBE as compared to common
base configuration i.e., input resistance of common emitter is higher
than common base circuit.
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B. Output characteristic :
1. The characteristic of common emitter output configuration is illustrated
in Fig. 4.13.2.
2. Each iC-vCE curve is measured with the base fed with a constant current
IB.
3. Consider a transistor operating in the active region at the point labeled
Q in Fig. 4.13.2, i.e., at a collector current ICQ, a base current IBQ, and a
collector-emitter voltage VCEQ.
iC
Saturation
region
iB = IB1
Active region
iB = IB2
iC iB = IBQ + iB
iC
CQ Q iB = IBQ
IB
vCE
iB iB = . . .
cut-off region iB = 0
0 VCEQ vCE
( a) (b )
Fig. 4.13.2. Common emitter output characteristics.
4. The ratio of the collector current to base current is the large-signal or
DC.
I
DC = CQ
I BQ
5. Referring to Fig. 4.13.2, while keeping vCE constant at the value VCEQ,
changing iB from IBQ to (IBQ + iB) results in iC increasing from ICQ to
(ICQ + iC).
iC
6. Thus we can define the incremental or AC , AC, AC =
iB vCE Constant
Que 4.14. Show that IE = IB + IE + ICBO. In which way ICBO depend
on temperature ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
A.
IC
1. For npn transistor =
IE
IC = IE ...(4.14.1)
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2. If the emitter is open then there will be collector current because of
minority carriers ICBO.
Thus, IC = IE + ICBO ...(4.14.2)
3. And we know IE = IC + IB
IC = IE – IB ...(4.14.3)
4. Putting the value of IC in eq. (4.14.2) then we get
IE – IB = IE + ICBO
IE = IB + IE + ICBO
B. The reverse saturation current (ICBO) approximately doubles for every
10° C rise on temperature.
Que 4.15. Define and of a transistor and derive the relationship
between them. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
1. is the current amplification factor in common base transistor. It is
defined as the ratio of the collector current to the emitter current of a
transistor when no signal is applied.
IC
=
IE
2. is the current gain in common emitter configuration. It is defined as
the ratio of the collector current to the base current, when no signal is
applied.
I
= C
IB
Relation :
i i
1. We know, = C and = C
iE iB
iE = iB + iC iB = iE – iC
iC i /i
2. Now, = C E
iE iC 1 iC / iE 1
(1 – ) = or – =
= (1 + )
=
1
Que 4.16. Explain the working of common-collector (CC)
configuration. Establish the relation in between and .
Answer
A. Working of common collector configuration :
1. In this configuration, the input signal is applied between base and collector
and the output is taken from the emitter as shown in Fig. 4.16.1.
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2. Current amplification factor, is defined as the ratio of emitter current
to the base current of the transistor, when no signal is applied.
DC = = I E
IB
E IE
IB B RL
C VEE
VBB IC
Fig. 4.16.1. Common collector pnp transistor amplifier.
3. When signal is applied, then the ratio of change in emitter current to the
change in base current is known as current amplification factor .
I E
=
I B
4. This configuration provides the same current gain as common emitter
circuit as IE IC but the voltage gain is always less than one.
5. Total emitter current
IE = IB + IC
IC = IE + ICBO
IE = IB + ( IE + ICBO)
IE (1 – ) = IB + ICBO
IB I
IE = CBO
(1 ) (1 )
1
1 1
IE = (1 + ) IB + (1 + ) ICBO
6. The voltage gain is always less than one. Hence this configuration is
rarely used for amplification.
B. Relation between ,and :
I I
1. = E and C
IB IE
2. Also IB = IE – IC
IE 1 1
3. = ...(4.16.1)
I E IC 1 ( IC / I E ) 1
1
4. We have, 1– = ...(4.16.2)
1
5. Put values of eq. (4.16.2) in eq. (4.16.1)
1
= 1
1
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Que 4.17. Explain the input and output characteristics of a BJT
in the common emitter configuration. If the base current in
transistor is 30 A when the emitter current is 7.2 mA. What are the
values of and ?
Answer
A. Input and output characteristics : Refer Q. 4.13, Page 4–13A,
Unit-4.
B. Numerical :
Given : IB = 30 A, IE = 7.2 mA
To Find : ,
1. We have IE = IB + IC
IC = IE – IB = 7.2 mA – 30 A = 7.17 mA
IC 7.17 10 3
= = 239
IB 30 10 6
239
= = 0.9958
1 240
Que 4.18. What is Early effect and explain the dependence of iC on
the collector voltage ?
Answer
1. At given value of vBE, increasing vCE increases the reverse bias voltage
of the collector-base junction and thus, increases the width of the
depletion region of this junction which in turn results in a decrease in
the effective base width W.
iC
Saturation
region
Active region
vCE
–VA 0
Fig. 4.18.1. iC-vCE characteristics of a practical BJT.
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2. Thus, increase in depletion region width due to increase in reverse bias
across collector-base junction is called Early effect.
3. The linear dependence of iC on vCE can be accounted by assuming that
v
IS remains constant and including the factor 1 CE in the equation
VA
for iC is
v
iC = I S e(vBE / VT ) 1 CE ...(4.18.1)
VA
where, VA = Early voltage
4. The non-zero slope of the iC-vCE straight lines indicates that the output
resistance looking into the collector is not infinite. It is defined by,
1
i
r0 = C ...(4.18.2)
v
CE vBE constant
5. Using eq. (4.18.1), we can show
VA + VCE
r0 = ...(4.18.3)
IC
where, IC and VCE are the coordinates of the point at which BJT is
operating on the particular iC-vCE curve.
VA
6. Alternatively, we can write r0 =
IC
where, IC is the collector current with Early effect neglected and is
given by,
IC = I S evBE / VT
Que 4.19. Calculate for two transistors for which = 0.99 and
0.98. For collector currents of 10 mA, find the base current of each
transistor.
Answer
Given : = 0.99 and 0.98, IC = 10 mA
To Find : IB
0.99
1. For = 0.99, = 99
1 1 0.99
I 10 mA
and base current, IB = C = 0.101 mA
99
0.98
2. For = 0.98, = = 49
1 0.98
I 10 mA
and base current, IB = C = 0.204 mA
49
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Que 4.20. Calculate the values of and IS for the transistor shown
in Fig. 4.20.1, if VCB = VBE = 0.7 V, and IB = 0.2 mA, and IE = 10 mA.
VCB
IB
VBE IE
Fig. 4.20.1.
Answer
Given : VBE = 0.7 V, IB = 0.2 mA, IE = 10 mA
To Find : , Is
1. We know that, IE = IC + IB
IC = IE – IB = 10 mA – 0.2 mA = 9.8 mA
IC 9.8
= = 0.98
I E 10
2. Relation between and is given by
0.98
= = 49
1 1 0.98
3. IC = IS e(VBE/VT)
IC 9.8 10 3 9.8 10 3
IS = (VBE / VT )
0.7/ (25 10 3 )
e e 1.45 1012
IS = 6.75 × 10 – 15 A
Que 4.21. Explain the operation of BJT as a switch and as an
amplifier. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Explain the working of BJT as an amplifier and as a switch with the
help of neat diagram and necessary equations. Also calculate the
amplifier gain. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
OR
How BJT can be used as a amplifier and as a switch ? Justify using
required circuit waveform, mathematical expression.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
OR
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Explain transistor characteristics in CE configuration. Explain the
behaviour of the transistor in active and cut-off mode.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Transfer characteristics : Refer Q. 4.13, Page 4–13A, Unit-4.
BJT as an amplifier :
1. Fig. 4.21.1 shows common emitter circuit and Fig. 4.21.2 shows the
voltage transfer characteristics of the CE circuit.
VCC
iC RC
C +
vo = vCE
+
vBE = vI
– –
Fig. 4.21.1. Basic common emitter amplifier circuit.
2. To operate the BJT as a linear amplifier, it must be biased at a point in
the active region.
3. Fig. 4.21.2 shows such a bias point, labeled Q, and characterized by vBE
and vCE.
vo
Cut-off Active Saturation
mode
VCC X Y Slope = Av
vo
VCE Time
Q
Z VCEsat
0 vI(V)
0.5 VBE 1.0 1.5
Time
Fig. 4.21.2. Transfer characteristic.
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4. If the collector current at this value of vBE is
iC = I S e vBE / VT ...(4.21.1)
then from the circuit in Fig. 4.21.1
v0 = vCE = VCC – RC iC ...(4.21.2)
5. Now, if the signal to be amplified, vI is superimposed on VBE and kept
sufficiently small as the instantaneous operating point will be constrained
to a relatively short, almost linear segment of the transfer curve around
the bias point Q.
6. The slope of this linear segment will be equal to the slope of the tangent
to the transfer curve at Q.
7. This slope is the voltage gain of amplifier.
dvo
Av = ...(4.21.3)
dvI v VBE
I
1
8. Thus, Av = I S eVBE /VT RC
VT
IC RC V
= RC [Using eq. (4.21.1)]
VT VT
where VRC is the DC voltage drop across RC.
VRC = VCC – VCE ...(4.21.4)
VCC VCEsat
Av =
VT
9. Biasing at the edge of saturation
VCC
Thus, Av max
VT
BJT as a switch :
When the transistor leaves the active region, it enters in cut-off region
or in saturation region. But these regions are very useful if the transistor
is to be used as a switch.
i. Cut-off region :
If vI is smaller than 0.5 V, the emitter-base junction will conduct
negligible current and the collector-base junction is reversed biased.
The device will be in cut-off mode.
iB = 0, iE = 0, iC = 0, vC = VCC
ii. Saturation region :
1. If we increase iB then iC increase as a result of which vCE will fall down.
The process will continue until the collector-base junction becomes
forward biased.
2. The forward voltage drop of collector-base junction is small because of
relatively large areas.
3. This mode of working is achieved in saturation region.
VCC VCE sat
ICsat =
RC
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4. Forcing more current into the base has very little effect on ICsat and
VCEsat. In this state the switch is closed.
Que 4.22. What is meant by load line of a transistor ? Explain with
a simple circuit diagram consisting of an npn transistor.
Answer
1. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 4.22.1 using npn transistor.
VCC
iC RL = RC
RB +
+
+ v CE
vi iB vBE
–
–
VBB
–
Fig. 4.22.1.
2. For drawing DC load line of a transistor, we require only its cut-off and saturation
points. Then the line joining these two points is known as DC load line.
3. The voltage equation of collector-emitter circuit is :
VCC = vCE + iC RL
V vCE
iC = CC –
RL RL
Hence, VCC and RL are fixed values and thus, it is a first degree equation
which can be represented by a straight line.
4. When collector current iC = 0, then collector-emitter voltage is maximum
and is equal to VCC.
i.e., vCE = VCC – iC RL = VCC ( iC = 0)
This gives the cut-off point B as shown in Fig. 4.22.2.
5. When collector-emitter voltage vCE = 0, then the collector current is
maximum equal to VCC / RL.
i.e., vCE = VCC – iC RL
0 = VCC – iC RL or iC = VCC /RL
6. This gives the saturation point A as shown in Fig. 4.22.2. The line joining
the two points A and B is known as load line.
VCC A (saturation point)
RL
Load line
Slope = – 1 / RL
iC Q (operating point)
B (cut-off point)
vCE VCC
Fig. 4.22.2. DC load line.
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Operating point (Q) : This is a point on DC load line which represents
the values of iC and vCE that exist in a transistor circuit when no signal
is applied. This is also known as working point.
Que 4.23. Mention the different biasing technique in BJT. Explain
any two of them. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
Answer
Biasing in BJT amplifier circuit :
i. Voltage divider biasing
ii. Two power supply version of the classical bias arrangement.
iii. Biasing using a collector to base feedback resistor.
iv. Biasing using a constant current source.
i. Voltage divider bias ing (Classical discrete circuit bias
arrangement) :
1. Fig. 4.23.1(a) shows the arrangement most commonly used for biasing a
discrete circuit transistor amplifier if only a single power supply is
available.
VCC
VBB = VCC R2
VCC R1 + R2
RC
R1 IC
RC IB
RB = R1 || R2
IE
R2 RE L RE
( a) (b )
Fig. 4.23.1. Classical biasing for BJTs using a single power supply.
2. Fig. 4.23.1(b) shows the same circuit with the voltage divider network
replaced by its Thevenin’s equivalent,
R2
VBB = V ...(4.23.1)
R1 R2 CC
R1 R2
RB = ...(4.23.2)
R1 R2
3. The current IE can be determined by writing a Kirchhoff ’s loop equation
for the base-emitter ground loop labeled L, as
VBB – IB RB – VBE – IE RE = 0
IE
Substituting, IB =
1
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R
VBB I E B VBE I E RE = 0
1
VBB VBE
IE = ...(4.23.3)
RB
RE
( 1)
4. To make IE insensitive to temperature and variation, we design the
circuit to satisfy the following two constraints :
VBB >> VBE
RB
and RE >> ...(4.23.4)
1
ii. Two power supply version of the classical bias arrangement :
+ V CC
RC
IE
IB =
+1
RB IE
L RE
– VEE
Fig. 4.23.2. Biasing the BJT using two power supplies.
1. In Fig. 4.23.2, two power supplies are available. Writing a loop equation
for loop labeled L gives
VEE VBE
IE = ...(4.23.5)
RB
RE
( 1)
2. Note that if the transistor is to be used with the base grounded, then RB
can be eliminated. On the other hand, if the input signal is to be coupled
to the base, then RB is needed.
Que 4.24. Do the analysis of DC biasing circuit of the npn
transistor to derive Q-point and self stability factor.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
Q-point : Refer Q. 4.22, Page 4–22A, Unit-4.
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Self stability factor :
1. Applying Thevenin’s theorem to the circuit of Fig. 4.24.1(a), for finding
the base current, we have
R2VCC R1 R2
VBB = and RB =
R1 R2 R1 R2
VCC
VCC
VBB
RC
R1 RC IC
IB
RB IE
R2 RE RE
L
( a) ( b)
Fig. 4.24.1.
2. The loop equation around the base circuit of Fig. 4.24.1(b) can be written
as
VBB = IBRB + VBE + (IB + IC)RE ...(4.24.1)
3. Differentiating eq. (4.24.1) with respect to IC, we get,
dI B RE
=–
dIC RE RB
4. The stability factor for CE amplifier is given by,
dIC
S=
dICBO VBE , constant
5. For common emitter configuration,
IC = IB + (I + ) ICBO ...(4.24.2)
6. Differentiating eq. (4.24.2) with respect to IC
dI B dI
1= (1 ) CBO
dIC dIC
dI
1 B
dICBO dIC
=
dIC 1
dIC 1
= S= ...(4.24.3)
dICBO dI
1 B
dIC
dI B
7. Substituting the value of in eq. (4.24.3), we get
dIC
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R
1 B
1 RE
S= = (1 )
RE R
1 1 B
RE
RE RB
Que 4.25. For the circuit in Fig. 4.25.1, find the value to which the
base voltage should be changed so that the transistor operates in
saturation with a forced of 5.
10 V
4.7 k
6V
3.3 k
Fig. 4.25.1.
Answer
Given : forced = 5
To Find : VB
1. In circuit shown in Fig. 4.25.1, value of VB given is 6 V. Now we have to
calculate the same transistor to be operated in saturation region.
IC
= 5
IB
IC = 5IB
6 IC
IE = IB + IC = 6IB = 1.2 IC ...(4.25.1)
5
and here, VE = VB – 0.7
VE VB 0.7
IE = = 1.2 IC ...(4.25.2)
3.3 3.3
10 VC 10 (VE VCEsat )
IC =
4.7 4.7
10 (VB 0.7 0.2) 10 VB 0.5 10.5 VB
=
4.7 4.7 4.7
...(4.25.3)
2. From eq. (4.25.2) and (4.25.3)
VB 0.7 10.5 VB
=
3.96 4.7
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1.19 (VB – 0.7) = 10.5 – VB
1.19 VB – 0.83 = 10.5 – VB
2.19 VB = 11.33
VB = 5.175 V
Que 4.26. Design the circuit of Fig. 4.26.1 to establish a collector
current of 0.5 mA and a reverse bias voltage on the collector-base
junction of 2 V. Assume 1.
RC
10 V
4V RE
Fig. 4.26.1.
Answer
Given : IC = 0.5 mA, VCB = 2 V, 1
To Find : RC, RE
1. From the circuit in Fig. 4.26.1, base-emitter junction will be forward
bias. Assuming that VBE is approximately 0.7 V. It follows the emitter
voltage to be,
VE = 4 – VBE = 4 – 0.7 = 3.3 V
VE 0 VE
and IE = ...(4.26.1)
RE RE
2. As given 1
so, IB 0,
and IC = IE ( IB + IC = IE)
VE
3. From eq. (4.26.1), IC =
RE
VE 3.3 V
RE = = 6.6 k
IC 0.5 mA
4. Now applying KVL to outer loop,
10 – IC RC – VCB – 4 = 0
Putting given values, IC RC = 10 – 2 – 4 = 4
4
RC = 8 k
0.5 mA
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Que 4.27. Discuss the various internal capacitances in detail for
BJT.
Answer
i. Base charging or diffusion capacitance, Cde : When the transistor
is operating in the active or saturation modes, minority carrier charge,
Qn, is stored in the base region. Qn can be calculated in terms of the
collector current ic.
W2
Qn = i F iC
2 Dn C
where, F is a device constant.
W2
F =
2 Dn
F is known as the forward base transit time.
For small signals we can define the small signal diffusion capacitance
dQn diC I
Cde = F F gm F C
dvBE dvBE VT
ii. Base-emitter junction capacitance, Cje :
C je0
Cje = m
VBE
1 V
0e
where, Cje0 is the value of Cje at zero voltage, V0e is the emitter-base
junction (EBJ) built in voltage and m is the grading coefficient of the
EBJ junction. One typically uses an approximate value of Cje.
Cje 2 Cje0
iii. Collector-base junction capacitance, C : In active mode operation,
the collector-base junction is reversed biased, and its junction or depletion
capacitance, C becomes
C 0
C = m
VCB
1
V0 c
where, C0 is the value of C at zero voltage, V0c is the CBJ built in
voltage and m is the grading coefficient.
Que 4.28. Explain the hybrid- model of the npn transistor.
Answer
1. Fig. 4.28.1, shows the expressions for the current increment (ic, ib, and
ie) obtained when a small signal vbe is applied.
2. An equivalent circuit model for the BJT is shown in Fig. 4.28.2(a). This
includes the input resistance looking into the base, r. The model obviously
yields ic = gmvbe and ib = vbe/r.
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3. At the emitter node we have,
vbe v
ie = gmvbe be (1 gm r )
r r
vbe r
=
(1 ) vbe = vbe / re ...(4.28.1)
r 1
4. Expressing the current of the controlled source (gmvbe) in terms of the
base current ib as follows :
gmvbe = gm(ibr) = (gmr)ib = ib ...(4.28.2)
RC
C ic = g v
m be
ib = vbe/r
+
B + vce
vbe + vbe –
– E v
ie = rbe
– e
Fig. 4.28.1. The amplifier circuit with the DC sources
(VBE and VCC) eliminated (short circuited).
ib ic ib ic
B C B C
+ +
vbe r vbe r ib
gmvbe
– –
ie ie
E E
(a) (b )
Fig. 4.28.2. Two slightly different versions of the simplified hybrid- model.
5. The results of eq. (4.28.2) in the alternative equivalent circuit model
shown in Fig. 4.28.2(b). Hence the transistor is represented as a current-
controlled current source, with the control current being ib.
6. The two models of Fig. 4.28.2 are known as the hybrid- model. This is
the most widely used model for the BJT.
Que 4.29. Calculate the voltage gain for the circuit given in
Fig. 4.29.1. Assume = 100.
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VCC = + 10 V
RC = 3 k
RBB = 100 k
vi +
–
VBB = 3 V
Fig. 4.29.1.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 10
Answer
Given : = 100
vo
To Find :
vI
1. To determine the quiescent operating point, assume vi = 0.
Analysis of circuit at DC is shown in Fig. 4.29.2.
+10 V
2.3 mA
3 k
+3.1 V
+3V
100 k
0.023 mA 2.323 mA
+ 0.7 V
Fig. 4.29.2.
2. The DC base current will be
VBB VBE 3 0.7
IB = = 0.023 mA
RBB 100 k
3. The DC collector current will be
IC = IB = 100 × 0.023 = 2.3 mA
4. The DC voltage at the collector will be
VC = VCC – IC RC
= + 10 – 2.3 × 3 = + 3.1 V
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5. Since VB = + 0.7 V, it follows that in the quiescent the transistor will be
operating in the active mode.
Small signal parameters :
1. Fig. 4.29.3 shows small signal model of given circuit shown in Fig. 4.29.1.
B C
v0
RBB = 100 k
vI + + RC = 3 k
vbe gmvbe
– r
–
Fig. 4.29.3.
IC 2.3 mA
2. gm = = 92 mA/V
VT 25 mV
100
3. r = = 1.09 k
gm 92
4. From Fig. 4.29.3,
r 1.09
vbe = vI vI = 0.011 vI
r RBB 101.09
5. The output voltage v0 is given by,
v0 = – gm vbe RC
= – 92 × 0.011vI × 3 = – 3.036vI
6. Thus, the voltage gain will be
v0
= – 3.036
vI
Negative sign shows phase reversal.
Que 4.30. Draw the circuit diagram of CE amplifier. Replacing the
transistor with its hybrid- model deduce the expression for its
voltage gain.
Answer
1. Fig. 4.30.1(a) shows a CE amplifier. Here CE is used to establish a signal
ground and to provide very low impedance to ground. CE is called bypass
capacitor.
2. CC1 known as coupling capacitor, is required to act as a perfect short
circuit at all signal frequencies of interest while blocking DC.
3. vc is coupled to the load resistance RL via another coupling capacitor CC2.
4. We are assuming that CC2 also act as a prefect short circuit at all signal
frequencies of interest.
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VCC (0 V)
RC
CC2
vc vo
Rsig CC1 i
i
RL
+
+ v = vi
– 0V
vsig + vi RB
– Rout
– CE
I
Rin
–VEE
(a)
Rsig ii io
B C
vo
+ +
vsig + RB v r ro RC RL
– vi gmv
– –
Rin R ib E Rout
(b )
Fig. 4.30.1.
5. From the circuit in Fig. 4.30.1(b)
Rin = RB|| Rib = r ( RB >> r)
Rin r
vi = vsig = vsig = v
Rin Rsig r Rsig
6. At the output, vo = – gm v (ro || RC || RL)
Av = – gm (ro|| RC || RL)
7. The open circuit gain by setting RL = ,
Avo = – gm (ro|| RC) – gm RC ( r0 >> RC)
8. The overall voltage gain from source to load, Gv
Rin
Gv = – g (r || RC || RL)
Rin Rsig m o
( RC || RL || ro )
9. For the case RB >> r, Gv –
r Rsig
10. If Rsig << r, Gv = – gm (RC || RL || ro)
Que 4.31. Draw the CE amplifier with a resistance connected in
emitter and derive the expression for different characterising
parameters. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
Electronic Devices 4–33 A (EC-Sem-3)
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OR
Do the small signal analysis of common emitter amplifier with
emitter resistance. Derive input resistance, voltage gain (from base
to collector), overall voltage gain (source to load), open circuit
voltage gain and output resistance. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 15
Answer
1. Fig. 4.31.1(a) shows a common emitter amplifier with an emitter
resistance Re. This resistor can be utilized by the designer as an effective
design tool for tailoring the amplifier characteristics to fit the design
requirement.
VCC (0 V)
RC
CC2
vo vo
Rsig CC1 ii ib
RL
ic
+
vi
+ v ie =
– re + Re
Rout
vsig + vi R Re
– B CE
R ib 0V
–
Rin I
– VEE
( a)
io
C
vo
ie ic RC RL
Rsig i1 ib
B
ie
+ + Rout
vsig + vi RB v re
– vi
E ie =
– – re + Re
Rin Rib Re
(b )
Fig. 4.31.1. (a) A common emitter amplifier with an emitter resistance Re.
(b) Equivalent circuit obtained by replacing the transistor with its T model.
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2. Rin = RB ||Rib
vi
where, Rib = = ( + 1) (re + Re) and vo = – ic (RC || RL)
ib
vo ( RC RL )
3. The voltage gain, Av = =–
vi re Re
Rc
4. The open loop voltage gain, Avo = – ( RL = )
re Re
5. The output resistance, Rout = RC
( 1) (re Re )
6. For RB >> Rib, short circuit current gain, Ais =
Re re
7. Overall voltage gain from source to load can be obtained by multiplying
v
Av by i
vsig
vi Rin ( RC RL )
Gv = Av .
vsig Rsig Rin re Re
Substituting Rin and assuming RB >> Rib and substituting Rib
( RC RL )
Gv = –
Rsig ( 1) (re Re )
Que 4.32. Draw the circuit for CB amplifier and find expression
for short circuit current gain. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
Answer
1. Fig. 4.32.1 shows a CB amplifier. The small signal equivalent circuit
model (T-model) of the amplifier is shown in Fig. 4.32.2.
VCC (0 V)
RC CC2
v0 v0
ie
RL
re Rout
ii CC1 ie
Rsig
+
vsig +
– vi I
–
– VEE
Rin
Fig. 4.32.1.
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i0
C
v0
ie
RC RL
B
ie
re Rout
Rsig ii
E
+ +
vsig
– vi
–
Rin
Fig. 4.32.2.
2. From inspection of Fig. 4.32.2, input resistance is Rin = re
At the collector node vo = – ie(RC || RL)
and the emitter current
vi
ie = –
re
v0
hence, Av = ( R RL ) gm ( RC RL ) ...(4.32.1)
vi re C
3. The open circuit voltage gain Av0 can be found from eq. (4.32.1) by
setting RL =
Av0 = gmRC ...(4.32.2)
4. The output resistance of the CB circuit can be found by inspection from
the circuit in Fig. 4.32.2 as
Rout = RC
5. The short circuit current gain Ais is given by
– ie – ie
Ais = =
ii – ie
PART-4
Eber-Moll Model.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
BJT 4–36 A (EC-Sem-3)
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Que 4.33. Briefly describe the Ebers-Moll model of an npn
transistor.
Answer
1. The Ebers-Moll model of an npn transistor is shown in Fig. 4.33.1.
C
iC
DC iDC iDE
B
iB
DE iDE iDC
iE
E
Fig. 4.33.1. The Ebers-Moll (EM) model of the npn transistor.
2. According to Ebers and Moll, this composite model can be used to predict
the operation of the BJT in all of its possible modes.
3. The expression for the current at each of the three nodes of the model
is as follows :
iE = iDE – RiDC ...(4.33.1)
iC = – iDC + F iDE ...(4.33.2)
iB = (1 – F) iDE + (1 – R) iDC ...(4.33.3)
4. Using diode equation, iDE and iDC can be expressed as
iDE = I SE ( evBE / VT 1) ...(4.33.4)
vBC / VT
iDC = I SC ( e 1) ...(4.33.5)
5. Substituting the values of iDE and iDC in eq. (4.33.1), (4.33.2) and (4.33.3),
we get
I
iE = S ( evBE / VT 1) I S ( evBC / VT 1) ...(4.33.6)
F
I S vBC / VT
iC = I S (evBE / VT 1) (e 1) ...(4.33.7)
R
I I
iB = S (evBE / VT 1) S (evBC / VT 1)
F R
...(4.33.8)
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F R
where, F = and R
1 F 1 R
6. If evBC / VT is very small and can be neglected then
I 1
iE S evBE / VT I S 1 ...(4.33.9)
F F
iC I S evBE / VT IS 1 1 ...(4.33.10)
R
I 1 1
iB S evBE / VT – IS ...(4.33.11)
F F R
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. Describe the structure of an npn transistor and explain the
operation in the active mode.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.10.
Q. 2. Draw input and output characteristics of common emitter
amplifier.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.13.
Q. 3. Show that IE = IB + IE + ICBO. In which way ICBO depend on
temperature ?
Ans. Refer Q. 4.14.
Q. 4. Define and of a transistor and derive the relationship
between them.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.15.
Q. 5. Explain the operation of BJT as a switch and as an amplifier.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.21.
Q. 6. Mention the different biasing technique in BJT. Explain
any two of them.
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Ans. Refer Q. 4.23.
Q. 7. Do the analysis of DC biasing circuit of the npn transistor
to derive Q-point and self stability factor.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.24.
Q. 8. Calculate the voltage gain for the circuit given in
Fig. 1. Assume = 100.
VCC = + 10 V
RC = 3 k
RBB = 100 k
vi +
–
VBB = 3 V
Fig. 1.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.29.
Q. 9. Draw the CE amplifier with a resistance connected in
emitter and derive the express ion for different
characterising parameters.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.31.
Q. 10. Draw the circuit for CB amplifier and find expression for
short circuit current gain.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.32.
Electronic Devices 5–1 A (EC-Sem-3)
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5 MOSFET and
OPTOELECTRONIC
Devices
CONTENTS
Part-1 : MOSFET, I-V Characteristics ................. 5–2A to 5–15A
Part-2 : MOS Capacitor, ........................................ 5–15A to 5–19A
C-V characteristics
Part-3 : Small Signal Models ................................ 5–19A to 5–24A
of MOS Transistor
Part-4 : LED ............................................................. 5–25A to 5–28A
Part-5 : Photodiode ................................................. 5–28A to 5–33A
Part-6 : Solar Cell ................................................... 5–33A to 5–35A
MOSFET & OPTOELECTRONIC Devices 5–2 A (EC-Sem-3)
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PART-1
MOSFET, I-V Characteristics.
CONCEPT OUTLINE
• MOSFET (Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor) is
the common term for the insulated gate field effect transistor
(IGFET). It is a unipolar device.
• There are two types of MOSFET :
1. Depletion MOSFET
2. Enhancement MOSFET
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.1. What is difference between BJT and MOSFET ?
Answer
S. No. BJT MOSFET
1. This is a bipolar device. It This is a unipolar device. It means
me ans output curre nt output current depends upon the
depends upon the flow of flow of majority carriers only.
majo rity as we ll as
minority carriers.
2. It e xhibits lo w input High input impedance (typically in
impedance. M).
3. More noisy. Less noisy.
4. Poor thermal stability. Good thermal stability.
5. Finite offset voltage. No offset voltage at zero drain
current.
Que 5.2. Explain the construction and working of n-type
enhancement MOSFET. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 05
Answer
A. Construction :
1. The construction of an n-channel enhancement MOSFET is shown in
Fig. 5.2.1.
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2. Two highly doped n+ regions are diffused in a lightly doped p-type silicon
substrate. One n+ region is called the source S and the other one is
called the drain D.
vGS
– +
S D
SiO2 G Al
+ + +++ +
–
+–+–+–+–+–
+– +
–– –– –– – iD
n+ n+
Induced
n-channel
p-type substrate
– +
vDS
Fig. 5.2.1. n-channel enhancement MOSFET.
3. A thin insulating layer of SiO2 is grown over the surface of the structure
and holes are cut into the oxide layer, allowing contact with source and
drain.
4. Then a thin layer of metal aluminium is formed over the layer of SiO2
which covers the entire channel region and it forms the gate G.
5. The metal area of the gate, the insulating oxide layer of SiO2 and the
semiconductor channel forms a parallel plate capacitor.
6. This device is called the insulated gate FET because of the insulating
layer of SiO2. It gives extremely high input impedance for the MOSFET.
B. Working :
1. If the substrate is grounded and a positive voltage is applied at the gate,
the positive charge on gate (G) induces an equal negative charge on the
substrate side between the source and drain regions.
2. Thus, an electric field is produced between the source and drain regions
which is perpendicular to the plates of the capacitor through the oxide.
3. The negative charge of electrons which are minority carriers in the
p-type substrate forms an inversion layer.
4. As the positive voltage on the gate increases, the induced negative
charge in the semiconductor increases.
5. Hence, the conductivity increases and current flows from drain to source
through the induced channel. Thus the drain current is enhanced by
the positive gate voltages.
Que 5.3. Explain the operation of enhancement type n-channel
MOSFET as vDS is increased.
OR
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Explain the operation and characteristics of n-channel MOSFET.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Operation of n-channel MOSFET : Refer Q. 5.2, Page 5–2A, Unit-5.
Operation of enhancement type n-channel MOSFET as vDS is
increased :
1. Let vGS be held constant at a value greater than Vt.
2. The voltage between the gate and points along the channel decreases
from vGS at source end to vGS – vDS at the drain end.
3. Therefore, as vDS is increased, the channel becomes more tapered and
its resistance increases correspondingly. Thus, the iD-vDS curve does
not continue as a straight line but bends.
4. When vDS is increased to the value that reduces the voltage between the
gate and the channel at the drain end to Vt i.e., vGS – vDS = Vt, the
channel depth at the drain end decreases to zero and the channel is said
to be pinched-off.
+
vGS
–
G iG = 0 iD D
S iS = iD
n+ n+
n-channel
p-type substrate
Fig. 5.3.1.
iD
Triode Saturation
vDS < vGS – Vt vDS vGS – Vt
Curve bend because
the channel resistance Current saturates because
increases with vDS the channel is pinched-off
at the drain end, and increasing
Almost a straight line vDS no longer affects
the channel.
with slope proportional
to (vGS – Vt) vGS > Vt
vDS
0 V DSsat = v GS – V t
Fig. 5.3.2. iD- vDS characteristic for an enhancement type
NMOS operated with vGS > Vt.
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5. Increasing vDS beyond this value has no effect on channel shape and the
current remains constant at the value reached for vDS = vGS – Vt.
6. The drain current saturates at this value and the MOSFET enters the
saturation region of operation.
VDSsat = vGS – Vt
The device operates in the saturation region if vDS > VDSsat.
7. The region of the iD – vDS characteristics obtained for vDS < VDSsat is
called triode region.
Que 5.4. Construct p-channel enhancement MOSFET. Draw and
explain the I-V characteristics when VDS is increased.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
Answer
p-channel MOSFET :
1. Fig. 5.4.1 shows a cross-sectional view of a p-channel enhancement-
type MOSFET.
2. The structure is similar to that of the NMOS device except that here the
substrate is n type and the source and the drain regions are p+ type; that
is, all semiconductor regions are reversed in polarity relative to their
counterparts in the NMOS case.
+ +
vGS vDS
– G iD –
S D
iD iG = 0
p+ iD p+
induced p-channel
n-type substrate
Fig. 5.4.1. Physical structure of the PMOS transistor.
I-V Characteristics when vDS is increased : Refer Q. 5.3,
Page 5–3A, Unit-5.
Que 5.5. Derive the relation between i D and vDS for NMOS
transistor (triode region and saturation region).
OR
Derive the iD – vDS relationship for NMOS working in saturation
region. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
MOSFET & OPTOELECTRONIC Devices 5–6 A (EC-Sem-3)
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Answer
1. Consider an operation in the triode region for which channel must be
continuous and vDS < vGS – Vt.
2. If the capacitance per unit gate area is denoted by Cox and thickness of
oxide layer is tox, then
ox
Cox = ...(5.5.1)
tox
where, ox = permittivity of silicon oxide = 3.9 0 = 3.45 × 10 – 11 F/m
3. Consider the extremely small strip of the gate at distance x from the
source. The capacitance of this strip is CoxWdx.
4. The electron charge dq in the extremely small portion of the channel at
point x is
dq = – Cox (Wdx) [vGS – v(x) – Vt]
dq
= – CoxW [vGS – v(x) – Vt] ...(5.5.2)
dx
where, negative sign indicates that dq is negative charge and
v(x) = voltage in the channel at point x.
5. At point x, field can be expressed as,
dv( x)
E(x) =
dx
6. The electric field E(x) causes the electron charge dq to drift toward the
drain with a velocity dx/dt.
dx dv( x)
= – n E ( x) n ...(5.5.3)
dt dx
7. The drift current, i can be obtained as,
dq dq dx
i= = ...(5.5.4)
dt dx dt
dq dx
8. Substituting the value of from eq. (5.5.2) and value of from
dx dt
eq. (5.5.3) in eq. (5.5.4)
dv( x)
i = nCoxW[ vGS v( x) Vt ]
dx
dv( x)
iD = – i = nCoxW[ vGS v( x) Vt ] ...(5.5.5)
dx
9. The eq. (5.5.5) can be arranged as,
iDdx = n CoxW [vGS – v(x) – Vt] dv(x) ...(5.5.6)
10. Integrating both the sides of eq. (5.5.6) from x = 0 to L for v(x) = 0 to vDS.
L vDS
iD dx = nCoxW[vGS Vt v( x)] dv(x)
0 0
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W 1 2
iD = ( nCox ) (vGS Vt )vDS vDS ...(5.5.7)
L 2
The eq. (5.5.7) is the iD – vDS expression in the triode region.
11. The value of the current at the beginning of the saturation region can
be obtained by substituting vDS = vGS – Vt
1 W
iD = ( n Cox ) (vGS Vt )2
2 L
12. Here, n Cox is known as process transconductance parameter and is
denoted by kn.
kn= n Cox
13. The iD – vDS expressions can be written in terms of kn as follows :
W 1 2
iD = kn (vGS Vt )vDS vDS (Triode region)
L 2
1 W
iD = kn (vGS Vt )2 (Saturation region)
2 L
Que 5.6. Differentiate between D-MOSFET and E-MOSFET.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 05
Answer
S. No. D-MOSFET E-MOSFET
1. Operates in depletion mode Operates only in enhancement
and enhancement mode. mode.
2. The channel is already formed There is no physical channel from
between source and drain. source to drain. We have to
enhance it by applying VGS.
3. Commonly used bias circuits : Commonly used bias circuits :
Gate bias, Self bias, Voltage- Gate bias, Voltage divider bias,
divider bias, Zero bias Drain-feedback bias.
4. Schematic symbol of D- Schematic symbol of E-MOSFET
MOSFET
Que 5.7. Discuss the iD – vDS characteristics for an n-channel
enhancement type MOSFET.
MOSFET & OPTOELECTRONIC Devices 5–8 A (EC-Sem-3)
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OR
1
Show that, rDS = 1
where Vov = vGS – Vt
W
kn L (Vov )
Answer
1. The characteristic curve given in the Fig. 5.7.1(b) indicates that there
are three different regions of operation : the cut-off region, the triode
region and the saturation region.
2. The device is cut-off when vGS < Vt.
3. To operate the MOSFET in the triode region,
vGS Vt (Induced channel) ...(5.7.1)
and vGD Vt (Continuous channel) ...(5.7.2)
as vGD = vGS + vSD = vGS – vDS
vGS – vDS Vt ...(5.7.3)
4. The eq. (5.7.3) can be rearranged as,
vDS < vGS – Vt ...(5.7.4)
vDS vGS – Vt
vDS vGS – Vt
Triode
iD(mA) Saturation region
region
vGS = Vt + 2.0
2.0
1.5
iD
iG = 0 +
1.0 vGS = V t + 1.5
vDS
+
vGS iS = iD 0.5 vGS = Vt + 1.0
–
–
vGS = Vt + 0.5
( a) 0 1 2 3 4 vDS(V)
vGS Vt(Cut-off)
(b )
Fig. 5.7.1.
5. The iD – vDS characteristics for triode region can be explained as,
W 1 2
iD = kn (vGS Vt )vDS vDS
L 2
where, kn = nCox
6. If vDS is small then we can neglect v2DS term.
W
iD = kn [(vGS Vt )vDS ]
L
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1
vDS W
rDS = kn (vGS Vt )
iD L
as, Vov = vGS – Vt
1
W
rDS = kn
(Vov )
L
7. To operate the MOSFET in the saturation region,
vGS Vt (Induced channel)
vGD Vt (Pinched-off channel)
8. The condition can be expressed in terms of vDS,
vDS vGS – Vt
9. The boundary between triode and saturation region is given by
vDS = vGS – Vt (Boundary)
1 W
iD = kn (vGS Vt )2
2 L
1 W 2
or, iD = kn v
2 L DS
Que 5.8. In the circuit of Fig. 5.8.1 let RG = 10 M, RD = 10 k, and
V DD = 10 V. Find the value of V D and V G for V t = 1 V and
kn' (W/L) = 0.5 mA/V2.
VDD
RD
0 RG ID
ID
+
V DS
+
VGS –
–
Fig. 5.8.1.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
Given : RG = 10 M, RD = 10 k, VDD = 10 V, Vt = 1 V,
kn (W/L) = 0.5 mA/V2
To Find : VD, VG
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1. From Fig. 5.8.1, we can write,
VGS = VDS = VDD – RDID
VD = VG, so transistor is in saturation.
VDD – VDS VDD – VD
2. ID =
RD RD
10 – VD
= ...(5.8.1)
10 k
1 '
3. Also, ID = kn (W/L) (VGS – Vt)2
2
1
= 0.5 (VD – 1)2 [ VGS = VG = VD] ...(5.8.2)
2
4. From eq. (5.8.1) and (5.8.2)
10 – VD 0.5
= (VD – 1)2
10 2
20 – 2 VD = 5(VD2 + 1 – 2 VD)
5 VD2 – 10 VD + 5 = 20 – 2 VD
5 VD2 – 8 VD – 15 = 0
VD = – 1.107, 2.707
Taking only positive value,
VD = VG = 2.707 V
Que 5.9. Design the circuit shown in Fig. 5.9.1 so that transistor
operates at ID = 0.4 mA and VD = + 0.5 V. The NMOS transistor has
Vt = 0.7 V, nCox = 100 A/V2, L = 1 m and W = 32 m. Neglect the
channel length modulation. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
VDD = + 2.5 V
RD
VD
ID
RS
VSS = – 2.5 V
Fig. 5.9.1.
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Answer
Given : ID = 0.4 mA, VD = 0.5 V, Vt = 0.7 V, n Cox = 100 A/V2,
L = 1 m, W = 32 m
To Find : RD, RS
1. Since VD = 0.5 V > VG, the NMOS transistor is operating in the saturation
region.
1 W
2. Therefore, ID = n Cox (VGS Vt )2
2 L
1 32
0.4 mA = × 100 A/V2 × (VGS – Vt)2
2 1
1 32
400 = × 100 × × (VGS – Vt)2
2 1
VGS – Vt = 0.5
VGS = 0.7 + 0.5 = 1.2 V
VS VSS 1.2 ( 2.5)
3. RS = ( VG = 0)
ID 0.4 10 3
= 3.25 k.
VDD VD 2.5 0.5
4. RD = = 5 k
ID 0.4 10 3
Que 5.10. Design the circuit shown in the Fig. 5.10.1 to establish a
drain of 0.1 V, what is the effective resistance between drain and
source at this operating point ? Let Vt = 1 V, and k n (W/L) = 1 mA/V2.
VDD = 5 V
RD
VD = 0.1V
Fig. 5.10.1.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
Answer
W
Given : VDD = 5 V, VD = 0.1 V, Vt = 1 V, kn = 1 mA/V2
L
To Find : Effective resistance (rDS).
MOSFET & OPTOELECTRONIC Devices 5–12 A (EC-Sem-3)
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1. For triode region, VGS – Vt > VDS
5 – 1 > 0.1
4 > 0.1
So the MOSFET is operating in the triode region.
W 1 2
2. In triode region, ID = kn
L (VGS Vt ) VDS 2 VDS
1
= 1 (5 1) 0.1 0.01
2
= 0.395 mA
VDD VD 5 0.1
3. The value of RD is, RD = = 12.4 k
ID 0.395
4. The effective drain to source resistance is,
V 0.1
rDS = DS = 253
ID 0.395
Que 5.11. Draw the T equivalent circuit of common source
amplifier, with a source resistance and obtain the expressions for
Rin, Rout, and Gv. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 7.5
OR
Explain the working of common source with a resistance is
connected in source lead. Draw its small signal equivalent circuit.
Deduce the expression for overall voltage gain.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
Answer
VDD
RD CC2
vd
vo
1
ig vi g + RS
Rsig CC1 m RL
+
+ 1/gm 1
vi g + RS
m
vsig + vi
vi RS Rout = RD
– RG –
0V
– 0
CS
I
Rin = RG –VSS
Fig. 5.11.1. CS amplifier with RS in source lead.
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1
id = i = vi gm+ RS
vd
D vo
i RD RL
Rsig 0 G
i
+ + Rout = RD
vsig + vi RG vgs 1
– gm
– – S 1
i = vi +R
gm S
Rin = RG RS
Fig. 5.11.2. Small-signal equivalent circuit with ro neglected.
1. Since, Rin does not depend on RL and therefore Rin = Ri.
2. At the point ig = 0, Rin = RG
Rin RG
vi = vsig vsig
Rin Rsig RG Rsig
1 / gm vi
and vgs = vi
1 1 g m RS
RS
gm
thus, RS can be used to control the magnitude of the signal vgs.
gm vi
3. The current, id = i = vi/[(1/gm) + RS)] =
1 gm RS
4. Output voltage vo = – id (RD || RL)
gm ( RD ||RL )
Av = –
1 gm RS
gm RD
5. If RL = , Avo =
1 gm RS
6. Overall voltage gain
RG gm ( RD || RL )
Gv = –
RG Rsig 1 gm RS
7. The output resistance is given by
Rout = RD
MOSFET & OPTOELECTRONIC Devices 5–14 A (EC-Sem-3)
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Que 5.12. Draw a biasing circuit of MOSFET amplifier and explain
it. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
The different biasing methods of MOSFET are as follows :
i. Biasing by fixing the gate-to-source voltage VGS.
ii. Biasing by fixing DC voltage at the gate (VG).
iii. Biasing with a drain to gate feedback resistor.
iv. Biasing with a constant current source.
Biasing with a constant current source :
1. Fig. 5.12.1(a) shows biasing using a constant current source I.
2. RG presents a large resistance to an input signal source that can be
capacitively coupled to the gate.
3. Resistor RD establishes an appropriate DC voltage at the drain to allow
for the required output signal swing while the transistor always remains
in the saturation region.
To source
VDD + V DD of transistor
Q in Fig.
Iref R 5.12.1(a)
RD I=0
ID = I ID1 ID2
Q
Q1 Q2
+
VGS
RG I
–
– VSS – VSS
(a) (b )
Fig. 5.12.1.
4. Fig. 5.12.1(b) shows a circuit for implementing the constant current
source using current mirror. The transistor Q1 has its drain shorted to
gate and so it is operating in saturation region. Then
1 W
ID1 = kn (VGS Vt )2 ...(5.12.1)
2 L 1
Since gate current is zero,
V VGS ( VSS )
Iref = ID1 = DD ...(5.12.2)
R
5. The value of R can be obtained when a desired value of Iref. is known
along with the parameter of Q1.
6. VGS for Q1 and Q2 will be same. Assuming that Q2 is working in saturation
which gives
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1 W
ID2 = kn (VGS Vt )2 ...(5.12.3)
2 L 2
where, Vt is assumed to be same for both Q1 and Q2
W
I D2 ID2 L 2
then, =
Iref I D1 W
L 1
W W
7. If = then ID2 = ID1 = Iref
L 2 L 1
when ID2 = Iref. we can also say that ID2 is mirror image of Iref. Therefore,
this circuit is also known as current mirror.
PART-2
MOS Capacitor, C-V Characteristics
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.13. Draw the high-frequency equivalent circuit model for
the MOSFET and list all the MOSFET internal capacitances.
OR
Discuss the various capacitances for BJT and MOSFET.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
Answer
BJT internal capacitance : Refer Q. 4.27, Page 4–28A, Unit-4.
A. High frequency equivalent circuit :
Cgd
G D
+ gm Vgs gmb Vbs
Vgs Cgs ro
–
– Cdb
Vbs Csb
+
S B
Fig. 5.13.1. High frequency equivalent circuit model for the MOSFET.
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B. Types of internal capacitances of MOSFET :
a. The gate capacitive effect :
1. It can be modeled by the three capacitances Cgs, Cgd, Cgb. The values of
these capacitances are as follows :
i. When the MOSFET is operating in the triode region at small vDS, the
channel will be of uniform depth, thus,
1
Cgs = Cgd = WL Cox (triode region)
2
ii. When the MOSFET operates in saturation, the channel has a tapered
shape and is pinched off at or near the drain end, thus,
2
Cgs = WL Cox (saturation region)
3
Cgd =0
iii. When the MOSFET is cut off, the channel disappears, and thus,
Cgs = Cgd = 0
Cgb = WL Cox (cut-off region)
iv. There is an additional small capacitive component that should be added
to Cgs and Cgd. If the overlap length is denoted Lov, the overlap capacitance
component is
Co v = WLov Cox
b. The junction capacitances :
1. For the source diffusion, we have the source body capacitance, Csb,
Csb0
Csb =
VSB
1
V0
where Csb0 is the value of Csb at zero body source bias, VSB is the
magnitude of the reverse bias voltage and V 0 is the junction
built-in-voltage.
2. Similarly for the drain diffusion, the drain-body capacitance Cdb,
Cdb0
Cdb =
VDB
1
V0
where Cdb0 is the capacitance value at zero reverse-bias voltage and VDB
is the magnitude of the reverse-bias voltage.
Que 5.14. Discuss the C-V characteristics of MOS capacitor.
Answer
1. MOS system is in thermal equilibrium at zero bias. Under this condition,
the bands are flat and there is no charge in the semiconductor.
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2. Let a small AC signal now be applied to measure the capacitance of the
system.
3. The perturbation of the semiconductor surface by the small test signal
produces an effective dynamic depletion region in the semiconductor
whose thickness equals the extrinsic Debye length LD given by
kT s
LD = ...(5.14.1)
q2 ( po no )
4. In n-mos, when the gate voltage is negative, the hole concentration in
the surface layer increases above po. This causes a decrease in the
effective Debye length.
5. Thus, the ratio C/Cox starts increasing with the negative bias on the
gate as shown by the solid curve in Fig. 5.14.1.
Depletion
1 approximation
0.8 (a)
Flat-band
condition
0.6
C/Cox
Vth
(b)
0.4
0.2 (c)
0
–4 –2 0 2 4
VG (volts)
Fig. 5.14.1. Ideal MOS capacitance voltage curves
(a) low-frequency, (b) high-frequency, and (c) deep depletion.
6. Finally, at a sufficiently large negative gate voltage, a large number of
excess holes are pulled very close to the oxide causing strong
accumulation at the surface. As a result the ratio C/Cox approaches
unity.
7. For a positive value of VG, holes are pushed away from the oxide-
semiconducto r interface cre ating a depletio n regio n in the
semiconductor.
8. The depletion region capacitance in series with the oxide capacitance
reduces the total capacitance well below Cox.
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9. As the gate bias continues to rise, the depletion region widens. This
causes a gradual decrease in C/Cox as VG is made more and more positive.
10. Finally, when VG becomes sufficiently large to create strong inversion
at the surface, the depletion region width reaches its maximum value.
Then C/Cox attains a constant value independent of the gate bias as
shown by the solid curve (b) in Fig. 5.14.1.
11. At high frequencies, the increase in the negative charge is caused by
holes. So the measured capacitance under this situation will be the
oxide capacitance in series with the depletion region capacitance.
12. Since the depletion region capacitance has reached its minimum value,
the ratio C/Cox also reaches its minimum as shown by the solid curve
(b) in Fig. 5.14.1.
13. Thus, it is clear that after the onset of strong inversion, curve (a)
corresponds to low-frequency measurements, while curve (b) shows
the high-frequency behavior of the MOS capacitor.
Que 5.15. Draw the high frequency hybrid- model of MOSFET
and show that fT = gm/2 (Cgs + Cgd) AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07
Answer
1. A parameter used to judge the operation of a high-frequency MOSFET
as an amplifier, is the unity-gain bandwidth.
Cgd
G + gmVgs D
Vgs Cgs ro Cdb
–
S
Fig. 5.15.1. High-frequency MOSFET model when the source
is connected to the body.
2. The frequency at which short-circuit current gain of the common-source
arrangement becomes unity, is known as the unity-gain frequency.
This analysis is done using a hybrid model with a common-source
configuration.
3. Again, in the model, as shown in Fig. 5.15.1, when Cdb is neglected, the
resulting circuit is as given by Fig. 5.15.2.
4. It can be noticed easily that the current in the short circuit is given by :
I0 = gmVgs – sCgdVgs ...(5.15.1)
where, s is a complex variable.
5. Since Cgd is very small, eq. (5.15.1) can be written as I0 gmVgs.
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Cgd Io
+ gmVgs
Ii Vgs Cgs ro
–
Fig. 5.15.2. Circuit representation for obtaining short-circuit current gain.
And from Fig. 5.15.2, we get :
Ii
Vgs = ...(5.15.2)
s(C gs C gd )
I0 Ii
6. Substituting, I0 = gmVgs we obtain : =
gm s(C gs C gd )
I0 gm
= ...(5.15.3)
Ii s(C gs C gd )
7. Taking s = j (where, is the frequency of the applied voltage), and
since the magnitude of current gain becomes unity at this frequency,
we can write :
gm
T = ...(5.15.4)
(C gs C gd )
gm
fT = ( T = 2fT)
2(C gs C gd )
PART-3
Small Signal Models of MOS Transistor.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.16. Write a short note on small signal operation and models.
Also represent small signal equivalent circuit models.
OR
Explain the terms : single stage MOS amplifier, MOSFET internal
capacitances. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
MOSFET & OPTOELECTRONIC Devices 5–20 A (EC-Sem-3)
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Answer
A. MOSFET internal capacitance : Refer Q. 5.13, Page 5–15A, Unit-5.
B. Small signal operation (single stage MOS amplifier) :
1. For this purpose, we utilize the conceptual common source amplifier
circuit shown in Fig. 5.16.1.
VDD
iD RD
vD
+ +
vgs
– vGS
VGS –
Fig. 5.16.1. Conceptual circuit.
2. For the circuit, the DC bias current ID can be given by setting the signal
vgs = 0,
1 W
ID = kn (VGS Vt )2 ...(5.16.1)
2 L
and VD = VDD – RD ID ...(5.16.2)
3. Now, consider, vGS = vgs + VGS resulting in a total instantaneous drain
current iD,
1 W
iD = kn (VGS vgs Vt )2
2 L
1 W W 1 W
=
2
kn
L
VGS Vt 2 kn
L
VGS Vt vgs 2 kn L vgs2 ...(5.16.3)
DC bias current ID current proportional current proportional to
to vgs v2gs (non-linear distortion)
4. To reduce non-linear distortion the input signal is kept small so that,
1 W 2 << W
kn vgs kn (VGS Vt ) vgs
2 L L
vgs << 2 VOV ( VOV = VGS – Vt)
If this small signal condition is satisfied, we may neglect 3rd term from
eq. (5.16.3).
iD ID + id ...(5.16.4)
5. Transconductance : The parameter that relates id and vgs is the
MOSFET transconductance gm.
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id W
gm = kn (V Vt )
vgs L GS
W 2I D
or gm = kn VOV = 2kn (W / L) I D
L Vov
6. The voltage gain :
1. From Fig. 5.16.1,
vD = VDD – RD iD = VDD – RD (ID + id)
vD = VD – RD id
2. Thus, the signal component of the drain voltage is
vd = – id RD = – gm vgs RD
vd
3. Voltage gain, Av = = – g m RD
vgs
C. Small-signal Equivalent-circuit models :
1. In Fig. 5.16.2(a), FET is replaced by equivalent circuit model and ideal
constant DC voltage sources are replaced by short circuits. This resulting
circuit can be used to perform signal analysis for example calculating
voltage gain.
2. Fig. 5.16.2(b) shows one extra ro, this is one of the shortcomings of small
signal model as it assumes that ID in saturation is independent of drain
voltage.
vd
Av = = – gm (RD || ro)
vgs
G D G D
+ +
vgs vgs
gmvgs gmvgs ro
– –
S S
(a) (b )
Fig. 5.16.2.
Que 5.17. A MOSFET is to operate at ID = 0.1 mA and is to have
gm = 1 mA/V. If k n = 50 A/V2, find the required W/L ratio and the
over drive voltage. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
MOSFET & OPTOELECTRONIC Devices 5–22 A (EC-Sem-3)
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Answer
Given : ID = 0.1 mA, gm = 1 mA/V, kn = 50 A/V2
W
To Find : , VOV
L
W
1. We know, gm = 2 kn I D
L
W
1 mA/V = (2 50 A / V 2 ) 0.1 10 3 A
L
W
10 – 3 A/V = (102 10 6 A / V 2 ) 10 4 A
L
1/2
W
10 – 3 = 10 – 4/2 × 10 – 4/2 ×
L
W
= 102
L
W
2. gm = kn (VGS Vt )
L
10 – 3 = 50 × 10 – 6 × 102 × (VGS – Vt)
10 3
VOV = (VGS – Vt) = 0.2 V
50 10 4
Que 5.18. Consider the FET amplifier of Fig. 5.18.1 for the case
Vt = 2 V, kn'(W/L) = 1 mA/ V2, VGS = 4 V, VDD = 10 V and RD = 3.6 k.
VDD
iD RD
vD
+
vgs +
–
vGS
VGS
–
Fig. 5.18.1.
i. Find the DC quantities ID and VD.
ii. Calculate the value of gm at the bias point.
iii. Calculate the value of voltage gain.
iv. If the MOSFET has = 0.0001 V–1, find ro at the bias point and
calculate the voltage gain. AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
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Answer
Given : Vt = 2 V, kn (W/L) = 1 mA/V2, VGS = 4 V, VDD = 10 V, RD = 3.6 k
= 0.0001 V–1
To Find : ID, VD, gm, Av, ro
i. For the given circuit, DC quantities can be found by setting the signal
vgs = 0 V.
1 W
ID = kn (VGS Vt )2
2 L
1
ID = × 1 (4 – 2)2
2
ID = 2 mA
and VD = VDD – IDRD
= 10 – 2 × 3.6
VD = 2.8 V
W
ii. gm = kn' (VGS – Vt )
L
gm = 1 × (4 – 2) = 2 mA/V
vd
iii. Voltage gain, Av = = – g m RD
v gs
Av = – 2 × 3.6
Av = – 7.2
1 1
iv. VA = = = 10 kV
0.0001
VA 10 103
Now, ro = = 5 × 106 = 5000 k
ID 2 10 – 3
Voltage gain, Av = – gm (RD||ro) = – 2 (3.6 ||5000)
= – 2 × 3.59 = – 7.18
Que 5.19. Calculate the overall gain Gv = Vo / Vsig, input resistance
and output resistance for a common source amplifier.
AKTU 2014-15, Marks 05
MOSFET & OPTOELECTRONIC Devices 5–24 A (EC-Sem-3)
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Answer
VDD
RD C
C2
vo
Rsig CC1
RL
vsig + RG
–
I CS
( a) –VSS
ii ig = 0
Rsig
G D
vo
+
vsig + vi RG vgs
– ro RD RL
– gm vgs
Rin
R out
S
(b )
Fig. 5.19.1. (a) Common-source amplifier, (b) Equivalent
circuit of the amplifier for small signal analysis.
1. At the input, ig = 0
Rin = RG
Rin RG
vi = vsig = vsig
Rin Rsig RG Rsig
2. Usually RG is very large, and in many applications RG >> Rsig and
vi vsig
Now vgs = vi
And vo = – gm vgs (roRDRL)
3. Thus the voltage gain Av is
Av = – gm (roRDRL)
and the open circuit voltage gain Avo is
Avo = – gm (roRD)
4. The overall voltage gain from signal source to the load will be
Rin RG
Gv = A =– g (r R R )
Rin Rsig v RG Rsig m o D L
5. To determine output resistance Rout, we set vsig = 0; i.e., we replace the
signal generator vsig with a short circuit
Rout = r oR D
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PART-4
LED
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.20. What is LED ? Give its principle, working, construction,
merits, demerits and applications.
Answer
LED : LED is a special type of semiconductor p-n junction that under
forward bias emits external radiations in ultraviolet, visible and infrared
regions of electromagnetic spectrum.
Construction of LED :
1. LED is just not an ordinary p-n junction diode where silicon is used.
Here we use compound having elements like gallium, arsenic and
phosphorus which are semitransparent unlike silicon which is opaque.
3. In all semiconductor p-n junctions, some of its energy will be given off as
heat and some in the form of photons.
4. In the materials, such as gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) or gallium
phosphide (GaP), the number of photons of light energy emitted is
sufficient to create a visible light source.
Recombination Light O/P
+ –
Symbol
p Depletion n
region
R
+ –
V CC
Fig. 5.20.1.
Principle of LED :
1. The process involves :
i. Generation of electron-hole pair (EHP) by excitation of semiconductor.
ii. Recombination of EHP.
iii. Extraction of photons from the semiconductor.
2. The characteristic for LED is given in Fig. 5.20.2.
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12
Radiated light (mW)
10
8
6
4
2
If (mA)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. 5.20.2. Characteristics.
Working :
1. When LED is in forward bias condition, the electrons from n-type material
cross the p-n junction and recombines with holes in the p-type material.
2. When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release
energy in the form of heat and light.
3. The emission depends upon the type of material, i.e.,
GaAs infrared radiation (invisible)
GaP red or green light (visible)
GaAsP red or yellow light (visible).
Applications :
1. Display LEDs like calculator, digital clocks etc.
2. Light source in optical fibre communication.
3. Light source in a source detector package like smoke detectors,
tachometers, proximity detectors etc.
Merits :
1. Low voltage of operation.
2. Long life (more than 15 years).
3. Fast on-off switching.
4. Cheap in cost.
5. Available in wide range of colours.
Demerits :
1. It draws considerable current requiring frequent replacement of battery
in low power battery operated devices.
2. Luminous efficiency of LED is low which is about 1.5 lumen/watt.
3. Characteristics are affected by temperature.
4. Need large power for the operation as compared to normal p-n junction
diode.
5. Sensitivity to damage by over voltage and over current.
Que 5.21. An LED is connected across a voltage source of + 10 V
through a series resistance of 820 . Calculate the LED current.
Assume the voltage drop across an LED of 1.5 volt.
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Answer
Given : VS = 10 V, VD = 1.5 V, RS = 820
To find : LED current (IS)
RS = 820
+ IS
+
VS 10 V VD
– –
Fig. 5.21.1.
Applying KVL in the loop, we get
VS = IS RS + VD
VS VD 10 1.5
IS =
RS 820
IS = 10.36 mA
Que 5.22. Write a short note on double heterojunction LED.
Answer
1. The principle of operation of the Double heterojunction LED is shown
in a Fig. 5.22.1.
AlxGa 1–x AsGaAs AlxGa1–x As
–
Optical Injection
+ output electrons
hf
Heterojunctions
Holes
p p n
(a) The double heterojunction ( b) The corresponding
LED, layer structure. energy band diagram
Fig. 5.22.1.
2. The device consists of a p-type GaAs layer sandwiched between a
p-type AlGaAs and an n-type AlGaAs layer.
3. When a forward bias is applied electrons from n-type layer are injected
through the p-n-junction into the p-type GaAs layer where they become
minority carriers.
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4. These carriers diffuse away from the junction recombining with
majority carriers, photons are produced with energy corresponding to
the bandgap energy of the p-type GaAs layers.
5. The injected electrons are inhibited from diffusing into the p-type
AlGaAs layer because of the potential barrier presented by the p-p
heterojunction.
6. Hence electroluminescence only occurs in GaAs junction layer, providing
both good internal quantum efficiency and high radiance emission.
PART-5
Photodiode
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.23. What is photodiode ? What are its different types ?
Describe the construction of a photodiode with its operation. Also
draw V-I characteristics of photodiode.
OR
What is a photodiode ? Explain its construction and operation.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
A. Photodiodes :
1. Two terminal devices designed to respond to photon absorption are
called photodiodes.
2. Photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device whose operation is
limited to reverse bias region.
3. The types of photodiode are :
i. p-n diode
ii. p-i-n diode
iii. Avalanche diode
4. The output current of a reverse bias p-n junction changes when device
is exposed to illumination.
5. The variation in the output current is linear with respect to luminous
flux. The construction and symbol is shown in Fig. 5.23.1.
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h v>Eg
p n
W + –
R
(a) E (b )
Fig. 5.23.1.
6. This diode is designed in such a manner that the rays are allowed to fall
only on one surface across the junction. The remaining sides are restricted
for the light to penetrate.
7. As the temperature due to illumination increases, more and more
electron-hole pairs are generated and results in increasing the reverse
saturation current.
8. When light rays fall on depletion width W, it creates electron-hole pair
and electrons are swept into n-region and holes into p-region very rapidly.
This gives rise to a photo current. This is the basic principle of operation
of photodiode.
B. Photodiode characteristics :
I
VT
–VR V
Increasing light 10,000 Lm/m 2
intensity
25,000 Lm/m2
I ( A)
Fig. 5.23.2.
1. The Fig. 5.23.2 shows the I-V characteristics of p-n junction photodiode
with different illumination level.
2. When no light ray is incident, the diode has a small reverse current I
known as dark current.
3. The dark current is that current which exists only with no applied
illumination.
4. The increase in reverse voltage does not increase the reverse current
significantly because all available charge carriers have already being
swept across the junction.
5. The photodiode can also be used as a variable resistor controlled by
light intensity.
6. Photodiode operates in quadrants i.e., in third quadrant, both I and V
are negative and power is being delivered to the device from external
circuit.
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7. In fourth quadrant, V is positive and I is negative and power is delivered
from the junction to the external circuit. In applications, usually third
quadrant operation is preferred.
Que 5.24. What is photodetector ? Explain the working mechanism
of a photodetector.
Answer
A. Photodetector :
Photodetectors are semiconductor devices that can detect optical signals
and convert time-varying optical signals into electrical signals.
B. Working mechanism :
1. The working mechanism of photodetector is shown in Fig. 5.24.1.
2. The junction is reverse-biased. When depletion region is exposed to
light, the electrons reach to n-region and holes reach to p-region. This
movement of electrons and holes results in reverse leakage current.
W
– +
p n
hv > E g
EC
p n
EV
Fig. 5.24.1.
3. The system involves fundamental processes like :
i. Carrier generation by incident light.
ii. Carrier transport.
iii. Interaction of current with external circuit.
4. The depletion region should be thick so that the EHP generation is
maximum. To achieve a high speed device, the carrier transit time
through depletion region should be small, possibly 1 ns.
5. The photodiode is the most common photodetector. In its third quadrant,
the current is independent of voltage but it is proportional to optical
generation rate.
6. When the carriers are generated primarily within the depletion layer W,
the detector is called a depletion layer photodiode.
7. The photo generated minority carriers must diffuse to the junction and
should be swept to the other side as soon as possible so that the response
of photodetector is quite fast.
Que 5.25. Explain the operation of p-i-n photodetector.
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Answer
1. One convenient method of controlling the width of the depletion region
to satisfy the requirements of high emission efficiency and improved
response speed is to build a p-i-n photodetector.
2. It consists of high doped p and n regions separated by a neutral layer of
semiconductor known as intrinsic layer i.
3. The intrinsic silicon reduces the transit time of photo-induced
electron-hole pairs. The reason is that carriers generated by light photons
incident on middle of this layer have less distance to travel than if
generated at one side or the other of the layer.
4. The p-i-n diode is operated in reverse bias mode with depletion region
exposed to the incident light.
hv
R p
Ir i
E n
Fig. 5.25.1. Schematic representation of a p-i-n photodiode.
5. The intrinsic region has a relatively low conductivity. Therefore, most of
the reverse applied voltage appears across the intrinsic layer.
6. The intrinsic layer increases the size of the depletion region. This in
turn leads to an increased light sensitive area.
7. The increased area allows the detector to pick up a wide range of incoming
light. As a result, the amount of current increases with the amount of
light absorbed.
8. The p region of photodiode is made very thin so that it is transparent to
the incoming light. On the other hand, the depletion region is made
relatively thick so that it may absorb all the incident light.
9. The photons incident on the depletion region produce electron-hole
pairs. They are separated by the high electric field present in the depletion
region.
10. The positive charges move toward p-region while the negative charges
move toward n-regions. This gives rise to a photo current flow in the
external circuit.
Que 5.26. Why p-i-n photodiode does not provide gain. How can it
be made more sensitive to low-level optical signals ? Briefly explain
the principle of operation, construction and working of avalanche
photodiode and also draw its V-I characteristics.
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Answer
A. Reason :
1. p-i-n photodiode does not provide gain because when a photon is incident
on the intrinsic layer, it generates only one electron-hole pair. So, no
internal gain is achieved.
2. This diode cannot detect low-level optical signals. To detect low level
signals, avalanche multiplication is required.
B. Principle of operation :
1. The principle of avalanche photodiode is that when a photodiode is
operated in its reverse breakdown or avalanche breakdown, the current
sensitivity is increased by 30 – 100 times.
2. These photodiodes are operated at high reverse bias voltages such that
avalanche multiplication takes place.
3. The electron-hole pairs that are generated by incident photons are
accelerated by the high electric field. They acquire extremely high kinetic
energy.
4. Impact ionization then occurs and initiates the avalanche multiplication
process. These high velocity electrons ‘kick’ new electrons from the
valence to conduction band.
2.5 A
2.0
0
35
n+ Avalanche A
=
Photons 1.5
Ip
5
I(mA)
p region
1.0 15 A
i Absorption 38
region 1.5
p+ 0 14 15 16 17 18
V(Volt)
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.26.1. (a) Avalanche photodiode (b) Static volt-amp. characteristics
for Ge avalanche photodiode.
C. Construction and working :
1. Avalanche photodiode is shown in Fig. 5.26.1(a). A typical construction
has four regions. n+ and p+ are heavily doped semiconductors and hence
have very low resistances.
2. The i region is very lightly doped and hence nearly intrinsic. Light enter
the diode through i region and is absorbed in the intrinsic region.
3. Now electron-hole pairs are generated which are separated by the electric
field in intrinsic region i. The photo generated electrons drift to pn+
junction through intrinsic region. Here a high electric field exists. This
high electric field region is also known as avalanche region or
multiplication region.
4. Here photo generated electrons are accelerated and collide with the
bound electrons of valence band. They release more number of electrons
as free or conduction electrons. This effect is known as avalanche effect.
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5. Fig. 5.26.1(b) shows typical V-I characteristics for Ge avalanche
photodiode.
PART-6
Solar Cell.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 5.27. What is solar cell ? Explain construction and working
of solar cell.
OR
Explain the working of solar cell. Discuss open circuit output
voltage characteristic and short circuit current characteristic.
OR
Explain the terms : solar cell, LED. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
LED : Refer Q. 5.20, Page 5–25A, Unit-5.
Solar cell :
1. Solar cells are semiconductor junction devices which are used for
converting optical radiation into electrical energy.
2. The generated electric voltage is proportional to the intensity of incident
light. Due to their capability of generating voltage, they are called
photovoltaic cells.
3. Silicon is the most widely used material for solar cells.
Construction :
1. The construction of a solar cell is shown in Fig. 5.27.1.
2. The p-type layer is made thin to intercept the light radiation falling on
the junction. The doping of p-type material is very high.
Incident sun rays +
Glass
+
p+
Junction
VCC
n-type
–
–
Symbol
Metallic
Fig. 5.27.1.
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3. p-type is surrounded by a nickel plated ring which serves as positive
terminal and the contact at bottom acts as a negative terminal.
Working :
1. When photons are incident on surface, it releases sufficient energy to
the electrons to leave its orbit.
2. As a result, free electrons and holes are created. These free electrons
and holes constitute the minority current.
3. In this way, depletion region potential causes the photo current to flow
through the external load.
Open-circuit output voltage characteristics :
1. Fig. 5.27.2 shows the open-circuit output voltage VOC characteristic of
a typical photovoltaic cell. The graph is logarithmic on light intensity
axis.
2. It is obvious from the graph that the cell is more sensitive for low light
intensity levels than for higher light intensity level.
3. The reason is that a small change in light intensity produces the same
increase in VOC as a large change in light intensity.
0.8
Voc(volt)
0.6
0.4
0.2
10 100 1000 10,000
Light intensity (lux)
Fig. 5.27.2. VOC as a function of light intensity.
C. Short-circuit current characteristics :
1. The three most important parameters of solar cell are the short-circuit
current ISC, the open-circuit voltage VOC and fill factor FF.
2. Fig. 5.27.3 shows the V-I characteristics of a solar cell.
I Dark curve
(no incident light)
0 VOC1 VOC2
V
ISC1
Light intensity
ISC2
Light intensity
Fig. 5.27.3. Showing short circuit current and open
circuit-voltage versus light intensity for a solar cell.
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3. On the vertical axis, V = 0 anywhere and hence represents a
short-circuit condition. The current at this intersection is called as
short-circuit current.
4. Under open circuit condition ISC is zero and the photovoltaic voltage
will result. This is known as open circuited voltage and is represented
by VOC.
Que 5.28. What is photodiode ? Explain how is it used as solar cell ?
Describe the working of solar cell.
Answer
A. Photodiode : Refer Q. 5.23, Page 5–28A, Unit-5.
B. Photodiode used as solar cell :
1. When the photodiode is operated in the fourth quadrant of its I-V
characteristic, V is positive and I is negative and power is delivered from
the junction to the external circuit.
2. Such a device provides a useful means of measuring illumination levels
or of converting time-varying optical signals, into electrical signals.
C. Working of solar cell : Refer Q. 5.27, Page 5–33A, Unit-5.
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. What is difference between BJT and MOSFET ?
Ans. Refer Q. 5.1.
Q. 2. Explain the cons truction and working of n-type
enhancement MOSFET.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.2.
Q. 3. Explain the operation of enhancement type n-channel
MOSFET as vDS is increased.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.3.
Q. 4. Derive the relation between iD and vDS for NMOS transistor
(triode region and saturation region).
Ans. Refer Q. 5.5.
Q. 5. Differentiate between D-MOSFET and E-MOSFET.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.6.
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Q. 6. In the circuit of Fig. 1, let R G = 10 M, RD = 10 k, and
VDD = 10 V. Find the value of VD and VG for Vt = 1 V and
kn' (W/L) = 0.5 mA/V2.
VDD
RD
0 RG ID
ID
+
V DS
+
VGS –
–
Fig. 1.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.8.
Q. 7. Write a short note on small signal operation and models.
Also represent small signal equivalent circuit models.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.16.
Q. 8. What is LED ? Give its principle of working, construction,
merits, demerits and applications.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.20.
Q. 9. Write a short note on double heterojunction LED.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.22.
Q. 10. What is solar cell ? Explain construction and working of
solar cell.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.27.
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Introduction to
1 Semiconductor
Physics
(2 Marks Questions)
1.1. Define Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
Ans. According to Heisenberg’s principle, it is impossible to measure the
exact position and momentum of a moving particle simultaneously.
1.2. If uncertainty in the position of a particle is equal to
de-Broglie wavelength, what will be uncertainty in the
measurement of velocity ?
Ans.
1. We have,
h
x = = ...(1.2.1)
p
where, h = Planck’s constant,
p = Momentum of particle
2. According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,
h
x . p ...(1.2.2)
2
3. Let v be the uncertainty in velocity,
p = m.v ...(1.2.3)
4. Putting eq. (1.2.1) and eq. (1.2.3) in eq. (1.2.2)
h h
·m·v = [ p = mv]
p 2
5. So, uncertainty in velocity,
v
v =
2
1.3. Define wave function.
Ans. The quantity in quantum mechanics undergoes periodic changes
and gives information about the particle within the wave packet. It
is called wave function.
1.4. What do you mean by normalization of wave function ?
Ans. If the wave function of any system is such that it gives value of
integral a finite quantity say N
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2
* dx = | | dx = N (integral)
when * = complex conjugate
Then, is called normalization of wave function.
1.5. Define orthogonal wave function.
Ans. When the value of the integral is equal to zero (N = 0), the wave
function is known as orthogonal wave function.
1.6. What are eigen values and eigen functions ?
Ans. The values of energy for which steady state equation can be solved
are called eigen values and the corresponding wave functions are
called eigen functions.
1.7. Write the characteristics of wave function.
Ans.
1. The wave function contains all the measurable information about
the particle.
2. It can interfere with itself. This property explains the phenomenon
of electron diffraction.
3. The wave function permits the calculation of most probable value
of a given variable.
1.8. What are the applications of Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle ?
Ans.
1. Non-existence of electrons in the nucleus.
2. The zero point energy.
3. Finite width of spectral lines.
1.9. Classify semiconductors on the basis of energy band gap
with the help of suitable diagram.
Ans. Direct band gap semiconductors :
E
Conduction band
Electron
EC
h = E g
Eg
EV k (wave vector)
Empty state Valence band
Fig. 1.9.1.
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Indirect band gap semiconductors :
E
Conduction band
EC
Et Electron
Eg h = Eg
EV k (wave vector)
Empty state Valence band
Fig. 1.9.2.
1.10. Give the difference between direct and indirect band gap
semiconductors.
Ans.
S. No. Direct band gap Indirect band gap
semiconductor semiconductors
1. The electron fall directly from The e le ctro n cannot fall
conduction band to valance band. directly from conduction band
to valance band.
2. The energy is released in the The energy is released in the
form of light. form of heat.
1.11. What are indirect band gap semiconductors ?
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. In indirect band gap semiconductors, an electron in conduction
band fall indirectly to valence band giving a part of energy to the
lattice in the form of heat. It undergoes a change in momentum as
well as energy.
Example : Si, Ge etc.
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2 Energy Bands of
Semiconductor
(2 Marks Questions)
2.1. Compare the intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.
Ans.
S. No. Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
1. Doping or addition of impurity A small amount of impurity is
does not take place in intrinsic doped in a pure semiconductor
semiconductor. for preparing extrinsic
semiconductor.
2. The number of free electrons The number of electrons and
in the conduction band is equal holes are not equal.
to the number of holes in the
valence band.
3. Conductivity is low. Conductivity is high.
4. The Fermi level lies in The Fermi level lies near valence
between conduction band and band in p-type and near
valence band. conduction band in n-type.
2.2. Define diffusion current.
Ans. Diffusion current is a current in a semiconductor caused by the
diffusion of charge carriers (holes and/or electrons). This is the
current which is due to the transport of charges occurring because
o f no n-uniform co ncentratio n of charged particles in a
semiconductor.
2.3. What is drift current ?
Ans. The drift current is due to the motion of charge carriers, due to the
force exerted on them by an electric field. Diffusion current can be
in the same or opposite direction of a drift current.
2.4. Differentiate between diffusion and drift current.
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Ans.
S. No. Diffusion Current Drift Current
1. Diffusion current occurs Drift current occurs when the
even though there is not an electric field is applied on the
electric field applied to the p-n junction.
semiconductor.
2. Direction of the diffusion Direction of the drift current
curre nt depends o n the depends on the polarity of the
charge in the carrier applied field.
concentrations.
2.5. State Hall effect.
Ans. When a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current I is
placed in a transverse magnetic field B, then an electric field E is
induced in the direction perpendicular to both I and B. This
phenomenon is called Hall effect.
2.6. Which semiconductor parameters are measured from Hall
effect ?
Ans. The Hall effect may be used to :
1. Determine whether a semiconductor is p-type or n-type.
2. Determine the carrier concentration.
3. Measure the mobility by measuring the conductivity .
2.7. The single carrier holes in a silicon sample are 2.05 × 1022 m – 3.
Calculate its Hall coefficient.
1 1
Ans. RH =
ne (2.05 1022 ) (1.6 10 – 19
)
–4 3
= 3.048 × 10 m /C
2.8. The res is tivity of a sample s emiconductor is
9 milli-ohm-meter. Its holes have mobility of 0.03 m2/V-s.
Calculate Hall coefficient.
1 1
Ans. Conductivity, = = 111. 11 / -m
9 10 – 3
0.03
Hall coefficient, RH =
111.11
= 2.7 × 10 – 4 m3 /C
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2.9. The mobility of electron in silicon is 0.15 m2 V–1 s–1 at 300 K.
Calculate the diffusion coefficient.
Ans. Diffusion coefficient is given by,
kT 0.15 1.38 10 23 300
Dn = n
q 1.6 10 19
= 3.88 × 10 – 3 m2/s
2.10. In an n-type GaAs crys tal at 300 K, the electron
concentration varies along the x-axis as
x
n(x) = 1016 e L cm – 3 ; x > 0.
where L is 1 m. Calculate the diffusion current density at
x = 0 if the electron diffusion coefficient is 220 cm2/s.
d
Ans. Jn (diffusion) = q Dn n( x)
dx x0
d x
= 1.6 × 10 – 19 (220) 1016 e L
dx
1
= 1.6 × 10 – 19 × 220 × 1016 4
10
2
= – 3.52 kA/cm
2.11. What do you mean by diffusion of carriers ?
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Diffusion is the natural result of the random motion of the individual
molecules from a region of high carrier concentration to region of
low carrier concentration when the electron and hole concentrations
vary with position in the sample. This type of phenomenon is called
diffusion of carrier.
2.12. Name the layouts for designing the resistances.
Ans.
1. Dogbone layout.
2. Analog interdigitated layout.
3. Dummy resistor layout.
4. Thermoelectric cancellation layout.
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Generation and
3 Recombination
of Carrier
(2 Marks Questions)
3.1. Define direct recombination process.
Ans. An electron can drop directly from the conduction band into the
valence band. This is known as direct recombination process.
3.2. Discuss indirect recombination in brief.
Ans. An electron initially makes a transition to an energy level lying
deep in the band gap, and it subsequently captures a hole from the
valence band. This is known as indirect recombination.
3.3. What is auger recombination process ?
Ans. The auger recombination process occurs by the transfer of the
energy and momentum released by the recombination of an
election-hole pair to a third particle that can be either an election or
a hole.
3.4. Write the expression for Poisson equation.
Ans. The expression of Poisson’s equation is,
E
= s
x s
where s is the semiconductor dielectric permittivity and s is the
space charge density given by the algebraic sum of the charge
carrier densities and the ionized impurity concentrations.
3.5. What is Einstein relation ?
Ans. Einstein relation is given by,
D kT
=
q
where, D= Diffusion constant
= Mobility
k= Boltzmann’s constant
3.6. Define contact potential.
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Ans. The potential difference (Vn – Vp) developed across the depletion
region is called as contact potential (Vo).
3.7. Draw the V-I characteristics of p-n junction.
Ans.
ID(mA)
30
25 Forward bias region
20
Ge Si
15
10
5
0.3 0.7
VK(Ge) VK(Si) VD(V)
Vz(Si) 5pA
10 pA
Reverse bias region Is(Si)
Vz(Ge)
Is(Ge)
Fig. 3.7.1. Volt-ampere characteristics of p-n junction.
3.8. How does direct recombination lifetime differ from indirect
recombination lifetime ? AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Carrier lifetime is the time taken by carrier to recombine. In direct
recombination, the process of transition of electrons from
conduction band to valence band occurs simultaneously. Carrier
will take less time to recombine. Therefore, carrier lifetime tends
to be very short, typically in nanoseconds.
In case of indirect recombination, carrier takes more time to
recombine, therefore lifetime of carrier is more in this case.
3.9. Obtain the value of contact potential of an abrupt junction
at room temperature, if intrinsic concentration
is ni = 1.6 × 1016 /m3 and doping level is Na = Nd = 1021 /m3.
Ans. Given, ni = 1.6 × 1016 / m3, Na = Nd = 1021 / m3.
kT N N
V0 = ln a 2 d
q ni
1021 1021
= 0.0259 ln
(1.6 1016 )2
= 0.57 V
3.10. What do you mean by space charge region at a junction ?
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Ans. The space charge on n-side is positively charged and on p-side it is
negatively charged. Fig. 2 shows the space charge region (or
transition region) on the two sides of the junction.
W
p –
– – – ++ n
– –
– –
– ++
++
–xp0 0 xn0 x
Fig. 3.10.1.
3.11. Draw small signal model of p-n junction ?
Ans.
CD
rp rn
rD
Fig. 3.11.1.
where, rD = Small-signal diode resistance.
CD = Capacitance across junction.
rp and rn = Series resistances.
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4 BJT
(2 Marks Questions)
4.1. Define BJT.
Ans. BJT is a bipolar device which can operate in one of four possible
modes : cut-off, active, saturation, and reverse active.
4.2. Draw the structure and symbol of npn and pnp transistors.
Ans.
Collector
Emitter n p n E C
Base
B
(a) Structure and symbol of npn transistor
Collector
Emitter p n p E C
Base
(b) Structure and symbol of pnp transistor B
Fig. 4.2.1.
4.3. Compare CB, CE and CC configuration.
Ans.
S. No. Property CB CE CC
1. Input resistance Low Moderate High
2. Output resistance High Moderate Low
3. Current gain Less than 1 High Highest
4. Phase shift 0° or 360° 180° 0° or 360°
4.4. What are the internal capacitances of BJT ?
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. The various internal capacitances are as follows :
1. Base-charging or diffusion capacitance, Cde.
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2. Base-emitter junction capacitance, Cje.
3. Collector-base junction capacitance, Cµ.
4.5. Define and of transistor.
Ans.
1. is the current amplification factor in common base transistor. It is
defined as the ratio of the collector current to the emitter current
of a transistor when no signal is applied.
I
= C
IE
2. is the current gain in common emitter configuration. It is defined
as the ratio of the collector current to the base current, when no
signal is applied.
I
= C
IB
4.6. Give one application of CB, CE and CC transistors.
Ans.
1. CB amplifier is useful as a high frequency amplifier.
2. The CE configuration is the one best suited for realizing the bulk of
the gain required in an amplifier.
3. The CC has application as a voltage buffer for connecting a high
resistance source to a low resistance load and as the output stage in
a multistage amplifier.
4.7. What are the effects of including a resistance in the emitter
of the CE amplifier ?
Ans.
1. The input resistance increase by the factor (1 + gm Re).
2. The voltage gain from base to collector is reduced by the factor
(1 + gm Re).
3. The high frequencies response significantly improved.
4. The overall voltage gain is less dependent on the value of .
4.8. Why the collector region is made physically larger than the
emitter region ?
Ans. Collector region is made physically larger than the emitter region
because collector has to dissipate much more power or heat.
4.9. Why CE configuration is the most preferred transistor
configuration when used as a switch ?
Ans. Because it requires low voltage or current for operating the switch.
4.10. Brief the Avalanche breakdown mechanism.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Avalanche breakdown is caused by a process known as secondary
multiplication, and it occurs in junctions having thicker depletion
regions, which makes tunneling less probable.
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2. In a reverse-biased junction, the thermally generated minority
carriers (mainly holes in a p+-n junction) injected into the space-
charge region is accelerated by the field and gain kinetic energy
from the field.
4.11. A transistor is having = 0.98. For collector current of
10 mA, find the base current of transistor.
OR
Find the current gain in CE configuration of BJT, if
= 0.98. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans.
1. Given, = 0.98
2. We have, =
1
0.98
= = 49
1 0.98
IC 10 10 3
3. Base current, IB = =
49
IB = 0.204 mA
4.12. A CE amplifier is having IC = 1 mA, 0 = 100, VA = 100 V.
Calculate gm, r, r0.
IC 1 10 3
Ans. gm = =
VT 25 10 3
gm = 40 mA/V
0 100
r =
gm 40 10 3
r = 2.5 k
V 100
r0 = A = 100 k
IC 1 10 3
4.13. What do you mean by base width modulation in BJT ?
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Base width modulation or the early effect is the variation in the
width of the base in the bipolar transistor due to variation in the
applied base-to-collector voltage. For example, greater reverse bias
across the collector-base junction increases the collector base
depletion width.
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5 MOSFET and
Optoelectronic Devices
(2 Marks Questions)
5.1. What is MOSFET ?
Ans. MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor. MOSFET is one of the most widely used electronic
devices. In this device, the channel current is controlled by a voltage
applied at a gate electrode that is isolated from the channel by an
insulator.
5.2. What is transistor ? Explain its types.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. A transistor is a semiconductor device to amplify or switch electronic
signals and electrical power.
Types :
1. BJT : Refer Q. 4.1, Page SQ–1A, Unit-4, 2 Marks Questions.
2. FET : It is a unipolar device depending solely on either election or
hole.
5.3. What are the types of MOSFET ? Also give their two major
differences.
OR
Differentiate E-MOSFET with D-MOSFET.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Types of MOSFET :
1. Enhancement type MOSFET. 2. Depletion type MOSFET.
Differences :
S. No. E-MOSFET D-MOSFET
1. Operates only in Operates in both depletion mode
enhancement mode. and enhancement mode.
2. There is no physical channel The channel is already formed
from source to drain. We have between source and drain.
to enhance it by applying vGS.
3. Commonly used bias circuits : Commonly used bias circuits :
gate bias, voltage divider bias, gate bias, self bias, voltage-divider
drain-feedback bias. bias, zero bias.
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5.4. Mention the difference between n-channel and p-channel
MOSFET.
Ans.
S. No. n-channel MOSFET p-channel MOSFET
1. Current carriers are electrons. Current carriers are holes.
2. Faster Slower
3. Transconductance is high. Transconductance is low.
5.5. Define the unity gain frequency.
Ans. Unity gain frequency (fT) is a figure of merit for high frequency
operation of the MOSFET as an amplifier. At this frequency, the
short circuit current gain of the common source configuration
becomes unity. It is given by
gm
fT =
2 (C gs C gd )
5.6. Why the CS amplifier have a large input capacitance Cin
and hence a low fH ?
Ans. It is because of the Miller effect that causes the CS amplifier to
have a large total input capacitance Cin and hence a low fH.
5.7. Define responsivity of photodiode.
OR
What is figure of merit of photodiode ?
Ans. Figure of merit of photodiode is given by its responsivity. The
responsivity of photodiode is defined as the photo current generated
per unit optical power, i.e.,
i e
R=
P h h / e
5.8. What are solar cells ?
Ans. Solar cells are semiconductor junction devices which are used for
converting optical radiation into electrical energy. The generated
electric voltage is proportional to the intensity of incident light.
5.9. What are advantages of solar cells ?
Ans.
1. The solar cell is self generating device, i.e., it does not require any
external power source.
2. The solar cells can be operated satisfactorily over a wide range of
temperature.
3. It is a pollution-free energy conversion system.
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5.10. What are the limitations of solar cells ?
Ans.
1. It does not convert all solar radiation into electric energy.
2. The efficiency is low.
3. The efficiency is temperature dependent.
5.11. Define fill factor of solar cell.
Ans. Fill factor is used to define the power extraction of the cell. It is
given by,
Vm Im
FF =
Voc I sc
5.12. What do you understand by LED ?
Ans. Light emitting diode (LED) is a special type of semiconductor p-n
junction diode that under forward bias emits external radiation in
ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of electromagnetic spectrum.
5.13. Give the comparison between photodiode and LED.
Ans.
S. No. Photodiode LED
1. It is a light detecting device. It is a light emitting device.
2. Electric current is produced Electric energy is converted
which is proportional to light. into light energy.
3. It is always reverse biased. It is always forward biased.
5.14. In the linear region operation of MOSFET drain current
decreases as the temperature increases. Explain.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Since mobility decreases as temperature increases, so in MOSFETs
current IDS decreases with rise in temperature.
5.15. What is meant by threshold voltage ?
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. It means that the minimum voltage required to activate any active
components. Minimum gate voltage to turn ON the transistor is
called threshold voltage.
5.16. What do you mean by optoelectronic devices ?
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Optoelectronic devices are the electronic devices that detect and
control light.
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B. Tech.
(SEM. III) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2017-18
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 70
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)
a. Mention the advantages of negative feedback.
b. What do you mean by base width modulation in BJT ?
c. What is fluorescence ?
d. How does direct recombination lifetime differ from indirect
recombination lifetime ?
e. Brief the Avalanche breakdown mechanism.
f. Differentiate E-MOSFET with D-MOSFET.
g. Find the current gain in CE configuration of BJT, if
= 0.98.
SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)
a. Draw the CE amplifier with a resistance connected in
emitter and derive the express ion for different
characterising parameters.
b. Discuss the various capacitances for BJT and MOSFET.
c. Explain the phenomenon of luminescence. What are its
different types ? How does fluorescence differ from
phosphorescence ? Discuss its application as a fluorescence
lamp.
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d. What is Einstein relation ? Develop an expression to
establish relation between diffusion coefficient and mobility
of carriers.
e. Boron is implanted in to a n-type Si sample having donor
concentration of 1016/cm3, to form abrupt junction. If the
acceptor concentration in p-type region is 4 × 1018/cm3,
determine the
i. Width of the depletion region.
ii. Depth of penetration on n-side and p-side at equilibrium.
Take room temperature as 27 °C; ni = 1.5 × 1010/cm3 and
relative permittivity of boron as 11.8.
SECTION-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Draw the four basic feedback topologies. Compare the input
and output resistance among the feedback topologies.
b. Explain the working of common source with a resistance is
connected in source lead. Draw its small signal equivalent
circuit. Deduce the expression for overall voltage gain.
4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Differentiate between direct and indirect band gap
semiconductor. Also discuss the variation of energy band
with alloy composition.
b. What do you mean by Fermi level ? Discuss the effect of
temperature and doping on mobility. A Si sample is doped
with 1017 As atoms/cm 3. What is the equilibrium hole
concentration on P0 at 300 K ? Where is EF relative to Ei.
5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Design the circuit shown in the Fig. 1 to establish a drain of
0.1 V, what is the effective resistance between drain and
s ource at this operating point ? Let V t = 1 V, and
k n (W/L) = 1 mA/V2.
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VDD = 5 V
RD
VD = 0.1V
Fig. 1.
b. Construct p-channel enhancement MOSFET. Draw and
explain the I-V characteristics when VDS is increased.
6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. How BJT can be used as an amplifier and as a switch ?
Justify using required circuit waveform, mathematical
expression.
b. Mention the different biasing technique in BJT. Explain
any two of them.
7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Draw the high frequency hybrid- model of MOSFET and
show that fT = gm/2 (Cgs + Cgd).
b. Mention the conditions for oscillation. Derive the expression
for frequency of oscillation in phase shift oscillator.
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2017-18)
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)
a. Mention the advantages of negative feedback.
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.
b. What do you mean by base width modulation in BJT ?
Ans. Base width modulation or the early effect is the variation in the
width of the base in the bipolar transistor due to variation in the
applied base-to-collector voltage. For example, greater reverse bias
across the collector-base junction increases the collector base
depletion width.
c. What is fluorescence ?
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.
d. How does direct recombination lifetime differ from indirect
recombination lifetime ?
Ans. Carrier lifetime is the time taken by carrier to recombine. In direct
recombination, the process of transition of electrons from
conduction band to valence band occurs simultaneously. Carrier
will take less time to recombine. Therefore, carrier lifetime tends
to be very short, typically in nanoseconds.
In case of indirect recombination, carrier takes more time to
recombine, therefore lifetime of carrier is more in this case.
e. Brief the Avalanche breakdown mechanism.
Ans.
1. Avalanche breakdown is caused by a process known as secondary
multiplication, and it occurs in junctions having thicker depletion
regions, which makes tunneling less probable.
2. In a reverse-biased junction, the thermally generated minority
carriers (mainly holes in a p+-n junction) injected into the space-
charge region is accelerated by the field and gain kinetic energy
from the field.
f. Differentiate E-MOSFET with D-MOSFET.
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Ans.
S. No. E-MOSFET D-MOSFET
1. Operates only in Operates in both depletion mode
enhancement mode. and enhancement mode.
2. There is no physical channel The channel is already formed
from source to drain. We have between source and drain.
to enhance it by applying vGS.
3. Commonly used bias circuits : Commonly used bias circuits :
gate bias, voltage divider bias, gate bias, self bias, voltage-divider
drain-feedback bias. bias, zero bias.
g. Find the current gain in CE configuration of BJT, if
= 0.98.
Ans.
1. Given, = 0.98
2. We have, =
1
0.98
= = 49
1 0.98
SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (7 × 3 = 21)
a. Draw the CE amplifier with a resistance connected in
emitter and derive the express ion for different
characterising parameters.
Ans.
1. Fig. 1(a) shows a common emitter amplifier with an emitter
resistance Re. This resistor can be utilized by the designer as an
effective design tool for tailoring the amplifier characteristics to fit
the design requirement.
2. Rin = RB ||Rib
vi
where, Rib = = ( + 1) (re + Re) and vo = – ic (RC || RL)
ib
3. The voltage gain,
vo ( RC RL )
Av = =–
vi re Re
4. The open loop voltage gain,
Rc
Avo = – ( RL = )
re Re
5. The output resistance, Rout = RC
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VCC (0 V)
RC
CC2
vo vo
Rsig CC1 ii ib
RL
ic
+
vi
+ v ie =
– re + Re
Rout
vsig + vi R Re
– B CE
R ib 0V
–
Rin I
– VEE
( a)
io
C
vo
ie ic RC RL
Rsig i1 ib
B
ie
+ + Rout
vsig + vi RB v re
– vi
E ie =
– – re + Re
Rin Rib Re
(b )
Fig. 1. (a) A common emitter amplifier with an emitter resistance Re.
(b) Equivalent circuit obtained by replacing the transistor with its T model.
6. For RB >> Rib, short circuit current gain,
( 1) (re Re )
Ais =
Re re
7. Overall voltage gain from source to load can be obtained by
v
multiplying Av by i
vsig
vi Rin ( RC RL )
Gv = A .
vsig v Rsig Rin re Re
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Substituting Rin and assuming RB >> Rib and substituting Rib
( RC RL )
Gv = –
Rsig ( 1) (re Re )
b. Discuss the various capacitances for BJT and MOSFET.
Ans.
A. BJT internal capacitance :
i. Base charging or diffusion capacitance, C de : When the
transistor is operating in the active or saturation modes, minority
carrier charge, Qn, is stored in the base region. Qn can be calculated
in terms of the collector current ic.
W2
Qn = i F iC
2 Dn C
where, F is a device constant.
W2
F =
2 Dn
F is known as the forward base transit time.
For small signals we can define the small signal diffusion capacitance
dQn diC I
Cde = F F gm F C
dvBE dvBE VT
ii. Base-emitter junction capacitance, Cje :
C je0
Cje = m
VBE
1 V
0e
where, Cje0 is the value of Cje at zero voltage, V0e is the emitter-
base junction (EBJ) built in voltage and m is the grading coefficient
of the EBJ junction. One typically uses an approximate value of Cje.
Cje 2 Cje0
iii. Collector-base junction capacitance, C : In active mode
operation, the collector-base junction is reversed biased, and its
junction or depletion capacitance, C becomes
C 0
C = m
VCB
1 V
0c
where, C0 is the value of C at zero voltage, V0c is the CBJ built in
voltage and m is the grading coefficient.
B. Types of internal capacitances of MOSFET :
a. The gate capacitive effect :
1. It can be modeled by the three capacitances Cgs, Cgd, Cgb. The
values of these capacitances are as follows :
i. When the MOSFET is operating in the triode region at small vDS,
the channel will be of uniform depth, thus,
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1
Cgs = Cgd =WL Cox (triode region)
2
ii. When the MOSFET operates in saturation, the channel has a
tapered shape and is pinched off at or near the drain end, thus,
2
Cgs = WL Cox (saturation region)
3
Cgd = 0
iii. When the MOSFET is cut off, the channel disappears, and thus,
Cgs = Cgd = 0
Cgb = WL Cox (cut-off region)
iv. There is an additional small capacitive component that should be
added to Cgs and Cgd. If the overlap length is denoted Lov, the overlap
capacitance component is
Cov = WLov Cox
b. The junction capacitances :
1. For the source diffusion, we have the source body capacitance, Csb,
Csb0
Csb =
V
1 SB
V0
where Csb0 is the value of Csb at zero body source bias, VSB is the
magnitude of the reverse bias voltage and V0 is the junction
built-in-voltage.
2. Similarly for the drain diffusion, the drain-body capacitance Cdb,
Cdb0
Cdb =
V
1 DB
V0
where Cdb0 is the capacitance value at zero reverse-bias voltage
and VDB is the magnitude of the reverse-bias voltage.
c. Explain the phenomenon of luminescence. What are its
different types ? How does fluorescence differ from
phosphorescence ? Discuss its application as a fluorescence
lamp.
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.
d. What is Einstein relation ? Develop an expression to
establish relation between diffusion coefficient and mobility
of carriers.
Ans.
1. Fig. 2 shows energy band diagram of a semiconductor in electric
field (x).
2. Since electrons drift in a direction opposite to the field therefore
the potential energy for electrons will increase in the direction of
the field.
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(x)
EC
Ei
EV
x
Fig. 2. Energy band diagram of a
semiconductor in an electric field (x).
3. The electrostatic potential V(x) varies in the opposite direction,
since it is defined in terms of positive charges therefore related to
electron potential energy (x) as,
E ( x)
V(x) = ...(1)
q
dV ( x)
4. We know, electric field (x) =
dx
choosing Ei as a convenient reference, the electric field can be
related as,
– d Ei 1 dEi
(x) = = ...(2)
dx – q q dx
5. At equilibrium, no net current flows in a semiconductor, therefore
dp( x)
Jp(x) = qp p(x) (x) – qDp =0
dx
dp( x)
qpp(x) (x) = qDp
dx
Dp 1 dp( x)
(x) = ...(3)
p p ( x) dx
1 dp( x)
6. To calculate the value of
p( x) dx
we know, p = ni e(Ei – EF) / kT
p
= e(Ei – EF) / kT
ni
taking log on both sides,
p Ei – EF
ln =
n
i kT
Ei EF
ln p – ln ni = ...(4)
kT
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7. Differentiating eq. (4) with respect to x we get
1 dp 1 dEi dEF
0 = ( ni = constant)
p dx kT dx dx
1 dp 1 dEi dEF
= ...(5)
p dx kT dx dx
8. Putting the value of eq. (5) in eq. (3)
Dp 1 dEi dEF
(x) =
p kT dx dx
9. The equilibrium Fermi level does not vary with x, and derivative of
Ei is given as q(x)
Dp 1
(x) = q( x)
p kT
1 Dp 1
=
q p kT
kT Dp
=
q p
D kT
or = ...(6)
q
10. Eq. (6) is known as Einstein relation.
e. Boron is implanted in to a n-type Si sample having donor
concentration of 1016/cm3, to form abrupt junction. If the
acceptor concentration in p-type region is 4 × 1018/cm3,
determine the
i. Width of the depletion region.
ii. Depth of penetration on n-side and p-side at equilibrium.
Take room temperature as 27 °C; ni = 1.5 × 1010/cm3 and
relative permittivity of boron as 11.8.
Ans.
Given : Nd = 1016 cm–3, Na = 4 × 1018 cm–3 ,
ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm–3, r = 11.80, 0 = 8.85 × 10–14 F/cm
To Find : Width of the depletion region, Depth of penetration on
n-side and p-side at equilibrium.
1. Contact potential,
kT N N
V0 = ln a 2 d
q ni
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4 1018 1016
= 0.0259 ln
(1.5 1010 ) 2
= 0.0259 ln (1.78 × 1014)
V0 = 0.85 V
1/ 2
2V0 N a N d
2. W=
q N a· Nd
1/ 2
2 (11.8 8.85 10 14 ) (0.85) 4 1018 1016
=
(1.6 10 19 ) 4 1018 1016
= 3.34 × 10– 5 cm
W = 0.334 m
WNa W
3. xn0 =
Nd Na 1 Nd / N a
0.334 m 0.334 m
=
1 {1016 / (4 1018 )} 1.0025
xn0 = 0.333 m
WNd W 0.334 m 0.334 m
4. xp0 =
Na Nd 1 Na / Nd 1 400 401
xp0 = 0.83 nm
SECTION-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Draw the four basic feedback topologies. Compare the input
and output resistance among the feedback topologies.
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.
b. Explain the working of common source with a resistance is
connected in source lead. Draw its small signal equivalent
circuit. Deduce the expression for overall voltage gain.
Ans.
1. Since, Rin does not depend on RL and therefore Rin = Ri.
2. At the point ig = 0, Rin = RG
Rin RG
vi = vsig vsig
Rin Rsig RG Rsig
1 / gm vi
and vgs = vi
1 1 gm RS
RS
gm
thus, RS can be used to control the magnitude of the signal vgs.
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VDD
RD CC2
vd
vo
1
ig vi g + RS
Rsig CC1 m RL
+
+ 1/gm 1
vi g + RS
m
vsig + vi
vi RS Rout = RD
– RG –
0V
– 0
CS
I
Rin = RG –VSS
Fig. 3. CS amplifier with RS is source lead.
1
id = i = vi g + RS
m
vd
D vo
i RD RL
Rsig 0 G
i
+ + Rout = RD
vsig + vi RG vgs 1
– gm
– – S 1
i = vi +R
gm S
Rin = RG RS
Fig. 4. Small-signal equivalent circuit with ro reglected.
gm vi
3. The current, id = i = vi/[(1/gm) + RS)] =
1 gm RS
4. Output voltage vo = – id (RD || RL)
gm ( RD ||RL )
Av = –
1 gm RS
gm RD
5. If RL = , Avo =
1 gm RS
RG gm ( RD || RL )
6. Overall voltagegain Gv = –
RG Rsig 1 gm RS
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7. The output resistance is given by Rout = RD
4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Differentiate between direct and indirect band gap
semiconductor. Also discuss the variation of energy band
with alloy composition.
Ans.
A. Difference :
S. No. Direct band gap Indirect band gap
semiconductor semiconductor
1. A dire ct band-gap (DBG) An indirect band-gap (IBG)
semiconductor is one in which semiconductor is one in which
the maximum energy level of the maximum energy level of
the valence band aligns with the valence band are
the minimum energy level of misaligned with the minimum
the conductio n band with energy level of the conduction
respect to momentum. band with respe ct to
momentum.
2. In a DBG semiconductor, a Due to a relative difference in
direct recombination takes the mo me ntum, first the
place with the release of the momentum is conserved by
energy equal to the energy release of energy and only after
diffe re nce be twee n the both the momentum aligns
recombining particles. themselves, a recombination
occurs accompanied with the
release of energy.
3. The efficiency factor of a DBG The probability of a radiative
semiconductor is more. recombination is less.
4. Example of DBG Examples of IBG
semiconductor is gallium semiconductors are silicon and
arsenide (GaAs) Germanium.
5. DBG semiconducto rs emit IBG semiconductors emit heat.
light.
B. Variation of energy bands with alloy composition :
1. The energy band gap Eg is a very important parameter of a
semiconductor. The wavelength (colour) of the light emitted by a
direct semiconductor depends on this gap.
2. This means that we can only get certain limited wavelengths from
the semiconductors. But that is not true. We can get number of
wavelengths using alloy semiconductor.
3. Alloy semiconductors provide a class of semiconductor materials
where the band gap can be varied continuously by having proper
percentage of alloying.
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4. A particular alloy semiconductor may behave as direct
semiconductor for certain of its alloying range and starts behaving
as an indirect semiconductor for the remaining range.
5. Let consider a particular case of AlxGa1 – x As. GaAs is a column III-
V compound semiconductor. Ga and Al both belong to column III,
so they can easily replace each other.
6. In this alloy, let x % of Ga are replaced by Al in GaAs and one gets
AlxGa1 – x As. The band gap variation with alloy composition is shown
in Fig. 5.
7. This alloy has three energy bands in conduction band variation of
x (i.e., x in Alx). The energy of these bands change, therefore band
gap will change. Further the alloy behaves as a direct semiconductor
up to x = 0.38.
Band
gap
energy X
(eV)
L AlxGa 1 – x As
Aluminium fraction (x)
Fig. 5. Band gap variation with alloy composition.
b. What do you mean by Fermi level ? Discuss the effect of
temperature and doping on mobility. A Si sample is doped
with 1017 As atoms/cm3. What is the equilibrium hole
concentration on P0 at 300 K ? Where is EF relative to Ei.
Ans.
A. Fermi level : It is the energy state having probability of half of
being occupied by an electron.
B. Effect of temperature on mobility : The mobility is determined
by scattering of the carriers. Scattering mechanism influence
electron and hole mobility.
3/2 – 3/2
T T
(cm 2 / V-s)
log scale
Lattice
Impurity
T(K)
log scale
Fig. 6.
i. Lattice scattering :
1. If scattering occurs due to vibrations of lattice atom then it is
called lattice scattering.
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2. As the temperature increases, the frequency of lattice vibration
increases. As a result, the mobility decreases.
3. The approximate temperature dependency is given by T – 3/2 as
shown in Fig. 6.
ii. Impurity scattering :
1. If scattering occurs under the influence of interaction with impurity
atoms, it is called impurity scattering.
2. Such scattering dominates at low temperature. At low temperature
the thermal motion of carriers is slow. So, there is an increase in
mobility () as the temperature increases. The dependency is
expressed by T3/2 as shown in Fig. 6.
C. Numerical :
Given : Nd = 1017 atoms/cm3, T = 300 K.
To Find : p0, EF – Ei
1. Since, Nd > ni we can approximate n0 = Nd and ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm – 3
(For Si)
ni 2 2.25 1020
p0 =
n0 1017
p0 = 2250 atoms/cm3
2. Fermi level,
n 1017
EF – Ei = kT ln 0 = 0.0259 ln = 0.406 eV
ni 1.5 1010
3. The resulting band diagram is shown in Fig. 7.
EC
0.406 eV
1.1 eV Ei
EV
Fig. 7.
5. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Design the circuit shown in the Fig. 8 to establish a drain of
0.1 V, what is the effective resistance between drain and
s ource at this operating point ? Let V t = 1 V, and
k n (W/L) = 1 mA/V2.
VDD = 5 V
RD
VD = 0.1V
Fig. 8.
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Ans.
W
Given : VDD = 5 V, VD = 0.1 V, Vt = 1 V, kn = 1 mA/V2
L
To Find : Effective resistance (rDS).
1. For triode region, VGS – Vt > VDS
5 – 1 > 0.1
4 > 0.1
So the MOSFET is operating in the triode region.
2. In triode region,
W 1 2
ID = kn
(VGS Vt ) VDS 2 VDS
L
1
= 1 (5 1) 0.1 0.01 = 0.395 mA
2
3. The value of RD is,
VDD VD 5 0.1
RD = = 12.4 k
ID 0.395
4. The effective drain to source resistance is,
V 0.1
rDS = DS = 253
ID 0.395
b. Construct p-channel enhancement MOSFET. Draw and
explain the I-V characteristics when VDS is increased.
Ans.
A. p-channel MOSFET :
1. Fig. 9 shows a cross-sectional view of a p-channel enhancement-
type MOSFET.
2. The structure is similar to that of the NMOS device except that
here the substrate is n type and the source and the drain regions
are p+ type; that is, all semiconductor regions are reversed in polarity
relative to their counterparts in the NMOS case.
+ +
vGS vDS
– G iD –
S D
iD iG = 0
p+ iD p+
induced p-channel
n-type substrate
Fig. 9. Physical structure of the PMOS transistor.
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B. I-V characteristics when VDS is increased :
1. Let vGS be held constant at a value greater than Vt.
2. The voltage between the gate and points along the channel
decreases from vGS at source end to vGS – vDS at the drain end.
3. Therefore, as vDS is increased, the channel becomes more tapered
and its resistance increases correspondingly. Thus, the iD-vDS curve
does not continue as a straight line but bends.
4. When vDS is increased to the value that reduces the voltage between
the gate and the channel at the drain end to Vt i.e., vGS – vDS = Vt,
the channel depth at the drain end decreases to zero and the channel
is said to be pinched-off.
+
v GS
–
G iG = 0 iD D
S iS = iD
n+ n+
n-channel
p-type substrate
Fig. 10.
iD
Triode Saturation
vDS < vGS – Vt vDS vGS – Vt
Curve bend because
the channel resistance Current saturates because
increases with vDS the channel is pinched-off
at the drain end, and increasing
Almost a straight line vDS no longer affects
the channel.
with slope proportional
to (vGS – Vt) vGS > V t
vDS
0 VDSsat = vGS – Vt
Fig. 11. iD – vDS characteristic for an enhancement type
NMOS operated with vGS > Vt.
5. Increasing vDS beyond this value has no effect on channel shape
and the current remains constant at the value reached for
vDS = vGS – Vt.
6. The drain current saturates at this value and the MOSFET enters
the saturation region of operation.
VDSsat = vGS – Vt
The device operates in the saturation region if vDS > VDSsat.
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7. The region of the iD – vDS characteristics obtained for vDS < VDSsat is
called triode region.
6. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. How BJT can be used as an amplifier and as a switch ?
Justify using required circuit waveform, mathematical
expression.
Ans.
A. BJT as an amplifier :
1. Fig. 12 shows common emitter circuit and Fig. 13 shows the voltage
transfer characteristics of the CE circuit.
VCC
iC RC
C +
vo = vCE
+
vBE = vI
– –
Fig. 12. Basic common emitter amplifier circuit.
2. To operate the BJT as a linear amplifier, it must be biased at a point
in the active region.
3. Fig. 13 shows such a bias point, labeled Q, and characterized by vBE
and vCE.
vo
Cut-off Active Saturation
mode
VCC X Y Slope = Av
vo
VCE Time
Q
Z VCEsat
0 vI(V)
0.5 VBE 1.0 1.5
Time
Fig. 13. Transfer characteristic.
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4. If the collector current at this value of vBE is
iC = I S e vBE / VT ...(1)
then from the circuit in Fig. 13
v0 = vCE = VCC – RC iC ...(2)
5. Now, if the signal to be amplified, vI is superimposed on VBE and
kept sufficiently small as the instantaneous operating point will be
constrained to a relatively short, almost linear segment of the
transfer curve around the bias point Q.
6. The slope of this linear segment will be equal to the slope of the
tangent to the transfer curve at Q.
7. This slope is the voltage gain of amplifier.
dvo
Av = ...(3)
dvI v VBE
I
1
8. Thus, Av = I S eVBE /VT RC
VT
IC RC V
= RC [Using eq. (1)]
VT VT
where VRC is the DC voltage drop across RC.
VRC = VCC – VCE ...(4)
VCC VCEsat
Av =
VT
9. Biasing at the edge of saturation
VCC
Thus, Av max
VT
B. BJT as a switch :
When the transistor leaves the active region, it enters in cut-off
region or in saturation region. But these regions are very useful if
the transistor is to be used as a switch.
i. Cut-off region :
If vI is smaller than 0.5 V, the emitter-base junction will conduct
negligible current and the collector-base junction is reversed biased.
The device will be in cut-off mode.
iB = 0, iE = 0, iC = 0, vC = VCC
ii. Saturation region :
1. If we increase iB then iC increase as a result of which vCE will fall
down. The process will continue until the collector-base junction
becomes forward biased.
2. The forward voltage drop of collector-base junction is small because
of relatively large areas.
3. This mode of working is achieved in saturation region.
VCC VCE sat
ICsat =
RC
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4. Forcing more current into the base has very little effect on ICsat and
VCEsat. In this state the switch is closed.
b. Mention the different biasing technique in BJT. Explain
any two of them.
Ans. Biasing in BJT amplifier circuit :
i. Voltage divider biasing
ii. Two power supply version of the classical bias arrangement.
iii. Biasing using a collector to base feedback resistor.
iv. Biasing using a constant current source.
i. Voltage divider biasing (Classical discrete circuit bias
arrangement) :
1. Fig. 14(a) shows the arrangement most commonly used for biasing
a discrete circuit transistor amplifier if only a single power supply is
available.
VCC
VBB = VCC R2
VCC R1 + R2
RC
R1 IC
RC IB
RB = R1 || R2
IE
R2 RE L RE
(a) ( b)
Fig. 14. Classical biasing for BJTs using a single power supply.
2. Fig. 14(b) shows the same circuit with the voltage divider network
replaced by its Thevenin’s equivalent,
R2
VBB = V ...(1)
R1 R2 CC
R1 R2
RB = ...(2)
R1 R2
3. The current IE can be determined by writing a Kirchhoff ’s loop
equation for the base-emitter ground loop labeled L, as
VBB – IB RB – VBE – IE RE = 0
IE
Substituting, IB =
1
R
VBB I E B VBE I E RE = 0
1
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VBB VBE
IE = ...(3)
RB
RE
( 1)
4. To make IE insensitive to temperature and variation, we design
the circuit to satisfy the following two constraints :
VBB >> VBE
RB
and RE >> ...(4)
1
ii. Two power s upply vers ion of the class ical bias
arrangement :
+ V CC
RC
IE
IB =
+1
RB IE
L RE
– VEE
Fig. 15. Biasing the BJT using two power supplies.
1. In Fig. 15, two power supplies are available. Writing a loop equation
for loop labeled L gives
VEE VBE
IE = ...(5)
RB
RE
( 1)
2. Note that if the transistor is to be used with the base grounded,
then RB can be eliminated. On the other hand, if the input signal is
to be coupled to the base, then RB is needed.
7. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Draw the high frequency hybrid- model of MOSFET and
show that fT = gm/2 (Cgs + Cgd).
Ans.
1. A parameter used to judge the operation of a high-frequency
MOSFET as an amplifier, is the unity-gain bandwidth.
2. The frequency at which short-circuit current gain of the common-
source arrangement becomes unity, is known as the unity-gain
frequency. This analysis is done using a hybrid model with a
common-source configuration.
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Cgd
G + gmVgs D
Vgs Cgs ro Cdb
–
S
Fig. 16. High-frequency MOSFET model when the source
is connected to the body.
3. Again, in the model, as shown in Fig. 16, when Cdb is neglected, the
resulting circuit is as given by Fig. 17.
4. It can be noticed easily that the current in the short circuit is given
by :
I0 = gmVgs – sCgdVgs ...(1)
where, s is a complex variable.
5. Since Cgd is very small, eq. (1) can be written as I0 gmVgs.
Cgd Io
+ gmVgs
Ii Vgs Cgs ro
–
Fig. 17. Circuit representation for obtaining short-circuit current gain.
And from Fig. 17, we get :
Ii
Vgs = ...(2)
s(C gs C gd )
I0 Ii
6. Substituting, I0 = gmVgs we obtain : =
gm s(C gs C gd )
I0 gm
= ...(3)
Ii s(C gs C gd )
7. Taking s = j (where, is the frequency of the applied voltage), and
since the magnitude of current gain becomes unity at this frequency,
we can write :
gm
T = ...(4)
(C gs C gd )
gm
fT = ( T = 2fT)
2(C gs C gd )
b. Mention the conditions for oscillation. Derive the expression
for frequency of oscillation in phase shift oscillator.
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.
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B. Tech.
(SEM. III) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2018-19
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 70
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)
a. What type of semiconductor material is suitable for
luminescence effect ?
b. What do you mean by diffusion of carriers ?
c. In the linear region operation of MOSFET drain current
decreases as the temperature increases. Explain.
d. What is meant by threshold voltage ?
e. What is a transistor ? Explain its types.
f. What do you mean by optoelectronic devices ?
g. What is negative feedback and positive feedback ?
SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three of the following questions : (7 × 3 = 21)
a. Explain the principle of indirect recombination in band gap.
Discuss its mechanism.
b. What is a photodiode ? Explain its construction and
operation.
c. Explain the operation and characteristics of N-channel
MOSFET.
d. Explain transistor characteristics in CE configuration.
Explain the behaviour of the transistor in active and
cut-off mode.
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e. What is an oscillator ? How does it differ from an amplifier ?
SECTION-C
3. Attempt any one of the following questions : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Explain the terms : solar cell, LED.
b. Derive the expression for the forward and reverse
saturation current for p-n junction diode.
4. Attempt any one of the following questions : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. The energy distribution function (E) is given by product
of two factor [(E) = N(E). f(E)]. What is the interpretation to
be given to each of these factors ?
b. What is Einstein relation ? Develop expressions to establish
relations between diffusion coefficient and mobility of
carriers or obtain the relation : D/ = kT/q.
5. Attempt any one of the following questions : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Show that IE = IB + IE + ICBO. In which way ICBO depend on
temperature.
b. Define and of a transistor and derive the relationship
between them.
6. Attempt any one of the following questions : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Explain the terms : single stage MOS amplifier, MOSFET
internal capacitances.
b. Draw a biasing circuit of MOSFET amplifier and explain it.
7. Attempt any one of the following questions : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Draw the circuit diagram of LC oscillators. What is the
condition of oscillation ?
b. Explain the four types of feedback topologies with the help
of schematic diagram.
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2018-19)
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 7 = 14)
a. What type of semiconductor material is suitable for
luminescence effect ?
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.
b. What do you mean by diffusion of carriers ?
Ans. Diffusion is the natural result of the random motion of the individual
molecules from a region of high carrier concentration to region of
low carrier concentration when the electron and hole concentrations
vary with position in the sample. This type of phenomenon is called
diffusion of carrier.
c. In the linear region operation of MOSFET drain current
decreases as the temperature increases. Explain.
Ans. Since mobility decreases as temperature increases, so in MOSFETs
current IDS decreases with rise in temperature.
d. What is meant by threshold voltage ?
Ans. It means that the minimum voltage required to activate any active
components. Minimum gate voltage to turn ON the transistor is
called threshold voltage.
e. What is a transistor ? Explain its types.
Ans. A transistor is a semiconductor device to amplify or switch electronic
signals and electrical power.
Types :
1. BJT : BJT is a bipolar device which can operate in one of four
possible modes : cut-off, active, saturation, and reverse active.
2. FET : It is a unipolar device depending solely on either electron or
hole.
f. What do you mean by optoelectronic devices ?
Ans. Optoelectronic devices are the electronic devices that detect and
control light.
g. What is negative feedback and positive feedback ?
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.
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SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three of the following questions :
a. Explain the principle of indirect recombination in band gap.
Discuss its mechanism.
Ans.
1. When an electron initially makes a transition to an energy level
lying deep in the band gap and it subsequently captures a hole from
the valence band, then this is known as indirect recombination.
2. Many recombination centres have more than one energy level, but
in most of the cases only one level dominates for the recombination.
3. Fig. 1 illustrates the recombination of an electron-hole pair through
deep-level centre.
4. In Fig. 1 EV and EC are valence band and conduction band
respectively. Here Er is recombination level which is below Fermi
level EF at equilibrium. Therefore, Er is substantially filled with
electrons. Let the excess electrons and holes are created in this
material.
EC
EF
Electron capture (b)
Er
(a) Hole capture
Ev
Fig. 1. Showing capture processes of recombination level.
5. The electron-hole pair (EHP) recombination at Er is followed in the
following two steps :
a. Hole capture :
i. In the hole capture process, an electron at Er falls to valence band.
This levels an empty state in recombination level.
ii. In hole capture, the energy is given up to the lattice.
b. Electron capture :
i. In the electron capture process, a conduction band electron
subsequently falls to empty state in Er.
ii. In this case too, the energy is given to the lattice.
6. When both the events [(a) and (b)] have occurred, the recombination
centre returns back to its original state, i.e., filled with electron.
7. Of course, an electron-hole pair is missing. In this way, one
electron-hole pair recombination has taken place.
b. What is a photodiode ? Explain its construction and
operation.
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Ans.
A. Photodiodes : Two terminal devices designed to respond to photon
absorption are called photodiodes.
B. Construction and operation :
1. Photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device whose operation
is limited to reverse bias region.
2. The types of photodiode are :
i. p-n diode
ii. p-i-n diode
iii. Avalanche diode
3. The output current of a reverse bias p-n junction changes when
device is exposed to illumination.
4. The variation in the output current is linear with respect to luminous
flux. The construction and symbol is shown in Fig. 2.
h v>Eg
p n
W + –
R I
(a) E (b )
Fig. 2.
5. This diode is designed in such a manner that the rays are allowed to
fall only on one surface across the junction. The remaining sides
are restricted for the light to penetrate.
6. As the temperature due to illumination increases, more and more
electron-hole pairs are generated and results in increasing the
reverse saturation current.
7. When light rays fall on depletion width W, it creates electron-hole
pair and electrons are swept into n-region and holes into p-region
very rapidly. This gives rise to a photo current. This is the basic
principle of operation of photodiode.
c. Explain the operation and characteristics of N-channel
MOSFET.
Ans.
A. Operation of n-channel MOSFET :
Construction :
1. The construction of an n-channel enhancement MOSFET is shown
in Fig. 3.
2. Two highly doped n+ regions are diffused in a lightly doped p-type
silicon substrate. One n+ region is called the source S and the other
one is called the drain D.
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vGS
– +
S D
SiO2 G Al
+ + ++ + +
–
+++–
– – +–+–+– +
– –– – – –– iD
n+ n+
Induced
n-channel
p-type substrate
– +
vDS
Fig. 3. n-channel enhancement MOSFET.
3. A thin insulating layer of SiO2 is grown over the surface of the
structure and holes are cut into the oxide layer, allowing contact
with source and drain.
4. Then a thin layer of metal aluminium is formed over the layer of
SiO2 which covers the entire channel region and it forms the gate
G.
5. The metal area of the gate, the insulating oxide layer of SiO2 and
the semiconductor channel forms a parallel plate capacitor.
6. This device is called the insulated gate FET because of the insulating
layer of SiO2. It gives extremely high input impedance for the
MOSFET.
Working :
1. If the substrate is grounded and a positive voltage is applied at the
gate, the positive charge on gate (G) induces an equal negative
charge on the substrate side between the source and drain regions.
2. Thus, an electric field is produced between the source and drain
regions which is perpendicular to the plates of the capacitor through
the oxide.
3. The negative charge of electrons which are minority carriers in the
p-type substrate forms an inversion layer.
4. As the positive voltage on the gate increases, the induced negative
charge in the semiconductor increases.
5. Hence, the conductivity increases and current flows from drain to
source through the induced channel. Thus the drain current is
enhanced by the positive gate voltages.
Characteristics of n-channel MOSFET :
1. Let vGS be held constant at a value greater than Vt.
2. The voltage between the gate and points along the channel
decreases from vGS at source end to vGS – vDS at the drain end.
3. Therefore, as vDS is increased, the channel becomes more tapered
and its resistance increases correspondingly. Thus, the iD-vDS curve
does not continue as a straight line but bends.
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4. When vDS is increased to the value that reduces the voltage between
the gate and the channel at the drain end to Vt i.e., vGS – vDS = Vt,
the channel depth at the drain end decreases to zero and the channel
is said to be pinched-off.
+
v GS
–
G iG = 0 iD D
S iS = iD
n+ n+
n-channel
p-type substrate
Fig. 4.
iD
Triode Saturation
vDS < vGS – Vt vDS vGS – Vt
Curve bend because
the channel resistance Current saturates because
increases with vDS the channel is pinched-off
at the drain end, and increasing
Almost a straight line vDS no longer affects
the channel.
with slope proportional
to (vGS – Vt) vGS > V t
vDS
0 VDSsat = vGS – Vt
Fig. 5. iD-vDS characteristic for an enhancement type
NMOS operated with vGS > Vt.
5. Increasing vDS beyond this value has no effect on channel shape
and the current remains constant at the value reached for
vDS = vGS – Vt.
6. The drain current saturates at this value and the MOSFET enters
the saturation region of operation.
VDSsat = vGS – Vt
The device operates in the saturation region if vDS > VDSsat.
7. The region of the iD – vDS characteristics obtained for vDS < VDSsat is
called triode region.
d. Explain transistor characteristics in CE configuration.
Explain the behaviour of the transistor in active and
cut-off mode.
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Ans.
A. Transfer Characteristics :
i. Input characteristic :
1. The forward biased diode curve is expected because the base-emitter
section of transistor is a diode and it is forward-biased.
VCE = 1V 5V 10V
iB
0 vBE
Fig. 6. Input characteristics.
2. In this case, iB increases less rapidly with vBE as compared to
common base configuration i.e., input resistance of common emitter
is higher than common base circuit.
ii. Output characteristic :
1. The characteristic of common emitter output configuration is
illustrated in Fig. 7.
2. Each iC-vCE curve is measured with the base fed with a constant
current IB.
3. Consider a transistor operating in the active region at the point
labeled Q in Fig. 7, i.e., at a collector current ICQ, a base current IBQ,
and a collector-emitter voltage VCEQ.
iC
Saturation
region
iB = IB1
Active region
iB = IB2
iC iB = IBQ + iB
iC
CQ Q iB = IBQ
IB
vCE
iB iB = . . .
cut-off region iB = 0
0 VCEQ vCE
( a) (b )
Fig. 7. Common emitter output characteristics.
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4. The ratio of the collector current to base current is the large-signal
or DC.
I
DC = CQ
I BQ
5. Referring to Fig. 7, while keeping vCE constant at the value VCEQ,
changing iB from IBQ to (IBQ + iB) results in iC increasing from ICQ
to (ICQ + iC).
6. Thus we can define the incremental or AC , AC , AC =
iC
iB vCE Constant
B. Behaviour of transistor :
1. In the active mode, transistor behaves as amplifier. In this, emitter
junction is forward biased and the collector junction is reverse
biased.
2. In the cut-off mode, transistor behaves as an open switch. In this,
both the emitter and the collector junctions are reversed biased.
e. What is an oscillator ? How does it differ from an amplifier ?
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.
SECTION-C
3. Attempt any one of the following questions : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Explain the terms : solar cell, LED.
Ans.
A. Solar cell :
1. Solar cells are semiconductor junction devices which are used for
converting optical radiation into electrical energy.
2. The generated electric voltage is proportional to the intensity of
incident light. Due to their capability of generating voltage, they
are called photovoltaic cells.
3. Silicon is the most widely used material for solar cells.
Construction :
1. The construction of a solar cell is shown in Fig. 8.
Incident sun rays +
Glass
+
p+
Junction
VCC
n-type
–
–
Symbol
Metallic
Fig. 8.
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2. The p-type layer is made thin to intercept the light radiation falling
on the junction. The doping of p-type material is very high.
3. p-type is surrounded by a nickel plated ring which serves as
positive terminal and the contact at bottom acts as a negative
terminal.
Working :
1. When photons are incident on surface, it releases sufficient energy
to the electrons to leave its orbit.
2. As a result, free electrons and holes are created. These free
electrons and holes constitute the minority current.
3. In this way, depletion region potential causes the photo current to
flow through the external load.
B. LED :
LED is a special type of semiconductor p-n junction that under
forward bias emits external radiations in ultraviolet, visible and
infrared regions of electromagnetic spectrum.
Construction of LED :
1. LED is just not an ordinary p-n junction diode where silicon is used.
Here we use compound having elements like gallium, arsenic and
phosphorus which are semitransparent unlike silicon which is
opaque.
3. In all semiconductor p-n junctions, some of its energy will be given
off as heat and some in the form of photons.
4. In the materials, such as gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) or
gallium phosphide (GaP), the number of photons of light energy
emitted is sufficient to create a visible light source.
Recombination Light O/P
+ –
Symbol
p Depletion n
region
R
+ –
V CC
Fig. 9.
Principle of LED :
1. The process involves :
i. Ge neratio n o f electron-hole pair (EHP) by e xcitation of
semiconductor.
ii. Recombination of EHP.
iii. Extraction of photons from the semiconductor.
2. The characteristic for LED is given in Fig. 10.
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12
Radiated light (mW)
10
8
6
4
2
If (mA)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. 10. Characteristics.
Working :
1. When LED is in forward bias condition, the electrons from n-type
material cross the p-n junction and recombines with holes in the
p-type material.
2. When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release
energy in the form of heat and light.
3. The emission depends upon the type of material, i.e.,
GaAs infrared radiation (invisible)
GaP red or green light (visible)
GaAsP red or yellow light (visible).
b. Derive the expression for the forward and reverse
saturation current for p-n junction diode.
Ans. Diode current equation :
1. The hole diffusion current at any point xn in the n-region can be
obtained with the help of following expression
dp( xn )
Ip(xn) = – qADp
dxn
d x /L
Ip(xn) = – qADp {[ pn ( eqV / kT 1)]e n p }
dxn
Dp xn / Lp
= qA [ pn (e qV / kT 1) e ]
Lp
Dp
Ip(xn = 0) = qA [pn(eqV/kT – 1)]
Lp
2. Similarly, the electron current injected into p-region at the junction
is given by
Dn
In(xp = 0) = – qA [np (eqV/kT – 1)]
Ln
3. If we take + x-direction as the reference direction for total current,
we have :
I = Ip(xn = 0) – In(xp = 0)
Dp Dn
= qA qV/kT – 1)] + qA [np (eqV/kT – 1)]
L [pn (e Ln
p
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D p Dn qV/kT
= qA
L pn L np [e – 1]
p n
I = I0 [eqV/kT – 1]
4. The current can also be calculated for reverse bias by letting V = – Vr
Dp D
I = qA pn n n p (e qVr / kT 1)
L
p L n
5. If Vr is larger than a few kT/q, the total current is just the reverse
saturation current.
Dp D
I = – qA pn n n p = – I0
Lp Ln
4. Attempt any one of the following questions : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. The energy distribution function (E) is given by product
of two factor [(E) = N(E). f(E)]. What is the interpretation to
be given to each of these factors ?
Ans.
1. The energy distribution function of the electrons can be interpreted
as a product of two factors.
i. The first is called the degeneracy, or the density of states per unit
energy. This factor is independent of the statistical nature of the
particles.
ii. The second is the average number of electrons with energy.
b. What is Einstein relation ? Develop expressions to establish
relations between diffusion coefficient and mobility of
carriers or obtain the relation : D/ = kT/q.
Ans. Einstein relation :
1. Fig. 11 shows energy band diagram of a semiconductor in electric
field (x).
(x)
EC
Ei
EV
x
Fig. 11. Energy band diagram of a semiconductor in an electric field (x).
2. Since electrons drift in a direction opposite to the field therefore
the potential energy for electrons will increase in the direction of
the field.
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3. The electrostatic potential V(x) varies in the opposite direction,
since it is defined in terms of positive charges therefore related to
electron potential energy (x) as,
E ( x)
V(x) = ...(1)
q
dV ( x)
4. We know, electric field (x) =
dx
choosing Ei as a convenient reference, the electric field can be
related as,
– d Ei 1 dEi
(x) = = ...(2)
dx – q q dx
5. At equilibrium, no net current flows in a semiconductor, therefore
dp( x)
Jp(x) = qp p(x) (x) – qDp =0
dx
dp( x)
qpp(x) (x) = qDp
dx
Dp 1 dp( x)
(x) = ...(3)
p p ( x) dx
1 dp( x)
6. To calculate the value of
p( x) dx
we know, p = ni e(Ei – EF) / kT
p
= e(Ei – EF) / kT
ni
taking log on both sides,
p Ei – EF
ln =
ni kT
Ei EF
ln p – ln ni = ...(4)
kT
7. Differentiating eq. (4) with respect to x we get
1 dp 1 dEi dEF
0 = dx dx ( ni = constant)
p dx kT
1 dp 1 dEi dEF
= ...(5)
p dx kT dx dx
8. Putting the value of eq. (5) in eq. (3)
Dp 1 dEi dEF
(x) =
p kT dx dx
9. The equilibrium Fermi level does not vary with x, and derivative of
Ei is given as q(x)
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Dp 1
(x) = q( x)
p kT
1 Dp 1
=
q p kT
kT Dp
=
q p
D kT
or = ...(6)
q
10. Eq. (6) is known as Einstein relation.
5. Attempt any one of the following questions : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Show that IE = IB + IE + ICBO. In which way ICBO depend on
temperature ?
Ans.
A. To show :
IC
1. For npn transistor =
IE
IC = IE ...(1)
2. If the emitter is open then there will be collector current because of
minority carriers ICBO.
Thus, IC = IE + ICBO ...(2)
3. And we know IE = IC + IB
IC = IE – IB ...(3)
4. Putting the value of IC in eq. (2) then we get
IE – IB = IE + ICBO
IE = IB + IE + ICBO
B. The reverse saturation current (ICBO) approximately doubles for
every 10° C rise on temperature.
b. Define and of a transistor and derive the relationship
between them.
Ans.
1. is the current amplification factor in common base transistor. It is
defined as the ratio of the collector current to the emitter current
of a transistor when no signal is applied.
IC
=
IE
2. is the current gain in common emitter configuration. It is defined
as the ratio of the collector current to the base current, when no
signal is applied.
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IC
=
IB
Relation :
iC i
1. We know, = and = C
iE iB
iE = iB + iC iB = iE – iC
iC i /i
2. Now, = C E
iE iC 1 iC / iE 1
(1 – ) = or – =
= (1 + )
=
1
6. Attempt any one of the following questions : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Explain the terms : single stage MOS amplifier, MOSFET
internal capacitances.
Ans.
A. Small signal operation (single stage MOS amplifier) :
1. For this purpose, we utilize the conceptual common source amplifier
circuit shown in Fig. 12.
VDD
iD RD
vD
+ +
vgs
– vGS
VGS –
Fig. 12. Conceptual circuit.
2. For the circuit, the DC bias current ID can be given by setting the
signal vgs = 0,
1 W
ID = kn (VGS Vt )2 ...(1)
2 L
and VD = VDD – RD ID ...(2)
3. Now, consider, vGS = vgs + VGS resulting in a total instantaneous
drain current iD,
1 W
iD = kn (VGS vgs Vt )2
2 L
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1 W W 1 W 2
=
2
kn
L
VGS Vt 2 kn L VGS Vt vgs 2
kn
L
vgs ...(3)
DC bias current ID current proportional current proportional to
to vgs v 2 gs (non- linear
distortion)
4. To reduce non-linear distortion the input signal is kept small so
that,
1 W 2 << W
kn vgs kn (VGS Vt ) vgs
2 L L
vgs << 2 VOV ( VOV = VGS – Vt)
If this small signal condition is satisfied, we may neglect 3rd term
from eq. (3).
iD ID + id ...(4)
5. Transconductance : The parameter that relates id and vgs is the
MOSFET transconductance gm.
i W
gm = d kn (V Vt )
vgs L GS
W 2I D
or gm = kn VOV = 2kn (W / L) I D
L Vov
6. The voltage gain :
1. From Fig. 12,
vD = VDD – RD iD = VDD – RD (ID + id)
vD = VD – RD id
2. Thus, the signal component of the drain voltage is
vd = – id RD = – gm vgs RD
vd
3. Voltage gain, Av = = – g m RD
vgs
B. Types of internal capacitances of MOSFET :
a. The gate capacitive effect :
1. It can be modeled by the three capacitances Cgs, Cgd, Cgb. The values
of these capacitances are as follows :
i. When the MOSFET is operating in the triode region at small vDS,
the channel will be of uniform depth, thus,
1
Cgs = Cgd = WL Cox (triode region)
2
ii. When the MOSFET operates in saturation, the channel has a tapered
shape and is pinched off at or near the drain end, thus,
2
Cgs = WL Cox (saturation region)
3
Cgd =0
iii. When the MOSFET is cut off, the channel disappears, and thus,
Cgs = Cgd = 0
Cgb = WL Cox (cut-off region)
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iv. There is an additional small capacitive component that should be
added to Cgs and Cgd. If the overlap length is denoted Lov, the overlap
capacitance component is
Cov = WLov Cox
b. The junction capacitances :
1. For the source diffusion, we have the source body capacitance, Csb,
Csb0
Csb =
VSB
1
V0
where Csb0 is the value of Csb at zero body source bias, VSB is the
magnitude of the reverse bias voltage and V0 is the junction
built-in-voltage.
2. Similarly for the drain diffusion, the drain-body capacitance Cdb,
Cdb0
Cdb =
VDB
1
V0
where Cdb0 is the capacitance value at zero reverse-bias voltage
and VDB is the magnitude of the reverse-bias voltage.
b. Draw a biasing circuit of MOSFET amplifier and explain it.
Ans. The different biasing methods of MOSFET are as follows :
i.Biasing by fixing the gate-to-source voltage VGS.
ii.Biasing by fixing DC voltage at the gate (VG).
iii.Biasing with a drain to gate feedback resistor.
iv. Biasing with a constant current source.
Biasing with a constant current source :
1. Fig. 13(a) shows biasing using a constant current source I.
2. RG presents a large resistance to an input signal source that can be
capacitively coupled to the gate.
3. Resistor RD establishes an appropriate DC voltage at the drain to
allow for the required output signal swing while the transistor
always remains in the saturation region.
To source
VDD + V DD of transistor
Q in Fig.
Iref R 5.12.1(a)
RD I=0
ID = I ID1 ID2
Q
Q1 Q2
+
VGS
RG I
–
– VSS – VSS
(a) (b )
Fig. 13.
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4. Fig. 13(b) shows a circuit for implementing the constant current source
using current mirror. The transistor Q1 has its drain shorted to gate and
so it is operating in saturation region. Then
1 W
ID1 = kn (VGS Vt )2 ...(1)
2 L 1
Since gate current is zero,
VDD VGS ( VSS )
Iref = ID1 = ...(2)
R
5. The value of R can be obtained when a desired value of Iref. is known
along with the parameter of Q1.
6. VGS for Q1 and Q2 will be same. Assuming that Q2 is working in saturation
which gives
1 W
ID2 = kn (VGS Vt )2 ...(3)
2 L 2
where, Vt is assumed to be same for both Q1 and Q2
W
I D2 ID2 L 2
then, =
Iref I D1 W
L 1
W W
7. If = then ID2 = ID1 = Iref
L 2 L 1
when ID2 = Iref. we can also say that ID2 is mirror image of Iref. Therefore,
this circuit is also known as current mirror.
7. Attempt any one of the following questions : (7 × 1 = 7)
a. Draw the circuit diagram of LC oscillators. What is the
condition of oscillation ?
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.
b. Explain the four types of feedback topologies with the help
of schematic diagram.
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.
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B. Tech.
(SEM. III) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2019-20
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. What is base width modulation ?
b. What is difference between direct and indirect
semiconductor ?
c. Differentiate EMOSFET with DMOSFET.
d. Brief the avalanche breakdown mechanism.
e. In which mode BJT can be used as switch and amplifier ?
f. What is fluorescence ?
g. What do you mean by effective mass of carriers ?
h. How does direct recombination lifetime differ from indirect
recombination lifetime ?
i. Write difference between drift and diffusion.
j. Define sheet resistance.
SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)
a. Differentiate between direct and indirect band gap
semiconductor. Also discuss the variation of energy band
with alloy composition.
b. Calculate the Fermi level position in Si containing 1016
Phosphorus atoms/cm 3 at 100 °K assuming 50 % of the
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impurities are ionized at this temperature. Also calculate
the equilibrium electrons and holes concentrations.
c. Define mobility of a charge carrier. Show that /D = e/kT.
d. Explain the s ingle stage MOS amplifier and MOS
capacitances.
SECTION-C
3. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Derive the expression for Schrodinger wave equation.
b. What is the principle of Heisenberg uncertainty and why is
it important ? Write its applications.
4. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. What do you mean by Fermi level ? Discuss the effect of
temperature and doping on mobility.
b. Draw the schematic band diagram of Fermi level, density of
states, Fermi-Dirac distribution function, and carrier
concentrations for intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.
5. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Explain and draw the s mall signal models of MOS
transistor.
b. Explain the working principle and characteristics of
following :
i. LED
ii. Solar cell
6. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Explain Ebers-Moll model.
b. Explain Schottky diode in detail and also write its
applications.
7. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 0 = 10)
a. Using the concept of diffusion and drift of carriers derive
the continuity equation and diffusion length.
b. Derive an expression for diode current in p-n junction diode.
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SOLUTION OF PAPER (2019-20)
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. What is base width modulation ?
Ans. Base width modulation or the early effect is the variation in the
width of the base in the bipolar transistor due to variation in the
applied base-to-collector voltage. For example, greater reverse bias
across the collector-base junction increases the collector base
depletion width.
b. What is difference between direct and indirect
semiconductor ?
Ans.
S. No. Direct band gap Indirect band gap
semiconductor semiconductors
1. The electron fall directly from The e le ctro n cannot fall
conduction band to valance band. directly from conduction band
to valance band.
2. The energy is released in the The energy is released in the
form of light. form of heat.
c. Differentiate EMOSFET with DMOSFET.
Ans.
S. No. E-MOSFET D-MOSFET
1. Operates only in Operates in both depletion mode
enhancement mode. and enhancement mode.
2. There is no physical channel The channel is already formed
from source to drain. We have between source and drain.
to enhance it by applying vGS.
3. Commonly used bias circuits : Commonly used bias circuits :
gate bias, voltage divider bias, gate bias, self bias, voltage-divider
drain-feedback bias. bias, zero bias.
d. Brief the avalanche breakdown mechanism.
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Ans.
1. Avalanche breakdown is caused by a process known as secondary
multiplication, and it occurs in junctions having thicker depletion
regions, which makes tunneling less probable.
2. In a reverse-biased junction, the thermally generated minority
carriers (mainly holes in a p+-n junction) injected into the space-
charge region is accelerated by the field and gain kinetic energy
from the field.
e. In which mode BJT can be used as switch and amplifier.
Ans. BJT will operate as an amplifier if transistor is biased into linear
region. BJT can be used as a switch if the transistor is biased into
saturation region.
f. What is fluorescence ?
Ans. This question is out of syllabus from session 2019-20.
g. What do you mean by effective mass of carriers ?
Ans. The effective mass is a quantity that is used to simplify band
structures by modelling the behaviour of free particle with that
mass.
h. How does direct recombination lifetime differ from indirect
recombination lifetime ?
Ans. Carrier lifetime is the time taken by carrier to recombine. In direct
recombination, the process of transition of electrons from
conduction band to valence band occurs simultaneously. Carrier
will take less time to recombine. Therefore, carrier lifetime tends
to be very short, typically in nanoseconds.
In case of indirect recombination, carrier takes more time to
recombine, therefore lifetime of carrier is more in this case.
i. Write difference between drift and diffusion.
Ans.
S. No. Diffusion Current Drift Current
1. Diffusion current occurs Drift current occurs when the
even though there is not an electric field applied on the p-n
electric field applied to the junction.
semiconductor.
2. Direction of the diffusion Direction of the drift current
curre nt depends o n the depends on the polarity of the
charge in the carrier applied field.
concentrations.
j. Define sheet resistance.
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Ans. Sheet resistance (also known as surface resistance or surface
resistivity) is a common electrical property used to characterize
thin films of conducting and semiconducting materials.
SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)
a. Differentiate between direct and indirect band gap
semiconductor. Also discuss the variation of energy band
with alloy composition.
Ans.
A. Difference :
S. No. Direct band gap Indirect band gap
semiconductor semiconductor
1. A dire ct band-gap (DBG) An indirect band-gap (IBG)
semiconductor is one in which semiconductor is one in which
the maximum energy level of the maximum energy level of
the valence band aligns with the valence band are
the minimum energy level of misaligned with the minimum
the conductio n band with energy level of the conduction
respect to momentum. band with respe ct to
momentum.
2. In a DBG semiconductor, a Due to a relative difference in
direct recombination takes the mo me ntum, first the
place with the release of the momentum is conserved by
energy equal to the energy release of energy and only after
diffe re nce be twee n the both the momentum aligns
recombining particles. themselves, a recombination
occurs accompanied with the
release of energy.
3. The efficiency factor of a DBG The probability of a radiative
semiconductor is more. recombination is less.
4. Example of DBG Examples of IBG
semiconductor is gallium semiconductors are silicon and
arsenide (GaAs) Germanium.
5. DBG semiconducto rs emit IBG semiconductors emit heat.
light.
B. Variation of energy bands with alloy composition :
1. The energy band gap Eg is a very important parameter of a
semiconductor. The wavelength (colour) of the light emitted by a
direct semiconductor depends on this gap.
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2. This means that we can only get certain limited wavelengths from
the semiconductors. But that is not true. We can get number of
wavelengths using alloy semiconductor.
3. Alloy semiconductors provide a class of semiconductor materials
where the band gap can be varied continuously by having proper
percentage of alloying.
4. A particular alloy semiconductor may behave as direct
semiconductor for certain of its alloying range and starts behaving
as an indirect semiconductor for the remaining range.
5. Let consider a particular case of AlxGa1 – x As. GaAs is a column III-
V compound semiconductor. Ga and Al both belong to column III,
so they can easily replace each other.
6. In this alloy, let x % of Ga are replaced by Al in GaAs and one gets
AlxGa1 – x As. The band gap variation with alloy composition is shown
in Fig. 1.
7. This alloy has three energy bands in conduction band variation of
x (i.e., x in Alx). The energy of these bands change, therefore band
gap will change. Further the alloy behaves as a direct semiconductor
up to x = 0.38.
Band
gap
energy X
(eV)
L AlxGa 1 – x As
Aluminium fraction (x)
Fig. 1. Band gap variation with alloy composition.
b. Calculate the Fermi level position in Si containing 1016
Phosphorus atoms/cm 3 at 100 °K assuming 50 % of the
impurities are ionized at this temperature. Also calculate
the equilibrium electrons and holes concentrations.
Ans.
i.
1. The fraction of impurities ionized is,
nd
1– = 0.50
Nd
nd
= 0.50
Nd
nd 1
=
Nd 2
Nd = 2nd ...(1)
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Nd
2. We know, nd =
( Ed Ef )
1 exp
KT
3. At T = 100 K
2nd
nd =
( Ed Ef )
1 exp 5 1
(8.617 10 eVK 100)
[where K = 8.617 × 10 5 eVK – 1]
–
( E Ef )
1 + exp d =2
(0.0086)
( E Ef )
exp d =1
(0.0086)
Ed Ef
= e1
0.0086
Ed – Ef = 2.718 × 0.0086
= 0.0233 eV
ii.
1. Given, Nd = 1016 cm – 3
2. Assuming Na = 0 and ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm – 3
3. The majority carrier electron concentration is
1
no = {(Nd – Na) + ((Nd – Na)2 + 4ni2)1/2}
2
1
no = {(1016 – 0) + ((1016 – 0)2 + 4 × (1.5 × 1010)2)1/2}
2
1
no = {1016 + (1032 + 9 × 1020)1/2}
2
1
no = {1016 + 1016} = 1016 cm – 3
2
4. The minority carrier hole concentration is,
ni 2 (1.5 1010 )2
po = = 2.25 × 104 cm – 3
no 1016
c. Define mobility of a charge carrier. Show that /D = e/kT.
Ans.
A. Mobility :
The mobility of a carrier is a measure of its ease of motion, and is
defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field,
vd
i.e., =
E
where, vd = drift velocity, and E = applied electric field . It is a
positive quantity and has a unit of cm2/ V-sec.
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B. To show :
1. Fig. 2 shows energy band diagram of a semiconductor in electric
field (x).
2. Since electrons drift in a direction opposite to the field therefore
the potential energy for electrons will increase in the direction of
the field.
(x)
EC
Ei
EV
Fig. 2. Energy band diagram of a
semiconductor in an electric field (x).
3. The electrostatic potential V(x) varies in the opposite direction,
since it is defined in terms of positive charges therefore related to
electron potential energy (x) as,
E ( x)
V(x) = ...(1)
q
dV ( x)
4. We know, electric field (x) =
dx
choosing Ei as a convenient reference, the electric field can be
related as,
– d Ei 1 dEi
(x) = = ...(2)
dx – q q dx
5. At equilibrium, no net current flows in a semiconductor, therefore
dp( x)
Jp(x) = qp p(x) (x) – qDp =0
dx
dp( x)
qpp(x) (x) = qDp
dx
Dp 1 dp( x)
(x) = ...(3)
p p ( x) dx
1 dp( x)
6. To calculate the value of
p( x) dx
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we know, p = ni e(Ei – EF) / kT
p
= e(Ei – EF) / kT
ni
taking log on both sides,
p Ei – EF
ln =
ni kT
Ei EF
ln p – ln ni = ...(4)
kT
7. Differentiating eq. (4) with respect to x we get
1 dp 1 dEi dEF
0 = ( ni = constant)
p dx kT dx dx
1 dp 1 dEi dEF
= ...(5)
p dx kT dx dx
8. Putting the value of eq. (5) in eq. (3)
Dp 1 dEi dEF
(x) =
p kT dx dx
9. The equilibrium Fermi level does not vary with x, and derivative of
Ei is given as q(x)
Dp 1
(x) = q( x)
p kT
1 Dp 1
=
q p kT
kT Dp
=
q p
D kT
or = ...(6)
q
10. Eq. (6) is known as Einstein relation.
[Note : Charge, q = e]
d. Explain the s ingle stage MOS amplifier and MOS
capacitances.
Ans.
A. Small signal operation (single stage MOS amplifier) :
1. For this purpose, we utilize the conceptual common source amplifier
circuit shown in Fig. 3.
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VDD
iD RD
vD
+ +
vgs
– vGS
VGS –
Fig. 3. Conceptual circuit.
2. For the circuit, the DC bias current ID can be given by setting the
signal vgs = 0,
1 W
ID = kn (VGS Vt )2 ...(1)
2 L
and VD = VDD – RD ID ...(2)
3. Now, consider, vGS = vgs + VGS resulting in a total instantaneous
drain current iD,
1 W
iD = kn (VGS vgs Vt )2
2 L
1 W W 1 W
=
2
kn
L
VGS Vt 2 kn
L
VGS Vt vgs 2 kn L vgs2 ...(3)
DC bias current ID current proportional current proportional to
to vgs v2gs (non-linear distortion)
4. To reduce non-linear distortion the input signal is kept small so
that,
1 W 2 << W
kn vgs kn (VGS Vt ) vgs
2 L L
vgs << 2 VOV ( VOV = VGS – Vt)
If this small signal condition is satisfied, we may neglect 3rd term
from eq. (3).
iD ID + id ...(4)
5. Transconductance : The parameter that relates id and vgs is the
MOSFET transconductance gm.
i W
gm = d kn (V Vt )
vgs L GS
W 2I D
or gm = kn VOV = 2kn (W / L) I D
L Vov
6. The voltage gain :
1. From Fig. 3,
vD = VDD – RD iD = VDD – RD (ID + id)
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vD = VD – RD id
2. Thus, the signal component of the drain voltage is
vd = – id RD = – gm vgs RD
vd
3. Voltage gain, Av = = – g m RD
vgs
B. Types of internal capacitances of MOSFET :
a. The gate capacitive effect :
1. It can be modeled by the three capacitances Cgs, Cgd, Cgb. The values
of these capacitances are as follows :
i. When the MOSFET is operating in the triode region at small vDS,
the channel will be of uniform depth, thus,
1
Cgs = Cgd = WL Cox (triode region)
2
ii. When the MOSFET operates in saturation, the channel has a tapered
shape and is pinched off at or near the drain end, thus,
2
Cgs = WL Cox (saturation region)
3
Cgd =0
iii. When the MOSFET is cut off, the channel disappears, and thus,
Cgs = Cgd = 0
Cgb = WL Cox (cut-off region)
iv. There is an additional small capacitive component that should be
added to Cgs and Cgd. If the overlap length is denoted Lov, the overlap
capacitance component is
Cov = WLov Cox
b. The junction capacitances :
1. For the source diffusion, we have the source body capacitance, Csb,
Csb0
Csb =
VSB
1
V0
where Csb0 is the value of Csb at zero body source bias, VSB is the
magnitude of the reverse bias voltage and V0 is the junction
built-in-voltage.
2. Similarly for the drain diffusion, the drain-body capacitance Cdb,
Cdb0
Cdb =
VDB
1
V0
where Cdb0 is the capacitance value at zero reverse-bias voltage
and VDB is the magnitude of the reverse-bias voltage.
e. Explain the working principle and V-I characteristics of
Zener diode.
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Ans.
1. Zener diode is a reverse-biased heavily doped p-n-junction diode
which is operated in the breakdown region. Fig. 4 shows the symbol
of zener diode.
+ –
Cathode
Anode
Fig. 4. Zener diode.
2. When a zener diode is forward biased, its characteristics are just
same as the ordinary diode and it is shown in Fig. 5.
IF(mA)
VZ O
VR +V F
IZ(A)
Fig. 5. V-I characteristic of zener diode.
3. When zener diode is reverse biased then it gives constant current
upto a certain voltage. When the reverse bias voltage is increased
beyond that voltage, the current increased rapidly as shown in
Fig. 5.
4. The cut-off value of voltage beyond which zener diode reverse
current increases rapidly is called zener voltage VZ or breakdown
voltage.
5. The breakdown or zener voltage depends upon the amount of
doping.
6. A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant
voltage to a load.
SECTION-C
3. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Derive the expression for Schrodinger wave equation.
Ans. Schrodinger’s equation :
Schrodinger’s equation which is the fundamental equation of
quantum mechanics is a wave equation in the variable .
A. Time Independent Schrodinger Wave Equation :
1. Consider a system of stationary wave to be associated with particle
and the position coordinate of the particle (x, y, z) and is the
periodic displacement of any instant time ‘t’.
2. The general wave equation in 3-D in differential form is :
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1 2
2 = ...(1)
v 2 t 2
where, v = velocity of wave, and
2 2 2
2 = 2
2 2 = Laplacian operator.
x y z
3. The wave function may be written as
= oe – it ...(2)
4. Differentiate eq. (2) with respect to time, we get
= – i oe – it ...(3)
t
5. Again differentiating eq. (3)
2
= + i2 2 oe – it
t 2
2
= – 2 ...(4)
t 2
6. Putting these value in eq. (1),
2
2 = ...(5)
v2
2 v 2
7. But = 2 = =
v
8. Eq. (5) becomes
4 2
2 = – ...(6)
2
h
9. From de-Broglie’s wavelength, =
mv
4 2 m2 v 2
then 2 = ...(7)
h2
10. If E and V are the total and potential energies of a particle and Ek is
kinetic energy, then
1
Ek = E – V or mv2 = E – V or m2v2 = 2m (E – V)
2
11. Now eq. (7) becomes
4 2 2m[ E V ] h
2 = 2 Since h 2
h
2m[ E V ]
2 + =0 ...(8)
2
This is required time-independent Schrodinger wave equation.
12. For free particle (V = 0)
2m
2 + E = 0
2
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b. What is the principle of Heisenberg uncertainty and why is
it important ? Write its applications.
Ans.
A. Heisenberg uncertainty principle :
1. According to this principle, “It is impossible to determine the exact
position and momentum of a particle simultaneously”.
2. If x and p are the uncertain position and momentum of particle
then according to this principle
h
x p
2
or x p
h
where =
2
The product of uncertainty position and uncertainty momentum of
particle is greater than or equal to h/2.
3. Relation between uncertainty energy E and uncertainty time t
is
h
Et
2
4. If and J are uncertainty angular position and angular
momentum then
h
J
2
x small
x
p large
x
Narrow wave packet x large
(a) p small
Wide wave packet
(b)
Fig. 6.
B. Application and important :
a. Non-existence of Electrons in the nucleus :
1. We know that the radius of nucleus is the order of 10 – 14 m.
2. If an electron is confined within nucleus the uncertainty position of
electron is
x = 2 × 10 – 14 m
3. Now according to uncertainty principle,
h
x p
2
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h 6.63 10 34
and p =
2x 2 2 10 14
= 5.276 × 10 – 21 kg m/s
x
Fig. 7.
4. Using relativistic formula for the energy of the electron
E2 = p2 c2 + mo2 c4
As the rest energy moc2 of an electron is of the order of 0.511 MeV,
which is much smaller than the value of first term.
5. Hence the second term is neglected therefore,
E2 = p2 c2
E = pc = (5.276 × 10 – 21) × (3 × 108) J
21
5.276 10 3 108
E= 19
eV 9.9 MeV
1.6 10
6. Thus, if an electron exists inside the nucleus then its energy should
be of the order of 9.9 MeV. But the experiment shows that no
electron in the atom possesses kinetic energy greater than 4 MeV.
7. Hence, no electron can exist inside the nucleus.
b. Binding energy of an electron in atom :
1. The uncertainty in position x of an electron is of order of 2R,
where R is radius of orbit.
2. The corresponding uncertainty in its momentum is
h
p
2.2 R
R = 10 – 10 m
then p 0.527 × 10 – 24 kg-m/s
3. Kinetic energy of electron is
2
p2 h 1 h2
Ek =
2m0 4 R 2mo 32 mo R22
4. Potential energy of electron in electrostatic field of the nucleus is
Ze2
V=
4 R
5. So the total energy of its orbit will be
E = Ek + V
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h2 Ze2
= 2 2
32 mo R 4 o R
(6.63 10 34 )2
=
32 (3.14)2 9.1 10 31 R2
19 2
Z(1.6 10 )
–
4 3.14 8.85 10 12 R
10 20 15 10 10 Z
E= 2
eV
R R
Taking R = 10 – 10 m
E = (1 – 15Z) eV
6. Now the binding energy of outermost electron in H is – 13.6 eV
7. For H atom
E = (1 – 15) = – 14 eV ( for H atom, Z = 1)
It is very near to – 13.6 eV.
8. Hence, binding energy of an electron can be calculated.
c. Radius of Bohr’s first orbit :
1. The energy of electron in a hydrogen atom is given by
p2 (– e2 )
E = KE + PE = ...(1)
2m0 4 0 x
where x is the distance between the electron and the centre of the
nucleus.
2. Eq. (1) in terms of uncertainty can be expressed as
(p)2 e2
E = – ...(2)
2m0 40 x
3. Using the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
px ...(3)
4. Putting equation (3) in equation (2)
( ) 2 e2
E = 2
– ...(4)
2m0 (x) 4 0 x
5. For minimum energy (i.e., for ground state) of electron,
( E)
=0
(x)
2 e2
–
(x) 2m0 (x)
2
4 0 x = 0
2 e2
( x)–2 – (x) –1 = 0
(x) 2m0 4 0
2 e2
–2 ( x)–3 ( x)–2 = 0
2m0 40
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2 e2
– 3
=0
m0 (x) 40 (x)2
2 e2
3
=
m0 (x) 40 (x)2
4 0 2
x =
m0 e2
6. For this value of x,
2 (E)
0
( (x))2
7. Hence for the given value of x the value of E will give the
minimum or ground state energy of an electron, i.e.,
( )2 e2
Emin = [ E ] 4 0 2
2
–
x
m0 e2 2m0 (x) 40 x x 4 02
2
m0 e
( ) 2
e 2
i.e., Emin = – 2
2 2 4
2m 4 0 4 0
0
0 2 m0 e2
m 0 e
m0 e4 m0 e4
Emin = –
32 0 162 20 2
2 2 2
– m0 e4
Emin =
322 20 2
8. This is the required expression for the minimum or ground state
energy of an electron in the hydrogen atom.
9. Also, the value of x for which the ground state energy of an
electron is obtained gives the value of radius for the first Bohr’s
orbit.
10. This value is known as Bohr’s radius and it is denoted by r0.
11. Thus the Bohr’s radius is given by
4 0 2
r0 = x =
m0 e2
12. Using the values of m, e and , we get
4 3.14 (8.85 10 – 12) (1.054 10 – 34 )2
r0 =
(9.1 10 – 31 ) (1.6 10 – 19)2
= 0.53 Å
4. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
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a. What do you mean by Fermi level ? Discuss the effect of
temperature and doping on mobility.
Ans.
A. Fermi level : It is the energy state having probability of half of
being occupied by an electron.
B. Effect of temperature on mobility :
The mobility is determined by scattering of the carriers. Scattering
mechanism influence electron and hole mobility.
3/2 – 3/2
(cm 2 / V-s)
T T
log scale
Lattice
Impurity
T(K)
log scale
Fig. 8.
i. Lattice scattering :
1. If scattering occurs due to vibrations of lattice atom then it is
called lattice scattering.
2. As the temperature increases, the frequency of lattice vibration
increases. As a result, the mobility decreases.
3. The approximate temperature dependency is given by T – 3/2 as
shown in Fig. 8.
ii. Impurity scattering :
1. If scattering occurs under the influence of interaction with impurity
atoms, it is called impurity scattering.
2. Such scattering dominates at low temperature. At low temperature
the thermal motion of carriers is slow. So, there is an increase in
mobility () as the temperature increases. The dependency is
expressed by T3/2 as shown in Fig. 8.
b. Draw the schematic band diagram of Fermi level, density of
states, Fermi-Dirac distribution function, and carrier
concentrations for intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor.
Ans.
1. The Fermi-Dirac distribution function can be used to calculate the
concentrations of electrons and holes in a semiconductor, if the
densities of available states in the valence and conduction bands
are known.
2. The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is
n0 = f ( E) N ( E) dE ...(1)
EC
where N(E) dE is the density of states in the energy range (cm– 3)
dE. The electron and hole concentration symbol (n0, p0) indicates
equilibrium conditions.
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3. The number of electrons per unit volume in the energy range dE is
the product of the density of states and the probability of occupancy
f(E).
4. Thus the total electron concentration is the integral over the entire
conduction band, as in eq. (1).
5. N(E) is proportional to E1/2, so the density of states in the conduction
band increases with electron energy.
6. On the other hand, the fermi function becomes extremely small for
large energies. This result that the product f(E) N(E) decreases
rapidly above EC, and very few electrons occupy energy states far
above the conduction band edge.
7. Similarly, the probability of finding an empty state (hole) in the
valence band [1 – f(E)] decreases rapidly below E, and most holes
occupy states near the top of the valence band.
8. This effect is demonstrated in Fig. 9, which shows the fermi function,
and the resulting number of electrons and holes occupying available
energy states in the conduction and valence bands at thermal
equilibrium.
E E
Electrons
EC EC
EF
Ev Ev
Holes
(a) Intrinsic
EC EC
EF
Ev Ev
(b) n-type
N(E) f(E)
EC EC
EF
Ev Ev
N(E) [1 – f(E)]
(c) p-type
0 0.5 1.0 Carrier
f(E) concentration
Fig. 9. Schematic band diagram, Fermi-Dirac distribution,
and the carrier concentration for (a) intrinsic, (b) n-type
(c) p-type at thermal equilibrium.
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9. The conduction band electron concentration is the effective density
of state (NC) at EC times the probability of occupancy at EC.
n0 = Ncf(Ec) ...(2)
10. In this expression we assume the fermi level EF lies at least several
kT below the conduction band. Then the exponential term is large
compared with unity, and the fermi function f(EC) can be simplified
as
1
f(EC) = e – [(EC – EF)/kT] ...(3)
1 e( EC EF ) / kT
Since kT at room temperature is only 0.026 eV.
11. For this condition the concentration of electrons in the conduction
band is,
n0 = NCe– (EC – EF) / kT ...(4)
Here, the effective density of states NC is,
3/ 2
2mn* kT
NC = 2
h2
m*n is the density-of-states effective mass for electrons.
12. The concentration of holes in the valence band is
p0 = Nv[1 – f(Ev)] ...(5)
where Nv is the effective density of states in the valence band.
13. The probability of finding an empty state at Ev is
1
1 – f(Ev) = 1 – e – (EF – Ev)/kT ...(6)
1 e( Ev EF ) / kT
for EF larger than Ev by several kT.
14. So, the concentration of holes in the valence band is
p0 = Nve– (EF – Ev)/kT ...(7)
15. The effective density of states in the valence band reduced to the
band edge is
3/ 2
2m*p kT
Nv = 2
h2
5. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Explain and draw the s mall signal models of MOS
transistor.
Ans.
1. For this purpose, we utilize the conceptual common source amplifier
circuit shown in Fig. 10.
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VDD
iD RD
vD
+ +
vgs
– vGS
VGS –
Fig. 10. Conceptual circuit.
2. For the circuit, the DC bias current ID can be given by setting the
signal vgs = 0,
1 W
ID =
kn (VGS Vt )2 ...(1)
2 L
and VD = VDD – RD ID ...(2)
3. Now, consider, vGS = vgs + VGS resulting in a total instantaneous
drain current iD,
1 W
iD = kn (VGS vgs Vt )2
2 L
1 W W 1 W
=
2
kn
L
VGS Vt 2 kn
L
VGS Vt vgs 2 kn L vgs2 ...(3)
DC bias current ID current proportional current proportional to
to vgs v2gs (non-linear distortion)
4. To reduce non-linear distortion the input signal is kept small so
that,
1 W 2 << W
kn vgs kn (VGS Vt ) vgs
2 L L
vgs << 2 VOV ( VOV = VGS – Vt)
If this small signal condition is satisfied, we may neglect 3rd term
from eq. (3).
iD ID + id ...(4)
5. Transconductance : The parameter that relates id and vgs is the
MOSFET transconductance gm.
i W
gm = d kn (V Vt )
vgs L GS
W 2I D
or gm = kn VOV = 2kn (W / L) I D
L Vov
6. The voltage gain :
1. From Fig. 10,
vD = VDD – RD iD = VDD – RD (ID + id)
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vD = VD – RD id
2. Thus, the signal component of the drain voltage is
vd = – id RD = – gm vgs RD
vd
3. Voltage gain, Av = = – g m RD
vgs
C. Small-signal Equivalent-circuit models :
1. In Fig. 11(a), FET is replaced by equivalent circuit model and ideal
constant DC voltage sources are replaced by short circuits. This
resulting circuit can be used to perform signal analysis for example
calculating voltage gain.
2. Fig. 11(b) shows one extra ro, this is one of the shortcomings of
small signal model as it assumes that ID in saturation is independent
of drain voltage.
vd
Av = = – gm (RD || ro)
vgs
G D G D
+ +
vgs vgs
gmvgs gmvgs ro
– –
S S
( a) ( b)
Fig. 11.
b. Explain the working principle and characteristics of
following :
i. LED
ii. Solar cell
Ans.
i. LED : LED is a special type of semiconductor p-n junction that
under forward bias emits external radiations in ultraviolet, visible
and infrared regions of electromagnetic spectrum.
Construction of LED :
1. LED is just not an ordinary p-n junction diode where silicon is used.
Here we use compound having elements like gallium, arsenic and
phosphorus which are semitransparent unlike silicon which is
opaque.
3. In all semiconductor p-n junctions, some of its energy will be given
off as heat and some in the form of photons.
4. In the materials, such as gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) or
gallium phosphide (GaP), the number of photons of light energy
emitted is sufficient to create a visible light source.
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Recombination Light O/P
+ –
Symbol
p Depletion n
region
R
+ –
V CC
Fig. 12.
Principle of LED :
1. The process involves :
i. Ge neratio n o f electron-hole pair (EHP) by e xcitation of
semiconductor.
ii. Recombination of EHP.
iii. Extraction of photons from the semiconductor.
2. The characteristic for LED is given in Fig. 13.
12
Radiated light (mW)
10
8
6
4
2
If (mA)
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. 13. Characteristics.
Working :
1. When LED is in forward bias condition, the electrons from n-type
material cross the p-n junction and recombines with holes in the
p-type material.
2. When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release
energy in the form of heat and light.
3. The emission depends upon the type of material, i.e.,
GaAs infrared radiation (invisible)
GaP red or green light (visible)
GaAsP red or yellow light (visible).
ii. Solar cell :
1. Solar cells are semiconductor junction devices which are used for
converting optical radiation into electrical energy.
2. The generated electric voltage is proportional to the intensity of
incident light. Due to their capability of generating voltage, they
are called photovoltaic cells.
3. Silicon is the most widely used material for solar cells.
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Construction :
1. The construction of a solar cell is shown in Fig. 14.
2. The p-type layer is made thin to intercept the light radiation falling
on the junction. The doping of p-type material is very high.
Incident sun rays +
Glass
+
p+
Junction
VCC
n-type
–
–
Symbol
Metallic
Fig. 14.
3. p-type is surrounded by a nickel plated ring which serves as
positive terminal and the contact at bottom acts as a negative
terminal.
Working :
1. When photons are incident on surface, it releases sufficient energy
to the electrons to leave its orbit.
2. As a result, free electrons and holes are created. These free
electrons and holes constitute the minority current.
3. In this way, depletion region potential causes the photo current to
flow through the external load.
6. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Explain Ebers-Moll model.
Ans.
1. The Ebers-Moll model of an npn transistor is shown in Fig. 15.
C
iC
DC iDC iDE
B
iB
DE iDE iDC
iE
E
Fig. 15. The Ebers-Moll (EM) model of the npn transistor.
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2. According to Ebers and Moll, this composite model can be used to
predict the operation of the BJT in all of its possible modes.
3. The expression for the current at each of the three nodes of the
model is as follows :
iE = iDE – RiDC ...(1)
iC = – iDC + F iDE ...(2)
iB = (1 – F) iDE + (1 – R) iDC ...(3)
4. Using diode equation, iDE and iDC can be expressed as
iDE = I SE ( evBE / VT 1) ...(4)
iDC = I SC ( evBC / VT 1) ...(5)
5. Substituting the values of iDE and iDC in eq. (1), (2) and (3), we get
I
iE = S ( evBE / VT 1) I S ( evBC / VT 1) ...(6)
F
I S vBC / VT
iC = I S (evBE / VT 1) (e 1) ...(7)
R
I I
iB = S (evBE / VT 1) S (evBC / VT 1) ...(8)
F R
F R
where, F = and R
1 F 1 R
6. If evBC / VT is very small and can be neglected then
I 1
iE S evBE / VT I S 1 ...(9)
F F
iC I S evBE / VT IS 1 1 ...(10)
R
I 1 1
iB S evBE / VT – IS ...(11)
F F R
b. Explain Schottky diode in detail and also write its
applications.
Ans. Schottky diode :
Construction :
1. Fig. 16 shows the symbol and cross-sectional view of a Schottky
diode. It is a metal-semiconductor junction diode without depletion
layer.
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Anode (+)
Metal contact
SiO2 (rectifying)
screen
Metal
semiconductor
n-type Si
junction
+
n
Metal contact
Cathode (–) (ohmic)
(a) Cross-sectional view
Metal
+ –
N
(b) Symbol
Fig. 16. Schottky diode.
2. On one side of the junction a metal (like gold, silver, platinum or tungsten,
etc.) is used and on the other side the n-type doped semiconductor is
used.
3. p-type of material can also be used for device fabrication.
4. A layer of metal is deposited on a thin epitaxial layer of n-type
silicon. For protection purpose the metal layer is surrounded by
gold or silver leaf (thin sheet).
5. The metal film forms the positive electrode (anode) and the
semiconductor is the cathode.
Working :
1. The operation of Schottky diode is due to the fact that electrons in
different materials have different absolute potential energies.
2. n-type semiconductor electrons have higher potential energy as
compared to electrons of metal.
3. When the two are brought in contact, there is flow of electrons in
both directions across the metal-semiconductor interface when the
contact is first made.
4. The flux of electrons from the semiconductor into the metal is
much larger due to higher absolute potential energy.
5. As a result, the metal will become negatively charged and the
semiconductor will acquire a positive charge.
6. The net result is a “Surface barrier” between the two materials
which prevents any further current.
7. It is much like but not exactly the depletion layer in the p-n diode.
8. At this point, the thermal equilibrium is established. There are no
minority carriers (holes in this case) in establishing the equilibrium.
9. This is the major difference between a Schottky diode and a p-n
junction diode.
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10. Schottky diodes are termed majority-carrier devices and p-n
junctions are labelled minority carrier devices or bipolar devices
(since they use both electrons and holes in their basic operation).
11. Now a voltage is applied to the Schottky diode such that metal is
positive with respect to the semiconductor.
12. This voltage will oppose the built-in potential and makes it easier
for the current to flow.
13. Biasing the metal negative with respect to the semiconductor
increases the potential barrier to majority-carrier current flow.
14. Thus, the metal-se mico nductors junction has rectifying
characteristics similar to those of a p-n junction.
Application :
1. Voltage clamping and clipping circuits.
2. Reverse current and discharge protection.
3. Rectify high frequencies signal.
4. Low power TTL logic.
7. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)
a. Using the concept of diffusion and drift of carriers derive
the continuity equation and diffusion length.
Ans. Diffusion carrier : Diffusion carrier is due to the thermal energy
which causes the carriers to move at random even when no field is
applied.
Drift carrier : When an electrical field is applied to a semiconductor,
the carriers will move at a velocity that is proportional to the
magnitude of the field.
Continuity equation :
1. Consider a differential length x of a semiconductor sample with
area A in the yz-plane.
2. The hole current density leaving the volume, Jp(x + x), can be
larger orsmaller than the current density entering, Jp(x), depending
on the generation and recombination of carriers taking place within
the volume.
3. The net increase in hole concentration per unit time, p/t, is the
difference between the hole flux per unit volume entering and
leaving, minus the recombination rate.
4. We can convert hole current density to hole particle flux density by
dividing Jp by q.
5. The current densities are already expressed per unit area, thus
dividing Jp(x)/q by x gives the number of carriers per unit volume
entering xA per unit time, and (1/q)Jp(x + x)/x is the number
leaving per unit volume and time.
p 1 J p ( x) J p ( x x) p
= –
t x x x q x p
Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–28 A (EC-Sem-3)
www.aktutor.in
Rate of hole buildup increase of hole recombination rate
concentration in xA
per unit time ...(1)
5. As x approaches zero, we can write the current change in derivation
form,
p( x, t) p 1 J P p
= ...(2)
t t q x p
6. The eq. (2) is called the continuity equation for holes. For electrons
we can write,
n 1 Jn n
= ...(3)
t q x n
7. Since the electronic charge is negative.
x
Jp(x + x)
J p(x)
x + x
x
Area, A cm2
Fig. 17.
b. Derive an expression for diode current in p-n junction diode.
Ans. Diode current equation :
1. The hole diffusion current at any point xn in the n-region can be
obtained with the help of following expression
dp( xn )
Ip(xn) = – qADp
dxn
d x /L
Ip(xn) = – qADp {[ pn ( eqV / kT 1)]e n p }
dxn
Dp xn / Lp
= qA [ pn (e qV / kT 1) e ]
Lp
Dp
Ip(xn = 0) = qA [pn(eqV/kT – 1)]
Lp
2. Similarly, the electron current injected into p-region at the junction
is given by
Electronic Devices SP–29 A (EC-Sem-3)
www.aktutor.in
Dn
In(xp = 0) = – qA [np (eqV/kT – 1)]
Ln
3. If we take + x-direction as the reference direction for total current,
we have :
I = Ip(xn = 0) – In(xp = 0)
Dp Dn
= qA qV/kT – 1)] + qA qV/
L [pn (e L [np (e
p n
kT – 1)]
Dp D
= qA pn n np [eqV/kT – 1]
Lp Ln
I = I0 [eqV/kT – 1]
4. The current can also be calculated for reverse bias by letting V = –
Vr
Dp D
I = qA pn n n p (e qVr / kT 1)
L
p L n
5. If Vr is larger than a few kT/q, the total current is just the reverse
saturation current.
Dp D
I = – qA pn n n p = – I0
Lp Ln
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