Module 4 18ELN14

Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electronics–18ELN14
Syllabus: BJT as an amplifier, BJT as a Switch, Transistor switch circuit to switch ON/OFF an LED
and a lamp in a power circuit using a relay. Feedback Amplifiers- Principle, Properties and
advantages of negative Feedback, Types of Feedback, Voltage Series feedback, Gain stability with
feedback. Oscillators- Barkhaunsen’s criteria for Oscillation, RC phase Shift Oscillator, Wein Bridge
Oscillator, IC 555 Timer and Astable Oscillator using IC555.
Module-4
BJT Applications, Feedback Amplifiers and Oscillator
BJT as an amplifier
 Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude of an electrical signal and
is one of the major properties of a transistor. When a BJT is biased in the active (or linear)
region, as the Base Emitter junction has a low resistance due to forward bias and the BC
junction has a high resistance due to reverse bias.
DC and AC Quantities
 Before discussing the concept of transistor amplification, the designations that we will use
for the circuit quantities of current, voltage, and resistance must be explained because
amplifier circuits have both dc and ac quantities.
 The italic capital letters are used for both dc and ac currents (I) and voltages (V). This rule
applies to rms, average, peak, and peak-to-peak ac values. AC current and voltage values are
always rms unless stated otherwise.
 Although some texts use lowercase I and v for ac current and voltage, we reserve the use of
lowercase i and v only for instantaneous values.DC quantities always carry an uppercase
roman (nonitalic) subscript. For example, IB, IC, and IE are the dc transistor currents. VBE,
VCB, and VCE are the dc voltages from one transistor terminal to another. Single subscripted
voltages such as VB, VC, and VE are dc voltages from the transistor terminals to ground. AC
and all time-varying quantities always carry a lowercase italic subscript.
For example,
 Ib, Ic, and Ie are the ac transistor currents. Vbe, Vcb, and Vce are the ac voltages from one
transistor terminal to another. Single subscripted voltages such as Vb, Vc, and Ve are ac
voltages from the transistor terminals to ground.
 The rule is different for internal transistor resistances. As you will see later, transistors have
internal ac resistances that are designated by lowercase with an appropriate subscript. For
example RE is an external dc emitter resistance and Re is an external ac emitter resistance.
Voltage Amplification
 As a transistor amplifies current because the collector current is equal to the base current
multiplied by the current gain, b. The base current in a transistor is very small compared to
the collector and emitter currents.
 Because of this, the collector current is approximately equal to the emitter current. An ac
voltage, Vs, is superimposed on the dc bias voltage VBB by capacitive coupling as shown. The
dc bias voltage VCC is connected to the collector through the collector resistor, RC. The ac
input voltage produces an ac base current, which results in a much larger ac collector
current.
 The ac collector current produces an ac voltage across RC, thus producing an amplified, but
inverted, reproduction of the ac input voltage in the active region of operation
 The forward-biased base-emitter junction presents a very low resistance to the ac signal.
This internal ac emitter resistance is designated in Figure and appears in series with RB.
The ac base voltage is
Prepared by: Santha Moorthy S Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 1
Vb can be considered the transistor ac input voltage where Vb Vs IbRB. Vc can be considered
the transistor ac output voltage. Since voltage gain is defined as the ratio of the output.
voltage to the input voltage, the ratio of Vc to Vb is the ac voltage gain, Av, of the transistor.
Since RC is always considerably larger in value than , the output voltage for this configuration is
greater than the input voltage
Prepared by: N.Bhuvaneswari Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 2

BJT as a Switch
The second major application area is switching applications. When used as an electronic switch, a
BJT is normally operated alternately in cutoff and saturation. Many digital circuits use the BJT as a
switch
Switching Operation
 In part (a), the transistor is in the cutoff region because the base-emitter junction is not
forward-biased. In this condition, there is, ideally, an open between collector and emitter, as
indicated by theswitch equivalent.
 In part (b), the transistor is in the saturation region because the base emitter junction and
the base-collector junction are forward-biased and the base current is made large enough to
cause the collector current to reach its saturation value.
 In this condition, there is, ideally, a short between collector and emitter, as indicated by the
switch equivalent. Actually, a small voltage drop across the transistor of up to a few tenths of
a volt normally occurs, which is the saturation voltage, VCE(sat)
Conditions in Cutoff
As mentioned before, a transistor is in the cutoff region when the base-emitter junction is not
forward-biased. Neglecting leakage current, all of the currents are zero, and VCE is equal to VCC.
Conditions in Saturation
As you have learned, when the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and there is enough base
current to produce a maximum collector current, the transistor is saturated. The formula for
collector saturation current is
Since VCE(sat) is very small compared to VCC, it can usually be neglected.
The minimum value of base current needed to produce saturation is
Normally, IB should be significantly greater than IB(min) to ensure that the transistor is saturated.
A Simple Application of a Transistor Switch
 The transistor in Figure 4–25 is used as a switch to turn the LED on and off.
 For example, a square wave input voltage with a period of 2 s is applied to the input as
indicated. When the square wave is at 0 V, the transistor is in cutoff; and since there is no
collector current, the LED does not emit light.
 When the square wave goes to its high level, the transistor saturates. These forward-biases
the LED, and the resulting collector current through the LED causes it to emit light. Thus, the
LED is on for 1 second and off for 1 second.

Feedback Amplifiers
 The voltage or current output is fed back to the input through a modifying network which
determines the magnitude and phase
 There are two types of feedback in amplifier.
• Positive feedback
• Negative feedback
1. Positive Feedback: In positive feedback, the feedback energy (voltage or currents), is in phase
with the input signal and thus aids it. Positive feedback increases gain of the amplifier also
increases distortion, noise and instability. Because of these disadvantages, positive feedback is
seldom employed in amplifiers. But the positive feedback is used in oscillators.
2. Negative Feedback: In negative feedback, the feedback energy (voltage or current), is out of
phase with the input signal and thus opposes it. Negative feedback reduces gain of the amplifier. It
also reduce distortion, noise and instability. This feedback increases bandwidth and improves
input and output impedances. Due to these advantages, the negative feedback is frequently used in
amplifiers.
The important advantage of negative feedback is that the resultant gain of the amplifier can be
made independent of transistor parameters or the supply voltage variations.
Af = (A) /(1+ Aβ)
The voltage gain with positive feedback amplifier
Af = (A) /(1- Aβ)
Properties of Negative Feedback Amplifier
1. Desensitize the gain
It brings the stability to amplifier by making gain less sensitive to all kind of variations
2. Reduce Non Linear Distortion
The negative feedback makes the output proportional to the input
3. Reduce the Effect of Noise
It minimize the un wanted contribution of electric signals. this noise may be generated by the circuit
components or by external interference
4. Control the input and output impedance
It increases or decreases the input and output impedance .this is done by choosing appropriate feed back
topology
5. Extend the bandwidth of amplifier
By incorporating negative feedback the bandwidth can be increased
Advantages of Negative Feedback

1.Gain Stability
2.Significant extension of bandwidth
3.very less distortions
4. Decreased output Resistance

5. Stable operating point

6. Reduces Noise and other interference in Amplifier
All the advantages are on cost of reduced gain of an amplifier and hence in negative feedback there
is always tradeoff between amplifier gain and other desirable properties
Comparisons between positive and negative feedback Amplifier
Types of feed back

The feedback amplifiers can be classified according to mixing and sampling employed to it as follows:
1. Voltage series feedback amplifier
2. Current series feedback amplifier
3. Current shunt feedback amplifier
4. Voltage shunt feedback amplifier
Voltage Series Feedback Amplifier: This uses output voltage sampling and series mixing.
Current Series Feedback Amplifier: This uses output current sampling and series
mixing. Current Shunt Feedback Amplifier: This uses output current sampling and shunt
mixing. Voltage Shunt Feedback Amplifier: This uses output voltage sampling and shunt
mixing
Voltage series feedback amplifier
From the above figure, the gain of the amplifier is represented as A. the gain of the amplifier is the
ratio of output voltage V o to the input voltage V i. the feedback network extracts a voltage V f = β
Vo from the output Vo of the amplifier.
This voltage is added for negative feedback, from the signal voltage V s. Now,
Vi=Vin - βVo
V0=AVi=AVin-AβV0
Re orgranising ,we get
Af = (A) /(1+ Aβ)
The input impedance with feedback Zif = Zi(1+βA),Increases
The output impedance with feedback Zof = Zo
/(1+βA),decreases
The product of Aβ is much greater than unity. Therefore in above relation can be neglected as
compared to Aβ. Then, the expression becomes.
Af = (A / Aβ) = (1 / β)
It may see that the gain now depends only upon feedback fraction β. The Feedback circuit is usually
resistive network.
Gain and bandwidth of feedback Amplifier
In RC Coupled Amplifiers ,the gain reduces at low frequency and high frequency end.So Aβ is
no longer much more than unity.as a result the percent reduction in gain is less at the two
frequency ends compare to the mid band.
f1 <<f2 and f1f<<f2f therefore
BW=f2
BWf=f2f
It can be shown that
A0f2 = A0ff2f = Constant product of gain bandwidth

Gain stability with feedback

The over all gain with negative feedback is given by
Af = (A) /(1+ Aβ)
Differentiation of above equation leads to
dAf / Af = (dA/A) * 1/(1+ Aβ)

dAf / Af = (dA/A)*1 /(Aβ) for βA >>1
this shows the relative change( dA / A)in the basic amplifier gain is reduced by the factor βA in the
relative change (dAf / Af )in the overall gain of the feedback amplifier.
Oscillators
Introduction to Oscillators
 the main statement of the oscillator is that the oscillation is achieved through positive
feedback which generates the output signal without input signal. Also, the voltage gain of the
amplifier increases with the increase in the amount of positive feedback.
 In order to understand this concept, let us consider a non-inverting amplifier with a voltage
gain ‘A’ and a positive feedback network with feedback gain of β as shown in figure.
Amplifier gain = Af = (A) /(1+ Aβ)

If β is adjusted such that βA = -1 = 1 < -1800
The gain tends to become infinity for modulus of Aβ slightly more than unity.the circuit become
self oscillatory with no input Vin = 0
Sustained Oscillations
Sustained oscillations are nothing but oscillations which oscillate with constant amplitude and
frequency. Based on the Barkhausen criterion sustained oscillations are produced when the
magnitude of loop gain or modulus of A β is equal to one and total phase shift around the loop is 0
degrees or 360 ensuring positive feedback.
Growing Type of Oscillations
If modulus of A β or the magnitude of loop gain is greater than unity and total phase shift
around the loop is 0 or 360 degrees, then the oscillations produced by the oscillator are of
growing type. The below figure shows the oscillator output with increasing amplitude of
oscillations.
Exponentially Decaying Oscillations: If modulus of A β or the magnitude of loop gain is less than
unity and total phase shift around the loop is 0 or 360 degrees, then the amplitude of the
oscillations decreases exponentially and finally these oscillations will cease.

Barkhausen Criterion:
1. Sustained oscillations are produced in a sinusoidal oscillators at a frequency for which the total
phase shift introduced, as the signal travels from the input terminal through the basic amplifier,
feedback network and mixing network back to the input terminals its precisely zero or a integral
multiple of 2π radians.
2. Sustained oscillations are not produced if at the oscillation frequency the magnitude of the loop
gain i.e., the product of the transfer gain A, of amplifer and magnitude of the feedback factor β of
the feedback network is less than unity.
Requisites of an Oscillator
1.Tank Circuit:
It consists of inductor connected in parallel with capacitor C. The frequency of oscillations in the
circuit depends upon the values of inductance (L) and capacitace (C). In RC oscillators inductor
replaced by resistor(R).
2. Transistor Amplifier:
The transistor amplifier receives d.c power from the battery and changes it into a.c. power for
supplying to the tank circuit. The oscillations occurring in the tank circuit are applied to the input
of the transistor amplifier. The amplified output of oscillations is due to the d.c. power supplied
by the battery. The output of the transistor can be supplied the tank circuit to meet the losses.
3. Feedback Circuit:
The feedback circuit supplies a part of collector energy to the tank circuit in correct phase to aid
the oscillations i.e., it provides positive feedback. In oscillator is to satisfy Barkhausen criteria has
to get sustained oscillations.
Classification of Oscillator
1.Based on Operating Principle

 Negative Resistance Effect Oscillations
 Feedback Oscillations
2. Based on wave forms
 Sinusoidal Oscillations
 Relaxation Oscillations
3. Based on frequency generation
 AF Oscillations
 RF Oscillations
 UHF Oscillations
 Microwave Oscillations
4. According to Circuit employed.
 LC Oscillations
 RC Oscillations
Phase Shift Oscillator
It is achieved by RC network .
RC Phase Shift Oscillator
 The RC phase shift oscillator consists of an amplifier and a feedback network consisting of
resistors and capacitors arranged in ladder fashion. RC network forms the basis whose phase angle
is adjusted in practice equal to 60º. RC network is used in the feedback path.
 In oscillators feedback must introduce a phase shift of 180º to obtain a total phase shift around a
loop as 360º.
 As one RC network produces a phase shift of 60º, it is necessary to use to three such RC networks
in cascade to get a phase shift of 180º. Op-amp used in inverting mode introduces a phase shift of
180º and these RC networks together produce 180º to get a total phase shift of 360º. Figure shows
the circuit of a RC phase shift oscillator using op-amp.
The op-amp is in inverting mode and its output is given to the feedback network. The output of
feedback network drives the amplifier. It is not necessary that all the three RC sections are
identical so long the total phase shift is 180º. However if non- identical stages are used it is
possible that the total phase shift is 180º for more than one frequency. This may lead to
undesirable inter-modal oscillations. The output waveform is shown in figure.

solving the equations
Wien Bridge Oscillator
One of the most commonly used audio oscillators is the Wien Bridge Oscillator. Op-amp is used
in the non-inverting mode. No phase shift is produced during amplifier stage. As the total phase
shift required is 0º or 2nπ radians, in Wien bridge type no phase shift is needed through
feedback. Figure shows the basic circuit of a Wien bridge oscillator connected between the
amplifier input and the output terminal.

The oscillator consists of a Wien bridge having four arms, connected to the non-inverting
terminal of the op-amp. The amplifier input is supplied from the feedback network. The
resistors in inverting path account for the gain. The Wien Bridge has a series RC network in one
arm and a parallel RC network in the adjoining arm. In the remaining two arms of the bridge,
resistors R1
and Rf are connected. The essential conditions of oscillations are satisfied only when the bridge gets
balanced (at resonance). The output of the amplifier is applied between terminals 1 and 3
which is the input to the feedback network. While the amplifier input is supplied from the
diagonal terminals, which is the output from the feedback network. Thus the amplifier supplies
its own input.
The gain of the op-amp is given by
Assuming all the resistors and capacitors are

same and equal in the reactive leg of the Wien Bridge,
To satisfy Oscillations criteria, it is necessary that the gain of the non-inverting
amplifier be greater than or equal to 3.
Oscillator using IC 555
 A popular Analog –Digital Integrator Circuit is the 555 timer

 The 555 timer is an integrated circuit specifically designed to perform signal generation and
timing functions.
 IC NE/SE 555 is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays.
Commercially The salient features of 555 Timer IC’s are:
 Compatible with both TTL and CMOS logic families.
 The maximum load current can go up to 200 mA.
 The typical power supply is from +5V to +18 V
 The block diagram of a 555 timer is shown in the above figure. A 555 timer has two
comparators, which are basically 2 op-amps), an R-S flip-flop, two transistors and a resistive
network.
 Resistive network consists of three equal resistors and acts as a voltage divider.
Comparator 1 compares threshold voltage with a reference voltage + 2/3 VCC volts.

Comparator 2 compares the trigger voltage with a reference voltage + 1/3 VCC volts.
 Output of both the comparators is supplied to the flip-flop. Flip-flop assumes its state
according to the output of the two comparators. One of the two transistors is a discharge
transistor of which collector is connected to pin 7.
 This transistor saturates or cuts-off according to the output state of the flip-flop. The
saturated transistor provides a discharge path to a capacitor connected externally. Base of
another transistor is connected to a reset terminal. A pulse applied to this terminal resets
the whole timer irrespective of any input.
Working principle
 The internal resistors act as a voltage divider network, providing (2/3)Vcc at the non-
inverting terminal of the upper comparator and (1/3)Vcc at the inverting terminal of the
lower comparator. In most applications, the control input is not used, so that the control
voltage equals +(2/3) VCC.
 Upper comparator has a threshold input (pin 6) and a control input (pin 5). Output of the
upper comparator is applied to set (S) input of the flip-flop. Whenever the threshold voltage
exceeds the control voltage, the upper comparator will set the flip-flop and its output is high.
 A high output from the flip-flop when given to the base of the discharge transistor saturates
it and thus discharges the transistor that is connected externally to the discharge pin 7.
 The complementary signal out of the flip-flop goes to pin 3, the output. The output available
at pin 3 is low. These conditions will prevail until lower comparator triggers the flip-flop.
Even if the voltage at the threshold input falls below (2/3) VCC, that is upper comparator
cannot cause the flip-flop to change again.
 It means that the upper comparator can only force the flip-flop’s output high.
To change the output of flip-flop to low, the voltage at the trigger input must fall below +
(1/3) Vcc. When this occurs, lower comparator triggers the flip-flop, forcing its output low.
 The low output from the flip-flop turns the discharge transistor off and forces the power
amplifier to output a high. These conditions will continue independent of the voltage on the
trigger input. Lower comparator can only cause the flip-flop to output low.
 From the above discussion it is concluded that for the having low output from the timer 555,
the voltage on the threshold input must exceed the control voltage or + (2/3) VCC. This
also turns the discharge transistor on. To force the output from the timer high, the voltage
on the trigger input must drop below +(1/3) VCC. This turns the discharge transistor off.
 A voltage may be applied to the control input to change the levels at which the switching
occurs. When not in use, a 0.01 nano Farad capacitor should be connected between pin 5 and
ground to prevent noise coupled onto this pin from causing false triggering. Connecting the
reset (pin 4) to a logic low will place a high on the output of flip-flop.
 The discharge transistor will go on and the power amplifier will output a low. This condition
will continue until reset is taken high. This allows synchronization or resetting of the
circuit’s operation. When not in use, reset should be tied to +VCC.
Astable multivibrator
 Astable multivibrator is also called as Free Running Multivibrator. It has no stable states and
continuously switches between the two states without application of any external trigger.
The IC 555 can be made to work as an astable multivibrator with the addition of three
external components: two resistors (R1 and R2) and a capacitor (C).
 the pins 2 and 6 are connected and hence there is no need for an external trigger pulse. It
will self trigger and act as a free running multivibrator.
 The rest of the connections are as follows: pin 8 is connected to supply voltage (VCC). Pin 3
is the output terminal and hence the output is available at this pin. Pin 4 is the external reset
pin. A momentary low on this pin will reset the timer. Hence when not in use, pin 4 is usually
tied to VCC.
 The control voltage applied at pin 5 will change the threshold voltage level. But for normal
use, pin 5 is connected to ground via a capacitor (usually 0.01µF), so the external noise from
the terminal is filtered out. Pin 1 is ground terminal. The timing circuit that determines the
width of the output pulse is made up of R1, R2 and C.
Operation
 initially, on power-up, the flip-flop is RESET (and hence the output of the timer is low). As a
result, the discharge transistor is driven to saturation (as it is connected to Q’). The capacitor
C of the timing circuit is connected at Pin 7 of the IC 555 and will discharge through the
transistor. The output of the timer at this point is low.
 The voltage across the capacitor is nothing but the trigger voltage. So while discharging, if
the capacitor voltage becomes less than 1/3 VCC, which is the reference voltage to trigger
comparator (comparator 2), the output of the comparator 2 will become high.
 This will SET the flip-flop and hence the output of the timer at pin 3 goes to HIGH. This high
output will turn OFF the transistor. As a result, the capacitor C starts charging through the
resistors R1 and R2. Now, the capacitor voltage is same as the threshold voltage (as pin 6 is
connected to the capacitor resistor junction).
 While charging, the capacitor voltage increases exponentially towards VCC and the moment
it crosses 2/3 VCC, which is the reference voltage to threshold comparator (comparator 1),
its output becomes high.
 As a result, the flip-flop is RESET. The output of the timer falls to LOW. This low output will
once again turn on the transistor which provides a discharge path to the capacitor. Hence
the capacitor C will discharge through the resistor R2. And hence the cycle continues.
 Thus, when the capacitor is charging, the voltage across the capacitor rises exponentially
and the output voltage at pin 3 is high. Similarly, when the capacitor is discharging, the
voltage across the capacitor falls exponentially and the output voltage at pin 3 is low.
 The shape of the output waveform is a train of rectangular pulses. The waveforms of
capacitor voltage and the output in the astable mode are shown below.

 While charging, the capacitor charges through the resistors R1 and R2. Therefore the
charging time constant is (R1 + R2) C as the total resistance in the charging path is R1 + R2.
 While discharging, the capacitor discharges through the resistor R2 only. Hence the
discharge time constant is R2C.
If TON is the time for high output and T is the time period of one cycle, then the duty cycle D is
given by
D = TON/ T
Therefore, percentage Duty Cycle is given by
%D = (TON / T) * 100
T is sum of TON (charge time) and TOFF (discharge time). The value of TON or the charge time (for
high output) TC is given by
TC = 0.693 * (R1 + R2) C
The value of TOFF or the discharge time (for low output) TD is given by
TD = 0.693 * R2C
Therefore, the time period for one cycle T is given by
T = TON + TOFF = TC + TD
T = 0.693 * (R1 + R2) C + 0.693 * R2C
T = 0.693 * (R1 + 2R2) C
Therefore, %D = (TON/ T) * 100
%D = (0.693 * (R1 + R2) C)/(0.693 * (R1 + 2R2) C) * 100
%D = ((R1 + 2R2))/((R1 + 2R2)) * 100
If T = 0.693 * (R1 + R2) C, then the frequency f is given by
f = 1 / T = 1 / 0.693 * (R1 + 2R2) C
f = 1.44/( (R1 + 2R2) C) Hz
Selection R1, R2 and C1 for different ferquency range are as follow:
R1 and R2 should be in the range 1k to 1M . It is best to Choose C1 first (because capacitors are
available in just a few values) as per the frequency range from the following table. Choose R2 to
give the frequency (f) you require.
R2 = 0.7 /(f × C1)
Choose R1 to be about a tenth of R2 (1k min.)

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Regulation – 2018 (CBCS Scheme) Basic Electronics–18ELN14

Prepared by: N.Bhuvaneswari Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 2

Since VCE(sat) is very small compared to VCC, it can usually be neglected.

The minimum value of base current needed to produce saturation is

A Simple Application of a Transistor Switch

Prepared by: N.Bhuvaneswari Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 4

Advantages of Negative Feedback

Prepared by: N.Bhuvaneswari Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 6

5. Stable operating point

Comparisons between positive and negative feedback Amplifier

Types of feed back

Voltage series feedback amplifier

Prepared by: N.Bhuvaneswari Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 8

Gain stability with feedback

dAf / Af = (dA/A) * 1/(1+ Aβ)

Amplifier gain = Af = (A) /(1+ Aβ)

Growing Type of Oscillations

Prepared by: N.Bhuvaneswari Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 10

1.Based on Operating Principle

Phase Shift Oscillator

RC Phase Shift Oscillator

Prepared by: N.Bhuvaneswari Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 12

solving the equations

Wien Bridge Oscillator

Prepared by: N.Bhuvaneswari Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 14

The gain of the op-amp is given by

Assuming all the resistors and capacitors are

Oscillator using IC 555

 A popular Analog –Digital Integrator Circuit is the 555 timer

Prepared by: N.Bhuvaneswari Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 16

Prepared by: N.Bhuvaneswari Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 18

Prepared by: N.Bhuvaneswari Sri Sairam College of Engineering Anekal. Page | 20

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