Canoe

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Canoe

A canoe is a lightweight narrow water vessel, typically pointed at


both ends and open on top, propelled by one or more seated or
kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel and using a single-
bladed paddle.[1]

In British English, the term canoe can also refer to a kayak,[2]


while canoes are called Canadian or open canoes to distinguish
them from kayaks.

Canoes were developed by cultures all over the world, including


some designed for use with sails or outriggers. Until the mid-19th
century, the canoe was an important means of transport for
exploration and trade, and in some places is still used as such,
sometimes with the addition of an outboard motor. Where the
canoe played a key role in history, such as the Northern United
States, Canada, and New Zealand, it remains an important theme
in popular culture.

Canoes are now widely used for competition and pleasure, such as A B.N. Morris Canoe Company
racing, whitewater, touring and camping, freestyle and general wood-and-canvas canoe built
recreation. Canoeing has been part of the Olympics since 1936. approximately 1912
The intended use of the canoe dictates its hull shape, length, and
construction material. Historically, canoes were dugouts or made
of bark on a wood frame,[3] but construction materials evolved to
canvas on a wood frame, then to aluminum. Most modern canoes
are made of molded plastic or composites such as fiberglass or
those incorporating kevlar, or graphite.

Contents
Birchbark canoe at Abbe Museum in
History Bar Harbor, Maine
Dugouts
Bark canoes
Australia
Americas
Skin canoes
Modern canoes
Hull design
Modern materials and construction
Plastic
Fiber reinforced composites Bark canoe in Australia, Howitt 1904
Aluminum
In culture
Types
Sprint
Slalom and wildwater
Marathon
Touring
Freestyle A family riding a canoe in the
Western Region of Ghana
Square-stern canoe
Canoe launches
Gallery
See also
References
External links

History
The word canoe came into English from the Spanish/Portuguese
word canoa. They in turn had adopted the word from the
Arawakan languages of the Caribbean for a dugout canoe,
kanawa.[1]

Dugouts
Frances Anne Hopkins: Shooting
Many peoples made dugout canoes, by carving out a single piece the Rapids (Quebec) (1879),
of wood; either a whole trunk, or a slab of trunk from particularly Voyageur canoe.
large trees.[4][5]

Constructed between 8200 and 7600 BC, and found in the


Netherlands, the Pesse canoe may be the oldest known canoe.
Excavations in Denmark reveal the use of dugouts and paddles
during the Ertebølle period, (c. 5300–3950 BC).[6]

One of the oldest canoes in the world is the Dufuna canoe in


Nigeria. It is the oldest boat to be discovered in Africa, and the
third oldest known worldwide.[7] The canoe is currently in
Damaturu, the Yobe State capital.[7] Dugout canoe of pirogue type in the
Solomon Islands
Canoes have also played a vital role in the colonisation of the Pre-
Columbian Caribbean as they represented the only possibility of
reaching the Caribbean Islands from mainland South America.[8] Around 3500 BC ancient
Amerindian groups colonised the first Caribbean Islands using single-hulled canoes.[9] Only a very
few Pre-Columbian Caribbean canoes have been found.[10] There are several families of trees that
could have been used to construct Caribbean canoes. These include woods of the mahogany family
(Meliaceae) such as the Cuban mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), that can reach heights of 30–35 m
and the red cedar (Cedrela odorata), that can grow up to 60 m in height., as well as the ceiba genus
(Malvacae), such as Ceiba pentandra, than can grow up to 60–70 m tall.[11] It is likely that these
canoes were built in a variety of sizes. Ranging from fishing canoes, holding one or a few individuals,
to larger ones able to carry as many as a few dozen people that could have being used to reach the
Caribbean Islands from the mainland. Reports by historical chroniclers claim to have witnessed a
canoe "containing 40 to 50 Caribs [...] when it came out to trade with a visiting English ship".[12]
There is still much dispute regarding the use of sails in Caribbean canoes. Some archaeologists doubt
that oceanic transportation would have been possible without the use of sails, as winds and currents
would have carried the canoes off course.[13] However, no evidence of a sail or a Caribbean canoe that
could have made use of a sail has been found. Furthermore, no historical sources mention Caribbean
canoes with sails. One possibility could be that canoes with sails were initially used in the Caribbean
but later abandoned before European contact. This, however, seems unlikely, as long-distance trade
continued in the Caribbean even after the prehistoric colonisation of the islands. Hence, it is likely
that early Caribbean colonists made use of canoes without sails.[14]

Native American groups of the north Pacific coast made dugout canoes in a number of styles for
different purposes, from western red-cedar (Thuja plicata) or yellow-cedar (Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis), depending on availability.[4] Different styles were required for ocean-going vessels
versus river boats, and for whale-hunting versus seal-hunting versus salmon-fishing. The Quinault of
Washington State built shovel-nose canoes, with double bows, for river travel that could slide over a
logjam without needing to be potaged. The Kootenai of British Columbia province made sturgeon-
nosed canoes from pine bark, designed to be stable in windy conditions on Kootenay Lake.[15] In
recent years First Nations in British Columbia and Washington State have been revitalizing the ocean-
going canoe tradition. Beginning in the 1980s, the Heiltsuk and Haida were early leaders in this
movement. The paddle to Expo 86 in Vancouver by the Heiltsuk, and the 1989 Paddle to Seattle were
early instances of this. In 1993 a large number of canoes paddled from up and down the coast to Bella
Bella in its first canoe festival – 'Qatuwas.[16] The revitalization continued – and Tribal Journeys
began with trips to various communities held in most years.

Australian Aboriginal people made canoes from hollowed out tree trunks, as well as from tree bark.[17]
The indigenous people of the Amazon commonly used Hymenaea (Fabaceae) trees.

Bark canoes

Australia

Some Australian Aboriginal peoples made bark canoes.[17] They could only be made from the bark of
certain trees (usually red gum or box gum) and during summer. After cutting the outline of the
required size and shape, a digging stick was used to cut through the bark to the hardwood, and the
bark was then slowly prised out using numerous smaller sticks. The slab of bark was held in place by
branches or hand-woven rope, and after separation from the tree, lowered to the ground and small
fires lit on the inside of the bark. This would cause the bark to dry out and curl upwards, after which
the ends could be pulled together and stitched with hemp and plugged with mud. It was then allowed
to mature, with frequent applications of grease and ochre. The remaining tree was later dubbed a
canoe tree by Europeans.[18] Because of the porosity of the bark, they did not last too long (about two
years[18]), and were mainly used for fishing or crossing rivers or lakes rather than long journeys. They
were usually propelled by punting with a long stick.[19] Another type of bark canoe was made out of a
type of stringybark gum known as Messmate stringybark (Eucalyptus obliqua), where the bark was
pleated and tied at each end, with a framework of cross-ties and ribs. This type was known as a
pleated or tied bark canoe. Bark strips could also be sewn together to make larger canoes, known as
sewn bark canoes.[20]

Americas

Many indigenous peoples of the Americas built bark canoes. They were usually skinned with birch
bark over a light wooden frame, but other types could be used if birch was scarce. At a typical length
of 4.3 m (14 ft) and weight of 23 kg (50 lb), the canoes were light enough to be portaged, yet could
carry a lot of cargo, even in shallow water. Although susceptible to damage from rocks, they are easily
repaired.[21] Their performance qualities were soon recognized by early European settler colonials,
and canoes played a key role in the exploration of North America,[22] with Samuel de Champlain
canoeing as far as the Georgian Bay in 1615.

In 1603 a canoe was brought to Sir Robert Cecil's house in London and rowed on the Thames by
Virginian Indians from Tsenacommacah.[23] In 1643 David Pietersz. de Vries recorded a Mohawk
canoe in Dutch possession at Rensselaerswyck capable of transporting 225 bushels of maize.[24][25]
René de Bréhant de Galinée, a French missionary who explored the Great Lakes in 1669, declared:
"The convenience of these canoes is great in these waters, full of cataracts or waterfalls, and rapids
through which it is impossible to take any boat. When you reach them you load canoe and baggage
upon your shoulders and go overland until the navigation is good; and then you put your canoe back
into the water, and embark again.[26] American painter, author and traveler George Catlin wrote that
the bark canoe was "the most beautiful and light model of all the water crafts that ever were
invented".[27]

The first explorer to cross the North American continent,


Alexander Mackenzie, used canoes extensively, as did David
Thompson and the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

In the North American fur trade the Hudson's Bay Company's


voyageurs used three types of canoe:[28]

The rabaska or canot du maître was designed for the long


haul from the St. Lawrence River to western Lake Superior. Its
dimensions were: length approximately 11 m (35 ft), beam 1.2
These antique dug out canoes are
to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft), and height about 76 cm (30 in). It could
in the courtyard of the Old Military
carry 60 packs weighing 41 kg (90 lb), and 910 kg (2,000 lb) of
provisions. With a crew of eight or ten (paddling or rowing), Hospital in the Historic Center of
they could make three knots over calm waters. Four to six Quito.
men could portage it, bottom up. Henry Schoolcraft declared it
"altogether one of the most eligible modes of conveyance that
can be employed upon the lakes". Archibald McDonald of the Hudson's Bay Company wrote: "I
never heard of such a canoe being wrecked, or upset, or swamped ... they swam like ducks."[29]
The canot du nord (French: "canoe of the north"), a craft specially made and adapted for speedy
travel, was the workhorse of the fur trade transportation system. About one-half the size of the
Montreal canoe, it could carry about 35 packs weighing 41 kg (90 lb) and was manned by four to
eight men. It could be carried by two men and was portaged in the upright position.[29]
The express canoe or canot léger, was about 4.6 m (15 ft) long and were used to carry people,
reports, and news.
The birch bark canoe was used in a 6,500-kilometre (4,000  mi)
supply route from Montreal to the Pacific Ocean and the
Mackenzie River, and continued to be used up to the end of the
19th century.[30]

The indigenous peoples of eastern Canada and the northeast


United States made canoes using the bark of the paper birch,
which was harvested in early spring by stripping off the bark in
one piece, using wooden wedges. Next, the two ends (stem and
stern) were sewn together and made watertight with the pitch of Birch bark canoe making in
balsam fir. The ribs of the canoe, called verons in Canadian Newfoundland, Canada
French, were made of white cedar, and the hull, ribs, and thwarts
were fastened using watap, a binding usually made from the roots
of various species of conifers, such as the white spruce, black spruce, or cedar, and caulked with
pitch.[31][32]

Skin canoes

Skin canoes are constructed using animal skins stretched over a framework. Examples include the
kayak and umiak.

Modern canoes

In 19th-century North America, the birch-on-frame construction


technique evolved into the wood-and-canvas canoes made by fastening
an external waterproofed canvas shell to planks and ribs by boat builders
such as Old Town Canoe, E. M. White Canoe, Peterborough Canoe
Company and at the Chestnut Canoe Company[33] in New Brunswick.
While similar to bark canoes in the use of ribs, and a waterproof covering,
the construction method is different, being built by bending ribs over a
solid mold. Once removed from the mold, the decks, thwarts and seats
are installed, and canvas is stretched tightly over the hull. The canvas is
then treated with a combination of varnishes and paints to render it more
durable and watertight.[34]

Although canoes were once primarily a means of transport, with Stretching canvas on a
industrialization they became popular as recreational or sporting canoe
watercraft. John MacGregor popularized canoeing through his books,
and in 1866 founded the Royal Canoe Club in London and in 1880 the
American Canoe Association. The Canadian Canoe Association was founded in 1900, and the British
Canoe Union in 1936.

Sprint canoe was a demonstration sport at the 1924 Paris Olympics and became an Olympic discipline
at the 1936 Berlin Olympics.[35] The International Canoe Federation was formed in 1946 and is the
umbrella organization of all national canoe organizations worldwide.

Hull design
Hull design must meet different, often conflicting, requirements
for speed, carrying capacity, maneuverability, and stability[36] The
canoe's hull speed can be calculated using the principles of ship
resistance and propulsion.

Length: this is often stated by manufacturers as the overall


length of the boat, but what counts in performance terms is the 1 Bow, 2 Stern, 3 Hull, 4 Seat, 5
length of the waterline, and more specifically its value relative Thwart, 6 Gunwale, 7 Deck, 8 Yoke
to the displacement of the canoe. Displacement is the amount
of water displaced by the boat. It is equal to the total weight of
the boat and its contents since a floating body displaces its
own weight in water. When a canoe is paddled through water,
it takes an effort to push all of the displaced water out of the
way. Canoes are displacement hulls: the longer the waterline
relative to its displacement, the faster it can be paddled.
Among general touring canoeists, 5.18 m (17 ft) is a popular
length, providing a good compromise between capacity and
cruising speed.[37] Too large a canoe will simply mean extra
work paddling at cruising speed. Prospector canoe showing rocker at
Width (beam): a wider boat provides more stability at the the stern
expense of speed. A canoe cuts through the water like a
wedge, and a shorter boat needs a narrower beam to reduce
the angle of the wedge cutting through the water.[37] Canoe manufacturers typically provide three
beam measurements: the gunwale (the measurement at the top of the hull), the waterline (the
measurement at the point where the surface of the water meets the hull when it is empty), and the
widest point. Another variation of the waterline beam measurement is called 4" waterline where
the displacement is taken into account. This measurement is done at the waterline level when the
maximum load is applied to the canoe.[38] Some canoe races use the 4" waterline beam
measurement as the standard for their regulations.[39] In races, the measurement is done by
measuring the widest point at 4 inches (10 cm) from the bottom of the canoe.[40]
Freeboard: a higher-sided boat stays drier in rough water. The cost of high sides is extra weight,
extra wind resistance[37] and increased susceptibility to cross-winds.
Stability and immersed bottom shape: the hull can be optimized for initial stability (the boat feels
steady when it sits flat on the water) or final stability (resistance to rolling and capsizing). A flatter-
bottomed hull has higher initial stability, versus a rounder or V-shaped hull in cross-section has
high final stability.[41] The fastest flat water non-racing canoes have sharp V-bottoms to cut
through the water, but they are difficult to turn and have a deeper draft which makes them less
suitable for shallows. Flat-bottomed canoes are most popular among recreational canoeists. At
the cost of speed, they have a shallow draft, turn better, and more cargo space. The reason a flat
bottom canoe has lower final stability is that the hull must wrap a sharper angle between the
bottom and the sides, compared to a more round-bottomed boat.[37]
Keel: an external keel makes a canoe track (hold its course) better and can stiffen a floppy
bottom, but it can get stuck on rocks and decrease stability in rapids.[41]
Profile, the shape of the canoe's sides. Sides that flare out above the waterline deflect water but
require the paddler to reach out over the side of the canoe more. If the gunwale width is less than
the maximum width the canoe is said to have tumblehome.
Rocker: viewed from the side of the canoe, rocker is the amount of curve in the hull, much like the
curve of a banana. The full length of the hull is in the water, so it tracks well and has good speed.
As the rocker increases, so does the ease of turning, at the cost of tracking.[42] Some Native
American birch-bark canoes were characterized by extreme rocker.[37]
Hull symmetry: viewed from above, a symmetrical hull has its widest point at the center of the hull
and both ends are identical. An asymmetrical hull typically has the widest section aft of centerline,
creating a longer bow and improving speed.[42]

Modern materials and construction

Plastic

Royalex is a composite material, comprising an outer layer of vinyl


and hard acrylonitrile butadiene styrene plastic (ABS) and an
inner layer of ABS foam, bonded by heat treatment.[43] As a canoe
material, Royalex is lighter, more resistant to UV damage, is more
rigid, and has greater structural memory than non-composite
plastics such as polyethylene. Royalex canoes are, however, more
expensive than aluminium canoes or canoes made from Aluminum canoe

traditionally molded or roto-molded polyethylene hulls.[43] It is


heavier, and less suited for high-performance paddling than fiber-
reinforced composites, such as fiberglass, kevlar, or graphite.
Roto-molded polyethylene is a cheaper alternative to Royalex.
Production of Royalex ceased in 2014.

Folding canoes usually consist of a PVC skin around an aluminum


frame.
Inflatable canoe at a canoe launch
Inflatable: These contain no rigid frame members and can be
on the Charles River
deflated, folded, and stored in a bag. The more durable types
consist of an abrasion-resistant nylon or rubber outer shell, with
separate PVC air chambers for the two side tubes and the floor.[44]

Fiber reinforced composites

Modern canoes are generally constructed by layering a fiber material inside a "female" mold.
Fiberglass is the most common material used in manufacturing canoes.[45] Fiberglass is not
expensive, can be molded to any shape, and is easy to repair.[37] Kevlar is popular with paddlers
looking for a light, durable boat that will not be taken in whitewater. Fiberglass and Kevlar are strong
but lack rigidity. Carbon fiber is used in racing canoes to create a very light, rigid construction usually
combined with Kevlar for durability. Boats are built by draping the cloth in a mold, then impregnating
it with a liquid resin. Optionally, a vacuum process can be used to remove excess resin to reduce
weight.

A gel coat on the outside gives a smoother appearance.[37]

With stitch and glue, plywood panels are stitched together to form a hull shape, and the seams are
reinforced with fiber reinforced composites and varnished.
A cedar strip canoe is essentially a composite canoe with a cedar core. Usually fiberglass is used to
reinforce the canoe since it is clear and allows a view of the cedar.

Aluminum

Before the invention of fiberglass, this was the standard choice for whitewater canoeing. It is good
value and very strong by weight.[37] This material was once more popular but is being replaced by
modern lighter materials. "It is tough, durable, and will take being dragged over the bottom very
well", as it has no gel or polymer outer coating which would make it subject to abrasion. The hull does
not degrade from long term exposure to sunlight, and "extremes of hot and cold do not affect the
material". It can dent, is difficult to repair, is noisy, can get stuck on underwater objects, and requires
buoyancy chambers to assist in keeping the canoe afloat in a capsize.[46]

In culture
In Canada, the canoe has been a theme in history and folklore, and
is a symbol of Canadian identity.[47] From 1935 to 1986 the
Canadian silver dollar depicted a canoe with the Northern Lights
in the background.

The Chasse-galerie is a French-Canadian tale of voyageurs who,


after a night of heavy drinking on New Year's Eve at a remote
timber camp want to visit their sweethearts some 100 leagues
(about 400 km) away. Since they have to be back in time for work
the next morning they make a pact with the devil. Their canoe will
Henri Julien:La Chasse-galerie, oil
fly through the air, on condition that they not mention God's
painting 1906
name or touch the cross of any church steeple as they fly by in the
canoe. One version of this fable ends with the coup de grâce when,
still high in the sky, the voyageurs complete the hazardous journey but the canoe overturns, so the
devil can honour the pact to deliver the voyageurs and still claim their souls.

In John Steinbeck's novella The Pearl set in Mexico, the main character's canoe is a means of making
a living that has been passed down for generations and represents a link to cultural tradition.[48]

The Māori, indigenous Polynesian people arrived in New Zealand in several waves of canoe (called
waka) voyages. Canoe traditions are important to the identity of Māori. Whakapapa (genealogical
links) back to the crew of founding canoes served to establish the origins of tribes, and defined tribal
boundaries and relationships.[49]

Types
Modern canoe types are usually categorized by the intended use. Many modern canoe designs are
hybrids (a combination of two or more designs, meant for multiple uses). The purpose of the canoe
will also often determine the materials used. Most canoes are designed for either one person (solo) or
two people (tandem), but some are designed for more than two people.

Sprint
Sprint canoe is also known as flatwater racing. The paddler kneels
on one knee, and uses a single-blade paddle.[50] Canoes have no
rudder, so the boat must be steered by the athlete's paddle using a
j-stroke. Canoes may be entirely open or be partly covered. The
minimum length of the opening on a C1 is 280 cm (110 in). Boats
are long and streamlined with a narrow beam, which makes them
very unstable. A C4 can be up to 9 m (30 ft) long and weigh 30 kg
(66 lb).[51] ICF classes include C1 (solo), C2 (crew of two), and C4
(crew of four). Race distances at the 2012 Olympic Games were Women's C2
200 and 1000 meters.

Slalom and wildwater

In ICF whitewater slalom paddlers negotiate their way down a


300 m (980 ft) of whitewater rapids, through a series of up to 25
gates (pairs of hanging poles). The colour of the poles indicates
the direction in which the paddlers must pass through; time
penalties are assessed for striking poles or missing gates.
Categories are C1 (solo) and C2 (tandem), the latter for two men,
and C2M (mixed) for one woman and one man.[52] C1 boats must
have a minimum weight and width of 10  kg (22  lb) and 0.65  m
Whitewater slalom canoe (2 ft 2 in) and be not more than 3.5 m (11 ft) long. C2s must have a
minimum weight and width of 15 kg (33 lb) and 0.75 m (2 ft 6 in),
and be not more that 4.1 m (13 ft). Rudders are prohibited. Canoes
are decked and propelled by single-bladed paddles, and the competitor must kneel.[53]

In ICF wildwater canoeing athletes paddle a course of class III to IV whitewater (using the
International Scale of River Difficulty), passing over waves, holes and rocks of a natural riverbed in
events lasting either 20–30 minutes ("Classic" races) or 2–3 minutes ("Sprint" races). Categories are
C1 and C2, for both women and men. C1s must have a minimum weight and width of 12 kg (26 lb) and
0.7 m (2 ft 4 in), and a maximum length of 4.3 m (14 ft). C2s must have a minimum weight and width
of 18  kg (40  lb) and 0.8 metres (2  ft 7  in), and a maximum length of 5 metres (16  ft). Rudders are
prohibited. The canoes are decked boats which must be propelled by single bladed paddles and inside
which the paddler kneels.[54]

Marathon

Marathons are long-distance races which may include portages. Under ICF rules minimum canoe
weight is 10 and 14  kg (22 and 31  lb) for C1 and C2 respectively. Other rules can vary by race, for
example in the Classique Internationale de Canots de la Mauricie athletes race in C2s, with a
maximum length of 5.6 m (18 ft 6 in), minimum width of 69 cm (27 in) at 8 cm (3 in) from the bottom
of the centre of the craft, minimum height of 38 cm (15 in) at the bow and 25 cm (10 in) at the centre
and stern.[55] The Texas Water Safari, at 422 km (262 mi), includes an open class, the only rule being
the vessel must be human-powered, and although novel setups have been tried, the fastest so far has
been the six-man canoe.[56]

Touring
A "touring" or "tripping" canoe is a boat for traveling on lakes and or rivers with capacity for camping
gear. Tripping canoes such as the Chestnut Prospector and Old Town Tripper derivates are touring
canoes for wilderness trips. They are typically made of heavier and tougher materials and designed
with the ability to carry large amounts of gear while being maneuverable enough for rivers with some
whitewater. Prospector is now a generic name for derivates of the Chestnut model, a popular type of
wilderness tripping canoe marked by a shallow arch hull with a relatively large amount of rocker,
giving a nice balance for wilderness tripping over lakes and rivers with some rapids.

A touring canoe is sometimes covered with a greatly extended deck, forming a "cockpit" for the
paddlers. A cockpit has the advantage that the gunwales can be made lower and narrower so the
paddler can reach the water more easily.

Freestyle

A canoe specialized for whitewater play and tricks. Most are


identical to short, flat-bottomed kayak playboats except for
internal outfitting. The paddler kneels and uses a single-blade
canoe paddle. Playboating is a discipline of whitewater canoeing
where the paddler performs various technical moves in one place
(a playspot), as opposed to downriver where the objective is to
travel the length of a section of river (although whitewater
canoeists will often stop and play en route). Specialized canoes
known as playboats can be used. Playboating decked canoe

Square-stern canoe

A square-stern canoe is an asymmetrical canoe with a squared-off stern for the mounting of an
outboard motor, and is meant for lake travel or fishing. Since mounting a rudder on the square stern
is very easy, such canoes often are adapted for sailing.

Canoe launches
A canoe launch is a place for launching canoes, similar to a boat launch which is often for launching
larger watercraft. Canoe launches are frequently on river banks or beaches. Canoe launches may be
designated on maps of places such as parks or nature reserves.[57][58][59][60][61]
Gallery

Paul Kane (1810– Ojibwe women in Canoe in Kerala, Canoe in Vietnam in


1871): Spearing canoe on Leech India, 2008 the Mekong delta,
Salmon By Lake, Bromley 1896 2009
Torchlight, oil
painting

packed canoes at Canoe At sea


the beach

See also
Umiak Canadian Canoe Museum
Outrigger Kennebec Boat and Canoe Company
Waka (canoe) E.H. Gerrish Canoe Company
Adirondack guideboat – resembles a canoe Thompson Brothers Boat Manufacturing
Canoe paddle strokes Company
Carleton Canoe Company

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