Chapter 25

Primary Sensing Elements
and Transducers
I
25.1 INTRODUCTION absolutely no energy is extracted from the measurand

The measurand in an instrumentation system during the process of conversion and all the energy
makes its first contact with a Primary Detection Element that is required for conversion is supplied from
or an Input Device. There is a multiplicity and variety outside, so that the measurand is not distorted and the
of measurands to be measured. These include process analogous output of the detector is a faithful represen
variables like temperature, pressure and flow rate tation of the measurand.
which are widely employed in process and production
plants. The measurands also include electrical 25.2 MECHANICAL DEVICES AS
quantities like current, voltage, resistance, inductance, PRIMARY DETECTORS
capacitance, frequency, phase angle, power and In order to extract information from mechanical
magnetic quantities like flux, flux density, reluctance systems, only mechanical displacement or velocity can
etc. be used, and therefore the importance of mechanical
All these quantities require a primary detection sensing elements is obvious. Some of the commonly
element and/or a transducer to be converted into used mechanical sensing elements are springs - which
another analogous format which is acceptable by the convert a force or a torque into a displacement ; a
later stages of the measurement system. diaphragm, a capsule, bellows or Bourdon tube -
The measurand or the input signal is called an which convert pressure into a displacement, a
information for the measurement system. The bimetallic strip converts temperature into a
information may be in the form of a physical displacement ; a mass damper system is used for
phenomenon or it may be an electrical signal. The measurement of acceleration, velocity and displace
process of detection and conversion of the information ment. Some input devices may involve more than one
into an acceptable form requires energy. This energy mechanical conversion for example, fluid flow
may be extracted from the measurand, but in that case measurements may involve conversion of fluid rate
it will not be represented in its faithful form as it into pressure differential using an orifice, venturi tube
would be subjected to loading errors. In order that a or pitot tube and then in turn this pressure is
measurand is represented in its faithful form converted into displacement for purposes of
measurement.
undistorted, no energy should be extracted from it
during the process of conversion i.e., it should not be There are a number of mechanical quantities
subjected to any kind of loading effects. In fact, efforts which are to be measured. Some of these quantities are
should be made to supply energy required for listed in Table 25.1 along with their modes of
conversion from outside sources so that the operation for the purposes of measurement.
measurand is not distorted during the process of These mechanical quantities include force,
conversion in order that it be faithfully reproduced in pressure, displacement, flow rate, temperature and
its analogous form. The ideal conversion is where the list is perhaps unending.
(739)
740 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Table 25.1 Mechanical quantities and their Modes of Operation

Type Operation
1 A.
Contacting spindle, pin or finger Displacement to displacement
1 B. Elastic Member
1. Prooving ring Force to displacement.
2. Bourdon tube Pressure to displacement.
3. Bellows Pressure to displacement.
4. Diaphragm Pressure to displacement.
5. Spring Force to displacement.
C Mass
i 1. Seismic mass Forcing function to displacement.

i 2. Pendulum scale Force to displacement.
i
3. Manometer Pressure to displacement.
1
s D. Thermal
1. Thermocouple Temperature to electric current.
t
• 2. Bimaterial Temperature to displacement.
3. Temp-strk Temperature to phase.
E. Hydropneumatic
i
1. Static
(a) Float Fluid level to displacement.
s (b) Hydrometer Specific gravity to displacement. 1
1
2. Dynamic I
(zz) Orifice Velocity to pressure. j
j (b) Venturi Velocity to pressure.
(c) Pitot tube Velocity to pressure.
(d) Vernes Velocity to force. i
?
(e) Turbines Linear to angular velocity.
[------- ____ _ __ 1
The initial concept of converting an applied force into a displacement is basic to many types of primary
sensing elements. The mechanical elements which are used to convert the applied force into displacement are
usually elastic members. There are many types of these elastic members. They can be classified into three
categories, although some elastic members may fall into a combination of these categories.
The three categories are :
(z) Direct tension or compression type :
(zz) Bending type ;
(z'z'z) Torsion type.
25.3 MECHANICAL SPRING DEVICES

Most mechanical-input measuring systems employ mechanical springs of one form or another. The
displacements are usually small and engineering approximations for small displacements or deflections are
valid. Various common types of springs are shown in Fig. 25.1. These range from cantilever, helical and spiral
springs to torsion bars, prooving (proof) rings and spring flexture pivots.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 74 1
Fig. 25.1 Spring elements used for sensing force (f) or torque (7).
25.3.1 Cantilever 25.3.2 Helical Spring

A cantilever is shown in Fig. 25.2 which is Figure 25.3 shows a close coiled helical spring
subjected to a force at its free end. subjected to a compressive force F.
Fig. 25.2 Cantilever.
Deflection at the free end

x=Fl3/3EI ...(25.1)
where
Fig. 25.3 Closed coiled helical spring.
F - applied force ; N,
Displacement of spring :
I = length of cantilever, m ;
2 8 FD3n
£ = modulus of elasticity ; N / m x =---- —_ ...(25.3)
/ 2 A 3 Grf4
I = moment of inertia = —
112 J where F - applied force ; N,
b = width of cantilever ; m D= mean diameter of coiled spring ; m,
t = thickness of cantilever ; m d- diameter of spring wire ; m,
Stiffness of cantilever n= number of wires,
G= shear modulus ; N/m2.
K=F/x=3EI/l3 .-(25.2)
Stiffness of spring K = F/x Sometimes, notched bars, are used. The notched
bar has the advantage that it has a greater sensitivity
*/8
= Gd D 3n ...(25.4)
on account of its reduced diameter (of the notched
Maximum shear stress, portion).
T = 8FD/(nd3) ...(25.5)
25.3.5 Prooving (Proof) Rings
25.3.3 Spiral Spring They are used for measurement of force, weight
Figure 25.4 shows a flat spiral spring subjected a or load. The applied force causes a deflection which is
torque T. measured with the help of electrical transducers.
Prooving rings are made up of steel and are used
as force standards. They are particularly useful for
calibration of material testing machines in situations
where dead weight standards are impracticable to use
Fig- 25.4 Flat spiral spring.

The deflection of the spring is :
0= Ebt3T/12/, rad ...(25.6)
where E = modulus of elasticity, N/m2,
b - width of spring ; m, Fig. 25.5 Prooving ring.
t = thickness of spring ; m,
I = length of spring ; m, on account of their bulk. A prooving ring is a circular
T = torque ; Nm ring of rectangular cross-section as shown in Fig. 25.5
.'. Stiffness of spring which may be subjected to either tensile or compre
K = T/e = Ebt3/12 I Nm/rad ...(25.7) ssive forces across its diameter.
Maximum fibre stress The deflection is given by :
Smax=6T/M2N/m2 ...(25.8)
x = (7t/2 ~4-^— F ... (25.10)
Spiral springs are used for production of 16 EI
controlling torque in analog instruments.
where d = outside ring diameter ; m.
25.3.4 Torsion Bars or Shafts The other terms have been explained earlier.
These are primary sensing elements for torque.
The common practice for measurement of
They are made use of in torque meters. The deflection
displacement is to attach a displacement transducer
or twist of the bar is proportional to the applied torque
between the top and bottom of the prooving ring.
and the deformation is used as a measure of the torque.
When the force is applied, the relative displacement
Some torque meters are designed so that the
can be measured. An LVDT is normally used for
angular displacement due to twisting of the bar is
measurement of deflection which is of the order of
measured with the help of a displacement trans
1 mm or so. Another method is to use strain gauges for
ducers. In others, the strain in the surface of the bar,
measurement of strain caused by the applied force.
which is proportional to the torque, is measured with
The strain, then can be used to compute the applied
the help of strain gauges. The shear strain is a measure
of the torque. force.
Angle of twist 0 = 16T/7tGd3 rad, ...(25.9) 25.3.6 Load Cells
where T - applied torque ; Nm, Load cells utilise an elastic member as the primary
2
G = shear modulus ; N/m , transducer and strain gauges as secondary trans
d = diameter of bar ; m ducers as shown in Fig. 25.6.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 743
These elastic members are of many types and convert

the pressure into mechanical displacement which is
later converted into an electrical form using a
secondary transducer. These devices are many a time
known as force summing devices. Figure 25.7 shows
some of the commonly pressure sensitive primary devices.
The principle of working of these devices is
explained as : the fluid whose pressure is to be
measured is made to press the pressure sensitive
element and since the element is an elastic member, it
deflects causing a mechanical displacement. 'The
displacement is proportional to the pressure applied.
The displacement is then measured with the help of
electrical transducers. The output of the electrical
Fig. 25.6 Load cells. transducers is proportional to the displacement and
hence to the applied input pressure.
25.3.7 Spring Flexture Pivots
The commonly used pressure sensitive devices
Figure 25.1 shows two different types of arrange
are described below :
ments for flexture pivots, one for the single spring
flexture pivot and the second for crossed spring flexture 25.4.1 Bourdon Tubes
pivot. The crossed-spring flexture pivot is widely used The Bourdon tubes are designed in various forms.
in measurement work for the following reasons : These are :
(i) it is practically frictionless (z) C type (zz) Spiral
(zz) the pivot sensitivity i.e., the angular deflec (zzz) Twisted tube and (zv) Helical.
tion per unit applied torque is virtually The Bourdon tubes are made out of an elliptically
constant for angular relations less than 15°. flattened tube bent in such a way as to produce the
shapes shown in Fig. 25.7. One end of the tube is
25.4 PRESSURE SENSITIVE PRIMARY DEVICES sealed or closed. The other end is open for the fluid to
Most pressure measuring devices use elastic enter. When the fluid whose pressure is to be
members for sensing pressure at the primary stage. measured enters the tube, the tube tends to straighten
Fig. 25.7 Pressure sensitive primary devices.

out on account of the pressure applied. This causes a is oval in section is formed into an arc of 250° and
movement of the free end (closed end) and the hence the name C for the configuration which is
displacement of this end is amplified through shown in Fig. 25.8.
mechanical linkages. The amplified displacement of The displacement of tip is,
the free end may be used to move a pointer on a scale
3
calibrated in terms of pressure or may be applied to a x
electrical displacement transducer whose output may
be calibrated in terms of the pressure applied. 2
where E is the modulus of elasticity ; N/m , P, the
Bourdon tube elements have several distinct advan applied pressure, N/m and other terms are as
tages and these include low cost, simple construction, depicted in Fig. 25.9.
high pressure range, good accuracy except at low
pressures, and improved designs at the pressure for
maximum safety. Their greatest advantage is that they
are easily adapted for designs for obtaining electrical
outputs.
The disadvantages of Bourdon tubes are : their
low spring gradient which their use limits for pre
cision measurements upto a pressure of 3 MN/m2, are
susceptible to shocks and vibrations and are subject to
hysteresis.
The Bourdon tube has the following forms :
1. C Type
The C type of Bourdon element is most commonly
used for local indication but it is also used for pressure Fig. 25.9 Geometry of C type Bourdon tube.
transmission and control applications. The tube which
Thus relationship between the displacement of tip
and the applied pressure is non-linear i.e., each
pressure increment does not produce a corresponding
tip movement. However, a linear relationship between
the deflection of the pointer and the applied pressure
is obtained using the geared sector and pinion
movement or other mechanical means. The accuracy
of C type Bourdon tubes varies from ±0.5 to ± 2% or
poorer. However, the normal accuracy is about ± 1%.
2. Spiral Type
It is clear from Eqn. 25.11, that the displacement of
tip varies inversely as the wall thickness and depends
upon the cross-sectional form of the tube. It also varies
directly as the length of arc 'a' which in turn depends
upon the angle subtended by the arc through which it
is bent. Thus in a tube having an arc of 180°, the
displacement of the tube will be twice that of a similar
tube having an arc of 90°. Therefore, the displacement
of the free end (tip) may be increased by increasing the
length of the arc of the tube without changing the wall
thickness.
When the angle through which the arc is bent
reaches 360°, its length can be increased further in two
ways : the tube can be made in the form of a spiral, or it
can be made in the form of a helix. An increased
displacement of the free end can be obtained by

increasing the number of turns in the spiral or helix
thereby avoiding the need for further magnification. It
has been mentioned earlier that magnification is
obtained through the use of geared sector and pinion
is used in C type Bourdon tube. But while using spiral
or helix type Bourdon tubes there is no need for
further amplification and hence the geared sector and
pinion arrangement is not used in their case. The
absence of geared sector and pinion arrangement
eliminates the backlash which tends to occur when
they (geared sector and pinion) become worn owing
to continued use.
A spiral type Bpurdon tube is shown in Fig. 25.10.
Spiral tubes are made by winding several turns of the
tube with its flattened cross-section in the form of a
spiral. Fig. 25.11 Helical type Bourdon tube.
The advantages of helix elements include the high

over-range capabilities which may be in the ratio as
high as 10 :1, its stability in fluctuating pressure appli
cations, and its adaptability for high pressure service.
The number of coils employed in helix elements
depends upon the pressure to be measured. Helix type
of pressure elements use as few as three coils while
elements used for measurement for high pressures
may have as many as 16 coils or even more. The
accuracies obtainable from helical elements may vary
from ± 0.5% to ± 1% of span.
Bourdon tubes are made of different materials
which include brass, alloy steel, stainless steel, bronze,
Fig. 25.10 Spiral type Bourdon tube. phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, K Monel, Monel
and Ni-span C. The choice of type of material to be
When the pressure to be measured is applied to used depends upon its elastic characteristics suitable
the spiral, it tends to uncoil producing a relatively for the pressure range, process medium, temperature
long movement of the tip whose displacement can be and corrosive resistance to the media to be used.
used for indication or transmission. Phosphor bronze is used in low pressure applica
The accuracy of spiral tube elements is higher tions where the atmosphere is non-corrosive while in
than that of C type elements on account of absence of applications where corrosion and/or high pressure is a
magnifying elements and is typically about ± 0.5%. problem, stainless steel or Monel are used.
Pressure gauges using bourdon tube elements are
3. Helical Type made with ranges from 760 mm of mercury to
A helical type Bourdon tube is shown in Fig. 25.11. 700 MPa or higher for special applications with the
As explained earlier, a helical bourdon element is minimum span being about 70 kPa. In fact, there is
similar to the spiral element, except it is wound in the quite an overlap of ranges at which the various
form of a helix. The displacement of the tip of a helical bourdon tube elements are designed to operate and
element is larger than that of spiral element. Usually a these ranges differ from one manufacturers, to
central shaft is installed within a helical element and another. One manufacturer, for example, lists spiral
the pointer is driven from this shaft by connecting bourdon tube elements from 0-75 to 0-1500 kPa
links. This system transmits only the circular motion when bronze, beryllium copper and Ni-span C are
of the tip to the pointer which is directly proportional used as the materials for the element. The same
to the changes in pressure. manufacturer uses the aforesaid materials for pressure
ranges 1.5-550 MPa while using helical elements. For The displacement of bellows element is given by,
bronze, the upper span limit is 0-30 MPa ; for
, 0.453 Pbn D271-v2
beryllium copper and Ni-span C, 0-40 MPa and for «= ---------------5---------- ...(25.12)
stainless steel 0 -600 MPa. £t3
Another manufacturer uses C type bourdon tube
where P = pressure, N/m2 ;
elements using bronze upto a pressure of 7 MPa and
b = radius of each corrugation, m ;
steel and stainless steel to 150 MPa and still another
which uses these elements upto a pressure of 700 MPa. n = number of semi-circular corrugations ;
It may therefore be concluded that C-type bourdon t = thickness of wall, m ;
tube elements may be used for measurement of D = mean diameter, m ;
pressures ranging from vacuum to about 700 MPa and E = modulus of elasticity, N/m2 ;
even higher, spiral elements from vacuum to 30 MPa and v = Poisson's ratio.
and helical elements from 1.5 MPa to 550 MPa.
Normally a Bellows has the ability to move over a
25.4.2 Bellows greater distance than required in a pressure application
A metallic bellows is a series of circular parts, and, therefore, to give it maximum life and to have
resembling the folds in an accordian as shown in better accuracy, its movement is generally opposed by
Fig. 25.12. These parts are formed or joined in such a a calibrated spring so that only a part of the maximum
manner that they are expanded or contracted axially stroke is used. This system is shown in Fig. 25.13 and
by changes in pressure. The metals used in the is called spring loaded bellows.
construction of bellows, must be thin enough to be
flexible, ductile enough for reasonably easy
fabrication, and have a high resistance to fatigue
failure. Materials commonly used are brass, bronze,
beryllium copper, alloys of nickel and copper, steel
and Monel. Most of the bellows used in pressure
gauges are seamless and are made from drawn tubing
by hydraulic or other methods of rapid forming. These
methods produce uniform walls that give a higher life
expectancy. Other methods such as soldering and
welding of annular sections, rolling, spinning and
turning from solid stock may also be used for
manufacture of bellows.
Deflection of bellows when opposed by a spring is,

d=P—...(25.13)
2
where = effective area of bellows, m ;
K,,
b'sK = stiffness constants of bellows
2 and
spring respectively, N/m ,
.. p
Pressure Pp - d/— P +K^
K-------- ...(25.14)
4
If the bellows assembly operates an electric switch
or some other mechanism, we have,
p = F + ds(Kb + Ks)
...(25.15)
4
where F = force required to operate switch or
mechanism, N ;
d = deflection required to operate switch
or mechanism, m
Fig. 25.12 Bollows element.
There are three main configurations in which The disadvantages of bellows are that are not
bellows elements are used and these are for suited for dynamic measurements on account of their
measurement of absolute, gauge and differential greater mass and longer relative movement. Also they
pressures. These configurations may be illustrated need temperature compensating device to avoid
with the help of Fig. 25.14. errors resulting from changes in ambient temperature.
25.4.3 Diaphragms
The operating principle of diaphragm elements is
similar to that of the bellows. The pressure to be
measured is applied to the diaphragm, causing it to
deflect, the deflection being proportional to the
applied pressure. The movement of the diaphragm
depends on its thickness and diameter. The movement
is small and hence a diaphragm element does not
require any springs as is the case in bellows.
The movement of a diaphragm is a convenient
way of sensing a pressure. The unknown pressure is
applied to one side of a diaphragm. The edge of the
diaphragm is rigidly fixed and causes a deflection on
account of the applied pressure. The displacement of
the diaphragm may be measured to determine the
value of applied pressure, P.
The diaphragm, which is a very thin membrane
under pressure and therefore under radial tension,
may use capacitive or inductive transducers, to
produce an electrical output which is proportional to
Fig. 25.14 Measurement of pressure with bellows.
the output of the transducers. The use of diaphragms
There are two bellows, A and B. The pressure using thin membranes is limited to measurement of
applied to bellows A is P} and that to bellows B is P2. low level pressure fluctuations. Since membranes can
In case it is desired to measure the absolute pressure, withstand only limited values of force (produced by
bellows B is evacuated and the resultant pressure, Pj pressure), diaphragms using thin membranes are
is the absolute pressure. When measurement of gauge suitable for resistance and piezoelectric transducers
pressure is desired, bellows B is opened up to which require greater displacements than are
atmosphere with pressure P2 is equal to the produced by membrane type of diaphragms.
atmospheric pressure and therefore the reading of the Therefore, in place of membranes, it is usual to employ
gauge is the gauge pressure. The measurement of thin circular plates which are either clamped, around
differential pressure P = P1 - P2 is done when pressure
their circumference between two solid rings, or are
P] is applied to bellows A and pressure P2 is applied to machined from a solid piece of metal. In order to
bellows B. maintain linear relationship between deflection of
The advantages of bellows include their simple plates and applied pressure, the deflection of the
and rugged construction, moderate price, their centre of plate should be less than half its thickness or
usefulness for measurement of low, medium and din < 0.51 which are essentially flexible discs.
high pressures, and their applicability for use in The diaphragms, are of two types :
measurement of absolute, gauge and differential
(zj Flat type and
pressures. Bellows elements, like many other
elements have been greatly improved over the past (zz) Corrugated type.
few years. The reduction of drift and hysteresis These are shown in Fig. 25.15.
allows their use in functions requiring ± 0.5% of full
span accuracy. They deliver relatively high forces Corrugated diaphragms, on account of their
and are well adapted to vacuum and low pressure increased surface area, give greater deflections,
measurements. typically 2 per cent of the diaphragm diameter.
Lowest natural frequency (for air or gas medium)
% = 201 ,----- ^-5-

E rad/s .. .(25.20)
" D2y3p(l-v2)
a
where p = density of diaphragm material, kg/m
Design equations for the flat diaphragm may use
the following data :
Young's modulus for steel
(b) Corrugated type E = 206 G N/m2 ; v = 0.28
and p = 7800 kg/m3
Fig. 25.15 Single diaphragm elements.
The above relationships are valid for uniform
A flat diaphragm is shown in Fig- 25.16. pressure loading conditions over the entire surface of
the disc and also when the deflection smaller than half
the thickness of disc. Therefore, the response is linear
only when d < 0.5 t. In order to have a linear response
over greater deflections than d > 0.5 t, the diaphragms
are corrugated. A corrugated diaphragm is most
suitable for applications where a mechanical device is
used for measurement of deflection. This is because it
(corrugated diaphragm) gives a relatively greater
output and if combined with a high magnification
Fig. 25.16 Flat diaphragm.
linkage, can be used for direct operation of mechanical
256 Et3 d , indicators.
Pressure P =-------- -—N/m2 ...(25.16)
3(l-v2)D4 In some cases, a diaphragm element may consist
of a single disc ; which in others, two diaphragms are
where E = Young's modulus ; N/m2,
bonded together at their circumference by soldering or
t - thickness of diaphragm ; m, pressure welding to form a capsule. A diaphragm
D = diameter of diaphragm ; m, element may consist of one capsule or two or more
R = radius of diaphragm ; m, capsules connected together with each capsule
deflecting on the application of pressure. The total
v = Poisson's ratio,
deflection is the sum of the deflections of individual
and dm = deflection at the centre of the capsules. Figure 25.17 shows as diaphragm element
diaphragm ; m consisting of three capsules. In this assembly, the
The above relationship between pressure, P and individual capsule is connected axially with the next
the deflection at the centre, dm is linear. But linearity one and is allowed to expand without any restraints.
holds good as long as dm < 0.5 t and not otherwise. The element may be provided with stops for
The deflection at the centre is : over-range and under-range protection.
3P(l-v2) 4
= —-—~R ...(25.17)
16 Et3
The deflection at a radius r from the centre is :

J 3P(l-v2)/ri2
df= l6Et3 ( -(25.18)
Maximum stress at the circumference

. 3 D2p x, , 2
S™=^2-N/m ...(25.19)
Fig. 25.17 Diaphragm element using three Capsules.
Two different arrangements are used for capsular laminar. Viscosities may vary. Pressures may vary from
elements, the convex and the nested type as shown in near vacuum to many times atmospheric, and the
Fig- 25.18. temperatures may vary from cryogenic to hundreds of
degrees of Celsius.
The characteristics and properties which need to
be considered are viscosity, density, compressibility,
temperature and pressure.
In most applications, the knowledge of type of
flow, whether laminar and turbulent is very important.
All liquids have a force of friction, called viscosity;
which tends to inhibit the formation of turbulent
eddies and vortices, and maintain streamline flow.
Viscosity enters into determination of flow constants,
particularly the discharge co-efficient C which is a
function of Reynold's number.
The Reynold's number is given by :
Fig. 25.18 Types of capsules. Re=udp/q ...(25.21)
Materials used for diaphragms include phosphor where v = velocity of flow ; m/s,
bronze, stainless steel, beryllium copper, Ni-span C, d = diameter of pipe throat or orifice ; m,
Inconel, Monel and nickel. Non-metallic materials are p = density of fluid ; kg/m
used for some applications. Buna N rubber, nylon and and q = viscosity ; Ns/m .
Teflon are used in environments that corrode metals.
The Reynold's number is dimentionless, and a
The diaphragm elements find extensive use in
useful criterion by which to compare flows in
applications where measurement of low pressures
geometrically similar installations but with different
including vacuum is involved. The ranges are 0-50 flow conditions. It provides information regarding
N/m2 to 0 -200 kN/m2. Accuracies range from ± 0.5%
conditions where streamline flow ceases and turbu
to ± 1.25% of full span.
lent flow begins. It has been found by experiments
25.5 FLOW RATE SENSING ELEMENTS that the flow is streamline or laminar for Reynold's
number less than 2000 and turbulence sets in
25.5.1 Introduction increasingly as Reynold's number increases beyond
The measurement of flow is very important in a 2000. Flow becomes completely turbulent for
large number of industries. Flow measurements Reynold's number greater than 105.
account for a high percentage of the process variables Flow measurements are concerned with the
measured in the chemical industries. Flow is the most following :
important variable in plant operation. The plant material (z) velocity of flow ; m/s,
balances, quality control and continuous processes 3
(zz) volumetric flow rate ; m /s,
will be impossible without flow measurements.
(zzz) mass flow rate ; kg/s,
Flow of material in a process or system can be 3
(zu) total volumetric flow ; m , over a set period
measured by a variety of methods depending upon
of time,
the material and its condition, the type of flow, the
volume and the mass of the quantity flowing, the (u) total mass flow; kg, over a set period of time.
range and rangeability, the pressure and temperature 25.5.2 Types of Flow Rate Meters
and the accuracy required. Many accurate and reliable
The flow rate meters can be classified into two
methods are available for the measurement of flow.
categories :
Some of these methods are applicable only to liquids,
some only to gases and vapours and some to both. (i) Inferential meters
Fluids, may be of different types, like they may be (zz) Absolute or positive displacement meters.
clear or opaque, clean or dirty, wet or dry, erosive and In inferential meters, the flow is not directly
corrosive. Fluid streams may be multiphase, vapour, measured but is inferred from measurements of other
liquid or slurries. The flow may be turbulent or quantities which are related. Inferential methods of
measurement are based upon differentia! pressure or B = expansion ratio,

head obtained from orifice plate, a venturi tube, a pitot = area at point Y ; m2,
tube or a weir. Flow rate can also be inferred from Ax = area at point X ; m2,
turbine and electromagnetic flow meters.
px = density of fluid at point X, kg/m3,
AT = pressure drop between pts. X and Y; N/m"
For liquids, the fluid density can be considered to

remain constant and therefore expansion ratio B can
be taken as unity. With compressible fluids such as
gases and vapours, the density does not remain
constant and the value of B is less than unity and is a
function of ratios of pressure and areas at points X and
Y and the gas specific ratio.
The pressure drop AP can be measured with a
manometer and from there the input flow rate can be
inferred.
Orifice plates, venturi tubes and nozzles provide a
simple means of inducing a pressure drop. The flow
rate is proportional to the square root of the pressure
drop and hence there is a non-linear relationship
between output (pressure drop) and input (flow rate).
The discharge co-efficient for an orifice plate is
about 0.6 for Reynold's numbers above 10 and the
Fig. 25.19 Flow meters based upon producing permanent pressure loss is 60-70 percent of diffe
pressure drop using constrictions. rential pressure AP. Therefore, an orifice plate which is
The purpose of this section is to briefly consider easy and cheap to install, may cause six or seven times
the flow rate measuring devices with pressure related the pumping power as compared to a venturi tube
techniques (inferential in nature) which are widely which has a discharge co-efficient of 0.96 for Reynold's
used. The two basic techniques used are : numbers above 10 and less tendency to trap suspended
(?) a pressure drop is produced by means of a material in the fluid being metered. However, venturi
constriction, tubes occupy greater space and are costlier.
(ii) the kinetic energy of the flowing fluid is Pitot tubes are one of the most common forms of
transformed into potential energy in the flow rate measuring devices which work on the
form of a static head. principle of converting kinetic energy of the fluid
Two different forms of producing constriction are being metered into a static head. Pitot tubes are
shown in Figs. 25.19(a) and 25.19(b). Figure 25.19(a) essentially laboratory type of instruments are not
shows a circular orifice plate while Fig. 25.19(b) shows normally used for industrial applications. Figure 25.20
a venturi tube.
The fundamental equation for any flow rate sensing
element which changes the local velocity by using a
constriction or reduction in area of flow is given by :
Q=CEBXy1/2AP/pI ...(25.22)
where Q — flow rate, m/s,
C = co-efficient of discharge
actual flow rate
theoretical flow rate
E= / A*. )2 = vel°city approach factor
...(25.23) Fig. 25.20 Pitot tube.

shows a pitot tube installed in a pipeline for they require mean velocity to be determined by
measurement of flow-rate. The 'tube' actually consists making transverse measurements across the diameter
of two concentric tubes. The open end of the inner of pipe and hence they cannot be used for industrial
tube faces the incoming flow. The outer tube has a applications which require an instant readout. The
closed end, but has a number of holes in its walls. Both other disadvantages are that they produce a low
the tubes contain the same fluid as is flowing in differential head on account of which their sensitivity
the main pipeline. The pressure in the outer tube is the is low, and they require high flow velocities of about
static pressure in the pipeline. The total pressure in 15 m/s to produce measurable heads. The small
the inner tube, however, is greater than this static opening of Pitot tubes may get clogged if fluids
pressure. The additional pressure on the inner tube is containing solid particles are used which may give
on account of the impact of the fluid stream on the rise to wrong results.
stationary inner tube. Weirs and flumes are commonly used devices for
Application of Bernoullis' theorem shows that the open channel measurements. A detailed description of
velocity at this point in the cross-section is : open channel measurements is beyond the scope of
this text. The purpose here is to acquaint the reader
v = J—- ----- ...(25.24) with this type of measurements.
K p )
2 (i) Weirs
where PQ = static pressure ; N/m ,
2 A weir is essentially a dam with a notched
P = pressure at the entrance of the tube ; N/m , opening at the top through which liquid flows as
3
and p = density of liquid ; kg/m shown in Fig. 25.21.
Thus, the velocity at a particular point may be
determined from the pressure differential generated
by the pitot tube, which is measured by an inclined
tube manometer.
The velocity of a fluid across a section of pipe is
not uniform but varies from zero at the pipe surface to
a maximum usually at the centre of the pipe. In order
to find the mean velocity it is necessary to make a
traverse of the pipe i.e., readings are taken by placing
the Pitot tube at various positions at different points
along the cross-section of the pipe. For Reynold's
numbers above 10 , the ratio of mean velocity to the
Fig. 25.21 Rectangular Weir.
velocity at the centre of pipe is 0.82. Once this ratio is
determined exactly for a given situation, the Pitot tube The weirs make use of rectangular V, and
can be placed at the centre of pipe to sense the trapezoidal notches as shown in Fig. 25.22. The rate of
velocity. The mean velocity is, flow is simply measured by measuring the head of
water above the lowest point of the weir opening
28
J-(p-po) through which the liquid flows. This height is
measured by means of a float installed in a box called
[2 stilling well, which is a part of the total structure. The
=C -(P-Po) ...(25.25) float is so placed that it is not disturbed by the velocity
VP
of flow or by turbulence of the stream.
where Cv is the velocity correction factor and is the ratio The discharge through a rectangular notch is,
of mean velocity to the velocity at the centre. 7 _
Q=3CrfL^jH15 ...(25.26)
The advantages of Pitot tubes are that they
produce a negligible loss of head when inserted in the
The co-efficient of discharge, C^, varies with the
pipe and their cost is much smaller than that of venturi dimensions, of the weir and is usually less than 0.7.
meters or orifice meters. The rectangular notch is the most commonly used
The major disadvantage of Pitot tubes is that they notch on account of its simplicity, ease of construction
are laboratory type instruments as for their operation and accuracy.
Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Fig. 25.23 Venturi flume.
The discharge can be calculated as in the case of a

venturi meter. The actual discharge is,
...(25.29)
= CMy]2gh ...(25.30)
where h - h1 -h2
Fig. 25.22 Types of Notches. M=A2/yll + (A2/A2)2
The discharge through a V notch is, C = venturi flume co-efficient (0.95 to 1)
Q=^c^H2'5‘an| ...(25.27) The maximum value of flow occurs when

h2 = f-) h.
The co-efficient of a discharge varies with notch
2 Uj
angle 0, head H, kinematic viscosity and surface
tension of liquid. Typical values of Cd are 0.58 to 0.7. Maximum discharge is given by,
The V notch offers the widest range for a single Q
^max
= 1.7 2
H1'5 ...(25.31)
size, the small opening at the lower end can
accommodate small flows while the top portion is for
large flows. However, it gives the highest loss of head
because of its shape.
The trapezoidal notch is a combination of the
rectangular and triangular notches as shown in Fig.
25.22(c). The discharge is given by :
9 Q f)
3 13 Z
...(25.28)
mbmwmk
Applications of weirs are primarily in water Fig. 25.24 Elevation and plan of flume.
works and waste and sewage systems. Measurements
can be made from a few litres per minute to millions of Flumes are capable of better accuracies than weirs
litres per day. because the loss of head in improved versions of
flumes is about one fourth of that of weir.
(if) Flumes Weirs and flumes have not previously found
Figure 25.23 shows a venturi flume. It is an open application in process industries, but their use is
channel whose sides are arranged sharply to form a increasing with the increasing demand for water
throat, followed by a fairly long expansion section. pollution control. These measurements are a must
Stilling wells are provided for measuring the head at when large volumes of water are handled in waste
both entrance and throat as shown in Fig. 25.24. treatment facilities.
Example 23.1 A C type bourdon tube made of Monel Example 23.3 A flat circular diaphragm of mild steel
metal is show in Fig. 25.9. The dimensions of the tube are: has a diameter of 15 mm. For mild steel, Young's modulus =
r = 36.5 mm, x = 16 mm, y = 3 mm, t = 0.35 mm 200 GN/m and Poisson's ratio v = 0.28. Find the thickness
of the diaphragm if the maximum stress is not to exceed
Calculate the displacement of the free end if a pressure of 300 MN/m when the applied pressure is 300 kN/m . Find
1500 kPa is applied. The modulus of elasticity for Monel the deflection at the centre for a pressure kN/m .
metal is 180 GN/m2.
Also calculate the natural frequency of the diaphragm if
Solution. From Eqn. 25.11, the displacement of the density of mild steel is 7800 kg/m3.
the tip is given by,
Solution. From Eqn. 25.19, maximum stress,
n / \0.2
a aP I -r I
n nc
Aa = 0.05 — _3D2P
E UJ w 16 t2
71 x36.5xl0“3x 1500xlO3
= 0.05 x---------------------------------- Thickness of diaphragm
180 xlO9
f36.5f'2 (16f2 f 16 f s_ l3D2P _ I3x(15x10~3)2x30x103
<0.35 J I 3 ) <0.35 J yi6S,„ V 16x300xl0 6
= 0.02 m =2 mm = 0.205 xlO-3 m =0.0205 mm
Example 23.2 A differential bellows arrangement for From Eqn. 25.17, the deflection at the centre for a
measuring absolute pressure is shown in Fig. 25.25. It uses pressure of 150 kN/m is,
two bellows each of natural length 50 mm, effective area = 3P(l-v2)
1500 mm , and stiffness = 0.5 N/mm. Bellows A is w 256 Et2
evacuated and a contains a spring of stiffness 3 N/mm. Find
d4 _ 3x 150x 1Q3(1-0,282)x (15x 1Q~3)4
the required natural length of the spring if the bellows are to
be equally compressed to a length 40 mm when a pressure of 256 x 200 x 109 x (0.205 x 10-3)3
100 kN/m absolute is applied to B. Also find the = 47.6 x 10~6 m = 0.0476 mm
displacement of the output point Cfor a change of 10 kN/m
The natural frequency is given by Eqn. 25.20,
in applied pressure.
Spring 20 t | E
n D2 pp(l-v2)
20xQ205xlQ~3 I 200 xlO9
(15xl0“3)2 V 3x7800 (T-0.282)
= 51950 rad/s = 8.3 kHz
Example 23.4 A mild steel torsion bar of 30 mm
bellows, A diameter is used for measurement of a torque of 100 Nm.
Calculate the angle of twist if the shear modulus of mild
Fig. 25.25 Bellows arrangement for measurement
of absolute pressure. steel is 80 GN/m2.
Solution.
Solution. From Eqn. 25.9,
2 Angle of twist
When a pressure of 100 kN/m is used.
Force applied 0= 16T ________ 16x100_______
F = PA = 100 x 103 x 1500 x 10”6 = 150 N nGd3 ~ 7ix 80x 109 x (30x 10-3)3
:. Compression of spring = 150/3 =50 mm = 0.236xlO-3 rad =0.81'

Thus natural length of spring = 50 + 40 = 90 mm Example 23.3 A venturi tube of throat diameter 60 mm
2
When a pressure of 10 kN/m is applied, the force is, is placed in a water pipe of diameter 100 mm to measure the
F = lOx 103 x 1500x 10-6 = 15 N volumetric flow. The volumetric flow rate through the tube
is 0.08 m3/s and the water has a density of 103 kg/m3 and
Total stiffness of spring plus stiffness of bellows viscosity of 10~3 Ns / m2.
= 3 + 2 x 0.5 = 4 N/mm
(a) Determine the Reynold's number for these
Displacement of point C = 15/4 = 3.75 mm conditions.
(b) The co-efficient of discharge is 0.99, determine the Solution, (a) For a Pitot tube the velocity,
upstream-to-throat differential pressure.
(c) The differential pressure calculated in (b) is
applied across an unstressed flat diaphragm. The
diaphragm is made of mild steel for which
Young's modulus is 206 GN/m and Poisson's
ratio = 0.28, and has a diameter of 10 mm and a
thickness of 0.2 mm. Determine the deflection of
the diaphragm.
Solution.
(fl) Area of throat
A correction to the result obtained above has to be
= (n / 4) x (60 x 10-3 )2 = 2827 x 10~6 m 2
applied for taking into account the Mach number. The
Velocity through throat Mach number is the ratio of the velocity of an object
moving through a gas, to the velocity of sound in air.
0-08 ,
v =------------- - = 28.3 m / s The velocity of sound in air at atmospheric pressure is
2827 xl0“6
about 330 m/s, and therefore the Mach number for the
From Eqn. 25.21, Reynold's number is, air velocity being measured is 175.4/330 - 05. At this
subsonic Mach number, a small correction of about
n vdP 28.3x60xl0~3xl0~3 .
Re =----- =----------------------------- = 1.7 x 106 3 per cent is applied. Therefore, the correct velocity of
H 10~3
air is (1 -0.03)x 175.4 = 170 m/s.
(b) From 25.23, velocity approach factor, Example 25.7 Water is flowing with a depth of 0.9 m
E = ^1 -(4 / ^ )2 = Vl~(60/100)2 = 1.25 over a rectangular notch 1.2 m wide. Find the depth offlow
over a right angled notch if the same were to pass over it.
From Eqn. 25.22, flow rate, Assume that both the notches have the same co-efficient of
discharge.
Q = CEB
Solution. For rectangular notch, the discharge is,
The value of expansion factor B for liquids is 1
.-. Q = 0.99x 1.25x 1 x—(60x 10-3)2 = 0.08

4 VlxlO3 2 ____
= - crfx 1.2 xVTx 9.81 (0.9)1-5
.•. Differential pressure
AP = 261 kN/m2 = 3.02 C,(7
(c) The deflection at the centre of the diaphragm is For a V notch, the discharge is,
given by Eqn. 25.17 « ,__ . a
_3P(1-u2)D4
” 256 Et3 Q
or 3.02 C, = — Cd 72x9.81 H25 tan 45°
_ 3x261x 103(l-Q.282)x (IQx 10~3)4
H= 1.1 m
256x206x 109x(0.2 xlO"3)3
= 17.1xl0-6m =17.1 pm Example 25.8 A right angled notch has a co-efficient of
discharge of 0.6. If head above the still is 0.5 ± 0.01 m,
Example 2,^.0 A Pitot tube is used for measurement of calculate the discharge.
velocity offlow of water having a density of 1000 kg/m .
Solution. For a right angled Vnotch, discharge is,
(a) Determine the velocity of flow at the head of the
pitot tube if it produces a differential pressure of
10 kN/m~ between its two outlets.
g
(b) The same differential pressure is obtained in air at = — X 0.6 72x9.81 X 0.52-5
an altitude where the density of air is 0.65 kg/m3.
Determine the velocity of air flow. = 0.2506 m3 / s
Now — 8 r-'
dQ- = — C, J2 x 2.5 irl.i
n cx H piezo-electrical crystal and so on. In all cases,
dH 15 * however, the electrical output is measured by standard
dQ, methods, giving the magnitude of the input quantity
or
Q H in terms of an analogous output.
or dQ = ±2.5x0.2506x0.01/0.5 25.7 ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

= ±0.0153 m3/s The art of electrical measurements has been
chiefly used for measurement of electrical quantities
Hence, the discharge can be written as 0.2506 ± but its value in making measurements of non
0.0153 m3/s. electrical quantities in this new era of automation is
rapidly growing. In order to measure non-electrical
25.6 TRANSDUCERS quantities a detector is used which usually converts
An electronic instrumentation system consists of a the physical quantity into a displacement. This
number of components to perform a measurement displacement actuates an electric transducer, which
and record its results. As explained earlier a generalized acting as a secondary transducer, gives an output that
measurement system consists of three major is electrical in nature. The electrical quantity so
components. produced is measured by standard methods used for
(z) an input device, electrical measurements. The result (electrical output)
gives the magnitude of the physical quantity or
(zz) a signal conditioning or processing device, and
condition being measured.
(zzz) an output device.
The electrical signal may be a current or a voltage
The input device receives the measurand or the or a frequency and production of these signals is based
quantity under measurement and delivers a propor upon electrical effects which may be resistive,
tional or analogous electrical signal to the signal
capacitive, inductive etc. in nature.
conditioning device. Here the signal is amplified,
The first stage of a measurement system may
attenuated, filtered, modulated, or otherwise
modified in format acceptable to the output device. simply be called a transducer stage instead of detector
transducer stage by redefining a transducer. A trans
The input quantity for most instrumentation
ducer, in general form, may be defined as a device
systems is a "non-electrical quantity". In order to use
which converts energy from one form to another.
electrical methods and techniques for measurement,
However, this definition has to be restricted, many a
manipulation or control, the non-electrical quantity is
time especially in the field of electrical instrumen-
generally converted into an electrical form by a device
tatiOfl. keeping this restriction in view, a transducer
called a "transducer". We can define a transducer as a
may be defined as a device which converts a physical
device which, when actuated transforms energy from
quantity or a physical condition into an electrical
one form to another.
signal. Another name for a transducer is pick up.
The broad definition of a transducer includes, for
example, devices which convert mechanical force into 25.7.1 AdvflnfagdS of Electrical Transducers
an electrical signal. These devices form a very large There are a number of transducers which trans
and important group of transducers commonly used form a variety of physical quantities and phenomena
in industrial instrumentation area. The instrumen into electrical signals. The reasons for transforming a
tation engineers and technologists are therefore ph sical phenomenon into electrical form are
primarily concerned with this area of instrumentation. numerous. The advantages of converting physical
Many other physical parameters such as heat, intensity
quantities into analogous electrical quantities are :
of light, flow rate, liquid level, humidity and pH value
may also be converted into electrical form by means of (z) Electrical amplification and attenuation can
transducers. These transducers provide an output be done easily and that too with static devices.
signal when stimulated by a mechanical or a (z'z) The mass-inertia effects are minimised. In
non-mechanical input : a photoconductor converts fact, when dealing with electrical or electronic signals,
light intensity into change of resistance, a the inertia effects are due to electrons which have
thermocouple converts heat energy into electrical negligible mass. In many situations, we do not come
voltage, a force produces a change of resistance in a across mass or inertia problems at all.
strain gauge, an acceleration produces a voltage in a (zzz) The effects of friction are minimised.
(iv) The electrical or electronic systems can be 25.8 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

controlled with a very small power level. The transducers can be classified
(t?) The electrical output can be easily used, trans (z) on the basis of transduction form used,
mitted and processed for the purpose of measurement.
(ii) as primary and secondary transducers,
(vi) Telemetry is used in almost all sophisticated
(iii) as passive and active transducers,
measurement systems. The entire aerospace research
(iv) as analog and digital transducers, and
and development is based upon telemetry and remote
control. The ever-enlarging field of radio monitoring (v) as transducers and inverse transducers.
in space research has left us with no alternative but to 25.8.1 Classification based upon
resort to electronic means. This completely eliminates Principle of Transduction
the data transmission through mechanical means and
The transducers can be classified on the basis of
hence electrical and electronic principles have to be
principle of transduction as resistive, inductive,
employed for these conditions. The remote indication
capacitive etc. depending upon how they convert the
or recording is an essential part of modern day
input quantity into resistance, inductance or capaci
instrumentation technology.
tance respectively. They can be classified as piezo
(vii) There has been an explosive development in electric, thermoelectric, magnetorestrictive, electro-
the field of electronic components and devices. This kinetic and optical. Table 25.2 lists the classification of
development is on account of the fact that electronic transducers based upon principle of transduction.
devices are very amenable to miniaturization.
Components which are compact, have always an, 25.8.2 Primary and Secondary Transducers
advantage. Miniaturization on account of use of ICs Let us consider the case of a Bourdon's tube as
(integrated Circuits) has completely revolutionised shown in Fig. 25.26. The Bourdon tube acting as a
the field of instrumentation. primary detector senses the pressure and converts the
In short, it can be said that the reasons for pressure into a displacement of its free end. The
transforming a physical phenomenon into electrical displacement of the free end moves the core of a linear
form is that the electrical output can be easily used, variable differential transformer, (L.V.D.T.) which
transmitted and processed for the purposes of produces an output voltage which is proportional to
measurement. Modern digital computers make the the movement of the core, which is proportional to the
use of these transducers absolutely essential. displacement of the free end which in turn is
When the definition of transducer is confined to a proportional to the pressure. Thus, there are two
device that covers the entire detector transducer stages of transduction, firstly the pressure is converted
stage, wherein the transducer converts a non-electrical into a displacement by Bourdon tube then the
quantity into an analogous electrical signal, the trans displacement, is converted into an analogous voltage
ducer may be thought of consisting of two important by L.V.D.T. The Bourdon tube is called a "Primary
and closely related parts. These two parts are : Transducer" while the L.V.D.T. is called a "Secondary
A Sensing Element, and Transducer".
A Transduction Element.
In addition, there may be many other auxiliary
parts, such as amplifiers and other signal processing
equipment, power supplies, calibrating and reference
sources, and mechanical mounting features.
1. Sensing or Detector Element. A detector or a
sensing element is that part of a transducer which
responds to a physical phenomenon or a change in a
physical phenomenon. The response of the sensing
element must be closely related to the physical
phenomenon.
2. Transduction element. A transduction element
transforms the output of a sensing element to an Fig. 25.26 Measurement of pressure using Bourdon
electrical output. The transduction element, in a way, tube an L.V.D.T. (Example of primary and Secondary
acts as a secondary transducer. transducers).
Table 25.2 Types of Electrical
Electrical parameter
and class of transducer Principle of Operation Typical applications
_______________________ __________ Passive transducers (externally powered)

Resistance
Potentiometer device Positioning of the slider by an external force varies the Pressure, displacement.
resistance in a potentiometer or a bridge circuit.
Resistance strain Resistance of a wire or semiconductor is changed by elongation Force, torque,
: gauge or compression due to externally applied stress. displacement.
Pirani gauge or hot Resistance of heating element is varied by convection cooling of Gas flow, gas pressure.
wire meter a stream of gas. x
Resistance Resistance of pure metal wire with a large positive tempe Temperature,
thermometer rature co-efficient of resistance varies with temperature. radiant heat
i Thermistor Resistance of certain metal oxides with negative temperature Temperature, flow
coefficient of resistance varies with temperature.
■ Resistance hygrometer Resistance of a conductive strip changes with moisture content. Relative humidity.
. Photoconductive cell Resistance of the cell as a circuit element varies with incident Photosensitive relay.
light.
Capacitance
j Variable capacitance Distance between two parallel plates is varied by an externally Displacement, pressure.
; pressure gauge applied force.
j Capacitor microphone Sound pressure varies the capacitance between a fixed plate Speech, music, noise.
and a movable diaphragm.
Dielectric gauge Variation in capacitance by changes in the dielectric or Liquid level, thickness.
dielectric constant.
Inductance
| Magnetic circuit Self-inductance or mutual inductance of a.c. excited coil is Pressure, displacement.
transducer varied by changes in the magnetic circuit.
Reluctance pick up Reluctance of the magnetic circuits is varied by changing the Pressure, displacement, ■
position of the iron core of coil. vibrations, position.
Differential The differential voltage of two secondary windings of a Pressure, force,
transformer transformer is varied by positioning the magnetic core through displacement, position
an externally applied force.
Eddy current gauge Inductance of a coil is varied by the proximity of an eddy Displacement,
current plate. thickness.
Magnetostriction gauge Magnetic properties are varied by pressure and stress. Force, pressure, sound.
Voltage and Current
Hall effect pickup A potential difference is generated across a semiconductor plate Magnetic flux, current,
(germanium) when magnetic flux interacts with an applied power.
current.
1
j Ionization chamber Electron flow induced by ionization of gas due to Particle counting,
radio-active radiation. radiation.
Photoemissive cell Electron emission due to incident radiation upon Light and radiation.
photoemissive surface.
Photomultiplier tube Secondary electron emission due to incident radiation on Light and radiation,
photosensitive cathode. photosensitive relays.
Self-generating transducers (no external power)
Thermocouple and An emf is generated across the junction of two dissimilar Temperature, heat flow,
thermopile metals or semiconductors when that junction is heated. radiation.
Moving coil generator Motion of a coil in a magnetic field generates a voltage. Velocity, vibrations.
Piezoelectric pickup An emf is generated when an external force is applied to certain Sound, vibrations, accele
crystalline materials, such as quartz. ration, pressure changes.
Photovoltaic A voltage is generated in a semiconductor junction device Light meter, solar cell.
when radiant energy stimulates the cell.
Let us take another example which is the case of 25.8.3 Passive and Active Transducers
measurement of a compressive force with the help of a Transducers may be classified according to
load cell in conjunction with strain gauges as shown in whether they are passive or active.
Fig. 25.27. (Load cells and strain gauges are explained 1. Passive Transducers. Passive transducers
later in this chapter.) derive the power required for transduction from an
auxiliary power source. They also derive part of the
Force power required for conversion from the physical
quantity under measurement. They are also known as
"externally powered transducers". Typical examples of
passive transducers are resistive, inductive and
capacitive transducers.
Strain A typical example of a passive transducer is a
gauges
'POT' which is used for measurement of displace
ment. A 'POT' is a resistive transducer powered by a
source voltage e- as shown in Fig. 25.28. This 'POT' is
used for measurement of linear displacement x;.
Force
Fig. 25.27 Force measurement with load cell

and strain gauges.
The load cell is a short column or a strut with
resistance wire strain gauges bonded to it. The
measurand, in this case, is a force and is applied to the
column thereby producing strain. The force is first Fig. 25.28 Linear potentiometer (POT),
a passive transducer.
detected by the column and is converted into strain
which is a mechanical displacement. The higher the Suppose L is the total length of potentiometer
force, the higher is the strain and thus the input signal whose total resistance K •. The input displacement is x^
(force) is converted into an analogous output (strain). :. Output voltage
This strain changes the resistance of the strain gauges.
Thus we have an output which is a change in the value S°=L
of resistance i.e., electrical in form. Hence, in this case,
it takes two processes to convert an input into an In the absence of external power, the transducer
analogous output. The first process involves con cannot work and it hence is called a passive transducer.
version of force into mechanical displacement which 2. Active Transducers. Active transducers are
is done by the column, while the second process those which do not require an auxiliary power source
involves conversion of mechanical displacement into to produce their output. They are also known as self
change of resistance which is done by strain gauges. generating type since they develop their own voltage or
current output. The energy required for production of
Thus we see that the force is detected by the
output signal is obtained from the physical quantity
column in the first stage and hence it is called a
being measured.
Primary Transducer. The output signal from the
Velocity, temperature, light intensity and force
primary transducer is converted subsequently into a
can be transduced with the help of active transducers.
usable output by the strain gauges and therefore they
These transducers include tachogenerators, thermo
are known as Secondary Transducers.
couples, photovoltaic cells and piezoelectric crystals.
In most of measurement systems, there is a Consider the case of a piezoelectric crystal used for
suitable working combination wherein a Mechanical measurement of acceleration as shown in Fig. 25.29
device acts as a primary detector transducer and the The crystal is sandwiched between two metallic
electrical device acts as the secondary transducer electrodes, and the entire sandwich is fastened to a
with mechanical displacement serving as the base which may be the floor of a rocket. A fixed mass
intermediate signal. is placed on the top of the sandwich.
Glass scales can be read optically by means of a

acceleration
light source, an optical system and photocells. Metal
Fig. 25.29 Piezo-electric crystral measuring scales are scanned by brushes making electrical
acceleration - an active transducer. contact with individual tracks.
The property of the piezo-electric crystals is that The resolution depends upon the digits
when a force is applied to them, they produce an comprising the binary number and is 1/2/7 of full scale
output voltage. The mass exerts a certain force on where n is the number of digits.
account of acceleration on the crystal due to which a
voltage is generated. The acceleration is applied to the 25.8.5 Transducers and Inverse Transducers
base, due to which the mass produces a force. The There is a strong association of control with
mass being fixed, the force is proportional to measurement. The basic requirement for control of
acceleration. The voltage output is proportional force physical quantities such as position, speed,
and hence is proportional to acceleration (the mass temperature, pressure and flow rate in an industrial
being fixed). planet is the ability to measure these quantities. The
It should be noted from above that this transducer control action is only possible if the physical quantity
called "accelerometer" which converts acceleration into can be measured. For example, in a position control
electrical voltage does not need any auxiliary power system called "servomechanism", it is desired to control
source to convert a physical phenomenon (accele the position of a shaft. This requires an accurate
ration in this case) to an electrical output (voltage in method for measurement of the shaft position in order
this case) and therefore is an active transducer. that its position be accurately controlled. Further, if it
is desired that the shaft be accelerated in a controlled
25.8.4 Analog and Digital Transducers manner, then the position measuring device must be
The transducers can be classified on the basis of able to measure shaft position for rapid changes i.e.,
the output which may be a continuous function of the device must have a fast dynamic response.
time or the output may be in discrete steps. Figure 25.31 shows the block diagram of closed
1. Analog Transducers. These transducers convert loop control system. The controlled (output) quantity
the input quantity into an analog output which is a is usually a non electrical quantity. The control action
continuous function of time. Thus a strain gauge, an is through an input quantity that corresponds to the
L.V.D.T., a thermocouple or a thermistor may be
---------------( !--------------
called as "Analog Transducers" as they give an output
Feed- । 1 w
which is a continuous function of time. forward I
2. Digital Transducers. These transducers convert network Actuator
the input quantity into an electrical output which is in (amplifier) [ ।
the form of pulses.
As the binary system uses only two symbols 0 and
Measuring i
1 it can be easily represented by opaque and instrument M-
transparent areas on a glass scale or non-conducting 1 or transducer 1
i ।
and conducting areas on a metal scale. A scale
constructed to show the linear position on a movable --------- Electrical units or signals
object and having five digits is shown in Fig. 25.30.
---------- Mechanical units or signals
The complete binary number denoting position is
obtained by scanning the pattern across the scale at a Fig. 25.31 Feedback control system for control
stationary index mark. of non-electrical quantities.
desired output (non-electrical quantity). The input

quantity called reference input is usually an electrical
quantity. The controlled quantity is measured and
converted into an analogous quantity by transducers
which form the feedback loop. The loop input
quantity (electrical in nature) is compared with the
electrical quantity proportional to the output in a
comparator. In case, the two are not equal an error
signal is produced. This error signal is amplified and
applied to an actuator in the forward path, which
--------- Electrical units or signals
corrects the output quantity till the output quantity
----------- Mechanical units or signals
reaches the desired level.
1. Transducers. A transducer can be broadly Fig. 25.32 Feedback control system for control of
electrical quantities using inverse transducer.
defined as a device which converts a non-electrical
quantity into an electrical quantity.
It is evident that the operation of the feedback is
2. Inverse Transducers. An inverse transducer is
similar for both control and measuring systems as
defined as a device which converts an electrical
regards accuracy and stability. The essential
quantity into a non-electrical quantity. It is a precision
differences are in power level of the systems and the
actuator which has an electrical input and a low power
performance requirements of transducing elements.
non-electrical output. A piezoelectric crystal acts as an
The control systems handle relatively high power
inverse transducer because when a voltage is applied
levels through the actuator to directly determine the
across its surfaces, it changes its dimensions causing a
mechanical displacement. output quantity. Therefore, the actuator may have
poor regulation without affecting the control action.
A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field
The transducer and noise at the amplifier input largely
is also an inverse transducer because current carried
determine the accuracy of control. On the other hand,
by it is converted into a force which causes trans
lational or rotational displacement. Many data the feedback measuring system involves use of fairly
indicating and recording devices are inverse trans low power devices at the output. These devices
ducers. An analog ammeter or voltmeter converts include the indicator and inverse transducer.
current into mechanical displacement. However, such However, the inverse transducer essentially
devices which include instruments like indicating determines the characteristics of the system. The noise
instruments, pen recorders, oscilloscopes that convert connected with the transducer and amplifier input
the electrical signals to a mechanical movement are stage is very important.
placed at the output stage (data presentation stage)
are called output transducers. 25.9 CHARACTERISTICS AND CHOICE OF
The most useful application of inverse TRANSDUCERS
transducers is in feedback measuring systems. The When choosing a transducer for any application
development of transducers and inverse transducers, the input, transfer and output characteristics have to be
and the advantages gained through use of feedback taken into account.
has increased their applications manifold and there is
reason to believe that they will continue to grow in 25.9.1 Input Characteristics
importance. 1. Type of Input and Operating Range. The
A block diagram of a feedback control systems foremost consideration for the choice of a transducer is
using inverse transducers is shown in Fig. 25.32 for the input quantity it is going to measure and its
comparison with the simple feedback control system operating range. The type of input, which can be any
shown in Fig. 25.31. In the measuring system, the physical quantity, is generally determined in advance.
output quantity (usually electrical in nature) is A physical quantity may be measured through use of a
converted to a non-electrical form suitable for number of transducers. However, the choice of a
comparison with quantity to be measured particular transducer that is selected for the purpose,
(non-electrical form). The resulting error signal is depends upon the useful range of input quantity over
usually transduced into electrical form and amplified which the transducer can be used. The useful
to give output indication. operating range of the transducer may be a decisive
factor in selection of a transducer for a particular The scale factor is defined as the inverse of
application. The upper limit is decided by the sensitivity and is therefore,
transducer capabilities while the lower limit of range
is normally determined by the transducer error or by scale factor = — ...(25.35)
S dqi
the unavoidable noise originating in the transducer. In
fact the transducer should maintain a good resolution Some manufacturers specify the scale factor and
throughout its operating range. still call it sensitivity.
2. Loading Effects. Ideally a transducer should 25.9.2B Error
have no loading effect on the input quantity being
The errors in transducers occur because they do
measured. In theory, it is impossible, although in
not follow, in many situations the input-output
practice steps may be taken to reduce the loading
relationship given by qo = ftqj. Any departure from
effects to negligible proportions. The magnitude of the the above relationship results in errors. For example,
loading effects can be expressed in terms of force, the output on account of input, z/(- has to be q0 but in
power or energy extracted from the quantity under practice an output q0 is obtained, then the error of the
measurement for working of the transducers. instrument is,
Therefore, the transducer, that is selected for a e = ^0-r/0 -.(25.36)
particular application should ideally extract no force,
The error, a can be expressed in terms of either
power or energy from the quantity under
input or the output quantity.
measurement in order that the latter is measured
The error analysis has already been given in
accurately.
Chapter 3. The error can be split into three
25.9.2 Transfer Characteristics components, which are,
The transfer characteristics of transducers require A scale error
attention of three separate elements, viz., A dynamic error, and
transfer function A error on account of noise and drift.
A error, and Scale Error
A response of transducer to environmental The scale error comprises of four different types
influences. of errors :
(i) Zero Error. In this case the output deviates
25.9.2 A Transfer Function
from the correct value by a constant factor over the
The transfer function of a transducer defines a
entire range of the transducer. This is shown in
relationship between the input quantity and the
Fig. 25.33.
output. The transfer function is,
% = /(?,) -(25.32)
where q0 and £/• are respectively output and input of
the transducer.
The sensitivity of a transducer is defined as the
differential quotient,
S = -^ ...(25.33)
dcli
In general, the sensitivity of transducers is not
constant but is dependent upon the quantity z/-. Fig. 25.33 Transducer zero error.
However, in some cases the relationship between
(zz) Sensitivity Error. Sensitivity error occurs
the output q0 and input z/(7 is linear. In that case the
where the observed output deviates from the correct
sensitivity remains constant over the entire range of
value by a constant value. Suppose the correct output
the transducer and is defined as, is q the output would be Kq^ over the entire range of
the transducer, where K is a constant. This is shown in
dr/. Fig- 25.34.
Dynamic Error
Dynamic errors occur only when the input
quantity is varying with time. This is on account of the
fact the systems contain energy storage elements and
due to this the output cannot follow the input exactly
but with a time lag.
Let us consider an R-C series circuit to which a
step input of magnitude E is applied, the voltage
across the capacitor after a time, t of application of step
input is,
Fig. 25.34 Transducer sensitivity error.
ec = E[l-exp(-f/ t)]
(in) Non-conformity. This pertains to a case in
where r = time constant = RC
which the experimentally obtained transfer function
deviates from the theoretical transfer function for The response is shown in Fig. 25.37.
almost every input. This is shown in Fig. 25.35.
Fig. 25.35 Transducer Non-conformity.

Fig. 25.37 Response of RC circuit to a step input.
In the special case of a theoretical linear
relationship between input and output quantities, this
The dynamic or measurement error is,
error is called non-linearity or non-linear distortion.
(iv) Hysteresis. All transducers are subject to the e„;(0= E-ec=exp(-f/r)
effects of hysteresis. The output of a transducer not The dynamic or measurement error can be made
only depends upon the input quantity but also upon small by having a small time constant. It should be
in input quantities previously applied to it. Therefore, understood that the dynamic error is a function of
a different output is obtained when the same value of time. As the time after application of the input
input quantity is applied depending upon whether it increases, the dynamic error reduces. The steady state
is increasing or decreasing. For decreasing values, a
error,
greater output is obtained than with increasing values
eSS=e,n^=e~t/T' =0
for the same value of the input quantity. This is shown
in Fig. 25.36. t —> 00 t —> oo
in this particular case.
Errors due to Noise and Drift

Noise and drift signals originating from the
transducers vary with time and are superimposed on
the output signal. The difference between noise and
drift is that noise consists of a signal of random
amplitude and random frequency whilst drift is a slow
change with time. The magnitude of the noise and
drift is normally independent of the magnitude of the
Fig. 25.36 Transducer hysteresis. input signal.
Errors due to Change of Frequency The high frequency, cutoff (fh) is the frequency at
(Frequency Response) which the transducers gain has fallen to 0.707 of the
Frequency response and the high frequency cut off value it had at its stable low frequency. If the vertical
are the two specifications that describe the response of axis is scaled in db, fh occurs when the gain has
a transducer to a variable frequency sine wave input decreased by -3 db. Figure 25.38 shows that the low
applied to it. For a reasonably, linear transducer, a sine frequency gain is 20 db but drops of 17 db (20 - 3 = 17 db)
wave input yields a sine wave output. As the at a frequency of 4 kHz. Therefore, the high frequency
frequency of the sine wave input is increased, the cutoff takes place at 4 kHz in this case.
transducer is required to respond more and more
The high frequency cutoff can be related to the
quickly. Ultimately, beyond a particular frequency the
rise time by the following relationship :
transducer can no larger respond as rapidly as its
sinusoidal input is changing. So the output of the tr =0.35/fh ...(25.38)
transducer becomes smaller and also the phase shift Therefore, even if the transient response
between the input and output increases. Thus as the specifications are not given, the speed of a transducer
frequency increases the output of the transducer falls. can be determined from its high frequency cutoff.
This roll off of amplitude of output with an increase in
25.9.3 Transducer Response
The response of the transducer to environmental
influences is of a great importance. This is often given
insufficient attention when choosing the best
transducer for a particular measurement. This gives
rise to results that are not as accurate as expected, or,
worse, results that are accepted as more accurate than
they actually are. The performance of the tiansducer is
fully defined by its transfer function and errors,
provided that the transducer is in constant
environments and not subject to any disturbances like
stray electromagnetic and electrostatic fields,
mechanical shocks and vibrations temperature
changes, pressure and humidity changes, changes in
supply voltage and improper mechanical mountings.
If transducers are subjected to the above environ
mental disturbances, which they are, precautions are
taken, so that changes in transfer function and
resulting errors therefrom do not occur.
Therefore, the transducer selected must be
guarded against the interfering and modifying
inputs.
Fig. 25.38 Frequency response plot. 25.9.4 Output Characteristics

The three conditions in the output characteristics
input frequency is the frequency response. The which should be considered are,
frequency response of a transducer is shown in
A Type of electrical output,
Fig. 25.38. The vertical axis is the gain of the
A Output impedance, and
transducer. This may be simply the output to input
ratio. However, the gain is specified in terms of A Useful ouput range.
decibels.
Type of Electrical Output
Gain in db = 20 log (output/input) = 20 log (Ây,)
The types of output which may be available from
...(25.37) the transducers may be a voltage, current, impedance
The horizontal axis represents the frequency, and or a time function of these amplitudes. These output
is plotted on a 'logarithmic scale in order to cover a quantities may or may not be acceptable to the latter
wide range of frequencies. stages of the instrumentation system. They may have
to be manipulated i.e., their magnitudes changed or

they may have to be changed in their format by signal
conditioning equipment so as to make them drive the
subsequent stages of instrumentation system.
Output Impedance
The output impedance, Zo, of a transducer
determines to the extent the subsequent stages of
instrumentation is loaded. Ideally, the value of output
impedance should be zero if no loading effects are
there on the subsequent stage. However, the output
impedance, Zo, cannot made equal to zero and
therefore, its value should be kept as low as possible to
minimise the loading effects.
The output impedance determines the amount of
power that can be transferred to the succeeding stages
of the instrumentation system for a given output
signal level. If the output impedance is low compared
to the forward impedance of the system, the
transducer has the characteristics of a constant voltage
source (provided the output of the transducer is a
voltage), while in case the forward impedance is high
as compared with the output impedance of
transducer, it behaves as constant current source.
This can be explained as under :
An ideal constant voltage source, furnishes at its
output terminals, a voltage that is independent of the and voltage across load
load connected to the source or of the current drawn
from the source. The voltage may or may not vary in ...(25.40)
‘L r0 + rl 1+r<,/rl
time. In fact, it must vary in time, if it represents a
signal which is true of transducers since their output is In case the internal resistance (output resistance)
dependent upon the input signals which vary with R(/ of the source is much smaller than load resistance
time. (for instance : Ro = 1 kQ and RL = 1 MQ) then ratio
R()/RL is very small as compared with unity and hence,
If a constant voltage source having a voltage of E
voltage across the load is,
is [Fig. 25.39(a)] is applied across a resistance R, the
current is E/R as shown in Fig. 25.39(c). A constant el=e ...(25.41)
voltage source in a strict sense does not exist ; the and the current is,
output voltage will always vary with the current 1= E/Rl ...(25.42)
drawn from the source.
Thus the voltage across the load is constant and
This is because a practical voltage source has an
the current is independent of the internal resistance Ro
internal resistance (output resistance), Ro, on account
of the source. Thus the source behaves as a constant
of which the voltage across the load resistance, EL,
voltage source as indicated in region N of Fig. 25.39(e).
decreases with increase of current or decrease of load
An ideal current source furnishes a current that is
resistance RL.
independent of the load resistance. It remains constant
Figure 25.39(d) shows a practical voltage source
even if the load resistance varies. The current
which consists of a voltage source E in series with an
produced by a constant current source may or may not
internal resistance R(/ and a load resistance RL.
vary with time.
The current in this circuit is given by,
If a constant current passes through a resistor R,
£
1 =--- - ---- ...(25.39) as shown in Fig. 25.40(a), a potential difference occurs
Rno + RLr between the terminals which is given by E = IR. In a
strict sense, as in the case of constant voltage source, a teristics of a constant voltage source. On the other
constant current source does not exist. A practical hand, if the output impedance of the transducer is
current source contains a voltage source E which much higher than that of the succeeding stages, it
causes the current. A constant current source has an exhibits characteristics of a constant current source.
internal resistance Ry which is connected in parallel When the output impedance of the transducer is
with the current source, and is very large as compared equal to that of the following stages of instrumen
with the load resistance R. The current in such a tation system, matching takes place and maximum
system is determined primarily by magnitudes of E
power is transferred from the transducer to the
and Rl.
succeeding stages. However, it must be understood
The current through load resistance is, that in case maximum power transfer takes place,
^0 I when the output resistance of transducer, is equal to
...(25.43)
the resistance of the succeeding stages, the efficiency is
only 50%. Also, when dealing with a.c. systems, the
If the internal resistance Ro is very large as
impedance matching takes place when the impedance
compared to the load resistance (for instance Ro = 1 kQ
of the load is RL -/XL in case the output impedance is
and Rl = 1Q) the ratio RL/R0 is very small so compared
with I and therefore, load current, rl + 7-xl.
IL= I ...(25.44) Useful Output Range
Therefore, the source behaves as a constant The output range of a transducer is limited at the
current source as depicted in region M of Fig. 25.40(e). lower end by noise signals which may shroud the
There is a region O, between regions M and N where desired input signal. The upper limit is set by the
the source neither behaves as a constant voltage maximum useful input level. The output range can be
source or a constant current source. increased, in some cases, by the inclusion of amplifier
Therefore, we conclude, if the output impedance in the transducer. However, the inclusion of an
of the transducer is low as compared with that of load amplifier also increases the noise level and therefore in
impedance of the successive stages, it has the charac- such situations the amplifier may not be of any use at
all.
25.10 SUMMARY OF FACTORS INFLUENCING

THE CHOICE OF TRANSDUCERS
In the following parts of this chapter, an attempt
has been made to give the details and applications of
the transducers for measurement of different physical
quantities. It will be realised that there are many ways
for measurement of a physical quantity, and in many
cases, there is no best way. The transducers and the
methods used may depend upon the instrumentation
already available and also on the experience of the
user.
Unfortunately most transducers are not sensitive
to just one quantity. If measurements are to be made
under conditions where there is likelihood of two or
more input quantities influencing the transducer, it is
desirable to select a transducer which is sensitive to
the desirable quantity and insensitive to the unwanted
quantity. If this is not possible, ways and means
should be found to eliminate or compensate for the
effects of the unwanted input quantity. The following
is the summary of the factors influencing the choice of
Fig. 25.40 Depiction of constant current source. a transducer for measurement of a physical quantity.
1. Operating Principle. The transducers are many under its temperature range. It should be able to work
a times selected on the basis of operating principle in corrosive environments (if the application so requires),
used by them. The operating principles used may be should be able to withstand pressures and shocks and
resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezo other interactions to which it is subjected to.
electric etc. 10. Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals. The
2. Sensitivity. The transducer must be sensitive transducer should be minimally sensitive to unwanted
enough to produce detectable output. signals and highly sensitive to desired signals.
3. Operating Range. The transducer should 11. Usage and Ruggedness. The ruggedness both
maintain the range requirements and have a good of mechanical and electrical intensities of transducer
resolution over its entire range. The rating of the versus its size and weight must be considered while
transducer should be sufficient so that it does not selecting a suitable transducer.
breakdown while working in its specified operating Electrical aspects. The electrical aspects that
12.
range. need consideration while selecting a transducer

4. Accuracy. High degree of accuracy is assured if
include the length and type of cable required.
the transducer does not require frequent calibration Attention also must be paid to signal to noise ratio
and has a small value for repeatability. It may be in case the transducer is to be used in conjunction with
emphasised that in most industrial applications, amplifiers. Frequency response limitations must also
repeatability is of considerably more importance than be taken into account.
absolute accuracy. 13. Stability and Reliability. The transducer
5. Cross sensitivity. Cross sensitivity is a further should exhibit a high degree of stability to be
factor to be taken into account when measuring operative during its operation and storage life.
mechanical quantities. There are situations where the Reliability should be assured in case of failure of
actual quantity is being measured is in one plane and transducer in order that the functioning of the
the transducer is subjected to variations in another instrumentation system continues uninterrupted.
plane. More than one promising transducer design has 14.Static Characteristics. Apart from low static
had to be abandoned because the sensitivity to error, the transducers should have a low non-linearity,
variations of the measured quantity in a plane low hysteresis, high resolution and a high degree of
perpendicular to the required plane has been such as repeatability.
to give completely erroneous results when the The transducer selected should be free from load
transducer has been used in practice. alignment effects and temperature effects. It should
6. Errors. The transducer should maintain the not need frequent calibration, should not have any
expected input-output relationship as described by its component limitations, and should be preferably
transfer function so as to avoid errors. small in size.
7. Transient and Frequency Response. The
25.11 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS
transducer should meet the desired time domain
specifications like peak overshoot, rise time, settling It is generally seen that methods which involve
time and small dynamic error. It should ideally have a the measurement of change in resistance are preferred
flat frequency response curve. In practice, however, to those employing other principles. This is because
there will be cutoff frequencies and higher cut off both alternating as well as direct currents and voltages
frequency should be high in order to have a wide are suitable for resistance measurements.
bandwidth. The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed
8.Loading Effects. The transducer should have a by a simple equation that involves a few physical
high input impedance and a low output impedance to quantities. The relationship is
avoid loading effects.
R=pL/ A,
9. Environmental Compatibility. It should be
assured that the transducer selected to work under where R = resistance ; Q,
specified environmental conditions maintains its L = length of conductor ; m,
input-output relationship and does not break down. A = cross-sectional area of conductor ; m2,
For example, the transducer should remain operable and p = resistivity of conductor material; Q-m
Any method of varying one of the quantities Displacement

involved in the above relationship can be the design
basis of an electrical resistive transducer. There are a
number of ways in which resistance can be changed
by a physical phenomenon. The translational and
rotational potentiometers which work on the basis of
change in the value of resistance with change in length
of the conductor can be used for measurement of
translational or rotary displacements. Strain gauges
work on the principle that the resistance of a
conductor or a semi-conductor changes when strained.
This property can be used for measurement of
displacement, force and pressure. The resistivity of (rt) Linear (translational) POT
materials changes with change of temperature thus
causing a change of resistance. This property may be
used for measurement of temperature. Thus electrical
resistance transducers have a wide field of
application.
25.12 POTENTIOMETERS
Basically a resistance potentiometer, or simply a
POT, (a resistive potentiometer used for the purposes
of voltage division is called a POT) consists of a
resistive element provided with a sliding contact. This
sliding contact is called a wiper. The motion of the
(b) Rotary POT
sliding contact may be translatory or rotational. A
linear pot and a rotary pot are shown in Figs. 25.41(67) Fig. 25.41 Resistive potentiometers (POTs)
and (b) respectively. Figure 25.42 shows the diagrams for translational,
Some POTS use the combination of the two single turn rotational, and multitum helix potentio
motions, i.e., translational as well as rotational. These meters.
POTS have their resistive element in the form of a
helix and therefore, they are called helipots.
The translational resistive elements are straight
devices and have a stroke of 2 mm to 0.5 m. The
rotational devices are circular in shape and are used
for measurement of angular displacement. They may
have a full scale angular displacement as small as 10°.
A full single turn potentiometer may provide accurate
measurements upto 357°. Multiturn potentiometers
may measure upto 3500° of rotation through use of
helipots.
The helical resistive elements are multiturn

rotational devices which can be used for measurement
of either translational or rotary motion. The resistive
element of the POT may be excited by either d.c. or a.c.
voltage. The POT is a passive transducer since it
requires an external power source for its operation.
The resistive body of potentiometer may be wire
wound. A very thin, 0.01 mm diameter of platinum or
nickel alloy is carefully wound on an insulated former.
The resistance elements are also made up from cermet, pig. 25.42 Diagrams for translational,
hot moulded carbon, carbon film and thin metal. rotational and helipots.
Let us confine, our discussion of d.c. excited The circuits shown in Fig. 25.42 are called
potentiometers. Consider a translational potentio potentiometer dividers since they produce an output
meter as shown in Fig. 25.42(a). voltage which is a fraction of the input voltage. Thus
Let, the input voltage is "divided". The potential divider is
a device for dividing the potential in a ratio
e. & eQ = input and output voltages
determined by the position of the sliding contact.
respectively ; V,
xt = total length of translational pot; m,
xt = displacement of wiper from its zero
position ; m,
R? = total resistance of the potentiometer ; Q
If the distribution of the resistance with respect to

translational movement is linear, the resistance per
unit length is Rp/xv
The output voltage under ideal conditions is :

resistance at the output terminals^
*o = input voltage
resistance at the input terminals
Equations 25.46 and 25.47 are based upon the
...(25.45) assumption that the distribution of resistance with
respect to linear or angular displacement is uniform
and the resistance of the voltage measuring device (i.e.
The under ideal circumstances, the output
output device) is infinite.
voltage varies linearly with displacement as shown in
Fig. 25.43(a). However, in practice, the output terminals of the
pot are connected to a device whose impedance is
finite. Thus, when an electrical instrument, which
forms a load for the pot and is connected across the
output terminals, the indicated voltage is less than
that given by Eqn. 25.46. The error, which is referred
to as a loading error is caused by the input resistance
of the output device.
Let us consider the case of a translational poten
tiometer as shown in Fig. 25.44. Let the resistance of a
meter or a recorder monitoring the output be R .
As explained earlier if the resistance across the
Fig. 25.43 Characteristics of potentiometers. output terminals is infinite, we get a linear relation
ship between the output and the input voltage.
Sensitivity s = °UtF’- c0= (xi/xt)ei = Kei ...(25.48)
input
p p where K = x-/xf
= -0=_L ...(25.46)
xi xt However, under actual conditions the resistance,
Rm, is not infinite. This causes a non-linear
Thus under ideal conditions the sensitivity is
relationship between the output and input voltages.
constant and the output is faithfully reproduced and
has a linear relationship with input. The same is true 25.12.1 Loading Effect
of rotational motion. The resistance of the parallel combination of load
Let 0; = input angular displacement in degrees, resistance and the portion of the resistance of the
and 0f = total travel of the wiper in degrees. potentiometer is :
Output voltage eQ = er (0. / 0f) ...(25.47) RR,,R„,
...(25.49)
This is true of single turn potentiometers only. (xf/x,)Rp + R„, KRp + Rm
The total resistance seen by the source is : Except for the two end points where K=0 i.e.,
RRpR.n x. =0 and K = 1 where x; =x, the error is always
R=Rp(l-K) + negative. Figure 25.45 shows a plot of the variation in
KRP+ Rm error with the slider position for different ratios of the
load (output device or meter) resistance to the
KR^(1-K)4 RpR„,
...(25.50) potentiometer resistance.
KR,, + R,„ The error as indicated in Fig. 25.45 is actually
~ L • ei negative. Examine Fig. 25.45, the maximum error is
Current i = — about 12 per cent of full scale if Rm^p = I- This error
R
drops down to about 1.5 per cent when Rm/Rp = 10. For
values of R„/Rp > 10, the position of maximum error
' KR2p(l-K)+RpRm
occurs in the vicinity of x;- / xf= 0.67.
The output voltage under load conditions is :
RRpRm
^Rp + RJ ;; KRpRm
(KR p+Rm)
" KRp(l-K)+RpRm *
=--------------------------- ... (25.51)

K(l-K)(Rp/Rm) + l
The ratio of output voltage to input voltage under

load conditions is :
eo __________ R________ ...(25.52)
e. K(l-K)(Rp/R„;) + l
Fig. 25.45 Variation of error due to loading
Equation 25.52 shows that there exists a effect of a potentiometer.
non-linear relationship between output voltage and
input displacement xj since K-xff xr In case Rm = oo, Maximum percentage error
eQ I e- = K. âx=15x(Rp/Rm) ...(25.55)
It is evident from Eqn. 25.52 that as the ratio of
It should be understood that the error in POTS is
RffRp decreases, the non-linearity goes on increasing.
on account of the non-linearity effect produced by the
This is shown in Fig. 25.43(b). Thus, in order to keep
linearity, the value of Rm/Rp should be as large as output device used for measurement whose input
possible. However, when we have to measure the resistance, R , is finite. If meter resistance were
output voltage with a given meter, the resistance of infinite there would be no linearity effects and the
the potentiometer, Rp, should be as small as possible. output voltage will be a linear function of input
displacement x- as shown in Fig. 25.43 and
Error = output voltage under load consequently, there would no error because of the
- output voltage under no load
absence of non-linearity.
=---- ---- —---------------e. K 25.12.2 Power Rating of Potentiometers
[K(l-K)(Rp/R,„) + l] '
The potentiometers are designed with a definite
K2(K-1) power rating which is related directly to their heat
...(25.53)
K(l-K)+Rm/Rp dissipating capacity. The manufacturer normally
designs a series of potentiometers of single turn with a
Based upon full-scale output, this relationship diameter of 50 mm with a wide range of ohmic values
may be written as : ranging from 100 Q to 10 kQ in steps of 100 Q. These
K2(K-1) potentiometers are essentially of the same size and of
xlOO ...(25.54) the same mechanical configuration. They have the
K(l-R) + (Rm/Rp)
same heat transfer capabilities. Their rating is typically
5 W at an ambient temperature of 21°C This limits The linearity can be improved by using a
their input excitation voltage. Since power P = ej I Rp, resistance Rjn (made equal to the meter resistance Rm)
the maximum input excitation voltage that can be as shown in Fig. 25.46 without using a meter of higher
used is : resistance. The input-output characteristics with and
without Rjft in the circuit are shown in Fig. 25.46(b).
(“’.Lax = volt -(25.56)
25.12.3 Linearity and Sensitivity

It has been explained earlier that in order to
achieve a good linearity, the resistance of
potentiometer R , should be as low as possible when
using a meter for reading the output voltage which
has a fixed value of input resistance R .
In order to get a high sensitivity the output
voltage eQ should be high which in turn requires a high
input voltage, ef. Due to limitations of power
dissipation as is clear from Eqn. 25.56, the input
voltage is limited by the resistance of the potentio Fig. 25.46 Linearization of POT characteristics,
meter. In order to keep the power dissipation at a low through use of an external resistance Rln = Rm.
level, the input voltage should be small and resistance
of the potentiometer should be high. Thus for a high 25.12.4 Construction of Potentiometers
sensitivity, the input voltage should be large and this The resolution of the potentiometers influences
calls for a high value of resistance R . On the other, if the construction of their resistance elements.
we consider the linearity, the resistance of potentio Normally, the resistive element is a single wire of
meter should be as low as possible. The resistance conducing material which gives a continuous stepless
of the potentiometer, Rp, cannot be made low because
variation of resistance as the wiper travels over it.
if we do so the power dissipation goes up with the
Such potentiometers are available but their length (in
result that we have to make the input voltage small to
the case of translational potentiometers) and diameter
keep the power dissipation to the acceptable level.
(in the case of rotational potentiometers) restrict their
This results in lower sensitivity.
use on account of space considerations.
Thus linearity and sensitivity are therefore two
The resolution of the potentiometers is dependent
conflicting requirements. If R? is made small, the
linearity improves, but a low value of R , requires a upon the construction of the resistive element and in
lower input voltage e- in order to keep down the order to get high values of resistance in small space
power dissipation and a low value of e- results in a wire wound potentiometers are used extensively. The
lower value of output voltage eQ resulting in lower resistance wire is wound on a mandrel or a card for
sensitivity. Thus the choice of potentiometer translational displacement as shown in Fig. 25.47(a).
resistance, R , has to be made considering both the For the measurement of rotational motion these
linearity ana sensitivity and a compromise between mandrels or cards are formed into a circle or a helix.
the two conflicting requirements has to be struck.
The maximum available sensitivity of poten
tiometer varies considerably from type to type and
also with size in a given type. The sensitivity can be
calculated from the data supplied by the manu
facturers which includes maximum allowable voltage,
current or power and the maximum stroke. The
shorter stroke devices have generally a higher
sensitivity. Extreme values are of the order of
15 V/degree for short stroke sector type rotational
potentiometers and 12 V/mm for short stroke
(6.25 mm) translational potentiometers. These, in fact,
are maximum achievable values and usual values of
sensitivity are 10 to 100 times smaller.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers J 71
25.12.5 Helipots
The resolution can be increased by using multi
turn potentiometers. These are called helipots. The
resistance element is in the form of a helix and the
wiper travels along a "lead screw". The number of
turns is still limited to 20 to 40 turns per mm but an
increase in resolution can be obtained by using a
gearing arrangement between the shaft whose motion
is to be measured and the potentiometer shaft. As an
example, one rotation of the measured shaft can cause
10 rotations of the potentiometer shaft. This increases
the resolution of the measured shaft motion by
(b) Circular (Rotational) potentiometer.
10 times. Multitum potentiometers are available to
Fig. 25.47 Wire wound potentiometers. about 60 turns.
This is shown in Fig. 25.47(b). If wire wound type of Similar magnifying or amplifying techniques can
construction is adopted, the variation of resistance is be used for translational motion as well.
not a linear continuous change but is in small steps as
the sliding contact (wiper) moves from one turn to 25.13 NON-LINEAR POTENTIOMETERS
another. This is shown in Fig. 25.48. FUNCTION GENERATORS
In many instrumentation problems, non-linear
conditions arise. These may include the effect of
magnetic saturation, the non-linearity of the voltage
produced by a thermocouple as a function of
temperature, the air speed expressed in Mach number
as a function of wind-tunnel pressures, trigonometric
functions, etc. One simple method of solving these
non-linear functions is by the use of non-linear poten
Fig. 25.48 Translational potentiometer and tiometers. A standard self-balancing potentiometer is
its characteristics. used to produce a displacement proportional to the
input voltage e- is shown in Fig. 25.49. This
Since the variation in resistance is in steps the
resolution is limited. For instance, a translational
displacement also operates a non-linear resistance 25
which produces an output voltage which is the
potentiometer has about 500 turns of a resistance wire
desired function of the input voltage e-. This operation
on a card of 25 mm in length and for this device the
is illustrated in the following example. Let the input
resolution is limited to 25/500 = 0.05 mm = 50 pm.
voltage e- vary from 0 to 10 V. The desired function of
The actual practical limit is 20 and 40 turns per
this voltage is as plotted in Fig. 25.49(b).
mm. Thus for translational devices the resolution is
eQ = 0.3 ei + 0.5 e2 ...(25.58)
limited to 25 -50pm.
The maximum output voltage
For rotational devices, the best angular resolution
3 to 6 , e0(max) = 03 X 10 + 03 X 0 °)2 = 53 V-
=------ degrees ... (25.57)
A displacement proportional e- is obtained using
where D = diameter of the potentiometer ; mm an amplifier and a servomotor as shown in
In order to get higher resolution, thin wires which Fig. 25.49(rt). A good approximation of the required
have a high resistance have to be put close to each resistance of the non-linear potentiometer is obtained
other and they can be closely wound on account of by shunting a linear potentiometer at 10 equally
their small diameter. Thus the resolution and total spaced taps with the correct resistances. The desired
resistance are interdependent. voltage above ground is computed from Eqn. 25.58
In case a fine resolution and high resistance are and are listed in Table 25.3. The current is assumed to
required a carbon film or a conductive-plastic be 1 mA. The resistance R is the resistance from each
resistance elements are used. Carbon film resistive tap to ground, and AR is the resistance between
elements have a resolution of 12.5 nm. adjacent taps. These resistances are computed and
listed in Table 25.3. The circuit of the non-linear The maximum resistance between taps is 980 fl
potentiometer with resistances between each tap is Then a 10,000 Q, 10-tap potentiometer with 1,000 fl
shown in Fig- 25.49. between taps can be used with the correct shunt
resistance externally connected between the taps for
the non-linear potentiometer. The shunt resistance Rx
between each pair of taps necessary to produce the
desired non-linearity is,
where is the resistance between the pair of adjacent

taps of the potentiometer without the shunting
resistors, and AR is the desired resistance.
These values are given in Table 25.3. The
difference between the desired function and the ap
proximation obtained with this 10-tap potentiometer
is the difference between the curve in Fig. 25.49 and
the straight lines connecting the points on the curve.
An adjustable tapped potentiometer is-shown in
Fig. 25.50. This has the advantages that it can be
adjusted to fit any desired curve, and that it is capable
of having both positive and negative voltage outputs.
80 180 280 380 480 580 680 780 880 980
•— ei —*| eo Non-linear potentiometer

----------------------------- o E = 53 V o----------------------------
Fig. 25.49 Non-linear-potentiometer-function

generator.
Table 25.3
e. R AR *x
eo
0 0 0 0
1 0.8 80 80 87
2 2.6 260 180 220
3 5.4 540 280 319
4 9.2 920 380 613
5 14.0 1,400 480 923
6 19.8 1,980 580 1,380
7 26.6 2,660 680 2,124 Fig. 25.50 Adjustable tapped potentiometer.
8 34.4 3,440 780 3,540

When a fixed function is desired, a wire-wound
9 43.2 4,320 880 7,330 potentiometer with the desired taper may be made.
i 10 53.0 5,300 980 49,000 An example of this type of potentiometer is illustrated
It will be remembered that servo circuits are

comparatively slow and are inadequate for fast analog
computers, yet these circuits are very accurate, usually
± 0.5 percent or better.
If the slope of the body on which the resistive wire
is wound is kept accurately uniform, there will be a
linear relationship between the output voltage and the
position of the wiper (input displacement). However,
if the shape of the body varies, it will cause a
prescribed non-linear transfer function. This is shown
in Fig. 25.52.
There are many standard functions available, or
custom position-to-voltage relationship can be
produced. This non-linear relationship may be used to
Fig. 25.51 Sine-cosine, tapered potentiometer.
compensate for a non-linearity in the quantity being
in Fig. 25.51, where the taper is shown for a measured or to introduce a special function into the
continuous rotating potentiometer with a sine-cosine control and instrumentation scheme without having
output function. The potentiometer shaft is rotated at to resort to special mathematics electronics or a
the desired angular velocity with a servomotor when a computer.
sine-wave input voltage is desired, or it may be
Operated with a self-balancing potentiometer circuit, 25.14 MATERIALS USED FOR POTENTIOMETERS
as shown in Fig 25.49 when the desired output is, The materials used for POTS may be classified as
= a sin e,- wire wound and non-wire wound.
or when the axis is shifted 90°. 1. Wire Wound Potentiometers

Cq = b cos ei These are platinum, nickel chromium, nickel
copper, or some other precious resistance elements.
Wire wound potentiometers carry relatively large
currents at high temperatures. Their resistance
temperature co-efficient is usually small, is of the
order of 20 x 10~6/°C or less. Their resolution is about
0.025 - 0.05 mm and is limited by the number of turns
that can be accommodated on the card.
It should be noted that the interwinding
capacitance between turns, and between windings
and shaft, housing etc. limits the use of wire wound
potentiometers to low frequencies. The response is
limited to about 5 Hz.
2. Non-Wire Potentiometers
These are also called continuous potentiometers. The
non-wire wound potentiometers provide improved
resolution and life. This is because the resolution is no
longer limited by the number of turns that can be
wrapped onto a body. The wiper moves across a
smooth surface (not bouncing from turn to turn),
wear, bounce and the resulting failures are decreased.
The maximum speed that a wire wound potentio
meter is turned is about 300 rpm. About that, the noise
created as the wiper bounces from turn to turn
becomes significant. A continuous potentiometer may
f t9. 25.52 Generation of non-linear functions
with potentiometers. be turned at a speed of 2000 rpm. However, they are
more sensitive to temperature changes, have a higher The disadvantages are :

wiper contact resistance, which is variable and can (?) The chief disadvantage of using a linear
carry only moderate currents. potentiometer is that they require a large
The materials used for non-wire wound (or force to move their sliding contacts (wipers).
continuous) potentiometers are : (zz) The other problems with sliding contacts are
(i) Cermet. Cermet uses precious metal particles that they can be contaminated, can wear out,
fused into ceramic base. These fused metal particles become misaligned and generate noise. So
act as resistance elements. The advantages of using the life of the transducer is limited.
Cermet are large power ratings at high temperatures,
However, recent developments have
produced a roller contact wiper which, it is
low cost and moderate temperature coefficients of the
claimed, increases the life of the transducer
order 100 x 10-6 to 200 x 10-6/°C Cermet is very useful
by 40 times.
for a.c. applications.
Example 25.9 A linear resistance potentiometer is
(ii) Hot moulded carbon. The resistance element is
50 mm long and is uniformly wound with a wire having a
fabricated by moulding together a mixture of carbon
resistance of 10,000 □. Under normal conditions, the slider
and a thermosetting plastic binder. Hot moulded
is at the centre of the potentiometer. Find the linear
carbon units are useful for a.c. applications.
displacement when the resistance of the potentiometer as
(iii) Carbon film. A thin film of carbon deposited measured by a Wheatstone bridge for two cases is: (i) 3850 Q,
on a non-conductive base forms the resistance (ii) 7560D. Are the two displacements in the same direction ?
element. The advantage of carbon film potentiometers
If it is possible to measure a minimum value of 10 Q
is their low cost. Temperature coefficients are upto
resistance with the above arrangement, find the resolution
1000xl0-6/°C
of the potentiometer in mm.
(zv) Thin metal film. A very thin, vapour Solution. The resistance of the potentiometer at
deposited layer of metal on glass or ceramic base is its normal position
used as a resistance element. The advantages of this
= 1000/2 = 5000 Q
potentiometer are its excellent resistance to changes in
Resistance of potentiometer per unit length
environments and use on a.c. The cost is also
moderate. = 1000/50 = 200 Q/mm
(z) Change of resistance from its normal position
25.15 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF = 5000-3850 = 1150 Q
RESISTANCE POTENTIOMETERS
.'. Displacement of wiper from its normal position
Resistance potentiometers have the following
= 1150/200 =5.75 mm
major advantages :
(zz) Change of resistance from its normal position
(i) . They are inexpensive.
= 7560-5000 = 2560 0
(zz) They are simple to operate and very useful Displacement of wiper from its normal position
for applications where the requirements are
2560/200 = 12.80 mm
not particularly severe.
Since, one of the displacements represents a
(zzz) They are very useful for measurement of
decrease and other represents an increase in resistance
large amplitudes of displacement. of potentiometer from its value at the normal position,
(z'v) Their electrical efficiency is very high and they the two displacements are in the opposite direction.
provide sufficient output to permit control Resolution = minimum measurable resistance
operations without further amplification. xmm/Q
(v) It should be understood that while the = 10x1/200 = 0.05 mm
frequency response of wire wound
Example 25.10 A variable potential divider has a total
potentiometers is limited, the other types of
resistance of 2 k£l and is fed from a 10 V d.c. supply. The
potentiometers are free from this problem.
output is connected to a load resistance of 5 k£L Determine
(vi) In wire wound potentiometers the resolution the loading errors for the wiper positions corresponding to
is limited while in Cermet and metal film K =Xj/xt=0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.0. Use the results to plot
potentiometers, the resolution is infinite. a rough graph of error versus xfxt.
Solution. We have Rp = 2 kQ and Rlu = 5 kQ potentiometer R3R4 is adjusted so that the bridge is balanced
and eo = O. Assuming that the displacement being measured
From Eqn. 25.53, error is,
will move a maximum distance of 12.5 mm towards A,
r k2(k~i) calculate the value of e0.
e'[K(l-K)+Rm/Rp Solution. Total length of AB = 125 mm ; Midpoint
of AB = 62.5 mm from either A or B. If the wiper moves
Substituting the values, the results are tabulated 12.5 inward towards A from midstroke, its distance
below : from B becomes 62.5 + 12.5 = 75 mm.
K Error, V £2 =(75/125)x 5000 =3000 Q
0 Hence, output voltage

0
0.25 -0.174 f R2 R4 'I
0 1^+^
0.5 - 0.454
0.75 - 0.524 3000 2500
1 0 5000 5000
The graph between error versus K =xfxt is plotted
Example 25.12 The output of a potentiometer is to be
in Fig. 25.53. (The errors are no doubt - ve but they are
read by a recorder of 10 k£l input resistance. The
shown as +ve in Fig. 25.53.)
non-linearity must be held to 1 percent. A family of
potentiometers having a thermal rating of 5 W and
resistances ranging from 100 Q to 10 kQ. in steps of 100 Q
are available. Choose from the family of potentiometers, a
potentiometer that has the greatest possible sensitivity and
which meets the non-linearity requirements. Find the
maximum excitation voltage permissible with this
potentiometer. What is the sensitivity if the potentiometer is
a single turn (560° unit) ?
Solution. From Eqn. 25.55, maximum possible
percentage linearity = 15 Rp/Rm- This is to be limited to
1 percent 15 Rp/Rm =1- Therefore, the maximum value
of resistance of potentiometer is,
R =i = 12^22 = 666.7Q
p 15 15
Fig. 25.53 Graph of results of Example 25.10. Thus we are left with choice of potentiometers
having resistances of 100 Q, 200 Q, 300 Q, 400 Q, 500 Q
Example 25.11 A resistive potential divider R^R2 with
and 600 Q.
a resistance of5000 Q and a shaft stroke of 125 mm is used
in the arrangement shown in Fig. 25.54. Potentiometer The potentiometer with the highest value of
R3R4 has a resistance of 5000 Q and et=5.0 V. The initial resistance has the highest sensitivity. Therefore, a
position to be used as reference point is such that Rj = R2 potentiometer with R? = 600 Q is selected. With a
i.e., the wiper is at midstroke. At the start of the test power dissipation of 5 W, the maximum value of
excitation voltage is,
A
%ax) = 7™; =757600 = 54.8 V
The sensitivity of potentiometer when it is a single

turn unit S = 54.8/360 = 0.152 V/degree.
Example 25.13 A helipot is provided with

400 turns/mm. The gearing arrangement is such that the
motion of the main shaft causes 5 revolutions of
B potentiometer shaft. Calculate the resolution of the
Fig. 25.54 Diagram of Example 25.11.
potentiometer.
Solution. The resolution of potentiometer 100°C and therefore de-rating in power dissipation
without the gearing arrangement = 1/400 mm =25 pm. has to done on account of increase in temperature. The
With the gearing arrangement which causes 5 de-rated power dissipation is 650 mW while the
revolutions of the potentiometer shaft with one potentiometer is dissipating 667 mW and hence it will
revolution of main shaft = 25/5 = 5 pm. fail.
Example 25.14 It is necessary to measure the position 25.16 STRAIN GAUGES
of an object. It moves 0.8 m. Its position must be known
within 1 mm. Part of the mechanism which moves the object If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed,
is a shift in a shaft that rotates 250° when the object is its resistance changes on account of the fact that both
moved from one extreme to the other. A control length and diameter of conductor change. Also there
potentiometer has been found which is rated at 300° full is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor
scale movement. It has one thousand turns of wire. Is the when it is strained and this property is called
potentiometer suitable for the application ? piezoresistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain
Solution. The shaft provides a gauges are also known as piezoresistive gauges. The
strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and
250°
------= 312.5°/m or 0.3125°/mm conversion associated stress in experimental stress analysis.
0.8
Secondly, many other detectors and transducers,
A resolution of 1 mm at the object translates into notably the load cells, torque meters, diaphragm type
1 mm x 0.3125° = 0.3125° pressure gauges, temperature sensors, accelerometers
Required resolution for the potentiometer. and flow meters, employ strain gauges as secondary
The potentiometer actually has a resolution transducers.
= 0.300° 25.16.1 Theory of Strain Gauges

1000
The change in the value of resistance by straining
.’. The resolution of the potentiometer is higher the gauge may be partly explained by the normal
than that required for the application and hence the dimensional behaviour of elastic material. If a strip of
potentiometer is very much suited for the application.
elastic material is subjected to tension, as shown in
Example 25.15 A control potentiometer is rated as : Fig. 25.55 or in other words positively strained, its
resistance = 150 Q, power rating - 1 W. De-rate the longitudinal dimension will increase while there will
potentiometer by 10 mW/°C above 65°C, thermal resistance
= 30°C/W.
Can the potentiometer be used with a 10 V supply at 80°C
ambient temperature ?
Solution. Power dissipated by potentiometer
P = (10)2/150 = 0.667 W = 667 mW Fig. 25.55 Change in dimensions of a strain gauge
element when subjected to a tensile force.
The actual temperature of the potentiometer is the
sum of the ambient temperature and temperature rise
be a reduction in the lateral dimension. So when a
produced due to self heating.
gauge is subjected to a positive strain, its length
0pot =80° + (667)x30xl0“3 = 100°C
increases while its area of cross-section decreases as
The allowable power dissipation must be shown in Fig. 25.55. Since the resistance of a conductor
decreased by 10 mW for each °C above 65°C is proportional to its length and inversely proportional
Dissipation allowed to its area of cross-section, the resistance of the gauge
increases with positive strain. The change in the value
= 1.0-10x 10“3(100 -35)
resistance of strained conductor is more than what can
= 0.65 W= 650 mW be accounted for an increase in resistance due to
dimensional changes. The extra change in the value of
A first glance, it would appear that the
potentiometer is well below the rated 1 W power resistance is attributed to a change in the value of
dissipated. This could have been true if the resistivity of a conductor when strained. This
temperature of the potentiometer were 65°C. property, as described earlier, is known as
However, the temperature of the potentiometer is peizoresistive effect.
Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit
wire. The wire has the dimensions : length = L, area = change in resistance to per unit change in length.
A, diameter = D before being strained. The material of r _AR/R
the wire has a resistivity p. Gauge factor Cj r — ...(25.67)
f AL/ L
Resistance of unstrained gauge R -pL/ A.
Let a tensile stress s be applied to the wire. This or — = Gf— = Cfx£ ...(25.68)
produces a positive strain causing the length to
increase and area to decrease as shown in Fig. 25.55. where e = strain = —
Thus when the wire is strained there are changes in its L
dimensions. Let AL = change in length, AA = change in The gauge factor can be written as :
area, AD = change in diameter and AR = change in
= 1 + 2v+^P
resistance. ...(25.69)
E
In order to find how AR depends upon the Ap/p
material physical quantities, the expression for R is = 1 + 2v
£
differentiated with respect to stress s. Resistance Resistance Resistance
Thus we get: change due to change due to change due to
change of length change in area piezoresistive effect
= + ...(25.59)
ds A ds A2 ds A ds akm=1+2v+ap/p
f AL/ L AL/ L
Dividing Eqn. 25.59 throughout by resistance
R -pL/ A, we have The strain is usually expressed in terms of
1 dR 1 dL 1 dA 1 dp microstrain. 1 microstrain = 1 pm / m.
------- =----- ----------- +---- — ...(25.60)
R ds Lds A ds p ds If the change in the value of resistivity of a
material when strained is neglected, the gauge factor
It is evident from Eqn. 25.60, that the per unit
is :
change in resistance is due to :
G/=l + 2v ...(25.70)
(0 per unit change in length - AL/ L
(ii) per unit change in area = AA / A and Equation 25.70 is valid only when Piezoresistive
(iii) per unit change in resistivity - Ap / p
Effect i.e., change in resistivity due to strain is almost
negligible.
Area A = -D2 /. — =2.-D.— ...(25.61) The Poisson's ratio for all metals is between 0 and
4 ds 4 ds
0.5. This gives a gauge factor of approximately, 2. The
or ljXJ2K/4)DgD=ljD (2562) common value for Poisson's ratio for wires is 0.3. This
A ds (n/4)D2 ds D ds gives a value of 1.6 for wire wound strain gauges.
:. Equation 25.60 can be written as : Table 25.4 gives the value of gauge factors for the
various materials.
1 dR 1 dL 2 dD 1 dp
-------- =----------------------- 1---------- .. .(Zo.oJ)
R ds L ds D ds p ds Table 25.4 Gauqe Factors
Now, Poisson's ratio Material Gauge Material Gauge Factor
I Nickel
lateral strain dD / D - 12.1 Platinum + 4.8
V =----- -------- :----------------- =-------------- j
longitudinal strain dL/ L
■ Manganin + 0.47 Carbon + 20
...(25.64) j 1
Nichrome + 2.0 Doped
or dD / D = -v x dL/ L 100-5000
; Constantan + 2.1 Crystals
... ...(25.65)
R ds L ds L ds p ds ; Soft iron + 4.2
For small variations, the above relationship can be Example 25.16 A resistance wire strain gauge uses a
written as : soft iron wire of small diameter. The gauge factor is + 4.2.
AR AL AL Ap Neglecting the piezoresistive effects, calculate the Poisson's
— = — +2v — + — ...(25.66)
R L L p ' ratio.
Solution. The gauge factor is given by Eqn. 25.69, Strain gauges are broadly used for two major
G 1 + 2v + *
P/P types of applications and they are :
J e (i) Experimental stress analysis of machines
and structures, and
If piezoresistive effect is neglected, the gauge
factor is given by Eqn. 25.70 as : (ii) Construction of force, torque, pressure, flow
and acceleration transducers.
Gf= l + 2v
25.17.1 Unbonded Metal Strain Qgug§s
4.2-1
Poisson's ratio v = —----- =--------- = 1.6 An unbonded metal strain gauge is shown in pig.
2 2
25.56. This gauge consists of a wire stretched between
Example 25.17 A compressive force is applied to a two points in an insulating medium such as air. The
structural member. The strain is 5 micro-strain: Two wires may be made of various copper nickel, chrome
separate strain gauges are attached to the structural nickel or nickel iron alloys. They are about 0.003 mm
member, one is a nickel wire strain gauge having a gauge in diameter, have a gauge factor of 2 to 4 and sustain 9
factor of-12.1 and the other is nichrome wire strain gauge force of 2 mN. The length of wire is 25 nun or less.
having a gauge factor of 2. Calculate the value of resistance In Fig. 25.56, the flexture element is connected via
of the gauges after they are strained. The resistance of strain a rod to a diaphragm which is used for sensing of
gauges before being strained is 120 Cl. pressure. The wires are tensioned to avoid buckling
Solution. According to our convention, the tensile when they experience a compressive force.
strain taken as positive while the compressive strain is
taken as negative.
Therefore, strain e = -5 x 10-6 Piaphragm
(1 micro strain = 1 pm / m)
Now AR / R (See Eqn. 25.68)
.•. Change in value of resistance of nickel wire
strain gauge :
AR = Gê x R
= (-12.1)x (-5x 10-6)x 120
= 7.26 xlO’3Q =7.26 mQ

Thus there is an increase of 7.26 mfl in the value of
resistance.
For nichrome, the change in the value of
resistance is :
AR = (2)x (-5x 10~6)x 120
= 1.2xlO’3Q =-1.2 mf)
Thus, with compressive strain, the value of
resistance gauge shows a decrease of 1.2 mQ in the
value of resistance.
25.17 TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGES

The following are the major types of strain gauges:
A Unbonded metal strain gauges
A Bonded metal wire strain gauges
A Bonded metal foil strain gauges
A V acuum deposited thin metal film strain gauges
A Sputter deposited thin metal strain gauges
Fig. 25.56 Set-up of a unbonded strain gauge
A Bonded semiconductor strain gauges
and measurement with a Wheatstone
A Diffused metal strain gauges. bridge.
The unbonded metal wire gauges, used almost sheet of material so as to prevent it from any
exclusively in transducer applications, employ mechanical damage. The spreading of wire permits a
preloaded resistance wires connected in a wheatstone uniform distribution of stress over the grid. The
bridge as shown in Fig. 25.56(b). At initial preload, the carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the
strains and resistances of the four arms are nominally specimen under study. This permits a good transfer of
equal, with the result the output voltage of the bridge, strain from carrier to grid of wires. The wires cannot
eQ = 0. Application of pressure produces a small buckle as they are embedded in a matrix of cement
displacement which is about 0.004 mm (full scale), the and hence faithfully follow both the tensile and
displacement increases tension in two wires and compressive strains of the specimen. Since, the
decreases it in the other two, thereby increase the materials and the wire sizes used for bonded wire
resistance of two wires which are in tension and strain gauges are the same as used for unbonded wire
decreasing the resistance of the remaining two wires. strain gauges, the gauge factors and resistances for
This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an both are comparable.
output voltage which is proportional to the input The size of the strain gauges varies with
displacement and hence to the applied pressure. application. They can be as small as 3 mm by 3 cm
Electric resistance of each arm is 120 Q to 1000 Q, square. Usually they are larger but seldom more than
the input voltage to the bridge is 5 to 10 V, and the full 25 mm long and 12.5 mm wide.
scale output of the bridge is typically about 20 mY to For excellent and reproducible results, it is
50 mV. desirable that the resistance wire strain gauges should
25.17.2 Bonded Wire Strain Gauges have the following characteristics :
The bonded metal-wire strain gauges are used for (z) The strain gauge should have a high value of
both stress analysis and for construction of transducers. gauge factor Gy. A high value of gauge factor indicates
a large change in resistance for a particular strain
A resistance wire strain gauge consists of a grid of
resulting in high sensitivity.
fine resistance wire of about 0.025 mm in diameter or
less. The grid is cemented to carrier (base) which may (zz) The resistance of the strain gauge should be
be a thin sheet of paper, a thin sheet of bakelite or a as high as possible since this minimizes the effects of
sheet of teflon. The wire is covered on top with a thin undesirable variations of resistance in the measurement
Wire grid
Carrier (base)
Terminals
Wire grid
(a) Linear strain gauge.
(d) Helical gauge.

Fig. 25.57 Resistance wire strain gauge.
circuit. Although undesirable, but necessary, are the Base (Carrier) Materials
resistance of connecting leads and terminals, etc. Several types of base or carrier materials are used
Typical resistances of strain gauges are 120 Q, 350 Q to support the wires. Impregnated paper is used for
and 1000 Q. Although a high resistance value of strain room temperature applications. The range of some of
gauges is desirable from the point of view of the other materials is :
swamping out the effects of variations of resistance in
Epoxy - 200°C to 150°C, Bakelite cellulose or fibre
other parts of the bridge circuit in which they are
invariably used but it results in lower sensitivity. glass materials - upto 200°C for continuous operation
and 300°C for limited operation.
Thus in order to get high sensitivity higher bridge
voltages have to be used. The bridge voltage is limited Adhesives
by the maximum current carrying capacity of the
The adhesives act as bonding materials. Like
wires which is typically 30 mA.
other bonding operations, successful strain gauge
(in) The strain gauges should have a low bonding depends upon careful surface preparation
resistance temperature co-efficient. This is essential to
and use of the correct bonding agent. In order that the
minimise errors on account of temperature variations
strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gauge,
which affect the accuracy of measurements.
the bond has to be formed between the surface to be
(iv) The strain gauge should not have any
strained and the plastic backing material on which the
hysteresis effects in its response.
gauge is mounted. It is important that the adhesive
(v) In order to maintain constancy of calibration should be suited to this backing ; numerous materials
over the entire range of the strain gauge, it should
are used for backings which require different adhesive
have linear characteristics i.e., the variations in
materials. It is usually desirable that the adhesive
resistance should be a linear function of the strain.
material should be of quick drying type and also be
(vi) The strain gauges are frequently used for insensitive to moisture in order to have good
dynamic measurements and hence their frequency
adherence.
response should be good. The linearity should be
maintained within accuracy limits over the entire Ethylcellucose cement, nitrocellucose cement,
frequency range. bakelite cement and epoxy cement are some of the
commonly used adhesive materials. The temperature
The desirable characteristics of resistance wire
strain gauges are listed above but no single material is range up to which they can be used is usually below
able to satisfy all the properties since they are, many a 175°C.
times, conflicting in nature. A number of metals and
Leads
their alloys have been used in making resistance wire
The leads should be of such materials which have
strain gauges. Some popular metals and alloys used
low and stable resistivity and also a low resistance
for construction of resistance wire strain gauges are
listed in Table 25.5 along with their properties. temperature co-efficient.
Table 25.5 Materials for Strain Gauges

Gauge Resistivity Resistance Temperature Upper Temperature
Material Composition Q m Co-efficient/°C
Factor °C
Nichrome Ni : 80% 2.5 100xl0~8 0.1 xlO'3 1200

Cr : 20%
Constantan Ni : 45% 2.1 48xl0"8 ± 0.02 x 10’3 400
Cu : 55%
Isoelastic Ni : 36% 3.6 105 xlO-8 0.175 xl0~3 1200
Cr : 8%
Mo : 0.5%
1 Nickel - -12 6.5 xlO-8 6.8 xlO’3 -
Platinum - 4.8 lOxlO’8 4.0 x!0~3 _________ -

25.17 .3 Bonded Metal Foil Strain Gauges grid gauges are designed with fat end turns. This local
This class of strain gauges is only an extension of increase in area reduces the transverse sensitivity which is a
the bonded metal wire strain gauges. The bonded spurious input since the gauge is designed to measure the
metal wire strain gauges have been completely strain component along the length of grid elements.
superseded by bonded metal foil strain gauges. For foil type strain gauges, the manufacturing
Metal foil strain gauges use identical or similar process also easily provides convenient soldering tabs,
materials to wire strain gauges and are used today for which are integral to the sensing grid, on all four
most general-purpose stress analysis applications and gauges as shown in Fig. 25.59.
for many transducers. The metals and alloys used for Foil type of gauges are employed for both stress
foil type strain gauges are shown in Table 25.5. A analysis and as well as for construction of transducers.
typical bonded metal foil strain gauge is shown in Foil type of gauges are mounted on a flexible
Fig. 25.58. insulating carrier film about 0.025 mm thick which is
made of polymide, glass phenolic etc. Typical gauge
resistances are 120, 350 and 1000 Q with the allowable
gauge current of 5 to 40 mA which is determined by
the heat dissipation capabilities of the gauge. The
gauge factors typically range from 2 to 4.
Minimum practical gauge size is constrained by
the manufacturing limitations and handling
attachment problems. The smallest gauge sizes are
about 0.38 mm long. Foil type of gauges can be
applied to curved surfaces ; the minimum safe bend
radius can be as small as 1.5 mm in some strain
gauges.
The maximum measurable strain varies from 0.5
Fig. 25.58 Bonded metal foil gauge.
to 4 percent. However, special postyield gauge devices
Foil type gauges have a much greater heat allow measurement upto 0.1. Fatigue life of gauges
dissipation capacity as compared with wire wound varies with conditions. However, 10 million cycles at
strain gauges on account of their greater surface area ± 1500 microstrain can be applied to foil gauges
for the same volume. For this reason, they can be used without causing failure.
for higher operating temperature range. Also the large Many different adhesives have been developed for
surface area leads to better bonding. fastening strain gauges to specimens. Gauges and
The sensing elements of foil gauges are formed fastening methods are available to cover temperature
from sheets less than 0.005 mm thick by photo-etching ranges from - 269°C to 816°C.
processes, which allow greater flexibility with regard It is interesting to carry out simple calculations to
to shape. In Fig. 25.59, for example, the three linear find out what effect an applied stress has on a metal
Fig. 25.59 Metal foil strain gauges.

strain gauge. Hooke's law gives a relationship

Deflection x =-----
between stress and strain for linear stress-strain curve 3 EI
(i.e., for elastic limits) in terms of modulus of elasticity
of the material under stress. Hooke's law may be
written as : _ 3 x 200 x 109 x 45 x 1Q~12 x 12.7 x 10~3
Strain e =s/ E ...(25.71) (0.25)3
where G, s and E are respectively the strain, stress and
= 22 N
modulus of elasticity. The units for stress and
modulus of elasticity are N/m . Bending moment at 0.15 m from free end
The change in the value of resistance is quite small M = Ex =22x0.15 =3.3 Nm
as is clear from the following example. Stress at 0.15 m from free end
Example 25.18 A resistance, wire strain gauge with a M t 3.3 0.003 2

s =—.-=---------- =x-------= 110 MN/m
gauge factor of 2 is bonded to a steel structural member I 2 45xl0-12 2
subjected to a stress of 100 MN/m . The modulus of c. . AL
Strain s=—
elasticity of steel is 200 GN/m . Calculate the percentage L
change in the value of the gauge resistance due to the applied = ± = noxio|=o55xio_3
stress. Comment upon the results. E 200 xlO9
Solution. :. Gauge factor
s _100xl06
Strain _ AR/R _0.152x120 _23
E -200xl09 " AL/ L~ 0.55xlO-3 ~
= 500 x 10 6 (500 microstrain) Example 25.20 A strain gauge is bonded to a beam
AR 0.1 m long and has a cross-sectional area 4 cm . Young's
We have, — = GfE = 2 x 500 x 10-6 =0.001 =0.1%
R J modulus for. steel is 207 GN/m . The strain gauge has an
:. The change in resistance is only 0.1%. unstrained resistance of 240 Q and a gauge factor of 2.2.
When a load is applied, the resistance of gauge changes by
Comments. The above example illustrates that a very 0.013 Q. Calculate the change in length of the steel beam
heavy stress of 100 MN/m2 results in resistance and the amount offorce applied to the beam.
change of only 0.1 per cent, which is by all means a Solution. We have gauge factor
very small change. This may present difficulties in
r _AR/R
measurement. Lower stresses produce still lower
f AE/L
changes in resistance which may not be perceptible at
all or the methods required to detect these changes and therefore change in length
may have to be highly accurate. To overcome this
difficulty we must use strain gauges which have a cf
high gauge factor which produce large changes in
(0.013/240) n in_6
resistance when strained. These changes are easy to = -------- ------ - x 0.1 = 2.46 x 10 b m
detect and measure with good degree of accuracy. 2.2
Stress s = Ee
Example 25.19 A single strain gauge having resistance = 207 xl09x 2.46 x!0~6
of 120 CL is mounted on a steel cantilever beam at a distance
0.1
of 0.15 mfrom the free end. An unknown force F applied at
= 5.092 xlO6 N/m2
the free end produces a deflection of 12.7 mm of the free end.
The change in gauge resistance is found to be 0.152 Q. The Force F = sA
beam is 0.25 m long with a width of 20 mm and a depth of = 5.092 x IO6 x 4x IO'4 = 2.037x IO3 N
3 mm. The Young's modulus for steel is 200 GN/m2.
Calculate the gauge factor. 25.17 .4 Evaporation Deposited Thin Metal
Strain Gauges
Solution. Moment of inertia of beam,
Evaporation deposited thin film metal strain
1 = 1/12 (bd3) = 1 /12 x 0.02 x (0.003)3
gauges are mostly used for the fabrication of
= 45xl0-12 m4 transducers. They are of sputter deposited variety. Both
processes begin with a suitable elastic metal element. Semi-conducting materials such as silicon and
The elastic metal element converts the physical germanium are used as resistive materials for
quantity into a strain. To cite an example of a pressure semi-conductor strain gauges. A typical strain gauge
transducer/ a thin, circular metal diaphragm is consists of a strain sensitive crystal material and leads
formed. Both the evaporation and sputtering that are sandwiched in a protective matrix. The
processes form all the strain gauge elements directly production of these gauges employs conventional
on the strain surface, they are not separately attached semi-conductor technology using semi-conducting
as in the case of bonded strain gauges. wafers or filaments which have a thickness of 0.05 mm
In the evaporation process, the diaphragm is and bonding them on a suitable insulating substrates,
placed in a vacuum chamber with some insulating such as teflon. Gold leads are generally employed for
material. Heat is applied until the insulating material making the contacts. Some of the typical semi
vaporises and then condenses, forming a thin conductor strain gauges are shown in Fig. 25.60. These
dielectric film on the diaphragm. Suitably shaped strain gauges can be fabricated along with integrated
templates are placed over the diaphragm, and the circuit (IC) operational amplifiers which can act as
evaporation and condensation processes are repeated pressure sensitive transducers.
with the metallic gauge material, forming the desired
strain gauge pattern on top of the insulating substrate.
In the sputtering process, a thin dielectric layer is
deposited in vacuum over the entire diaphragm
surface. The detailed mechanism of deposition is,
however, entirely different from the evaporation
method. The complete layer of metallic gauge is
sputtered on the top of the dielectric material without
using any substrate. The diaphragms are now
removed from the vacuum chamber, and
microimaging techniques using photomasking
materials are used to form the gauge pattern. The
diaphragms are then returned to the vacuum
chamber. Sputter etching techniques are used to
remove all unmasked metal layer, leaving behind the
desired gauge pattern.
Resistance and gauge factors of film gauges are
identical to those of foil gauges. Since no organic
cementing materials are used, thin film gauges exhibit Fig. 25.60 Semi-conductor strain gauge.
a better time and temperature stability.
Advantages
25.17 .5 Semi-conductor Strain Gauges
It has been explained above in order to have a (?) Semi-conductor strain gauges have the
high sensitivity, a high value of gauge factor is advantage that they have a high gauge
desirable. A high gauge factor means a relatively factor of about ± 130. This allows measure
higher change in resistance which can be easily ment of very small strains of the order of
measured with a good degree of accuracy. 0.01 microstrain.
Semiconductor strain gauges are used where a (ii) Hysteresis characteristics of semi-conductor
very high gauge factor and a small envelope are strain gauges are excellent. Some units
required. The resistance of the semi-conductors maintain it to less than 0.05%.
changes with change in applied strain. Unlike in the (iii) Fatigue life is in excess of 10 x 106 operations
case of metallic gauges where the change in resistance and the frequency response is upto 1012 Hz.
is mainly due to change in dimensions when strained, (ir) Semi-conductor strain gauges can be very
the semi-conductor strain gauge depend for their small ranging in length from 0.7 to 7 mm.
action upon piezo-resistive effect i.e., the change in They are very useful for measurement of
the value of the resistance due to change in resistivity. local strains.
Disadvantages
(z) The major and serious disadvantage of
semi-conductor strain gauges is that they are
very sensitive to changes in temperature.
(zz) Linearity of the semi-conductor strain gauge

is poor. The equation for the fractional
change in resistance is :
AR/ R = As + Be^m
where A and B are constants.

This gauge is rather non-linear at
comparatively high strain levels. The gauge
factor varies with strain. For example, if the
gauge factor is 130 at 0.2 percent strain, then
it is 112 at 0.4 percent strain. The charac
teristics can be made linear by proper doping.
(zzz) Semi-conductor strain gauges are more

expensive and difficult to attach to the object
under study.
25.17 .6 Diffused Strain Gauges

The diffused strain gauges are primarily used in 2-element rosette
transducers. The diffusion process used in IC 90° stacked
(Foil)
manufacture is employed. In pressure transducers, for
example, the diaphragm would be of silicon rather
than metal and the strain gauge effect would be
realized by depositing impurities in the diaphragm to
form an intrinsic strain gauge. This type of
construction may allow lower manufacturing costs in
some designs, as a large number of diaphragms can be
made on a single silicon wafer.
FAER-25RB-12SX
25.18 ROSETTES 3-element rosette
In addition to single element strain gauges, a 45° planar
combination of strain gauges called "Rosettes" are
available in many combinations for specific stress
analysis or transducer applications.
In practical problems^, an element may be
subjected to stresses in any direction and hence it is
not possible to locate the direction of principal stress.
Therefore, it is not possible to orient the strain,
gauges along the direction of principal stress. Hence
there is a necessity to evolve a strain gauge
measurement system which measures the values of FAED-25B-35SX
(Foil) 2-element rosette
principal strains and stresses without actually 90° shear planar
knowing their directions. The solution to the problem (Foil)
lies in using three strain gauges to form a unit called a
Rosette. Some forms of Rosettes are shown in
Fig. 25.61. Fig. 25.61 Some forms of Rosettes.
25.19 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS high temperature applications as it is extremely brittle

The resistance of a conductor changes when its and difficult to work. Copper is used occasionally as
temperature is changed. This property is utilized for an RTD element. Its low resistivity forces the element
measurement of temperature. to be longer than the platinum element, but its low
linearity and low cost make it an economical
The variation of resistance R with temperature
alternative. Its upper limit of temperature is about
T(°K) can be represented by the following relationship
120°C.
for most of the metals as :
R = R0(l + a1T + a2T2+...+ an ?"+...) ...(25.72)
where Ry = resistance at temperature T = 0

and ap a2,a3,...a/( are constants.
The resistance thermometer uses the change in
electrical resistance of conductor to determine the
temperature.
The resistivity of metals showed a marked
dependence on temperature was discovered by Sir
Humphry7 Davy. A few years later Sir William
Siemens preferred the use of platinum as an element
in the resistance thermometer. His choice proved most
propitious, as platinum is used to this day as the
primary element in all high accuracy resistance
thermometers. In fact, the platinum resistance
temperature detector (PRTD) is used today as an
interpolation standard from oxygen point (- 182.96°C)
Fig. 25.62 Industrial platinum resistance
to antimony point (630.74°) thermometer.
Platinum is especially suited for this purpose, as it
can withstand high temperatures while maintaining The most common RTDs are made of either
excellent stability. As a noble metal, it shows limited platinum, nickel or nickel alloys. The economical
susceptibility to contamination. All metals produce a nickel wires are used over a limited temperature
positive change in resistance with temperature. This, range. They are quite non-linear and tend to drift with
of course, is the main function of an RTD. The system time. For measurement integrity, platinum is the
error is minimized when the nominal value of RTD is obvious choice.
large. This implies a metal with a high value of The common values of resistance for a platinum
resistivity should be used for RTDs. The lower is the RTD range from 10 Q for the bird cage model to
resistivity of the metal, the more material we will have several thousands ohm for the film RTD. The single
to use. most common value is 100 Q at 0°C with a resistance
The requirements of a conductor material to be temperature co-efficient of 0.00385/°C. The more
used in RTDs are : chemically pure platinum wire has a resistance
(z) The change in resistance of material per unit temperature co-efficient of 0.00392/°C.
change in temperature should be as large as The construction of an industrial type of platinum
possible. RTD is shown in Fig. 25.62.
(zz) The material should have a high value of The characteristics of various materials used for
resistivity so that minimum volume of resistance thermometers are plotted in Fig. 25.63.
material is used for the construction of RTD. Metals commonly used for resistance thermo
(zzz) The resistance of materials should have a meters are listed in Table 25.6 along with their salient
continuous and stable relationship with properties.
temperature.
An examination of the resistance versus
Gold and Silver are rarely used for construction temperature curves of Fig. 25.63, shows that the
of RTDs on account of their low resistivities. Tungsten curves are nearly linear. If fact, when only short
has relatively a high resistivity, but is reserved for temperature spans are considered, the linearity is
The reason for using a0 as the fractional slope of

resistance-temperature curve is that this same
constant be used for conductors having the same
material with different dimensions. The value of a0
can be found from the value of resistance ancl
temperatures as shown in 25.64. In general,
1
a°o = X(sloPeat0o)
Temp. —>.
Fig. 25.63 Characteristics of materials used for

resistance thermometers.
more evident. This fact is employed to develop
approximate analytical equations for resistance versus
temperature for a particular metal.
Table 25.6 Metals Used for Resistance

Thermometers
IM Fig. 25.64 A straight line representing an approximate

Min Max
relationship between resistance R. and temperature 0.
Platinum 0.39 -260 110 1773
Copper 0.39 0 180 1083 Example 25.21 Find the linear approximation between
Nickel 0.62 -220 300 1435 30°C to 60°C using the resistance-temperature curve as
Tungsten 0.45 -200 1000 3370 shown in Fig. 25.64.
25.19.1 Linear Approximation Solution. We have

01=3O°C and 02 =60°C
A linear approximation means that we may
develop an equation for a straight line which Mean temperature
approximates the resistance versus temperature curve 0Q =(30 + 60)/2 =45°C
over a specified span. Figure 25.64 shows a curve of
From Fig. 25.64, we have :
variation of resistance R with temperature 0°C.
Resistance at 30°C,
Here a straight line has been drawn between the
points of the curve which represent O^C and 02°C R„0j = 4.8 Q, resistance at 60°C,
with 0O°C representing the mid point temperature. Ra =6.2 Q and resistance at 45°C
The equation of this straight line is' the linear Rn = 5.5 Q
approximation of the curve from O^C to 02°C. The
From Eqn. 25.74,
equation of the straight line is written as :
1 Re2
Rq = 1^(1 +a0oA0) with 02 <0O <02 ...(25.73) ao = —x
0 02~ 01
where Rq = approximate resistance at 0°C;Q, eo
= J_ 6.2 x 4.8
Rq^ = approximate resistance at 0o°C;Q, ~5.5X 60-30 = 0.0085° C
A0 = 0 -0Q = change in temperature ; °C,
Hence, the linear approximation is :
a0 = resistance temperature co-efficient at
temperature 0o°C;/°C Rq = 5.5[1 + 0.0085(0- 45)] Q
25.19.2 Quadratic Approximation 2. Quadratic Expansion : The resistance RQ at any

A quadratic approximation of the resistance temperature 0°C is given by :
temperature curve is more accurate representation of R„v = RUnq [1
the curve over a limited range of temperature. The L + a , A0 + a9(AO)2]
quadratic approximation relationship includes both a We can find the quadratic terms, by forming two
linear term as in Eqn. 25.73 and an addition has a term equations using two points about the mean
which varies as the square of the difference in temperature 0O = 115°C
temperature. The approximation is written as : We have, Rn = 598.48 O at 0n = 115°C
°o u
1^ = Ryo[l + a1A0+a2(A0)2] ...(25.75) Now using 100°C and 130°C as the two points, we
where have :
04 = linear fractional change in resistance ; /°C 573.40 = 589.48 [1 + 04(100 -115) +a2(100 -115)2]
and a 2 = quadratic fractional change in 605.52 = 589.48 [1 + 04 (130 -115) +a2(130 -115)2]
resistance, /(°C)2 From above, we have,
Values of and a2 are found from tables and 04 = 1.823 xlO~3/°C
graphs as indicated in the example given below by
and 04 =-0.22 x 10~6/(°C)2
using values of resistance and temperature at three
different points. Two equations are formed and values Hence,
of 04 and a2 are calculated from these. R0 = 589.48[l+ 1823 xlO-3 (9 - 115) - 0.22xlO-6(0 - 115)2] Q
Example 25.22 Use the following values of resistance Example 25,23 A platinum thermometer has a
versus temperature for an RTD to find the linear and resistance of 100 O at 25°C.
quadratic approximations of resistance between 100°C and (a) Find its resistance at 65°C if the platinum has a
> 13O°C about a mean temperature of!15°C. resistance temperature co-efficient of0.00392/°C.
(b) If the thermometer has a resistance of 150 O,
Temperature, °C Resistance Fl
calculate the temperature.
90 562.66 Solution, (a) Using the linear approximation, the
95 568.03 resistance at any temperature 0°C, is
100 573.40 ^0 = ^0O^ + a0oA0l
105 578.77 .•. Resistance at 65°C is,

110 584.13 R65 = 100 [1 + 0.00392 (65 -25)]
115 589.48 = 115.68 0
120 594.84 (b) Suppose 0 is the unknown temperature,
125 600.18 150 = 100[l +0.00392 (0-25)]

or 0 = 152.55°C
130 605.52
Example 25.24 A copper resistor at 20°C is to used to
Solution. 1. Linear Expansion : Given :
indicate the temperature of bearings of a machine. What
0: =100°Q e2=130°G 0O=115°C resistance should not be exceeded if the maximum bearing
Ra = 573.40 0, R^ = 605.52 0, Ry = 589.48 0 temperature is not to exceed 150°C ? The resistance
v2 «o temperature co-efficient of copper is 0.00393/°C at 20°C.
From Eqn. 25.74,
Solution. The value of resistance in case the
1 *02
temperature is not to exceed 150°C can be calculated
afl = a, =----- x—*—-—
91 1 \ 02-0l as under.
R150 = 10 [1 + 0.00392 (150 -20)] = 15.11 O
1 605.52-573.40
” 598.48 X 130-100
Example 25.25 A temperature alarm unit with a time
constant of 120 s is subjected to a sudden rise of temperature
= 0.00182 /°C
of50°C because offire. If an increase of30°C is required to
The linear approximation is : actuate the alarm, what will be the delay in sudden
Rd = 598.48[1 + 0.00182(0-115)] Q temperature increase ?
Solution. Assume the thermometer be a first

order system, the variation of indicated temperature 0,
to a step input temperature 0O is,
0 = 0()[1 - exp(-f / t)J
30 = 50[l-exp(-f/120)]
or t - 110 s
The alarm would be delayed by 110 s.
25.20 THERMISTORS
Thermistor is a contraction of a term "thermal
resistors". Thermistors are generally composed of
semi-conductor materials. Although positive tempe
rature co-efficient of units (which exhibit an increase
in the value of resistance with increase in temperature)
are available, most thermistors have a negative
coefficient of temperature resistance i.e. their resistance
decreases with increase of temperature. The negative
temperature coefficient of resistance can be as large as Fig. 25.65 Different forms of construction of
several percent per degree Celsius. This allows the thermistors.
thermistor circuits to detect very small changes in
temperature which could not be observed with an
25.20.2 Resistance-Temperature
Characteristics of Thermistors
RTD or a thermocouple. In some cases the resistance
of thermistor at room temperature may decrease as The mathematical expression for the relationship
much as 5 percent for each 1°C rise in temperature. between the resistance of a thermistor and absolute
This high sensitivity to temperature changes makes temperature of thermistor is :
thermistors extremely useful for precision tempe
R.fi - RT2exp p ...(25.76)
rature measurements control and compensation. 12j_
Thermistors are widely used in applications
which involve measurements in the range of - 60°C to where = resistance of the thermistor at
15°C. The resistance of thermistors ranges from 0.5 Q absolute temperature ; °K
to 0.75 MQ. Thermistor is a highly sensitive device. Rp9 = resistance of the thermistor at
The price to be paid off for the high sensitivity is in terms absolute temperature ?2; °K
of linearity. The thermistor exhibits a highly non and P = a constant depending upon the
linear characteristic of resistance versus temperature. material of thermistor, typically
3500 to 4500 °K
25.20.1 Construction of Thermistors
Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of The resistance temperature characteristics of a
metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, typical thermistor are given in Fig. 25.66. The
copper, iron and uranium. They are available in resistance temperature characteristics of Fig. 25.66
variety of sizes and shapes. The thermistors may be in shows that a thermistor has a very high negative
the form of beads, rods and discs. Some of the temperature co-efficient of resistance, making it an
commercial forms are shown in Fig. 25.65. ideal temperature transducer. Figure 25.66 also shows
A thermistor in the form of a bead is smallest in the resistance temperature characteristics of platinum
size and the bead may have a diameter of 0.015 mm to which is a commonly used material for resistance
1.25 mm. Beads may be sealed in the tips of solid glass thermometers. Let us compare the characteristics of
rods to form probes which may be easier to mount the two materials. Between - 100°C and 400°C, the
than the beads. Glass probes have a diameter of about thermistor changes its resistivity from 10 to 10 "Qm,
2.5 mm and a length which varies from 6 mm to a factor of 10 , while platinum changes its resistivity
50 mm. Discs are made by pressing material under by a factor of about 10 within the same temperature
high pressure into cylindrical flat shapes with range. This explains the high sensitivity of thermistors
diameters ranging from 2.5 mm to 25 mm. for measurement of temperature.
narrower temperature range in order to approach the

accuracy achieved by Steinhart-Hart equation.
Another relationship that can be conveniently used for
resistance-temperature curve of thermistors is :
Rj- =aRoexp(b/T) ...(25.80)
where, RJ.,R()= resistance of thermistor at tempe
rature T°K and ice point respectively.
25.20.3 Voltage-Current and Current-Time

Characteristics of Thermistors
Three important characteristics of thermistor
make them extremely useful in measurement and
control applications. These are :
A the resistance-temperature characteristics.
A the voltage-current characteristics.
A the currcnt-tinie characteristics.
Fig. 25.66 Resistance-temperature characteristics
1. Resistance-Temperature Characteristics. The
of a typical thermistor and platinum.
resistance-temperature characteristics have already
The characteristics of thermistors are no doubt been described in Art. 25.20.2. The other two
non-linear but a linear approximation of the characteristics are described below.
resistance-temperature curve can be obtained over a 2. Voltage-Current Characteristics. These
small range of temperature. Thus, for a limited range characteristics are shown in Fig. 25.67. Figure 25.67
of temperature, the resistance of a thermistor varies as shows that the voltage drop across a thermistor
given by Eqn. 25.77. increases with increasing current until is reaches a
Re = RpJl + aÂO] ...(25.77) peak value beyond which the voltage drop decreases
as the current increases. In this portion of the curve,
A thermistor exhibits a negative resistance the thermistor exhibits a negative resistance
temperature co-efficient which is typically about characteristic. If a very small voltage is applied to the
0.05/°C. thermistor, the resulting small current does not
An individual thermistor curve can be closely produce sufficient heat to raise the temperature of the
approximated through the Steinhart-Hart equation : thermistor above ambient. Under this condition,
Ohm's law is followed and the current is proportional
y = A + B log, R + C(log, R)3 ...(25.78) to the applied voltage. Larger currents, at larger
where T = temperature ; °K,

R = resistance of thermistor ; Q,
A, B, C = curve fitting constants.
A, B and C are found by selecting three data
points on the published data curve and solving the
three simultaneous equations. When the data points
are chosen to span no more than 100°C within the
nominal centre of thermistors temperature range, this
equation approaches a remarkable ±0.2 °C curve fit.
A simpler equation is :
D
T =------ --------- C ...(25.79)
log, R - A
where A, B and C are found by selecting three (R, T)
data points and solving three resultant simultaneous Fig. 25.67 Voltage-current characteristics
equations. Equation 25.79 must be applied over a of thermistors.
applied voltages, produce enough heat to raise the 25.20.4 Applications of Thermistors
thermistor temperature above the ambient Although major applications of thermistors are
temperature and its resistance then decreases. As a measurement and control of temperature, they may be
result, more current is then drawn and the resistance used for a number of other applications. The various
decreases further. The current continues to increase applications of themistors are :
until the heat dissipation of the thermistor equals the 1. Measurement of Temperature. A thermistor
power supplied to it. Therefore, under any fixed produces a large change of resistance with a small
ambient conditions, the resistance of a thermistor is
change in the temperature being measured. This large
largely a function of the power being dissipated
sensitivity of thermistor provides good accuracy and
within itself, provided that there is enough power
resolution. A typical industrial-type thermistor with a
available to raise its temperature above ambient.
2000 Q resistance at 25°C and a resistance temperature
Under such operating conditions, the temperature of
co-efficient of 3.9 percent per °C exhibits a change of
the thermistor may rise 100°C or 200°C and its
78 Q per degree °C change is temperature. When this
resistance may drop to one-thousandth of its value at
thermistor is connected in a simple series circuit
low current.
consisting of a battery and micro-ammeter as shown
This characteristic of self-heat provides an entirely
in Fig. 25.69, any change in temperature causes a
new field of uses for the thermistor. In the self-heat
change in the resistance of thermistor and corres
state, the thermistor is sensitive to anything that
ponding change in the circuit current. The micro
changes the rate at which heat is conduced away from
it. It can so be used to measure flow, pressure, liquid ammeter may be directly calibrated in terms of
level, composition of gases, etc. If, on the other hand, the temperature. The micro-ammeter may be able to give
rate of heat removal is fixed, then the thermistor is a resolution of 0.1 °C.
sensitive to power input and can be used for voltage or
power-level control.
3. Current Time Characteristics. The current-time
characteristics shown in Fig. 25.68 indicate the time
Micro-am meter
delay to reach, maximum current as a function of the Battery calibrated in
applied voltage. When the heating effect just E terms of
described occurs in a thermistor network, a certain temperature
Fig. 25.69 Simple series circuit for measurement of

temperature using a thermistor.
The use of a bridge circuit as shown in Fig. 25.70

gives higher sensitivities. The 4 kQ thermistor used
will readily indicate as small changes as 0.005°C in
temperature. The high sensitivity together with high
thermistor resistance which may about 100 kQ, makes
the thermistor ideal for remote measurement or
control, as the changes in contact or transmission line
resistances due to change in the ambient temperature
Fig. 25.68 Current-time characteristics of thermistors.
have almost a negligible effect on the accuracy of
measurement or control. For example a 150 m long
transmission line made of copper when subjected to
finite time is required for the thermistor to heat and
change of 25°C will affect the accuracy of
the current to build up to a maximum steady-state
measurement or control by approximately 0.05°C.
value. This time, although fixed for a given set of
circuit parameters, may easily be varied by changing 2. Control of Temperature. A simple temperature
the applied voltage or the series resistance of the control circuit may be constructed by replacing the
circuit. This time-current effect provides a simple and micro-ammeter shown in the typical thermistor
accurate means of achieving time delays from temperature control circuit of 25.70 with a relay. This
milliseconds to many minutes. is shown in the typical thermistor temperature control
Fig. 25.70 Measurement of temperature using a thermistor and a bridge circuit for getting higher sensitivities.
circuit of Fig. 25.71. It uses a 4 kQ thermistor mounted against or near a circuit element, such as a
connected in an a.c. excited bridge. The unbalance copper meter coil, and experiencing the same ambient
voltage is fed to an a.c. amplifier whose output excites temperature changes, can be connected in such a way
a relay coil. The relay contacts are used to control the that the total circuit resistance is constant over a wide
current in the circuit which generates the heat. These range of temperatures. This is shown in the curves of
circuits can be controlled to a precision of 0.00005°C. Fig. 25.72, which illustrates the effect of a compen
sation network.
The compensator consists of a thermistor, shunted
by a resistor. The negative temperature coefficient of
this combination equals the positive coefficient of the
copper coil. The coil resistance of 5,000 Q at 25°C,
varies from approximately 4,500 Q at 0°C to 5,700 Q at
60°C, representing a change of about ±12 per cent.
Fig. 25.71 Typical thermistor temperature

control circuit.
Thermistor control systems are inherently
sensitive, stable and fast acting and require relatively
simple circuitry. The voltage output of the standard
bridge circuit at 25°C is about 18 mV/°C using a 4 kQ
thermistor in the configuration of Fig. 25.70.
3. Temperature Compensation. Because
thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance-opposite to the positive coefficient of most
electrical conductors and semiconductors—they are
widely used to compensate for the effects of
temperature on both component and circuit
performance. Disk-type thermistors are used for this
purpose where the maximum temperature does not Fig. 25.72 Temperature compensation of a copper
exceed 125°C. A properly selected thermistor, conductor by means of a thermistor network.
With a single thermistor compensation network, this 6. Thermistors can be installed at a distance
variation is reduced to about ± 15 Q or ±| per cent. from their associated measuring circuits if
With double or triple compensation networks, elements of high resistance are used such
variations can be reduced even further. that the resistance of leads (even though the
4. Other Applications. The other applications of leads may be very long) is negligible. This
thermistors include : way the resistance of leads does not affect
the readings and hence errors on this count
(i) measurement of power at high frequencies
are negligible.
(zz) measurement of thermal conductivity
(in) measurement of level,.flow and pressure of The above features give thermistors advantages
liquids over conventional thermocouples, resistance thermo
meters, and filled system thermometer sensing elements
(iv) measurement of composition of gases
for measurement of temperature. Thermistors not only
(v) vacuum measurements and find use in temperature measurements but are also
(i’z) providing time delay. used in other applications as explained in 25.20.4.
25.20.5 Salient Features of Thermistors Example 25.26 A thermistor has a resistance

temperature co-efficient of-5% over a temperature range of
1. Thermistors are compact, rugged and
25°C to 50°C. If the resistance of the thermistor is 100 Oat
inexpensive.
25°C, what is the resistance at 35°C ?
2. Thermistors when properly aged, have good
Solution. Resistance at a temperature of 35°C is:
stability.
R35 = 100 [1 -0.05(35 -25)] = 50°Q
3. The response time of thermistors can vary
from a fraction of a second to minutes, Example 25.27 A thermistor has a resistance of39800
at the ice point (0°C) and 794 O at 50°C. The resistance
depending on the size of the detecting mass
temperature relationship is given by RT = aR0 exp (b/T).
and thermal capacity of the thermistor. It
Calculate the constants a and b.
varies inversely with the dissipation factor.
The power dissipation factor varies with the Calculate the range of resistance to be measured in case the
degree of thermal isolation of the thermistor temperature varies from 40°C to 100°C.
element. Solution. The resistance at ice point R$ = 3980 Q
4. The upper operating limit of temperature for Absolute temperature at ice point = 273°K
thermistors is dependent on physical
3980 = a x 3980 x exp( b / 273)
changes in the material or solder used in
or 1 = a exp(b/273) ...(i)
attaching the electrical connections and is
usually 400°C or less. The lower temperature Resistance at 50°C is RT = 794 Q.
limit of temperature is normally determined Absolute temperature corresponding to 50°C
by the resistance reaching such a high value T = 273 + 50°=323 K°.
that it cannot be measured by standard
Hence, 794 = ax3980 exp (b/323) ...(zz)
methods.
= 3980 exp (b/323)
5. The measuring current should be
Solving (i) and (zz), we have,
maintained to as low a value as possible so
a=30xl0-6 and b = 2843
that self heating of thermistors is avoided
otherwise errors are introduced on account Absolute temperature at 40°C
of change of resistance caused by self = 273 + 40=313 K°.
heating. Where it is not possible to avoid self .'. Resistance at 40°C ;: *
heating, thermistor stability can be
= 30 x 10’6 x 3980 x exp(2843 /313)
maintained at given temperature by using an
auxiliary heating element. The average Absolute temperature at 100°C
power dissipation can be effectively reduced = 273 + 100=373 °K
and the highest sensitivity retained by .'. Resistance at 100°C
energizing the thermistor with pulses of = 30 x 10“6 x 3980 x exp(2843 /373)
measuring power.
Thus the range of resistance is 244 Q to 1051Q.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 79J
Example 25.28 An automatic temperature control (ii) Resistance of thermistor at 25°C = 10,000 Q
arrangement for an electric oven is shown in Fig. 25.73. The .•. Frequency of oscillations
thermistor has a resistance of 2000 Q at 70°C. A
potentiometer is used for obtaining balance conditions. The
2 zt x 7500 x 500 x 10-12
temperature of oven changes and therefore the rheostat has
to be set at 1800 Q to obtain balanced conditions. Using the = 31.83 kHz
linear approximation for the resistance temperature curve (iii) Resistance of thermistor at30°C
obtain the change in the value of temperature of oven. The = 10,000(1 -0.05(30 -25)] =7500 Q
resistance temperature coefficient can be assumed as
.•. Frequency of oscillations
-0.05/°C.
=-------------- iH Hz
Solution. Using linear approximation, we have :
2tcx 5700x 500xlO-12
1800 = 2000[l -0.05 (0 -70)] or 0 =72°C
= 42.44 kHz
.'. Change in temperature of oven =2°C
Example 25.2c) A thermistor has a resistance of 10 kQ 25.21 THERMOCOUPLES
at 25°C. The resistance temperature co-efficient is - 0.05/°C. The operation of thermocouples has been
A Wien's bridge oscillator uses two identical thermistors in explained in Chapter 9.
the frequency determining part of the bridge. The value of The emf produced in a thermocouple circuit is
capacitance used in the bridge is 500 pF. Calculate the value given by :
of frequency of oscillations for
E = zz(A0)+b(A0)2
(i) 20°C, (ii) 25°C, and (iii) 30°C.
(Eqn. 9.71 on page 278)
The frequency of oscillations is
where A0 = difference in temperature between the
f = l/2nRCHz
hot thermocouple junction and the
where R and C are resistance and capacitance respectively.
reference junction of the
thermocouple ; °C,
and a, b= constants.
a is usually very large as compared with b and
therefore emf thermocouple is E -a (A0) or A0- El a.
In a thermocouple temperature measuring circuit,
the emf set-up is measured by sending a current ’
through a moving coil instrument, the deflection
being directly proportional to the emf. Since emf is a
function of temperature difference A0, the .instrument
can be calibrated to read the temperature. The emf
may also be measured by a potentiometer.
Figure 25.74 shows a typical circuit of an iron
constantan thermocouple.
Fig. 25.73 Temperature control system using
thermistors.
Solution, (z) Resistance of thermistor at

20°C = 10,000 [1 -0.05(20 -25)] = 12,500 Q
:. Frequency of oscillations
* f = —^—
J 2nRC
=-------------- - ------------ Hz
2nx 12500x 500xlO-12
Fig. 25.74 Measurement of temperature
= 25.46 kHz with thermocouple.
Base-metal couples Rare metal couples

h-
Positive Copper Iron Chromel 90% Chromel Platinum 90% Tungsten 95% Rhodium
Wire Cr. 10% Ni rhodium 10% rhenium 5% iridium
Negative Constantan Constantan Alumel 94% Ni, Constantan Platinum Tungsten 72% iridium
Wire 40% Ni, 60% 2% Al, rhenium 26%
Cu approx. + Si and Mn
i
Temp, - 250 to + 400 - 200 to + 850 - 200 to + 1100 - 200 to + 850 0 to + 1400 0 to + 2600 0 to + 2100
range (°C)
Spot max. 500 1100 1300 1100 1650
(°C)
Charac- Resists oxi Low cost. Resistant to oxi Suitable for Low emf. For use in Similar to
| teristics dising and Corrodes in dising but not oxidising Good resis non-oxidising platinum
reducing at the presence to but not for tance to atmospheres rhodium
1 mospheres of moisture reducing reducing oxidising only. The 5% platinum
up to 350°C. oxygen, and atmosphere. atmospheres, atmospheres, rhenium arm
Requires sulphur- Susceptible to carbon- poor with is brittle at
protection bearing attack by bearing reducing room
from acid gases. Suit carbon-bearing gases and atmospheres, temperatures.
fumes. able for gases sulphur, cyanide Calibration is
reducing at and cyanide fumes. affected by
1 mospheres. fumes. High emf. metallic vap
ours and con
< tact with me
1. . ... . tallic oxides.
Since the thermo-electric emf depends upon the in temperature should always produce a linear rise in
difference in temperature between the hot junction emf i.e., the value of 'b' (Eqn. 9.71) should be
and the reference junction, the temperature of the negligible.
latter should remain absolutely constant in order that
The emf of many thermocouples follows the
the calibration holds good and there are no errors on
quadratic relationship given by Eqn. 9.71. Figure 25.75
account of change in ambient temperature. The
shows curves for several combinations of metals,
temperature of the reference junction is controlled for
when one of the junctions, reference junction, is kept
this purpose. The reference junction temperature is
at a temperature 0°C and the temperature of the other
usually 0°C.
junction, the detecting junction, is the variable
Thermocouples are used for measurement of temperature (i.e., the temperature to be measured).
temperature upto 1400°C. The common types of
It should be home in mind that thermocouples are
thermocouples are given in Table 25.7 together with
active transducers unlike RTD and thermistors which
useful temperature range. It should be mentioned here
are passive transducers.
that the combination of metals be so chosen that a rise
Fig. 25.75 Temperature emf curves for thermocouples with

reference junction at 0°C.
25.21.1 Construction of Thermocouples A pair of two dissimilar metals that are in physical
In industrial applications the choice of materials contact with each other form a thermocouple. These
used to make up a thermocouple depends upon the metals may be twisted, screwed, peened, clamped or
temperature range to be measured, the kind of welded together. The most commonly used method
atmosphere to which the material will be exposed, to for fabricating is to weld the metals together.
output emf and its stability, mechanical strength, and Thermocouples do not use bare conductors except
the accuracy required in measurements. Thermo in applications where atmospheric conditions permit
couple materials are divided into two categories : their use. These conditions obtain when temperatures
(t) Rare metal types using platinum, rhodium, etc. and to be measured are low and the atmosphere is
(n) Base metal type. non-corrosive. Industrial thermocouples employ
Several combinations of dissimilar metals make protective sheathing surrounding the junction and a
good thermocouples for industrial use. These portion of the extension leads. The leads and the
combinations apart from having linear response and junction are internally insulated from the sheath,
high sensitivity, should be physically strong to using various potting compounds, ceramic beads or
withstand high temperatures, rapid temperature oxides. The type of insulation used depends upon the
changes, and the effect of corrosive and reducing process being monitored. The different types of
atmospheres. Based on years of experience in protective sheaths used for thermocouples are shown
junction junction junction

Welded
Thermocouple wires without insulators (Bare)
I'T^T I I I I I I I I I I I 130
Thermocouple wires with double holes round insulators
Thermocouple wires with fish spine insulators
Terminal
connection
fig. 25.76 Protective sheaths for thermocouples.
Fig. 25.77 Construction of hot junctions.
Thermocouples are normally not installed in (z) Measuring the output voltage directly with a
pipelines, vessels and other pieces of equipment permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
directly. They are usually placed inside protective instrument. A millivoltmeter is used since
wells so that may be easily removed or replaced the output is the order of mV.
without interruption or shut down of plant. Protective (z'z) Measuring the output voltage with the help
wells are made of stainless steel or some other special of a d.c. potentiometer.
alloy material. They are normally 12.5 mm to 25 mm in (zzz) Measuring the output voltage after
diameter. amplifying it.
The use of protective wells slows the response 1. Millivoltmeter. The simplest type of
appreciably as they increase the mass of thermo temperature measurement using a thermocouple is by
couple. However, in applications, where response connecting a sensitive milli-voltmeter across the cold
time is primary consideration, bare or thin sheathed junction. The deflection is proportional to the current
thermocouples are used. flowing in the circuit. If the resistance of meter is Rm
Figure 25.77 shows a few arrangements for hot and that of the external circuit is R^ the current is
junctions which are more robust. They have wires
insulated by mineral insulation and protected by a In order to ensure sufficient current to deflect the
stainless outer casing which prevents the ingress of movement, the resistance of the meter should be small
damaging hot gases or damage due to force or since the sensitivity of thermocouples is quite small
pressure. Thermocouples are available in a variety of and they produce an output voltage which is a few
size, ranging from 0.25 mm to 3 mm. mV/100°C. Industrial moving-coil thermocouple
The sensitivity of thermocouples can be increased instruments commonly have a resistance of about 50 Q
by reducing the mass of the measuring junction. One and the resistance of the external circuit (resistance of
method of reducing the mass is to butt weld the two thermocouple and its leads) is about 10 — 20 Q. Thus
thermocouple wires. In applications where the there will be large loading errors if this method of
mechanical strength of the butt weld is not sufficient, measurement is used. These errors can be eliminated if
the two wires are twisted together and the ends are a high resistance is used in series with the instrument
welded. both to have a high input resistance and to swamp out
errors caused on account of variation in resistance of
25.21.2 Measurement of Thermocouple leads.
Output
2. Potentiometers. The most commonly used
The output emf of a thermocouple as a result of method for measurement of temperature with
difference between temperatures of measuring thermocouple employs a d.c. self balancing potentio
junction and reference junction can be measured by meter described in Art. 15.2 on page 466. There are no
the following methods : loading errors as at balance no current is drawn from
the thermocouple whose emf is being measured. The

resistance variation problems are also absent when
potentiometers are used.
Many types of automatic potentiometers have
been developed both for automatic recording of
temperature on chart recorders and for automatic
process control.
3. Amplifiers with Output Devices. The use of
transistors and integrated circuit methods has led to
the development of compact and cheap d.c.
amplifiers. The amplifiers amplify the output of the
thermocouple and feed to indicating or recording Fig. 25.79 Thermocouple reference junction.
devices. These devices may be either analog or digital
type. In this case also, the loading errors and errors on 25.21.4 Reference Junction Compensation
account variation of resistance are absent. Therefore A factor which is important in the use of
there are no circuit problems. But a disadvantage of thermocouple is the requirement of a known reference
these methods is that they require an auxiliary source temperature of the reference junction. This is because
of power while direct deflection method do not when the reference junction is not held at 0°C, the
require any separate source. observed value must be corrected by adding to it a
voltage that has resulted from a temperature
25.21.3 Compensating Circuit difference equal to the amount by which the reference
When temperatures near ambient are to be junction is above 0°C. (This is because the
measured with a thermocouple and it is inconvenient thermocouples are calibrated with temperature of
to use a fixed reference junction and therefore reference junction as 0°C.)
compensating circuits must be employed in the Now Ep = Et + Eo where ET is the total emf at
measuring system. An arrangement for automatic temperature T, Ef, is the emf on account of
compensating is shown in Fig. 25.78. A temperature temperature difference between detecting (hot) and
sensitive bridge is included in the thermocouple the reference junction and EQ is the emf due to
circuit, such that variations in the ambient
temperature of the reference junction being above 0°C.
temperature are compensated for by the changes in
Since, there exists a non-linear relationship between
the resistance Rc and the compensating junction.
the emf and the temperature, it is important that
temperatures are determined by the above process
rather than converting an emf to temperature and then
adding it to ambient temperature.
25.21.5 Lead Compensation

In many applications it is desirable to place the
reference junction at a point far removed from the
measurement junction. The connecting wires from the
thermocouple head to the meter are, therefore, very
long and are usually not at the same temperature
throughout their length. This causes errors, which can
be avoided by using connecting wires made of the
su pression resistance same material as the thermocouple wires. The
Fig. 25.78 Thermocouple with bridge implementation of this arrangement may not be
type compensation. possible in many cases due to cost and other
Multichannel thermocouple systems sometimes consideration. Under these circumstances, materials
use a heated, thermostatically controlled reference are chosen such that the relationship between emf and
junction as shown in Fig. 25.79. By using a regulated temperature is the same or almost the same as that for
temperature control of the reference junction, an thermocouple wires. These wires then called
accuracy of ± 3% can be obtained. Compensating Leads.
25.21.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Solution. The measured emf is the algebraic sum
Thermocouples of emfs at the hot and reference junctions.
Advantages .'. Required emf is
1. Thermocouples are cheaper than the Et = Et + EQ = 27.07+ 0.8
resistance thermometers. = 27.87 mV
2. Thermocouples follow the temperature Corresponding to this emf the temperature is
changes with a small time lag and as such are 620°C.
suitable for recording comparatively rapid
changes in temperature. Example 25.32 A thermocouple circuit uses a chromel
alumel thermocouple which gives an emf of 33.3 V when
Thermocouples are very convenient for measuring
measuring a temperature of 800°C with reference tempe
the temperature at one particular point in a piece of
rature 0°C. The resistance of the meter coil, Rm is 50CI and a
apparatus.
current of 0.1 mA gives full scale deflection. The resistance
Disadvantages of junctions and leads, Re, is 12 Q. Calculate :
1. They have a lower accuracy and hence they (a) resistance of the series resistance if a temperature
cannot be used for precision work. of 800°C is to give full scale deflection ;
2. To ensure long life of thermocouples in their (b) the approximate error due to rise of 1 Q in Re;
operating environments, they should be (c) the approximate error due to a rise ofl0°C in the
protected in an open or closed-end metal copper coil of the meter.
protecting tube or well. To prevent
contamination of the thermo-couple, when The resistance temperature co-efficient ofcoil is 0.00426/°C.
precious metals like platinum or its alloys Solution, (a)
are being used, the protecting tube has to be Emf E = i(Rm+Rs + Re)
made chemically inert and vacuum tight.
or 33.3 x 10-3 = 0.1 xlO-3 (50+RS+12)
3. The thermocouple is placed remote from
measuring devices. Connections are thus or series resistance Rs =271Q
made by means of wires called extension (b) Current in the circuit with increased resistance
wires. Maximum accuracy of measurement
is assured only when compensating wires = —33,3x10 3---- = 0.0997 mA
are of the same material as the thermocouple (50 + 271 + 1 + 12)
wires. The circuitry is, thus, very complex. .'. Approximate error in temperature
Example 25.30 Calculate the thermoelectric ' =£^997-Mx800 = _z4oc
sensitivity of a device using bismuth and tellurium as the 0.1

dissimilar metals. Estimate the maximum output voltage for (c) Change in resistance of coil with a temperature
a 100°C temperature difference at room temperature using increase of 10°C = 50 x 0.00426x 10 =2.13 Q
one junction. The sensitivity of bismuth is -72 \xV/°C and
Current in the circuit with increase resistance of
that of tellurium is 500 pV/°C.
coil
Solution. Sensitivity of thermocouple 33.33 xlQ~3
A = 0.09936 mA
= 500 -(-72) = 572 pV/°C 50 + 2.13 + 271 + 12
.’. Voltage output for a temperature difference of .'. Approximate error in temperature
100°C = 572 x 10~6 x 100 = 57.2 mV 0.09936-0.1
=---------------- x 800 = -5.12 °C
0.1
Example 25.31 A chromel-alumel hot junction is
connected to a potentiometer. This is at a temperature of Example 25.33 The simple potentiometer circuit of
20°C and gives a reading of 27.07 mV. Determine the Fig. 25.80 is to work from a platinum/platinum rhodium
measured temperature assuming the thermocouple to 10 per cent thermocouple and have a measuring range of
conform to the values given in Fig. 25.75 which are based on 900°C - 1200°C.
reference junction at 0°C. The emf corresponding to a The scale readings are to be correct for a reference junction
temperature of 20°C is 0.8 mV. Consult curves given in temperature of20°C. The slide wire resistance is 2.5 Q and
Fig. 25.74. the circuit is standardized to give 1.08 V between A and B.
Find the values of resistance and R7. Data from need some form of reference compensation with
thermocouple tables for platinum/platinum- rhodium 10 per regards to ice point, RTDs are more linear than
cent with 0°C reference junction temperature is : thermocouples but the changes in their resistance is
very small even for large change in input
emffor 20°C = 0.112 mV
temperatures i.e., they have low sensitivity. The
emffor 900°C = 8.446 mV thermistors have a large change in resistance with
emffor 1200°C= 1.946 mV temperature and thus have a high sensitivity.
However, they exhibit a highly non-linear
resistance-temperature characteristics. Their typical
properties are shown in 25.81.
For each of these transducers, electronic compen
sation circuits have to be used in order to overcome
their shortcomings. Also, additional circuitry may be
needed to increase their voltage or current outputs.
Usually, this additional electronics circuitry takes the
form of monolithic integrated circuits. Thus, it
requires to combine the temperature sensing element
with signal conditioning electronics to produce single
monolithic integrated circuit package.
Three integrated circuit (IC) packages are
Fig. 25.80 Diagram of Example 25.33. described in this section. They are :
(z) LM 335 - it provides an output of 10 m V/°K
Solution. The resultant emfs at the detecting
(zz) LM 34 - it provides an output of 10 mV/°F
junction temperature of 0j, and reference junction
temperature of 09 =20°Q are (zzz) AD 592 - it provides a current output of
lpA/°K
at 900°C E1 = 8.446 - 0.112 = 8.334 mA
1. LM 335 Series. The LM 335 is a temperature
and at 1200°C E2 = 11.946 - 0.112 = 11.834 mV
sensitive zener diode, which when reverse biased into
With the same standardising current, the emfs its breakdown region, gives an output of :
are : Vz = y 0 mV ...(25.81)
1.08
x
Rj + 2.5 + R-, where T = temperature ; °K
= 8.334 xlO-3 •••(0 0 = temperature ; °C
1.08 The size of degree kelvin and degree Celsius are
and Ea(i = x(R1+2.5) the same, and therefore there is 273° offset.
Rj + 2.5 + R2
Hence, Eqn. 25.81 can be written as :
= 11.834 xlO'3 ••■(«) Vz =2.73xl03 + 10 0mV ...(25.82)
Dividing (zz) by (z), we have The three temperature ranges available are listed
Rj+2.5 11.834 in Table 25.8. Notice that none of these ranges come
-------- or Rj = 5.95 D
- 8.334 closer to the temperature range of thermocouples or
RTDs. This is inherent in the silicon material of
Substituting the value of Rj in (z), we get integrated circuit.
R2 = 762.6 Q
Table 25.8 LM/135/235/2335
25.22 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT TEMPERATURE Temperature Ranges
TRANSDUCERS
Device Range (°C) Use
Each of the three temperature transducers
described earlier, i.e., RTD, thermistors and LM 135 -55 to + 150 Defence
thermocouples have some significant limitations. For LM 235 -45 to + 125 Industrial
example, thermocouples have a low output signal
LM 335 -45 to + 100 Commercial
which varies non-linearly with temperature. Also they
Temp. 0
Advantages
H Self-powered ►» Wide variety H More linear than thermocouple ►► Most linear
►► Simple H Wide temperature range » High output H Highest output
H Rugged ►► Most stable ►> Fast ►> Inexpensive
H Inexpensive H Most accurate H Two-wire ohms measurement
Disadvantages
►► Non-linear ►► Expensive ►► Non-linear H 0 <200°C
►> Low voltage ► > Current source required
► > Limited temperature H Power supply required
►► Reference required ► > Small AR H Fragile ►► Slow
►> Lest stable ►► Low absolute resistance ►► Current source required ►► Self-heating
► > Self-heating ► > Self-heating H Limited configuration
Fig. 25.81 Properties of temperature transducers.
A simple circuit using LM 335 is shown in across the zener diode at nominal temperature is first
Fig. 25.82. Since LM 335 is a zener diode, a reverse bias calculated. Let this voltage be
voltage is applied to produce zener current. The = Supply-^nominal
current should be limited to :
bias 10~3
400 pA < Iz < 5 mA
(1 mA=10~3A)
where I is the zener current.
For linear results, it is important that the load
The testing at the manufacturer's end is done at I,
current be small compared to the minimum current
= 1 mA, which is a reasonable choice. At higher
that will actually flow through the zener diode. This
currents, LM 335 will heat itself on account of power
requires that the following inequalities should be
(L K) which it has to dissipate. At current levels,
followed : t
below 1 mA, the accuracy decreases.
'load ~ 'z min -(25.84)
A simple temperature transducer circuit using
LM 335 is shown in 25.82. V T V . -V
maxT < supply maxT
T
gc\
RL " *
bias
The rated non-linearity is ± 1°C . However, it will

be desirable to adjust the transducer so that maximum
accuracy is achieved over the desired range.
The 2.73 V offset voltage (See Eqn. 25.82) which
accrues on account of conversion from Kelvin scale to
Celsius scale is nuisance. Ideally, 0°C should produce
0 V d.c.
The circuit of Fig. 25.83 provides opportunity for
Fig. 25.82 Simple temperature transducer two point calibration capability. Initially, the pote
using LM 335. ntiometer is adjusted to give -2.73 V(-2.73x 103mV)
In order to determine the proper size of series at its wiper and the 10 kQ potentiometer is set at its
limiting resistor as shown in Fig. 25.82, the voltage midrange. The temperature sensor is placed at its
lowest temperature. The zero potentiometer is Let Rzcro=500n.

adjusted to remove half of the error. Then the To check load resistance, solve the inequality for RL
temperature sensor is placed at the maximum Vmax 7 R,bias
.
»
temperature and the 10 kQ potentiometer is adjusted
L Vsupply - Vmax T
to remove half of the upper point error.
Alternately, the temperature sensor is placed at its In order to find out Vmax
__ T/',
two extreme ends and half of the error is adjusted each v2 = 2.73+ 10x 10-3 x 50 = 3.23 V
time. The zero adjustment at the bottom and 10 kQ
adjustment at the top. Vmax T/ =3.23-2.73 = 0.5 V
n 0.5x4.7xl03
K, »------------------- = 522 Q
L 5-0.5
2. LM 34 Series. The LM 34 series are precision
integrated circuit sensors, whose output voltage is
linearly proportional to Fahrenheit temperature (it
provides an output of 10 mV/°F). The LM 34 thus hits
advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated
in terms of degrees Kelvin, as the user is not required
to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to
obtain convenient Fahrenheit scaling. The LM 34 does
not require any external calibration or trimming to
provide typical accuracies of ±0.5° F at room
temperature or ±1.5 °F over its full scale temperature
Fig. 25.83 Two point calibrations for LM 335
range of -50 to 300°F. It has a low cost, low output
temperature sensor.
impedance, linear output, and precise inherent
The temperature sensors should be allowed calibration which makes its interfacing to readout or
enough time to stabilize to their new temperature control circuitry especially easy.
before making any adjustments. The value of Rzero It draws a very small current, of the order, of 70 p A
zero should be small as compared to Rbias in order that from its supply and therefore its self heating is small
the adjustment of RzeTO, does not affect the zener typically about 0.2°F. The LM 34 can be applied easily
current Iz. in the same way as other IC temperature sensors. It
Example 25.34 Design a circuit using a LM 335 to can be glued or cemented to a surface and its
cover a range of - 10 V to + 50 V with a nominal tempe temperature will be within ±0.02°F of the surface
rature of 20°C. Assume a supply voltage of 15 V. Also, temperature.
calculate the minimum recommended loud resistance. The Several circuits for using the LM 34 are shown in
output of zener diode is, Fig. 25.84. The simplest, Fig. 25.84 (a) requires no extra
IZ =2.73 + 10xl0~3eV components. It gives an output which varies between
The zener current is limited to 1 mA. 50 mV to 3 V d.c. indicating temperatures ranging
from +5°F to 300°F. In case temperatures below 0°F
Solution. Using the circuit of Fig. 25.83, at the
arc required, the IC must be provided with a negative
nominal temperature,
source of power.
Vz = 2.73 + (10 x ICT3 )x 20 = 2.93 V
Often, it is necessary to locate the temperature
But since the anode of zener is at -2.73 V the sensor more than a few centimetres from the support
output voltage is, electronics. For this, there are two additional
ôut = K + Offset requirements. Only two leads should be run to the
sensor. The signal returned by the sensor should be
= 2.93 -2.73 = 0.2 V = 200 mV
current and not voltage. This eliminates the effects or
5-0 2 series resistance in the wiring. The circuits shown in
Rh. = , = 4.8kQ
bas lx 10"3 Figs. 25.84(c) and 25.84(d) meet these requirements.
To minimize the effects of adjusting R,eroon /bias, In Fig. 25.84(d) it is necessary to ground the
selert Rzero<<Rbias' sensor.
not affected by the resistance of the wiring. The

current output of AD 592 is,
I =lxio~6r ...(25.87)
out
ra where T = temperature, °K
a>
X
or fout =273xlO-6 + lxlO-6eA ...(25.88)
where 0 = temperature, °C
AD 592 has a low cost. Its range is -25°C to

+ 105°C. The accuracy is 0.5°C specified at 25°C. The
(«) (b) linearity is 0.2°C over a range of 0° to 70°C.
Two typical applications of AD 592 are shown in
Fig. 25.85. In Fig. 25.85(a) a single potentiometer is
used to convert the current to voltage. The single point
calibration assumes correct readings at calibration
point.
The zero offset voltage can be removed with the
zero potentiometer as shown in Fig. 25.85(b).
Adjustment of zero and span potentiometers is done
just it was described for LM 335 circuit of 25.83.
Fig. 25.84 Typical applications of LM 34.

(a) simplest (b) negative temperature (c) remote
sensing (d) remote sensing with grounded sensor.
In either circuit, the output voltage produces a

current IT. This combines with the quiescent bias
current needed to run the chip (70 pA) and flows
through the twisted pair of wires.
;r = vout/499 ...(25.86)
At the processing electronics the bias current is
split off and flows through 50 kQ potentiometer. So IT
passes through 499 Q resistor to recover the original
voltage. It should be noticed that when the remote
sensor is grounded, the output voltage must be taken
Zero Ground
differentially between + V and the signal returned the
sensor.
(b) Two point zero and span
AD 592 Series. In case the signal is to be
3.
transmitted over a large distance, AD 592 is a better Fig. 25.85 Temperature sensing and
choice as its output is current and a current signal is conversion with AD 592.
25.23 VARIABLE INDUCTANCE TRANSDUCERS (z7z) The effective variations due to temperature
The variable inductance transducers work, changes are reduced.
generally, upon one of the following three principles: (iv) The effects of changes in supply voltage and
(?) change of self inductance, frequency are reduced.
(n) change of mutual inductance, and The differential arrangement consists of a coil
which is divided into two parts. In response to a
(???) production of eddy currents,
physical signal, which is normally a displacement, the
1. Transducers working on principle of change inductance of one part increases from Lto L+ AL while
of Self Inductance that of the other part decreases from Lto L-AL The
change is measured as the difference of the two
The self inductance of a coil L = N2 / R
resulting in an output of 2 AL instead AL when only a
where N = number of turns, and single winding is used. The differential arrangements
R - reluctance of the magnetic circuit. are shown in Fig. 25.86.
The reluctance of the magnetic circuit R = / / pA 2. Transducers working on principle of change
.-.Inductance L = N2p(A/ /) = N2 p G ...(25.89) of Mutual Inductance
An inductive transducer working on the principle
where p = effective permeability of the medium in
variation of mutual inductance uses multiple coils.
and around the coil; H/m
The mutual inductance between two coils is
G = A / / = geometric form factor
M= K^.
A = area of cross-section of coil; m2
and / = length of coil; m where and L, = self-inductances of two coils,
and K = co-efficient of coupling.
It is clear from Eqn. 25.89 that the variation in
inductance may be caused by : Thus mutual inductance between the coils can be
varied by variation of self-inductances or the co-efficient
(?) change in number of turns, N,
of coupling. However, the mutual inductance can be
(zz) change in geometric configurations, G, and converted into a self-inductance by connecting the
(zzz) change in permeability, p. coils in series. The self-inductance of such an arrange
ment varies between + 1^-2 M toL1 + L>+2A4 with
Inductive transducers are mainly used for
one of the coils being stationary while the other is
measurement of displacement. The displacement to be
movable. The self-inductance of each coil is constant
measured is arranged to cause variation of any of
but the mutual inductance changes depending upon
three variables in Eqn. 25.89 and thus alter the self
the displacement of the movable coil.
inductance L by AL.
The different arrangements of measurement of
The different types of inductive transducers for
translational and rotary displacements are shown in
measurement of translational and rotary displace
Fig. 25.86.
ments are shown in Fig. 25.86.
In the differential arrangement, the fixed coil is
Differential Output. Normally the change in self
divided into two parts. The movement of the movable
inductance ALis adequate for detection for subsequent
coil increases the mutual inductance of one part by AM
stages of instrumentation system. However, if the and decreases that of the other by AM.
succeeding instrumentation responds to AL, rather
Air or iron cored coils can be used for inductive
than to L+AL the sensitivity and accuracy will be
transducers. Both have their own advantages and
much higher. The transducer can be designed to
disadvantages.
provide two outputs one of which is an increase of self
inductance and the other is a decrease in self Air Cored Coils. Air cored coil transducers can be
inductance. The succeeding stages of instrumentation operated at a higher carrier frequency because of
system measure the difference between these outputs absence of eddy current losses in air cores. The
inductance of air cored coils is independent of the
i.e. 2 AL This is known as the differential output. The
current carried by the coil as the permeability of air is
advantages of differential outputs are :
constant and does not depend upon the current
(z) The sensitivity and accuracy are increased. carried by the coil. Hence air cored coil transducers
(zz) The output is less affected by external can be used for measurement of displacement
magnetic fields. variations occurring at fairly high frequencies.
Variable Inductance Transducers.

Iron Cored Coils. The greatest disadvantage of coil. If the short-circuited sleeve is away from the coil,
iron cored coils transducers is that their inductance is the inductance of the coil is high while if the sleeve is
not constant but depends upon the value of the covering the coil, its inductance is low. The change in
current carried by the coil. Also, at high frequencies, inductance is a measure of displacement.
the eddy current loss tends to be high and therefore
Example 23.33 In « variable reluctance type proximity
iron cored coil transducers cannot be used beyond a
inductive transducer shown in Fig. 25.87 the coil has an
particular frequency. The frequency of supply voltage inductance of 2 mH when the target made offerromagnetic
should not exceed 20 kHz for iron core transducers to material is 1 mm away from the core. Calculate the value of
keep the core losses to acceptable values. Hence, for inductance when a displacement of 0.02 mm is applied to the
accurate measurements the frequency of the input target in a direction moving it towards the core. Show that
displacement should not exceed 2 kHz. the change in inductance is linearly proportional to the
The advantages of iron cored coil transducers are: displacement. Neglect the reluctance of the iron parts.
(?) Their size is much smaller than that air cored
transducers on account of high permeability J Displacement
of iron cores. Target
Air gap (iron)
(iz) Iron cored transducers are less likely to
Coil
cause external magnetic fields because their Core
magnetic field is confined to the iron core of Q 6 O O O O O iron
the transducer on account of high
O O O O O
permeability and are less affected by stray
Output
magnetic fields on account of the high
magnetic field produced by them.
Fig. 25.87 Variable reluctance inductive transducer.
Most iron cored transducers are of the variable
reluctance type where the length of air gap in the
Solution. Inductance with air gap length of 1.00 mm,
magnetic circuit is varied. In most applications the
reluctance of magnetic circuit is primarily that of air L=2 mH
gaP- Length of air gap when a displacement of 0.05 mm
is applied,
3. Transducers working on principle of
= 1.00-0.02 =-0.98 mm
production of Eddy Currents
These inductive transducers work on the Now inductance is inversely proportional to the
principle that if a conducting plate is placed near a coil length air gap as the reluctance of flux paths through
carrying alternating current, eddy currents are, iron are neglected. Since the gap length decreases, the
produced in the conducting plate. The conducting inductance increases by AL
plate acts as a short-circuited secondary winding of a
transformer. The eddy currents flowing in the plate L+AL = 2 x —— = 2.04 mH
0.98
produce a magnetic field of their own which acts
against the magnetic field produced by the coil. This Change in inductance AL=0.04mH
results in reduction of flux and thus the inductance of The ratio of change in inductance to the original
the coil is reduced. The nearer is the plate to the coil, inductance is 0.04/2 = 0.02, and ratio of displacement
the higher are the eddy currents and thus higher is the to original gap length is also 0.02. Hence the change in
reduction in the inductance of the coil. Thus the inductance is linearly proportional to the displace
inductance of the coil alters with variation of distance ment. This linear relationship, however, is true of only
between the plate and the coil. very small values of displacements.
A number of arrangements are possible and two
arrangements are shown in Fig. 25.86. The plate may 25.24 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
be at right angle to the axis of the coil. The TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
displacement of the plate causes a change in the The most widely used inductive transducer to
inductance of the coil. In the other arrangement a translate the linear motion into electrical signals is the
conducting sleeve runs in parallel and coaxially over a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT). The basic
construction of LVDT is shown in Fig. 25.88. The A.C.

transformer consists of a single primary winding P excitation
and two secondary windings Sj and S2 wound on a
cylindrical former. The secondary windings have Primary
equal number of turns and are identically placed on winding
either side of the primary winding. The primary Arm
winding is connected to an alternating current source. Core
A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. Displacement
The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm

row?
attached to the soft iron core. In practice the core is Es
52
made of high permeability, nickel iron which is S2 6
hydrogen annealed. This gives low harmonics, low Secondary
null voltage and a high sensitivity. This is slotted windings
longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses. The
A.C.
assembly is placed in a stainless steel housing and the
excitation
end lids provide electrostatic and electromagnetic
shielding. The frequency of a.c. applied to primary
Primary
windings may be between 50 Hz to 20 kHz. winding
Former
(b)
Fig. 25.89 Circuits of an LVDT.

Fig. 25.88 Linear variable differential
transformer (L.V.D.T.). Now if the core is moved to the left of the NULL
position, more flux links with winding S1 and less
Since the primary winding is excited by an
with winding S2. Accordingly output voltage £sl, of
alternating current source, it produces an alternating
the secondary winding S]z is more than Es2, the output
magnetic field which in turn induces alternating
current voltages in the two secondary windings. voltage of secondary winding S2. The magnitude of
output voltage is, thus, EQ = Esl -Es-> and the output
The output voltage of secondary. Sr is Esl and
voltage is in phase with say the primary voltage.
that of secondary, S2, is Ej2. In order to convert the
Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null
outputs from S1 and S2 into a single voltage signal, the
position, the flux linking with winding S2 becomes
two secondaries and S2 are connected in series
larger than that linking with winding Sr This results
opposition as shown in Fig. 25.89(b). Thus the output
voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two in £s2 becoming larger than Esl. The output voltage in
voltages. this case is EQ = Es] - Es2 and is 180° out of phase with
the primary voltage. Therefore, the two differential
Differential output voltage,
voltages are 180° out of phase with each other.
E0 = Esl~Es2 -(25-9°)
The amount of voltage change in either secondary
When the core is at its normal (NULL) position, winding is proportional to the amount of movement
the flux linking with both the secondary windings is of the core. Hence, we have an indication of amount of
equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Thus linear motion. By noting which output voltage is
at null position : Es] - £s2. Since the output voltage of increasing or decreasing, we can determine the
the transducer is the difference of the two voltages, the direction of motion. In other words, any physical
output voltage £0 is zero at null position. displacement of the core causes the voltage of one
secondary winding to increase while simultaneously Figure 25.91 shows the core of an LVDT at three
reducing the voltage in the other secondary winding. different positions. In Fig. 25.91(b) the core is at null
The difference of the two voltages appears across the position, it is symmetrical with respect to both the
output terminals of the transducer and gives a secondary windings. This is called the null position. At
measure of the physical position of core and hence the this position Esl -Es2 hence the output voltage EQ =0.
displacement.
As the core is moved in one direction from the
null position, the differential voltage i.e., the
difference of the two secondary voltages, will increase
while maintaining an in-phase relationship with the
voltage from the input source. In the other direction
from the null position, the differential voltage will also
increase, but will be 180° out of phase with the voltage
from the source. By comparing the magnitude and
phase of the output (differential) voltage with that of
the source, the amount and direction of the movement
of the core and hence of displacement may be
determined.
The amount of output voltage may be measured
to determine the displacement. The output signal may
Primary
also be applied to a recorder or to a controller that can winding
restore the moving system to its normal position.
The output voltage of an LVDT is a linear function
of core displacement within a limited range of motion,
say, about 5 mm from the null position. Figure 25.90
shows the variation of output voltage against
displacement for various positions of core. The curve
is practically linear for small displacements (upto
about 5 mm as mentioned above). Beyond this range
of displacement, the curve starts to deviate from a
straight line.
Fig. 25.90 Variation output voltage with

linear displacement for an LVDT.
Figure 25.90 shows the variation of output voltage

versus displacement for various positions of core. The
curve is practically linear for a limited range of
displacement from the null position. Beyond this
range of displacement the curve starts to deviate from Fig. 25.91 (a) and (b) LVDT at different positions,
a straight line. (c) Core of LVDT at different positions.
When the core is moved to the left as in Fig. 25.91(a) are unique to the LVDT and are not available in any
and is at A, Esl is greater than Es2 and therefore phase other transducers. The features arise from the basic
angle <|)= 0. When the core is moved to the right fact that LVDT is an electrical transformer with a
towards B shown in Fig. 25.91(c) Es2 is greater than separable non-contacting core.
Eând hence the output voltage is negative or a phase Ordinarily, there is no physical contact between
angle of 180°. the movable core and coil structure which means that
The characteristics are linear upto 0 - A and 0 - B the LVDT is a frictionless device. This permits its use
but after then they become non-linear as shown in in critical measurements that cannot tolerate the
Fig. 25.91. addition of low mass core but cannot tolerate friction
Ideally the output voltage at the null position loading. The absence of friction between coil and core
should be equal to zero. However, in actual practice of an LVDT means that there is no wear out. This gives
there exists a small voltage at the null position. This an LVDT essentially infinite mechanical life. This is of
may be on account of presence of harmonics in the paramount importance in applications such as the
input supply voltage and also due to harmonics fatigue-life testing of materials and structures. The
produced in the output voltage on account of use iron infinite mechanical life is also important in high
core. There may be either an incomplete magnetic or reliability mechanisms and systems found in aircrafts,
electrical unbalance or both which result in a finite missiles, space vehicles and critical industrial
output voltage at the null position. This finite residual equipment.
voltage is generally less than 1% of the maximum The frictionless operation of the LVDT combined
output voltage in the linear range. Other causes of with the induction principle by which the LVDT
residual voltage are stray magnetic fields and function is truly infinite resolution. This means that
temperature effects. The residual voltage is shown in LVDT can respond to even minute motion of the core
Fig. 25.92. However, with improved technological and produce an output.
methods and with the use of better a.c. sources, the 3. Immunity front External Effects. The
residual voltage can be reduced to almost a negligible separation between LVDT core and LVDT coils
value. permits the isolation of media such as pressurized,
A Output corrosive, or caustic fluids from the coil assembly by a
voltage, Ea non-magnetic barrier interposed between the core and
inside of the coil. It also makes the hermetic sealing of
the coil assembly possible and eliminates the need for
a dynamic seal on the moving member. Only a static
seal is necessary to seal the coil assembly within the
pressurized system.
The fact that the LVDT is a transformer means
that there is complete isolation between excitation
voltage given to the primary winding and the output
produced by the secondary windings. This makes an
Fig. 25.92 Enlargement of hatched portion LVDT an effective analog computing element without
of Fig. 25.90. the need of buffer amplifiers. It also falicitates the
isolation of the signal ground from excitation ground
25.24.1 Advantages of LVDT in high performance measurement and control loops.
1. High range. The LVDTs have a very high range 4. High input and high sensitivity. The LVDT
for measurement of displacement. This can be used for gives a high output and many a times there is no need
measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25 mm for amplification. The transducer possesses a high
to 250 mm. With a 0.25% full scale linearity, it allows sensitivity which is typically about 40 V/min.
measurements down to 0.003 mm. However, the
5. Ruggedness. These transducers can usually
dynamic response is considerably slower than the
tolerate high degree of shock and vibrations especially
2.5 kHz excitation signal. when the core is spring loaded without any adverse
2. Friction and Electrical Isolation. The LVDT has effects. They are simple in construction and by virtue
many commendable features that make it useful for a of their being small and light in weight, they are stable
wide variety of applications. Some of these features and easy to align and maintain.
6. Low Hysteresis. LVDTs show a low hysteresis 2. Acting as a secondary transducer it can be used
and hence repeatability is excellent under all conditions. as a device to measure force, weight and pressure etc.
7. Low Power Consumption. Most of LVDTs The force measurement can be done by using a load
consume power which is less than 1 W. cell as the primary transducer while fluid pressure can
be measured by using Bourdon tube which acts as
25.24.2 Disadvantages of LVDTs primary transducer. The force or the pressure is
1. Relatively large displacements are required convened into a voltage. In these applications the high
for appreciable differential output. sensitivity of LVDTs is a major attraction.
2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields Some of the typical applications of LVDTs are
but shielding is possible. This is done by providing shown in Fig. 25.93. In Fig. 25.93(a) four LVDTs are
magnetic shields with longitudinal slots. used for measurement of weight or pressure exerted
3. Many a times, the transducer performance is by liquid in a tank. They (LVTDs) are excited in
affected by vibrations. parallel to increase the sensitivity.
4. The receiving instrument must be selected to Figure 25.93(b) shows two LVDTs which are used
operate on a.c. signals or a demodulator network must for measurement and control of thickness of a metal
be used if a d.c. output is required. sheet being rolled. When the thickness equals the
desired value, the two LVDTs are balanced out.
5. The dynamic response is limited
mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically
by the frequency of applied voltage. The frequency of
the carrier should be at least ten times the highest
frequency component to be measured.
6. Temperature affects the performance of the
transducer. But when temperature effects are expected
to influence the performance, manganin wire may be
used instead of copper wire. Unfortunately manganin
has a high resistivity and therefore its use results in
loss of sensitivity. The sensitivity with manganin coils
may be as low as 1/5 of that with copper coils.
Temperature also causes phase shifting effects which
may be minimized by using a capacitor across one of
the secondary windings.
25.24.3 Uses of LVDTs

The uses of LVDTs are numerous. Some of the
major applications of LVDTs are listed below :
1. The LVDT can be used in all applications where
displacements ranging from fraction of a mm to a few
cm have to be measured. The LVDT acting as a
primary transducer converts the displacement direct
into an electrical output proportional to displacement.
This is a fundamental conversion i.e., the mechanical
variable (displacement in this case) is directly
converted into an analogous signal (voltage in this
case) in one stage only. In contrast, the electrical strain
gauge requires the assistance of some form of a
sensing element to act as primary transducer to
convert the mechanical displacement into strain which
in turn is converted into an electrical signal by the
strain gauge acting as a secondary transducer.
Therefore, two stages of signal conversion are
involved in strain gauges while there is only one in
case of LVDT when displacement is being measured.
Sensitivity of instrument
= amplification factor x sensitivity of LVDT
= 4 x 10“3 x 250 = 1 V/mm = 1000 mV/mm
1 scale division = 5/100 V = 50 mV
Minimum voltage that can be read on the voltmeter
= (l/5)x 50 = 1 mV
.'. Resolution of instrument
= lx (1/1000) = lx IO-3mm
Example 25.38 A steel cantilever is 0.25 m long,

20 mm wide and 4 mm thick.
(a) Calculate the value of deflection at the free end for
the cantilever when a force of 25 N is applied at
this end. The modulus of elasticity for steel is
200 GN/m2*. 3I
(b) An LVDT with a sensitivity of 0.5 V/mm is used.
The voltage is read on a 10 V voltmeter having
100 divisions. Two tenths of a division can be
read with certainty.
Fig. 25.93 Sonic applications of LVDTs.
(c) Calculate the minimum and maximum value of
Figure 25.93(c) shows an LVDT being used for force that can be measured with this arrangement.
measurement of tension in a cord while Fig. 25.93(d) Solution, (a) Moment of area of cantilever
shows a complex system where a number of LVDTs I = —bt3
are used in a manufacturing process where a complex 12
machining gob is to done. = ^-x (0.02 )x (0.004)3
Example £5.36 The output voltage of a LVDT is 1.5 V
at maximum displacement. At a load of 0.5 MD, the = 0.107 x 10~9m4
deviation from linearity is maximum and it is ± 0.003 V
Fl3
from a straight line through origin. Deflection x =-----
3 EI
Find the linearity at the given load.
25x(0.25)3
Solution. %age linearity
3x200x109x0.107x10~9
= ±2^92x100 = ±0.2% = 6.08 x 10-3m = 6.08 mm
1.5
(b) Deflection per unit force
Example 25.37 The output of an LVDT is connected to
x _ 6.08
a 5 V voltmeter through an amplifier whose amplification
F ~ 25
factor is 250. An output of 2 mV appears across the
terminals of LVDT when the core moves through a distance = 0.2432 mm/N
of 0.5 mm. Calculate the sensitivity of the LVDT and that of Overall sensitivity of measurement system :
the whole set-up. The milli-voltmeter scale has 100 = 0.2432^^x0.5 —
divisions. The scale can be read to 1/5 of a division. N mm
Calculate the resolution of the instrument in mm. = 0.1216 V/N
Solution. Sensitivity of LVDT 1 scale division = (10/1000) = 0.1 V
_ output voltage Since two tenths of a scale division can be read
displacement with certainty, resolution = (2 /10)x0.1 = 0.02 V
(c) Minimum force that can be measured
= 2xl-° =4xl0~3 V/mm
= 0.02/0.1216 = 0.1645 N
0.5
Maximum force that can be measured
= 4 mV/mm
= (10/0.1216) =82.2 N
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 81 1
25.25 ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL Ironically, torque transmission systems have very
TRANSFORMER (RVDT) little output torque. When large torques and high
A variation of linear variable differential accuracies are needed, control type synchros are used.
transformer (LVDT) may be used to sense angular 25.26.1 Control Type Synchro Systems
displacement. This is the Rotary Variable Differential
These systems are used as error detectors in
Transformer (RVDT). The circuit of a RVDT is shown
positional control systems.
in Fig. 25.94. It is similar to the LVDT except that its
core is cam shaped and may be rotated between the The classical synchro system consists of two units:
windings by means of a shaft. (a) a synchro transmitter and
(b) a synchro receiver.
The basic synchro unit is called a "Synchro
Transmitter". Its construction is similar to that of a
three phase alternator. The stator is made up of
laminated steel in order to reduce core losses. It is
slotted to accommodate a balanced three phase
winding, with the axis of each stator winding
displaced by 120° in space. The three stator coils are
identical and are Y (star) connected. The rotor has a
Fig. 25.94 Rotary variable differential salient pole construction, is dumb-bell shaped and is
transformer (RVDT). wound with a concentric coil. An a.c. voltage is
applied to die rotor through two slip rings. The
The operation of a RVDT is similar to that of an constructional features and schematic diagram are
LVDT. At the Primary null position of the core, the shown in Figs. 25.95 and 25.96 respectively.
output voltage of secondary windings Sj and S2 are
equal and in opposition. Therefore, the net output is
zero. Any angular displacement from the null
position win result in a differential voltage output.
The greater this angular displacement, the greater
will be the differential output. Hence the response of
the transducer is linear.
Clockwise rotation produces an increasing
voltage of a secondary winding of one phase while
counter clock-wise rotation produces an increasing Fig. 25.95 Constructional features of synchro
voltage of opposite phase. Hence, the amount of transmitter.
angular displacement and its direction may be
ascertained from the magnitude and phase of the Let an a.c. voltage be applied to the rotor of a
synchro-transmitter as shown in Fig. 25.96. The
output voltage of the transducer.
voltage is :
25.26 SYNCHROS vr = V2 Vr sin(a.t
A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer which is where Vr - r.m.s. value of rotor voltage, V,
commonly used to convert the angular position of a wc = carrier frequency ; rad/s
shaft into an electric signal. Although the name This voltage produces a magnetising current and
"Synchro" is universally used in the instrumentation consequently an alternating sinusoidally varying flux
field, trade names such as Selsyns, Microsyns and along its axis and distributed nearly sinusoidal in
Autosyns are used for these instruments. space. Voltages are induced in the three stator
There are two types of synchro systems : windings. As the air gap flux is sinusoidally distri
(z) control or error detecting type and buted in space, the flux linking with any stator
windings is proportional to the cosine of the angle
(zz) torque transmission type.
between the rotor and the stator winding axes and so
Torque transmission type of systems are used is the voltage induced in each stator winding. It
only to drive very light loads, such as pointers. should understood, that since the voltages in each
stator winding are produced by transformer action, When 0R =0, from Eqn. 25.92 it is seen that
the three stator voltages may have different values (as maximum voltage is induced in the stator winding S2,
they link with different values of flux) but they are in while it follows from Eqn. 25.96 that the terminal
time phase with each other. Thus, the rotor as the voltage Vs3sl, is Zero. This position of the rotor is
primary winding of a single phase transformer and defined Electrical zero of the transmitter and is used as
the three stator windings act as secondary windings. reference for specifying angular position of the rotor
(See Fig. 25.98).
Synchro- Control
transmitter transformer
Fig. 25.96 Schematic diagram of synchro transmitter. Fig. 25.98 Syncho error detector.
Let Vsln, Vs2n and Vs3n respectively be the voltages The output of the synchro transmitter is applied
induced in the stator windings Sp S2 and S3 with to the stator windings of a Synchro Control Transformer.
respect to neutral n. Then, for the rotor position of the The synchro control transformer is similar in
synchro transmitter as shown in Fig. 25.96, where the construction to a synchro transmitter except that the
rotor axis makes an angle 0R with respect to axis of rotor of a control transformer is not of salient pole type
stator winding S2. but is cylindrical in construction. The use of
cylindrical construction has an advantage because
=kVrsincoctcos(0R+12O°) ...(25.91)
whatever may be the positron of the rotor, the length
Vs2n = kVr sin coj cos 0R ... (25.92) of air gap remains constant, and therefore irrespective
V3n = kVr sincocfcos(0R+24O°) ...(25.93) of the position of the rotor, the input impedance of the
The three terminal voltages of the stator windings control transformer remains the same.
are : The synchro-transmitter-control transformer pair acts
^sls2 — ^sln ^s2n
as an error detector. The arrangement for error-detector
is shown in Fig. 25.98. Circulating currents of the same
= 73kVrsin(eR+240°)sinwct ...(25.94) phase are of different magnitudes flow through the
^s2s3 — ^s2n ^s3n stator windings transmitter and control transformer.
This results in establishment of an identical flux
= V3 kVsin(0
r
p +120°)' sin
' i\
...(25.95) pattern in the air gap of control transformer. The
^s3sl — s3n ^sln control transformer flux axis is in the same position as
the flux axis in the transmitter. The voltage induced in
= V3 kVrr sin©,,K sinceC t ...(25.96)
the rotor of the control transformer is proportional to
The variation of the scator terminal voltages with
the cosine of the angle between axes of the two rotors.
angle 0R is shown in Fig. 25.97. This voltage is given by :
t?(f) = k'Vr cos <|)sin coct ...(25.97)
where <|) = angular displacement between axes of
rotor of synchro transmitter and rotor of
synchro control transformer.
when (|) = 90°, i.e., the axis of rotor of synchro
transformer is at right angles to that of axis of rotor
transmitter, the voltage induced in the control
transformer rotor is,
pig. 25.97 Variation of stator terminal e(t) = k'Vr cos (90°) sin (act = 0
voltages with ()R.
This position of the rotor of control transformer is

known as Electrical Zero.
In Fig. 25.98, the rotors of transmitter and the
control transformer are respectively shown in their
zero positions.
Let the rotor of transmitter rotate through an
J2 VR sin
angle 0R in the direction indicated and let the rotor of
control transformer rotate by an angle 0t. in the same
direction resulting in a net angular separation of
cj) = (90° - 0R + 0C) between the two rotors.
From Eqn. 25.97, the voltage at the rotor terminals
of synchro transformer is :
e(f) = k'Vr cos (9O°-0R + 0C) sin oyt
= k'Vr sin(0R -0C) sin cod ...(25.98)
For small angular displacements between the two
rotor positions.
Fig. 25.100 Typical wave forms of synchro
sin(0R-0C)-0R-0C ...(25.99) error detector.
From Eqn. 25.98 for small angular displacements
between the two rotor positions We see from this diagram that the output of
synchro error detector is a modulated signal, the
e(t) = k'Vr sin (0R - 0C) sin cocf ...(25.100)
modulating wave has the information regarding the
The synchro transmitter - control transformer pair lack of correspondence between the two rotor
thus acts as an error detector giving a voltage signal at positions and the carrier wave is the a.c. input to the
the rotor terminals of control transformer which is rotor of the synchro transmitter. This type of
proportional to the difference between the transmitter modulation is known as suppressed-carrier modulation.
and control transformer shaft positions. From Eqn. 25.100 the modulating signal representing
The error signal is fed to an amplifier which in the discrepancy between the two shaft positions is,
turn feeds a servomotor as shown in Fig. 25.99. The ^(O=Ks(0r-0c) ...(25.101)
servomotor through gears moves the rotor of the
where K. is known as sensitivity of error detector and
control transformer thus giving a closed loop
has the units of volt per degree of angular difference of
positional control system.
the shafts of the synchro pair.
As pointed out earlier the rotor of the control
transformer is made cylindrical in shape so that the air
gap is practically uniform. This is essential for a
control transformer, since its rotor terminals are
usually connected to an amplifier therefore the change
in the rotor output impedance with rotation of the
shaft must be minimised. Another distinguishing
feature is that the stator winding of the control
transformer has a higher impedance per phase. This
feature allows several control transformers to be fed
from a single transmitter.
25.26.2 Synchros as Torque Transmitters

In instrumentation systems ; synchros are
normally used in the torque transmission mode. In
this mode, the synchro transmitter and receiver are
Fig. 25.99 Positional control system.
connected as shown in Fig. 25.101.
Equation 25.100 is represented graphically in Initially winding S2 of the stator of transmitter is
Fig. 25.100 for an arbitrary time variation of (0R - 0r). positioned for maximum coupling with rotor winding
[Fig. 25.101(a)]. Suppose its voltage is V. The coupling same as that of the transmitter i.e., 30° in this case. Thus
between and S2 of the stator and primary ^rotor) a synchro can be used to determine the magnitude and
winding is a cosine function. (See Eqns. 25.91, 25.92 the direction of an angular displacement.
and 25.93). Therefore the effective voltages in these
windings are proportional to cos 60° or they are V/2 25.27 RESOLVERS
each. So as long as the rotors of the transmitter and Resolvers are used for conversion of angular
receiver remain in this position, no current will flow position of a shaft into cartesian co-ordinates. The
between the windings because of the voltage balance. output of the transducer is in the form of two signals,
one proportional to the sine of the angle and the other
proportional to cosine of the angle.
A resolver is a very precise electromagnetic device
comprising of two stator and two rotor windings. The
construction of a resolver is similar to that of a two
phase, two pole wound rotor induction motor. The
two stator windings are identical and are housed in a
magnetic structure, with the axis of two windings 90°
to each other. Similarly, the two rotor windings are
placed in a magnetic structure and are mutually
perpendicular to each other.
Stator windings are supplied with an alternating
voltage that produces an alternating magnetic flux
which induces voltages in the two rotor windings. The
output voltage of the rotor windings is proportional to
the stator voltage and the coupling between stator and
rotor windings. The way in which the windings are
placed, the rotor output voltages are proportional to
the sine and cosine of the rotor angle.
Referring to Fig. 25.102, which shows the winding
configuration of a resolver, when one of the stator
windings say S-^S, is excited by an a.c. source, with the
Fig. 25.101 Torque transmission using synchros.
When the rotor of the transmitter is moved to a

new position, the voltage balance is disturbed.
Assume that the rotor of the transmitter is moved
through 30° [See Fig. 25.101(b)], the stator winding
voltages of the transmitter will be changed to 0,
73/2 V and 73/2 V respectively. Thus there is a
voltage imbalance between the stator windings of the
transmitter and the receiver. This voltage imbalance
between the windings causes currents to flow between
the windings producing a torque that tends to rotate other stator winding S2S4 short circuited, the
the rotor of the receiver to a position where the voltage following output voltages are obtained from the rotor.
balance is again restored. This balance is restored only
£ri-3 = £Si-3 cos 0 ...(25.102)
if the receiver turns through the same angle as the
transmitter and also the direction of rotation is the ER2-4 = -£Si-3sin0 ...(25.103)
When the two stator windings are excited, the

outputs are as under :
£ri-3 = ES1-3 cos 0 + ES2-4 sin 0 ••■(25.104)
£R2-4 = ES2-4 COS 0-ESl-3 sin 0 •••(25.105)
When two rotor windings are excited, we get the

following outputs from the stator windings :
Esi-3 = ER]-3 cos 0 - eR2-4 sin 0 •••(25.106)

and £S2 4 = ER2_4 cos 0 + ER] 3 sin 6 ...(25.107)
For all above equations 0 = angular displacement Fig. 25.103 Schematic diagram of a parallel
of rotor. plate capacitive transducer.
25.27.1 Classification of Resolvers The capacitive transducer works on the principle

of change of capacitance which may be caused by :
Resolvers are classified in two groups :
(z) Change in overlapping area A,
A Computing resolvers and
(zz) Change in the distance d between the plates,
A Synchro resolvers.
and
Computing Resolvers are used for generating sine, (zzz) Change in dielectric constant.
cosine, and tangent functions as well as for solving
These changes are caused by physical variables
geometric relationships.
like displacement, force and pressure in most of the
Synchro Resolvers are used for data transmission. cases. The change in capacitance may be caused by
They perform the same functions as synchro change in dielectric constant as is the case in
transmitters, receivers and control transformers but measurement of liquid or gas levels.
with a better accuracy.
The capacitance may be measured with bridge
25.27.3 Applications of Resolvers circuits. The output impedance of a capacitive
transducer is :
The applications of resolvers are :
(z) Vector resolution, Xc=l/2n/C,
(zz) Vector composition, where C = capacitance and
(zzz) Vector angle and component resolution, / = frequency of excitation in Hz

(iv) Pulse amplitude control and pulse resolution, In general, the output impedance of a capacitive
transducer is high. This fact calls for a careful design
(v) Phase shifting.
of the output circuitry.
25.28 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS The capacitive transducers are commonly used
The principle of operation of capacitive for measurement of linear displacement. These
transducers is based upon the familiar equation for transducers use the following effects :
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. (z) Change in capacitance due to change in
overlapping area of plates, and
Capacitance C = e AI d
(zz) Change in capacitance due to change in
= Er£QA/d ...(25.108)
distance between the two plates.
where A = overlapping area of plates ; m2,
25.28.1 Transducers Using Change in
d = distance between two plates ; m, Area of Plates
e = £r£Q = permittivity of medium ; F/m, Examining the equation for capacitance (Eqn. 25.108),
er = relative permittivity, it is found tfiht the capacitance is directly proportional
e0 = permittivity of free space ; to the area, A of the plates. Thus the capacitance
8.85xlO’12 F/m changes linearly with change in area of plates. Hence
this type of capacitive transducer is useful for
A parallel plate capacitors is shown in Fig- 25.103. measurement of moderate to large displacements say
from 1 mm to several centimetres. The elementary For a cylindrical capacitor the capacitance is :
diagrams of two types of capacitive transducers are _ 2 ntx
shown in Figs. 25.104(rr) and (b). The area changes C =----------------- F ...(25.112)
log/ D21 Da )
linearly with displacement and also the capacitance.
Figure 25.105 shows the variation of capacitance. As where x = length of overlapping part of cylinders; m,
mentioned earlier, the response is linear as shown, the D2 - inner diameter of outer cylindrical
initial non-linearity is due to edge effects. electrode ; m
and D] = outer diameter of inner cylindrical
electrode ; m
Sensitivity
dx
2 tie c ,
= ------------------ F/ m ...(25.113)
Capacitance log/ D2 / )
6 Output 6 - Increases
• Decreases Therefore, the sensitivity is constant and the
relationship between capacitance and displacement is
linear as shown in Fig. 25.105.
Fig. 25.104 Capacitive transducers working on the Fig. 25.105 Capacitance displacement curve of ca
principle of change of capacitance with change of area. pacitive transducer (working on principle of change of
plate area caused by change in displacement).
For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance is :
The principle of change of capacitance with
C = ^ = ^-F ...(25.109)
change in area can be employed for measurement of
angular displacement. Figure 25.106(rz) shows a two-
where x = length of overlapping part of plates ; m, plate capacitor. One plate is fixed and the other is
and w = width of overlapping part of plates ; m movable. The angular displacement to be measured is
O Z~' applied to movable plate. The angular displacement
Sensitivity 5 = — = e—F/m ...(25.110) changes the effective area between the plates and thus
dx d
changes the capacitance. The capacitance is maximum
The sensitivity is constant and therefore there is when the two plates completely overlap each other i.e.,
linear relationship between capacitance and dis when 6 =180°.
placement. .-. Maximum value of capacitance
Sensitivity for a fractional change in capacitance
SC 1
= S' =------ = - ...(25.111)
Cdx x Capacitance at angle 6 is,
This type of a capacitive transducer is suitable for £0r~

C=— ...(25.115)
measurement of linear displacements ranging from 2d
1 mm to 10 mm. The accuracy is as high as 0.005%. where 0 = angular displacement in radian.
Sensitivity S = ~=^ ...(25.116)
(b)
Fig. 25.107 Capacitive transducer using the principle

Fig. 25.106 Capacitive transducer for measurement of change of capacitance with change of distance
of angular displacement. between plates.
Therefore, the variation of capacitance with angular is hyperbolic and is only approximately linear over a
displacement is linear. This is shown in Fig. 25.106(b). small range of displacement. The linearity can be
It should be understood that the above, mentioned closely approximated by use of a piece of dielectric
capacitive transducer can be used for a maximum material like mica having a high dielectric constant. In
angular displacement of 180°. this type of transducer, a thin piece of mica thinner
than the minimum gap distance is inserted between
25.28.2 Transducers Using Change in Distance the plates.
between Plates
Theoretically, the sensitivity of the transducer can
Figure 25.107(a) shows the basic form of a
be increased to any desirable value by making the
capacitive transducer utilizing the effect of change of
distance between the plates extremely small. But a
capacitance with change in distance between the two
practical limit is reached when the electric field
plates. One is a fixed plate and the displacement to be
strength in the air gap exceeds the breakdown voltage.
measured is applied to the other plate which is
The breakdown limit in air at atmospheric pressure is
movable. Since, the capacitance, C, varies inversely as about 3 kV/mm.
the distance d; between the plates the response of this
Figure 25.108 shows an arrangement for measure
transducer is not linear and as shown in Fig. 25.107(b).
ment of linear displacement. The displacement when
Thus, this transducer is useful only for measurement
applied to the cantilever type spring plate moves it
of extremely small displacements.
pA
towards the second plate decreasing the distance. This
Sensitivity S = — =-----T ...(25.117) increases the capacitance of the capacitor. It is clear
clr x~
that the capacitance of air dielectric capacitor does not
From Eqn. 25.105, it is clear that the sensitivity of vary linearly with change in distance between the
this type of transducer is not constant but varies over plates and therefore, this arrangement is funda
the range of the transducer. Thus, as explained earlier mentally non-linear. However, linearity can be closely
this transducer exhibits non-linear characteristics. approximated by keeping the change in the distance
The relationship between variation of capa small or by having a medium of high dielectric
citance, C with variation of distance between plates, x, constant in the space between the two plates.
measurement of rotational displacement.
25.28.3 Differential Arrangement

Fig. 25.108 Capacitive transducer using A linear characteristic can be achieved by using a
cantilever spring plate differential arrangement for the capacitive displace
Two silvered quartz diaphragms form a capacitor ment transducers. This arrangement using three plates
as shown in Fig. 25.109. The displacement of these is shown in Fig. 25.111. and P2 are fixed plates and
diaphragms varies the capacitance of this capacitive M is the movable plate to which the displacement to
transducer. This type of a transducer forms a pressure be measured is applied. Thus we have two capacitors
gauê which works very satisfactorily. If the pressure whose differential output is taken.
is reduced to perfect vacuum between the
Fixed -i
diaphragms, the transducer measures the absolute plate P. \
pressure of the surrounding medium. Quartz is used
because it has a very low mechanical hysteresis. The
----------------- £
disadvantage of this type of transducer is that it has
'Movable
high temperature co-efficient and this must be taken । plate, M
into consideration when making precision type
measurements. Fixed —
plate P2
Fig. 25.111 Differential arrangement of capacitors.
Let the capacitance of these capacitors be q and

C2 respectively, when the plate M is midway between
the two fired plates, under this condition the
capacitances CI and C2 are equal.
q = £ A / d and C2 = £ A / d
An alternating current voltage E is applied across

plates P-l and P2 and the difference of the voltages
across the two capacitances is measured. When the
movable plate is midway between the two fixed plates
Fig. 25.109 Capacitive transducer using q = C2 and therefore E1 = E2 = E /2.
Quartz diaphragms. Voltage across q is,
Rotational displacement can be measured with an q = Eq/(q + q)=E/2

arrangement shown in Fig. 25.110. As the rotor plates
and voltage across C2 is
of the capacitor are displaced in the counter clockwise
direction the capacitance increases. The change in the e2 = Eq/(q + q) = £/2
capacitance is a measure of the angular displacement.
Differential output when the movable plate is
This capacitive transducer can be effectively used for
midway AE - E1 - E? = 0.
measurement of torque.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 8 I 9
Let the movable plate be moved up due to Initial capacitance of transducer

displacement x. Therefore the values and C2
become different resulting in a differential voltage
= C = E„i+ec UA
0 d 0' d
output.
-£0 dUl+Erl2] ...(25.120)
Now C =
1 d-x
J „ £A
and C, =-------
2 d+x
E =
1 Cj + C2
_ sA/(d + x) £_ d-x £
e A/(d-x) + £ A! (d + x) 2d
&A/(d-x) £ _ d+x
£A/(d-x) + £/l/(d + x) 2d
Differential output voltage
= AE = E, - E}
Fig. 25.113 Capacitive transducer for measurement
_ d + x£ d-x £ of level of a non-conducting liquid.
2d 2d
Let the dielectric be moved through a distance x in
= -E ...(25.118) the direction indicated. The capacitance changes from
d
C to C + AC.
Therefore the output voltage varies linearly as the
.-. C + AC = E0^(Z1-x)+E0£r^(/2 + x)
displacement x.
Sensitivity S = -^= — ...(25.119) Wr7
x d - £°^ 1 + +
The differential method can be used for displace
= e07(/i + M2) + e0^(£r-1)
ments of IO-8 mm to 10 mm with an accuracy of 0.1%.
25.28.4 Variation of Dielectric Constant for = C + eo“(sr-l) ...(25.121)

Measurement of Displacement
The third principle used in capacitive transducers .-. Change in capacitance
wx
is the variation of capacitance due to change in AC = £o—(£r-l) ...(25.122)
dielectric constant. Figure 25.112 shows a capacitive
transducer for measurement of linear displacement Hence the change in capacitance is proportional to
working on the above mentioned principle. It has a displacement.
dielectric of relative permittivity e .
25.28.5 Variation of Dielectric Constant for
Measurement of Liquid Level
Capacitive transducers using the principle of
change of capacitance with change of dielectric are
normally used for measurement of liquid levels.
Figure 25.113 shows a capacitive transducer used for
measurement of level of a non-conducting liquid.
The electrodes are two concentric cylinders and the
non-conducting liquid acts as the dielectric. At the lower
Fig. 25.112 Capacitive transducer using principle of
end of the outer cylinder there are holes which allow
change in dielectric constant for measurement of passage of liquid. In case these holes are small, they
displacement. provide mechanical damping of the surface variation.
Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
Sinusoidal transfer function

The value of capacitance for this capacitor is,
£1/?1 +£2/i2 £Q(/co) _ jwKx
C = 27is0?—-—— ...(25.123) Xi(co) 1 +/cot
The amplitude ratio is thus :

where /q = height of liquid ; m,
/z = height of cylinder above liquid ; m, £n COT 1
M = —2- (/co) =
KX. J 71 + co2t2
s = relative permittivity of liquid, I
£2 = relative permittivity of vapour ...(25.125)

above liquid, Phase shift
j2 = inside radius of outer cylinder ; m, §= n/2 -tan-1 cot rad. ...(25.126)
= outside radius of inner cylinder ; m, The frequency response curves are shown in
Eq = permittivity of free space ; F/m Fig. 25.115.
Relationship 25.123 is based upon the assumption
h » ?2 and r0»r2-r[»a
Now r2 = r+a and =r
£i/q + e2/72
...(25.124)
0 loge(l + fl/r)
f
25.28.6 Frequency Response of Capacitive

Transducers
Figure 25.114 shows a simple circuit for capacitive
transducers using change in capacitance due to
change in distance between plates. Let the distance
between the plates be xQ when they are stationary.
Under this condition no current flows and output Fig. 25.115 Frequency response of
voltage is eQ = E^. capacitive transducers.
Equation 25.125 shows that this arrangement

(Fig. 25.114) cannot be used for static measurements as
output is zero for co = 0. This arrangement should not
be used for low frequency applications as it will result
in inaccuracies (See Fig. 25.115). The arrangement
should be used for high frequency applications
(beyond a frequency co,) in order to achieve high
degree of accuracy in measurements.
Fig. 25.114 Capacitive transducer. Examining Eqns. 25.125 and 25.126, we have
£n
Thus, then a relative displacement from the M= (/co) « K and 4> = 0 for cot >> 1
position, a voltage eQ is produced.
The following analysis is done for small Thus both magnitude ratio as well phase shift are
displacements with x-J d <0.1. constant and are independent of frequency.
r r
Transfer function
•= £—n-(s)
—
In order to make cot >> 1 for low frequencies, t has
X,(s) to be made large. Now t - RC. Thus for a given
capacitor t can be increased by increasing the value of
Kts
resistance R. This resistance is of the order of 1 MQ or
1 + TS more. In order to prevent loading of capacitive
£, transducers, readout or measuring device should have
where K = — V/m,
xo an impedance of at least 10 MQ (or more) such as
t = time constant = RC provided by FETs.
25.28.7 Advantages of Capacitive Transducers (iv) The cable connecting the transducer to the
The major advantages of capacitive transducers measuring point is also a source of error. The cable
are : may be source of loading resulting loss of sensitivity.
Also loading makes the low frequency response poor.
(/) They require extremely small forces to
operate them and hence are very useful for Let us take a capacitive transducer of capacitance
use in small systems. C. This capacitor is used with its polarizing source to
(z7) They are extremely sensitive. produce an emf £0 at no load. Let a load impedance
be connected across it. The output value of voltage
(ni) They have a good frequency response. This
with load connected is :
response is as high as 50 kHz and hence they
are very useful for dynamic studies. £L =-—g°/z (See 2-37 page 35)
(iv) They have a high input impedance and
therefore the loading effects are minimum. and impedance of transducer is,
(v) A resolution of the order of 2.5 x 10-3 mm can Zo = 1 / jcoC
be obtained with these transducers.
En
(vi) The capacitive transducers can be used for £ =______ Q____ ...(25.127)
L 1 + 1/ jwC ZL
applications where stray magnetic fields
render the inductive transducers useless. In order to have good response coC ZL should be as
(vii) The force requirements of capacitive large as possible. This means that for a particular
transducers are very small and therefore value of C and ZL, co should be large. Thus capacitive
they require small power to operate them. transducers should be used for dynamic measure
ments at high frequencies.
25.28.8 Disadvantages of Capacitive In order to have good response at low frequencies
Transducers the value of the capacitance should be large so that
The principal disadvantages of capacitive trans output impedance ZQ of the transducer is high. This
ducers are : thereby makes EL nearly equal to £Q.
The capacitive transducers are connected to the
(z) The metallic parts of the capacitive transducers
second stage of the instrumentation system through
must be insulated from each other. In order to reduce
cables. The cables are a source of loading. Consider a
the effects of stray capacitances, the frames must be
capacitive transducer as shown in Fig. 25.116.
earthed.
(zz) The capacitive transducers show non-linear Capacitive
transducer
behaviour many a times on account of edge effects.
Therefore guard rings must be used to eliminate this
effect. Guard rings are also a must in order to
eliminate the effect of stray electric fields, especially
when the transducers have a low value of capacitance
of the order of pF.
(zzz) The output impedance of capacitive Fig. 25.116 Capacitive transducer with its
transducers tends to be high on account to their small output cable.
capacitance value. This leads to loading effects. The Let C - capacitance of transducer ; F,
output impedance depends upon the frequency of the
and Cc — capacitance of the cable ; F
signal used to determine the value of capacitance. For
capacitances lying between 10-500 pF, the frequencies If we neglect the leakage resistance, the output
used are such that they give an output impedance in impedance of transducer is Z0=l/ ;wC.
the range of 1 kQ to 10 MQ. This high value of output Impedance of load (taking cable as the load) is :
impedance means that the insulation resistance must ZL=1/ )coCf
be kept high, to avoid the shunting of the capacitance
Voltage at the second stage
unduly and reducing the sensitivity. Both the above
conditions are difficult to meet in practice especially _____ Eq______ C
£L ~ £0 ...(25.128)
when there is humidity. 1 + j^c / C + Cc
Thus in order that the loading effects be (zzz) Capacitive transducers can also be used directly
minimised the capacitance of the cable should be as as pressure transducers in all those cases where the
small as possible as compared to capacitance of dielectric constant of a medium changes with pressure.
transducer or Cc « C. This requires short lengths of For instance, the dielectric constant of Benzene changes
cables to have small loading errors. Consider the by 0.5 per cent in the range of pressure of 1 to 1000 times
polarizing voltage to be short-circuited it is then seen the atmospheric pressure. Similarly, the dielectric
that C and Cf are connected in parallel. constant of air at 19°C changes from 1.0006 to 1.0548 in
the same pressure range. Variation of dielectric
Minimum resonant frequency constant with pressure also occurs in solids, primarily
in crystals like MgO, LiF, NaCI, KC1 and KBr.
f . =-----------------Hz ...(25.129)
2ziR//(C+C.) (iv) Capacitive transducers are used for
measurement of humidity in gases since the dielectric
where R; = leakage resistance. constant of gases changes with change in humidity
If the cable capacitance Cf is high, the frequency thereby producing a change in capacitance. The
Anin decreases. Hence cable must have small capaci change in capacitance is quite small but is detectable.
tance to improve low frequency response. An idea of change of dielectric constant can be had
from the example of air. The dry air at 45°C has a
(r) The capacitance of a capacitive transducer may
dielectric constant of 1.000247 and that of air saturated
be changed on account of presence of extraneous
with water is 1.000593 at the same temperature. These
matter like dust particles and moisture.
measurements are carried out with microwave
(vi) The capacitive transducers are temperature techniques and the frequency is of the order of 10 GHz.
sensitive and therefore any change in temperature (v) Capacitive transducers are commonly used in
adversely affects their performance. conjunction with mechanical modifiers for measure
(vii) The instrumentation circuitry used with these ment of volume, density, liquid level, weight etc.
transducers is very complex. Example 25.39 Figure 25.117 shows a capacitive
25.28.9 Uses of Capacitive Transducers transducer using five plates. The dimensions of each plate
are 25 x 25 mm and the distance between plates is 0.25 mm.
(z) Capacitive transducers can be used for
This arrangement is to be used for measurement of
measurement of both linear and angular displace
displacement by observing the change in capacitance with
ments. The capacitive transducers are highly sensitive distance x. Calculate the sensitivity of the device. Assume
and can be used for measurement of extremely small that the plates are separated by air. The permittivity of air is
displacements down to the order of molecular 8.85 x 10~12F/m.
dimensions i.e., 0.1 x 10-6 mm.
This is on account of the fact that small
capacitance changes produced on account of small
displacements can be measured. In practice it is
possible to detect capacitance changes of the order of
1 aF’ and that too with a good degree of accuracy. H-------- /---------- ►h
X
On the other hand, they can be used for
Fig. 25.11.7 Capacitive transducer for
measurement of large distances upto about 30 m as in
measurement of linear displacement.
aeroplane altimeters. The change in displacement
method is generally preferable for either very small or Solution. The five plate transducer forms a
very large displacements. The change in area method combination of four capacitors connected in parallel. If
is used for measurement of displacements ranging the movable plate is moved through a distance x on
the right side,
from 10 mm to 100 mm.
Capacitance of each capacitor
(zz) Capacitive transducers can be used for the
measurement of force and pressure. The force and c, _ s0(/-x)w
pressure to be measured are first converted to d
displacement which causes a change of capacitance. where w = width of each plate.
* 1 aF = IO"18 F.
Capacitance of transducer Thus we have,

, 4en(/ -.v)w fo2 / /oi ~ ^2
C = 4C = —^---- —
d
But Cj = eA/ d}
Sensitivity of transducer
dC _ -4e0 w and C2 = s AI d2
fo2 _ pi _ [^2
dx d
4x8.85xl0~12x25xlQ~3 foi F2 \ ^1
0.25 xlO-3 The frequency of the oscillator after the appli
= -3540 pF/m cation of pressure is :
= 3.54 pF/mm (Disregarding the sign).
Example 23.40 A capacitive transducer uses two
quartz diaphragms of area 750 mm separated by a distance
of 3.5 mm. A pressure of 900 kN/m when applied to the top 1-0.3 + 4.0
x 100 = 96.2 kHz
diaphragm produces a deflection of 0.6 mm. The capacitance V 4.0
is 370 pF when no pressure is applied to the diaphragms. ;. Change in frequency of oscillator
Find the value of capacitance after the application of a
= 100 -96.2 = 3.8 kHz.
pressure of 900 kN/m2.
Example 25.42 A capacitive transducer is made up of
Suppose
Solution. and C2 are respectively the
two concentric cylindrical electrodes. The outer diameter of
values of capacitance before and after application of
the inner cylindrical electrode is 3 mm and the dielectric
pressure. Let d^ and d2 be the values of distance
medium is air. The inner diameter of the outer electrode is
between the diaphragms for the corresponding
3.1 mm. Caladate the dielectric stress when a voltage of 100 V
pressure conditions.
is applied across the electrodes. Is it within safe limits ? The
C1 = s AI d^ and C2 = £ A / d2 length of electrodes is 20 mm. Calculate the change in
C2 d} capacitance if the inner electrode is moved through a
or
C] d2 distance of 2 mm. The breakdown strength of air is 3 kV/mm.
Solution. Length of air gap between the two
c, = c,xi electrodes (3.1 - 3) / 2 = 0.05 mm
d2
.'. Dielectric stress
But d1 - 3.5 mm and d2 = 3.5 - 0.6 = 2.9 mm
= 100 / 0.05 = 2000 V/mm = 2 kV/mm
.'. Value of capacitance after application of pressure
The breakdown strength of air is 3 kV/mm and
C2 =370 x 3.5/2.9 = 446.5 pF
hence the dielectric is safe.
Example 25.41 A pressure measuring instrument uses Capacitance of the transducer
a capacitive transducer having a spacing of 4 mm between
2keZ
its diaphragms. A pressure of 600 kN/m produces an
average deflection of 0.3 mm of the diaphragm of the loge(D2/DJ
transducer. The transducer which has a capacitance of
2kx 8.85x 10-12 x 20 x IO-3
300 pF before application of pressure and is connected in an ---------- ------------------------ F = 33.9 pF
loge(3.1/3) P
oscillator circuit having a frequency of 100 kHz. Determine
the change frequency of the oscillator after the pressure is The moving in electrode is shifted through a
applied to the transducer. distance of 2 mm.
Solution.The subscript 1 is used for values before I = 20 -2 = 18 mm
application of pressure and 2 is used for values after = 18xl0-3 m
application of pressure.
New value of capacitance
Resonant frequency
/0 = 1/2kJLC 2kx8.85x10~12x18x10“3
-loge(3.1/3) pF
The inductance is constant but the capacitance is
variable. .•. Change in value of capacitance
.•. /0] =1/2 7t^/ LCj and fQ2 = 1 / 2 n yjLC2 AC = 33.9 - 30.5 = 3.4 pF
Example 25.43 A capacitive transducer circuit used Example 25.44 A parallel plate capacitive transducer
for measurement of linear displacement. The transducer is a uses plates of area 500 mm which are separated by a distance
parallel plate air capacitor wherein the capacitance can be 0.2 mm. Calculate the value of capacitance when the di
changed by changing the distance between the plates. This electric is air having a permittivity of 8.85 x 10~12 F/m
transducer is to be used for dynamic measurements. (z) Calculate the change in capacitance if a linear
Suppose a flat frequency response with an amplitude ratio displacement reduces the distance between the
within 5% is required down to a frequency range of 20 Hz. plates to 0.18 mm. Also calculate the ratio of per
What is the minimum allowable value of time constant ? unit change of capacitance to per unit change of
Calculate the phase shift at this frequency. The area of plates displacement.
is 300 mm and the distance between plates is 0.125 mm. (zz) Suppose a mica sheet 0.01 mm thick is inserted in
Calcidate the value of series resistance R. What is the the gap. Calculate the value of original capaci
amplitude ratio at 5 Hz with the above time constant ? tance and change in capacitance for the same
Calculate the high frequency voltage sensitivity of the displacement. Also calculate the ratio of per unit
transducer if the battery voltage is 100 V. change in capacitance to per unit change in
Solution. For a flat response within 5 percent, the displacement. The dielectric constant of mica is 8.
amplitude ratio is M = 1 - 0.05 = 0.95 Solution. Initial capacitance
C=^
From Eqn. 25.125
d
1 8.85 x10’12x 500x1 O’6,,
V1+(1/(ot)2 =--------------------- =--------- F
0.2 x 10’3
or 0.95 = 1 = 22.125 pF
71+(1/2 x kx20xt)2
(?) Change in displacement
or Minimum time constant Ad - 0.2 - 0.18= 0.02 mm
t = 24.2 xlO’3 s = 24.2 ms Capacitance after application of displacement,
From Eqn. 25.126, phase shift <j> = n/2-tan-1 8.85 x 10’12 x 500 xlO’6
cdt = 71 / 2 — tan’1 (2 71 x 20 x 24.2 x 10’3) = 18.2°
0.18 x 10’3
Capacitance
= 24.583 pF
c_ 8.85x10-12x300x10-6
Change in capacitance
0.125 xlO-3
= 21.24 xlO’12 F. AC = 24.583 -22.125
= 2.458 pF.
Series resistance
_ _ 24.2 xlO’3 v >•
Ratio &C/C
=---- -—
” C ~21.24xl0-12 Ad / d
_ (2.458/22.125) _
= 1.14 x 109Q = 1140Q
(0.02/0.2)
Amplitude ratio at 5 Hz is :
(zz) Initially the displacement between the plates is
M= . 1 ----
0.2 mm. Since the thickness of mica is 0.01 mm, the length
^1+(1/2x7tx 5x24.2 x 10"3)2 of air gap between the plates =0.2 -0.01 =0.19 mm.
= 0.605 Initial capacitance of transducer,
Thus the output is reduced nearly to 60% of its
C =____ _______
high frequency value. Therefore this transducer d1/ Ej +d2 / e2
arrangement cannot be used for low frequency
applications. 8.85 xl0’12x 500x10’6
---------------------------------- p
High frequency sensitivity of the transducer (0.19/1 + 0.01/8)xl0’3
K.^ 100
= 23.137 pF
x 0.125 xl0~3
When a displacement of 0.02 mm is applied, the
= 800 x 103 V / m = 800 kV/m length of air gap is reduced to (0.19 - 0.02) = 0.17 mm.
Capacitance with displacement applied, A circuit for conversion of current to voltage

signals is shown in Fig. 25.119.
8.85 x 10-12 x 500 xlO-6 r
=----------------------------- y F = 25.839 pF.
(0.17/1 + 0.01/8)xl0"J
Change in capacitance
AC = 25.839 -23.137 =2.702 pF
Ratio
AC/C (2.702/25.839) .... Fig. 25.119 Voltage output from a
-------- =-------------------- = 1.U40
Ad/d (0.02/0.2) capacitive transducer.
Example 25'45 A variable capacitance angular Example 25-4<> A push-pull non-contact capacitive
velocity pickup is shown in Fig. 25.118(a). Prove that the transducer is shown in Fig. 25.120(a). It consists of four
current, i, flowing in the circuit in which the transducer is parallel plates separated by air. Plates A, C and D are fixed
connected across a battery of constant d.c. voltage Eb is and plate B can be moved. Plate B has a thickness t and is at
directly proportional to the angular velocity dQ / dt. Since a distance d from plates on either side. Plates B, C, D are all
voltage signals are readily manipulated, how might the of length I, while plate A has length 21. All plates have a
current signal be transduced to a proportional voltage ? The width w. The gap between plates C and D can be considered
area of capacitor is A = KQ. as negligible. Neglecting the end effects, derive expressions
for capacitances CACand CADfor movement of the midpoint
of plate B between x = ±l/2. x =0 is the position of
symmetry.
Plate A
Movement
Plate B
Fig. 25.118 Capacitive transducer for measurement

of angular velocity.
Solution. The battery voltage, Eb, is constant

while the capacitance, C, is variable and its value
depends upon the angular displacement. The
overlapping -area of plates is proportional to angular
displacement, 0. Let A = KQ, where K = a constant.
Suppose the charge is q and the capacitance is C. Plate B
dq = d(EbC) = E dC
.’. Current
dt dt b dt '
Now capacitance
C = e A / d and
sK( dQ} Fig. 25.120 Push-pull capacitive transducer.
.. Current 1 = E, — —
b d {dt)
Solution. Figure 25.120(b) shows a simplified
Now Eb, d and K are constants.
arrangement where the central plate B is moved to the
i= K' — left by a distance x.
dt
The capacitance between plates A and C is
where K' = a constant. combination of capacitance in parallel with a series
Hence current i is proportional to dQ / dt or the combination of two capacitances each of value C2,
angular velocity. where :
e0(//2-x)u7 location of the electrodes. A piezo-electric element

1 2d + l used for converting mechanical motion to electrical
signals may be thought as charge generator and a
. r _ £Q(l/2+x)w
3nd C>2 — capacitor. Mechanical deformation generates a charge
and this charge appears as a voltage across the
Capacitance between plates A and C is, electrodes. The voltage is E = QI C.
cAC =0^02 The piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive. A
tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity while a
2 Id + It/2 + tx
= enzr -------------------- compressive force produces a voltage of opposite
0 2d(2d + t)
polarity.
Similarly, capacitance between plates A and D, A piezo-electric crystal is shown in Fig. 25.121.
2 Id + It / 2 - tx
C
ÂD
2d(2d + t)
25.29 PIEZO-ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

A piezo-electric material is one in which an
electric potential appears across certain surfaces of a
crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by
the application of a mechanical force. This potential
is produced by the displacement of charges. The effect
is reversible, i.e., conversely, if a varying potential is
applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it will change
the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it.
This effect is known as piezo-electric effect. Elements
exhibiting piezo-electric qualities are called as electro-
resistive elements.
Common piezo-electric materials include Rochelle
salts, ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, lithium
sulphate, dipotassium tartrate, potassium dihydrogen
phosphate, quartz and ceramics A and B. Except for
quartz and ceramics A and B, the rest are man-made
crystals grown from aqueous solutions under carefully Fig. 25.121 (a) Piezo-electric crystal used for
controlled conditions. The ceramic materials are poly measurement offeree, (b) Axis numbering system for
the crystal.
crystalline in nature. They are, basically, made of
barium titanate. They do not have piezo-electric The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface
properties in their original state but these properties charges are proportional to the magnitude and direction
are produced by special polarizing treatment. of the applied force F. The polarity of induced charges
The materials that exhibit a significant and useful depends upon the direction of applied force.
piezoelectric effect are divided into two categories : Charge Q = dxF coulomb ...(25.130)
A Natural group and where d = charge sensitivity of the crystal;
A Synthetic group. C/N : (it is constant for a given crystal)
Quartz and Rochelle salt belong to natural group and F = applied force, N
while materials like lithium sulphate, ethylene
The force F causes a change in thickness of the
diamine tartrate belong to the synthetic group.
crystal.
The piezo-electric effect can be made to respond ' AE
to (or cause) mechanical deformations of the material F = —— At newton ...(25.131)
in many different modes. The modes can be : thickness n
where A = area of crystal; m
expansion, transverse expansion, thickness shear and
face shear. The mode of motion affected depends on t = thickness of crystal; m, and
the shape of the body relative to the crystal axis and E = Young's modulus N/m2
Young's modulus The values of crystal voltage sensitivity,

stress permittivity and charge sensitivity for barium titatate
strain At 11 and quartz are shown in Table 25.8.
= — N/m2 ...(25.132)
AAt Table 25.9 Properties of Barium Titanate
and Quartz
Area A = zul
where w = width of crystal : m, and Voltage Charge
Permittivity,
Material Sensitivity Sensitivity, d
I = length of crystal; in e F/ m
g Vm/N pC/N
.■. From Eqns. 25.130 and 25.131, we have, charge: Barium 12 xlO’3 12.5 x 10'9 150
titanate
Q = dA£(At/f) ...(25.133)
Quartz 50 x 10~3 40.6 x 10-12 2
The charge at the electrodes gives rise to an
output voltage EQ
Sometimes it is desired to express the output
Voltage E0 = Q/Cp ...(25.134) voltage or charge in terms of deflection rather than in
where Cp = capacitance between electrodes ; F terms of either stress or force. This is because it is
really the deformation that causes the charge
Capacitance between electrodes generation. Thus we must know the modulus of
Cp = £r&QA/t ...(25.135) elasticity of the material for this purpose. The values
From Eqns. 25.130, 25.134, 25.135, of modulus of elasticity are :
Barium titanate : 12 xlOloN/ m,
Quartz : 8.6 x 106 N / m2
But FI A = P = pressure or stress in N/M2 It has been stated earlier that the piezo-electric
d effect is direction sensitive. The main characteristics of
Eo=----- tP ...(25.137)
Sr£0
piezo-electric motion to voltage transducers can be
illustrated by considering only one common mode of
= gtP ...(25.138) deformation i.e., thickness expansion. For this mode
where g = d / £rEQ ...(25.139) the physical arrangement is shown in Fig. 25.121(a).
'g' is the voltage sensitivity of the crystal. This is Various double-subscripted physical constants are
constant for a given crystal cut. Its units are Vm/N. used to describe numerically the phenomena
En £„ 11 occurring. The convention is that first subscript refers
Now g= ...(25.140) to the direction of the electrical effect and the second
to that of the mechanical effect. The axis numbering
But Eq/ t = electric field strength, V/m
system is given in Fig. 25.121(F).
Let e = Eq / t = electric field The two main families of constants i.e., the ‘d’
electric field £ constants and 'g' constants are considered. For
g = — ---------- =- ...(25.141) barium titanate the commonly used constants are d^
stress P
and g33
Now EQ/t is the electric field intensity in the
crystal and P is the pressure or the applied stress to the field produced in direction 3
g,3 =------ £----------------------------
crystal. Therefore, crystal voltage sensitivity, g, can be stress applied in direction 3
defined as the ratio of electric field intensity to
pressure (or stress). Now EQ/t = e is the electric field = ...(25.143)
intensity in the crystal and P is the pressure or the
stress applied to the crystal. Therefore, crystal voltage Voltage output
sensitivity, g, can be defined as the ratio of the electric F
field intensity to pressure (or stress). The units of g are ~ &33x"7 x =&33 ...(25.144)
/l
Vm/N.
Thus if g is known for a particular material, the
From Eqn. 25.139, voltage output per unit stress can be calculated by
charge sensitivity d = er&0 g C/N ...(25.142) knowing the value of t.
In order to relate the applied force to the By cementing two crystals together so that their
generated charge, the d constants are used. One of the electrical axes are perpendicular, 'benders' or twisters
d constants can be defined as : can be produced (See Fig. 25.123). This means that a
d charge generated in direction 3 bending motion applied to a bender produces an
output voltage. Similarly, a twisting motion applied to
33 force applied in direction 3
a twister produces an output.
= ...(25.145)
Actually d33 can be calculated from g33 if the

relative permittivity of the material is known. From
Eqn. 25.139, we get
(<?) Crystal twister "bimorph"
^33 = er€0 $33 ...(25.146)
When dealing with quartz, subscripts 11 are used
because in quartz the thickness - expansion mode is
along the crystallographic axis conventionally called
axis 1. (b) Ceramic bender "bimorph" or "multimorph".
The piezo-electric transducer is cut from a larger
crystal in the direction of any of the electrical or
mechanical axes perpendicular to the optical or crystal
axis. The values of d and g are not necessarily the same
but are dependent upon the axis of cut.
(c) Crystal bender "bimorph".
25.29.1 Modes of Operation of Piezo-electric
Crystals Fig. 25.123 Curvature of "twister" and "bender"
piezo-electric transducers when voltage is applied.
The piezo-electric crystals are used in many
modes. These modes are : Piezo-electric crystals can be used in another
(?) Thickness shear, (zz) Face shear, mode for force measurement. A crystal controlled
electronic oscillator uses a thin plate of quartz. The
(zzz) Thickness expansion and
natural frequency of mechanical oscillation of the
(m) Transverse expansion. plate determines the frequency of electrical oscillation.
These modes are shown in Fig. 25.122.
25.29.2 Properties of Piezo-electric Crystals
The desirable properties of piezo-electric materials
are stability, high output insensitivity to temperature
and humidity and the ability to be formed into most
desirable shape.
Quartz is the most stable piezo-electric material.
However, its output is quite small. On the other hand,
Rochelle salt provides the highest output but it can be
worked over a limited humidity range and has to be
protected against moisture. The highest temperature
is limited to 45°C.
Barium titanate has the advantage that it can be
formed into a variety of shapes and sizes since it is
polycrystalline. It has also a higher dielectric constant.
Natural crystals possess the advantages that they have
higher mechanical and thermal stability, can
withstand higher stresses, have low leakage (their
volume resistivity is about 1016Q - m) and have a good
(c) Thickness expansion
frequency response. The synthetic materials, in
pig. 25.122 Modes of operation of piezo-electric crystals. general, have a higher voltage sensitivity.
Example 25.47 A quartz piezo-electric crystal having a Charge Q = dF

thickness of 2 mm and voltage sensitivity of0.055 V - m/ N = 150 x 10-12x 5 C = 750 pC
is subjected to a pressure of 1.5 MN/in. Calculate the
voltage output. If the permittivity of quartz is Capacitance
40.6 x 10 F / m, calculate its charge sensitivity. n Q 750 x IO"12 _ ___ c
C,, = f- =------—— F =250 pF
Solution. From Eqn. 25.138, voltage output
£o =8
* =0.055 x2x 10‘3x 106xl.5x 106
25.29.3 Equivalent Circuit of Piezo-electric
= 165 V Transducers
Charge sensitivity The basic equivalent circuit of a piezo-electric
d = e0 £r g (See Eqn. 25.139) transducer is shown in Fig. 25.124(a).
= 40.6 x 10“12 x 0.055 The source is a charge generator. The value of the
= 2.23 x 1CF12 C / N = 2.23 pC / N charge is Q = dF.
Example 25.48 A piezo-electric crystal having The charge generated is across the capacitance,
dimensions of 5mmx5mmxl.5mm and a voltage of the crystal and its leakage resistance Rp.
sensitivity of 0.055 V -m/ N is used for force measurement. The charge generator can be replaced by an
Calculate the force if the voltage developed is 100 V. equivalent voltage source having a voltage of
Solution. From Eqn. 25.138, the applied pressure is
E0 = “-=^ -(25.147)
P = A =______100_____ .N/m2
g t 0.055 x 1.5 x 10~3 p p
= 1.2 MN/m2 in series with a capacitance, Cp, and resistance, R?, as

shown in Fig. 25.124(b).
Force F = PA
= 12 x 106x 5x5x 10'6 =30N
Example 25.4g A barium titanate pickup has the
dimensions of 5 mm x 5 mm x 1.25 mm The force 5
acting on it is 5 N. The charge sensitivity of barium titanate S-
5
is 150 pC/N and its permittivity is 12.5 x 10~9 F / m. If O
the Modulus of elasticity of barium titanate is
12 x 106 N / m2, calculate the strain. Also calculate the
charge and the capacitance.
Solution. Area of plates Fig. 25.124 Equivalent circuits of
A = 5 x5 xlO-6 =25 x 10-6 m2 piezo-electric transducers.
Pressure P = 5/(25 x 10 6) N/m2
= 0.2 MN/m2 25.29.4 Loading Effects and Frequency
Response
Voltage sensitivity
Let the transducer be loaded by a capacitance CL
d 150 x 10~12
and a resistance RL. The capacitance CL is the
£0Er ~ 12.5 xlO"9
combination of the capacitance of the load, the capa
= 12 x 10’3 Vm/N citance of the cable and the stray capacitance. The
diagram showing the load connected to a piezo
Voltage generated
electric transducer is given in Fig. 25.125(a).
Eo=ZtP
The value of leakage resistance, R , of the crystal
= 12xl0'3 x 1.25 x 10~3 x0.2 xlO6 =3 V
is very large. It is of the order of 0.1 x 10 “ Q. The
Strain £ = At value of load resistance, RL, is considerably smaller
stress than RfJ, and hence the equivalent circuit of the
Young's modulus Piezo-electric crystal under load conditions is as
0.2 x 106 shown in Fig. 25.125(b) in which the leakage
= 0.0167.
12 xlO6 resistance, Rp, of the crystal has been dropped.
At medium and high frequencies :

o>2(Cp + RL)2RL2» 1
E C
-(25150)
Thus at medium and high frequencies, the

response is independent of frequency, but is
dependent upon CL i.e., the capacitance of load circuit.
In practice this transducer is nearly always coupled to
virtual Earth point of an amplifier which has a
feedback capacitor, this arrangement being known as
charge amplifier.
From Eqn. 25.148, it is clear that under steady
Fig. 25.125 Circuit of a Piezo-electric crystal under state conditions i.e., when co = 0, the transducer does
conditions of load, not provide any output. As far as the maximum
frequency limit is concerned, it is imposed by the
The voltage output of the transducer under no
mechanical resonance of the piezo-electric crystal and
load conditions, is therefore Eq. Under conditions of
load, impedance of load its associated mountings.
The piezo-electric transducers are mainly used for
Z = measurement of displacement. They can be used for
L 1+
measurement of force, pressure or acceleration. These
Total impedance of circuit quantities when measured with piezo-electric trans
Z =__ 1__ + rl
ducers are first converted into displacement and the
f j© Cp 1 + yco CL Rl displacement is subsequently applied to these trans
ducers to produce an output voltage. Hence the
_ 1 + ^RL(Cp + Cl) conversion of displacement into voltage by piezo
(A^y(l + 7kDCpRL) electric crystals is considered here.
For the purpose of analysis it is necessary to
Hence, the voltage across the load,
consider the transducer, the connecting cable and the
Zr
E,L = -ix
y EL amplifier as a unit. The impedance of the transducer is
very high and hence an amplifier with a high input
RL U(aCp)(1 + j(iiCpRL)
— ------------------------ —------------------- x ____________ —__________________ —_______ E

impedance has to be used in order to avoid loading
+ l + jwRL(Cp + CL) 0 errors.
Figure 25.126(a) shows the complete set-up for
1E measurement of displacement.
l + 7<o(Cf,+ CL)RLJ 0 Charge produced
*/ = Rq xi coulomb ...(25.151)
The magnitude of voltage across the load is :
where = sensitivity ; C/m,
______ 03 CP RL______ and Xj = displacement; m
...(25.148)
7l + <o2(C, + Ct)2RL2
Figure 25.126(b) shows the equivalent circuit of
the measurement set up.
rfE wC dF Rp = leakage resistance of transducer ; Q,
— i------ =— r = as En = —
Cp [^/(Cp + CJ2^2 c,
Cp = capacitance of transducer ; F
Cc = capacitance of cable ; F,
0) Rl
...(25.149) CA = capacitance of amplifier ; F
îT72(c;, + c,)2r7
Ra = resistance of amplifier ; Q
d (e,) d(x )
RC—El + e, = K R—-^
dt L q dt ...(25.155)
d(<q)^ F d(Xi)
dt L dt ...(25.156)
where K = sensitivity = Kcf / C V / m ...(25.157)
Taking Laplace transform, we get ;
(ts + 1) £l(s) = Kxs X((s)
Transfer function
Charge I k £l(s) Kxs
generator Qj Cp, — i—
CA=^ ra eL
X.(s) ~ 1+TS ...(25.158)
<?=V' । ”
£
Sinusoidal transfer function —(/co) = J® Rx
%i 1 + /cot
The amplitude ratio is :
Current
generator E.
'cr ——(»
KX. J
1
...(25.159)
x/'1 + (1/cdt)2
Fig. 25.126 Set-up of a piezo-electric transducer
and its equivalent circuit. The phase shift <j) = 7t/2 - tan"1 cot rad ...(25.160)
The charge generator is converted into a constant At high frequencies co »1 .'. A4 = land(f) = 0
current generator as shown in Fig. 25.126(c). The Hence high frequency sensitivity is :
capacitance connected across the current generator is
X = eL/xi ...(25.161)
C, where :
Thus the frequency response of piezo-electric
C = Cp + Cc + CA ...(25.152) transducers is the same as that of capacitive
RaRp transducers. This is shown in Fig. 25.125.
Resistance ...(25.153)
From Eqn. 25.159, we see that steady state
Ra + Rp
response piezo-electric transducers to a constant
Since the leakage resistance of transducer is very displacement x- is zero. Therefore, piezo-electric
large (of the order of 0.1 x 1012 Q) and therefore, transducer cannot be used for measurement of static
R~Ra displacements.
Converting the charge generator into a current
25.29.5 Impulse Response of Piezo-electric
generator
Crystals
dq ( d x\
i = -L = K\---- U ...(25.154) Let a displacement x- be applied to the transducer;
CR dt dt J
where x■ = A, 0<t<T
where iCR is the current of the constant current
generator. and xi = 0, T < t < oo
Now iCR = ic+iR The function is shown in Fig. 25.127(a).

Output voltage at load Therefore the charge is suddenly increased to K^ A
and the crystal voltage rises to eL AJC. Thus the initial
condition is e,E = Kq A / C at t =0+.
or ~7T=ACR~'^ From Eqns. 25.156 and 25.157, we have :
d(eL) jz
or Cd^ = 1CR~1R
t—— + e, = Kx d——
dt L dt
= K d{X‘} eL d^x^ ...(25.162)

11 dt R dt
25.29.6. Uses of Piezo-electric Materials

and Transducers
The uses of piezo-electric materials and
transducers are described below :
(i) The desirable properties expected out of a
piezo-electric material are, stability, high output,
insensitivity to temperature variations, insensitivity to
variations in humidity and also the ability to be
formed into a usable component. Undoubtedly the
most stable material is quartz. However, its output is
low. Rochelle salt, on the other hand provides, the
Fig. 25.127 Pulse response of piezo-electric highest output out of any of the piezo-electric
transducers. materials. But it requires protection from moisture and
hence cannot be used above a temperature of 45°C.
Solving the differential equation with initial
Because of its stability, quartz is commonly used
condition, we get,
for stabilizing electronic oscillators. The crystal is
eL = (Kq A/C)-[exp(-t/r)] ...(25.163) ground to proper shape and is connected in an
appropriate electronic circuit whose frequency is
For T < t < oo, the value of x. = 0 and hence the
differential equation is : controlled by it.
(ii) The use of piezo-electric transducer elements
T-^ + fL=O ...(25.164) is confined primarily to dynamic measurements. The
voltage developed by application of strain is not held
At t = T , Eqn. 25.163 still holds good and there under static conditions. Hence, the elements are
fore eL = (Kq A/ C) [exp (- 11 t)] primarily used in the measurement of such quantities
Value of eL at t = T is : as surface roughness and in accelerometers and
vibration pickups.
eL = (Kq A/C) exp (-T/t) ...(25.165) (iii) Ultrasonic generator elements also use barium
However, at t =T, x;- suddenly decreases by a titanate, a piezo-electric material. Such elements are
value A. This causes a sudden decrease in charge by an used in industrial cleansing apparatus and also in
amount Kq A resulting in a sudden change of eL by an underwater detection system known as sonar.
amount Kq A/C from its value at t = T~.
Example 25.30 A piezo-electric quartz crystal has an
Hence at t = T+, the value of eL is : area of 100 mm2 and is 1 mm thick. It is held between two
metal electrodes and is used for measurement of changes in
eL=(Kq A/C)[exp(-T/x)]-Kq A/C
force across the crystal. Young's modulus for the material is
= K A/C [exp (- T / t) -1] ...(25.166) 90 GN/m , the charge sensitivity is 2 pC/N, the relative
permittivity is 5.
This becomes the initial condition for Eqn. 25.163. p
The resistivity is 10 Cl m A 20 pF capacitance and a
The solution is :
resistance of 100 MCI are connected in parallel across the
K A electrodes. If a force Ft=0.01 sin 1000 t newton is applied,
eL =-^[exp(-T/T-l)]exp[-(f-T)/T] find
C
...(25.167) (a) peak to peak voltage swing across the electrodes
For T < t < oo under open circuit arid under load conditions and
(b) the maximum change in crystal thickness. [Fj is
Figure 25.127(b) shows the impulse response with the instantaneous value of force F]. The
three different time constants. In order to have faithful permittivity offree space is 8.85 pF/m.
reproduction of input displacement x-, the value of Solution. The rms value of voltage under open
time constant r should be large. If the decay and the circuit
under shoot is to be kept within say, 5 per cent of true r. dt F
£0 =------- x —
value, r should be at least 20 T.
ereo A (See Eqn. 25.136)
Maximum value of voltage under open circuit F t

At = rnax
AF
E = V2 x—
Oma* srE0 A 0.01 x 1 x 10-3
100 x 10-6x 90x 109
_ dt * ^max
= 1.1 x 10-12 m
ErE0 A
as maximum value of force Fmax = ^2F.
A,(peaktopeak) = 2 * 1-1 * 10~12 = 2.2 X 10-12 m
Example 25.51 In a piezo-electric transducer a flat
Hence, peak to peak value of voltage under open
frequency response within 5% is required. Find the value of
circuit:
minimum frequency in terms of time constant for which it
F —7 F -7 ^rnax
c0 (peak to peak) c0 max Z a can be used. If the time constant of the transducer is 1.5 ms,
erE0 n find the value of minimum frequency. Find the phase shift at
n 2 X 10-12 X 1X io-3 0.01 this frequency.
5 x 8.85 x IO-12 100 x 10-6 Solution. In order to obtain a flat response within
5%, the amplitude ratio should be :
= 9.03 xlO-3 V = 9.3 mV
M = 1-0.05 = 0.95
Leakage resistance of crystal
Now M= . = or 0.95
R= — = 1012x 1x10 \ = 10 x 1012 Q 71+(V COT)2
p A 100 xlO-6
= - —------- or cof = 3.04
Load resistance RL =100 MQ =100 x 106 Q 71 + (1/®t)2
Hence the resistance of the crystal is very large as .■. Minimum value of frequency
compared with resistance of load i.e., Rp » RL and
therefore we can neglect R . 3.04 3.04
(0=----- =------------- z-
t 1.5 xlO-3
Capacitance of crystal
= 2.02 x 103 rad/s.
£rE0A
P d Phase shift §=h/2 -tan-1 cot rad.
= 90° - tan-13.04 =90°-71.8° =18.2°
_ 5x8.85 xl0~12x 100 x!0~6
1X 10"3 Example 25.52 A piezo-electric transducer has a capaci
tance of1000 pF and a charge sensitivity of 40 x 10~3 CI m
= 4.43 x 10-12 F The connecting cable has a capacitance of 300 pF while the
The peak to peak output voltage under load oscilloscope used for readout has a readout input resistance
conditions is : ofl MFI with a parallel capacitance of 50 pF.
(a) What is the sensitivity (V/m) of the transducer
alone ?
Hl + o^Cp + Q)2^2 (b) What is the high frequency sensitivity (V/m) of
the entire measuring system ?
2 x2x 10-12x0.01 (c) What is the lowest frequency that can be
p —_________________________
0 (peaktopeak) 5 x g.85 x 10-12 X 100 X 10"6 measured with 5 per cent amplitude error by the
entire system ?
1000 X 4.43 X 1O~12X 100 X IQ6 (d) What is the value of an external shunt capaci
tance that can be connected in order to extend the
^1 +(1000)2 X (4.43 + 20)2 X (io-12) X (100 x 106)2
range of 5 pet cent error down to 10 Hz ?
= 1.58 mV (e) With external capacitance calculated in
This means that the output signal is attenuated to (d) connected in the circuit, what is the system
high frequency sensitivity ?
a great extent due to loading.
Solution, (a) Charge sensitivity of transducer
From Eqn. 25.132, the maximum value of change
in thickness is : =40xl0-3 C/m
Capacitance of transducer Find the response if the applied force is :

Cp = 100xl0-12 F F = 0.1 N for 0 <t <2 ms,
:. Sensitivity of transducer and F =0 N for 2 ms <t <00
K = ~ = 40-X-1Q3 =40xl06V/m. Find the value of voltage just before and just after the
impulse is terminated. Also find the voltage after 10 ms of
Cp 1000 xl0~12
application of the pulse.
(b) The total capacitance of the measuring circuit Solution. The leakage resistance of the transducer
C = CP + Cc+Cx is very large as compared with the resistance of the
measuring system R =1 MQ =106Q
= 1000+ 300+ 50 =1350 pF
The capacitance of the system
High frequency sensitivity of entire system
C= + Cc + C^
_Kg _ 40 x 1Q~3
= 2000 + 500 = 2500 pF
C ~1350xl0"12
Time constant of circuit
= 29.63 xlO6 V/m t= RC =106x 2500 x 10~12
(c) Time constant of system = 2.5 x 10-3 s = 2.5 ms
x= RC Voltage across the load
= 1 x 106x1350 x 10~12 s = 1.35 ms dF , ±, x
= —exp(-t/T)
The lowest frequency that can be used for 5
percent magnitude error is found as under : 100xl0“12 n. . in_3.
=------------- tv x 0.1 x exp(-f /2.5 x 10 )
2500 x 10'12
0.95 = l or cor = 3.04
71+(1/cot)2 = 4x 10 3exp(-400t) for 0<f<2ms
3.04 3 , At t = 2 ms,
or co =------------ - = 22.54 rad / s eL = 4 x 10-3exp(-400 x 2 x 10-3)
1.35xl0’3
=il.8 x 10-3 V =1.8 V
.’. Minimum frequency that can be used with 5%
error f = 22.54 / (2 7t) = 358.7 Hz This is voltage at just before t = 2 ms
(d) It is now required that a frequency of 10 Hz be The voltage output just after 2 ms :
measured with 5% error. eL =^[exP(-f/T)-1l
Time constant
100 X IO’12 X 0.1 f-2xlO-3T1
3.04 3.04 .ooo in_3
t =----- =---------- = 48.38 x 10 Js = ---------------------73— exp ----------- g-
co 27rxl0 2500 x 10-12 ^2.5x10“9J
Total capacitance = 4 xlO-3 x (0.55)

c = 48.38 x 10-3 F = 4g38F = -2.2xl0’3 V=-2.2 mV
lxio6
The voltage output beyond 2 ms is given by :
/. External capacitance required dF
eL =~^[exP(-T/T-l)][exp-(t-T)/T]
Ce = 48380 -1350 = 47030 pF
(e) High frequency sensitivity with external 100 x 10~12 x 0.1 F-2x10~3
=------------------- 75— exp ----------- - -1
capacitance 2500 x 10"12 L2-5 x 10
= -4-X1° V/m =827 kV/m exp[-(f-2 xl0~3)/10-3]
48380 x IO-12
= -2.2 x 10“3 exp [- 400 t -0.8]
Example 25.53 A piezo-electric transducer has a for 2 ms < t < 00.
capacitance of 2000 pF and a charge sensitivity of
100 x 10~12 C/N. The resistance of transducer is 106 MQ Voltage after 10 ms of application of pulse :
= -2.2 x 10~3 exp [- +00 x 10 x 10"3 -0.8]
and the impedance of the measuring system consists of a
capacitance of500 pF in parallel with a resistance ofl MQ. = -0.09 x 10-3 V = -0.09 mV
Example 25.54 A pulse is applied to a piezo-electric through the strip. When a transverse magnetic field
transducer for a time T. Prove that in order to keep the passes through the strip, an output voltage appears
undershoot to a value within 5%, the value of time constant across the output leads. This voltage is proportional to
should be approximately 20 T. the current and the field strength.
Solution. The value of voltage at t = T is given by : The output voltage is,
KA Eh = KHIB/t ...(25.168)
=-^-exp(-T/T)
V-m
where K,, = Hall effect coefficient; -------------- =■
The voltage reduces by a factor exp (-T/t)from H A-Wbm“2
its value at t =0. t - thickness of strip ; m,
For 5% undershoot, the value of voltage at t = T and I and B are respectively the current in ampere and
should be 0.95 of its initial value flux density in Wb/m2.
0.95= exp(-T/t) Thus the voltage produced may be used for
or T/t =0.0513 or t =19.5 T measurement of either the current / or the magnetic
field strength B.
Therefore in order to keep the undershoot to 5%
within its initial value t ~20 T. Typical values of Hall Effect Co-efficient of
different materials are given in Table 25.9.
25.30 HALL EFFECT TRANSDUCERS
The principle of Hall Effect Transducers has already Table 25.10 Hall Effect Co-efficients
been explained in chapter 7 on page 179. This is being I Tempe
Field strength v«m
Material rature
re-introduced for continuity. Wb/m2
I '• °C A-Wb-m2
The principle of working of a Hall Effect
Transducer is that if a strip of conducting material As 0.4 to 0.8 20 4.52 x 10’9
carries a current in the presence of a transverse I
: C 0.4 to 1.8 Room - 11.73 xlO-9
magnetic field as shown in Fig. 25.128, a difference of
Bi 0.113 20 -1x1 O’6
potential is produced between the opposite edges of
the conductor. The magnitude of the voltage depends Cu 0.8 to 2.2 20 -52xl0-12
upon the current, the strength of magnetic field and
Fe 1.7 22 l.lxlO-9
the property of the conductor called Hall Effect. The
Hall effect is present in metals and semiconductors in n-Ge 0.001 - 0.8 25 -8xl0“3
varying amounts, depending upon the densities and Si 2 23 4.1 x 10"6
mobilities of carriers. j
Sn 0.4 Room -2x1 O’12
1 Te 0.3 - 0.9 20 53xl0‘6
The Hall effect emf is very small in conductors

and is difficult to measure. But in some semicon
ductors, such as germanium, the emf produced is
sufficiently large to be measured by a sensitive
moving coil instrument.
25.30.1 Applications of Hall Effect Transducer

The following are some of the applications of the
Hall Effect Transducer.
1. Magnetic to Electric Transducer. The Hall
Effect Transducer can be used as a Magnetic to Electric
Fig. 25.128 Hall Effect Element.
transducer. A semiconductor plate is inserted into the
Let us consider Fig. 25.128, current is passed magnetic field to be measured. The magnetic lines of
through leads 1 and 2 of the strip. The output leads force are perpendicular to the semiconducting plate.
connected to edges 3 and 4 are at the same potential The transducer gives an output voltage which is
when there is no transverse magnetic field passing proportional to B, the magnetic field density. The
system has the advantage of requiring a very small conductor and sets up a magnetic field surrounding
space in the direction of the magnetic field and the conductor. This magnetic field is proportional to
therefore, the Hall element can be inserted in narrow the current. A Hall effect transducer is placed in a
gaps for magnetic measurements in air spaces. Also, slotted ferro-magnetic tube which acts as a magnetic
the element gives out a continuous electric signal in concentrator. The voltage produced at the output
direct response to the magnetic field strength. terminals is proportional to the magnetic field
Its disadvantages are a high sensitivity to tempe strength and hence is proportional to the current
rature variations and to the fact that the Hall flowing in the conductor. The system can be used for
co-efficient may vary from plate to plate, thereby measurement of currents from less than a mA to
necessitating individual calibration in each case. thousands of ampere. At high current levels, the
magnetic concentrator can be omitted since the
2. Measurement of Displacement. The Hall effect
magnetic field is fairly strong in the vicinity of the Hall
element can be used for the measurement of the
effect element and thus can cause appreciable output
location or displacement of a structural element i.e., it
voltages which can be easily detected.
can serve as an indirect acting position displacement
or proximity transducer in cases where a change of
geometry of a magnetic structure causes a change of Magnetic
magnetic field strength. An example is shown in
Fig. 25.129 which shows a ferro-magnetic structure
having a permanent magnet. The Hall effect trans
ducer is located-in the gap, adjacent to the permanent
magnet.' The field strength produced by the
permanent magnet in the gap, where the Hall effect
element is located, is varied by changing the position
of a ferro-magnetic plate. The voltage output of the
Hall effect transducer is proportional to the field Fig. 25.130 Measurement of current using
strength in the gap which is a function of the position Hall effect transducer.
of the ferromagnetic plate from the structure i.e., the 4. Measurement of Power. The method for
displacement. The method permits measurements of
measurement of power using a Hall effect transducer
displacement down to 0.025 mm.
has been explained in Art. 11.7 on page 365.
Example £5^55 A Hall effect transducer is^ used for the
measurement of a magnetic field of 0.5 Wb/m . The 2 mm
thick slab is made of Bismuth for which the Hall's co-efficient
is- 1 x 10~6 V ml (A- Wb m~2) and the current is 3 A.
Solution. From Eqn. 25.168, the output voltage is,
Eh = Kh IB/t
= -1x10"6x3x0.5/(2x10“3)
= - 0.75 x IO-3 V = -0.75 mV
25.31 MAGNETORESISTORS
The resistivity of some metals and semi
Fig. 25.129 Measurement of Displacement
conductors at low temperatures changes if exposed to
using Hall effect transducer.
a magnetic field. The effect is known as magneto
3. Measurement of Current. An interesting resistance. Magneto-resistive elements operate on the
application of Hall effect transducer is shown in law of electrodynamics which says that Lorentz forces
Fig. 25.130. The device serves to measure current in a act upon mobile charge carriers in a magnetic field,
conductor without the need for interrupting the circuit causing electrons to move in an indirect route,
and without making electrical connection between the thereby lengthening the current path and increasing
conductor circuit and the meter. (This is similar in the resistance of material. The amount of deflection of
action to the clamp on ammeter described on the electrons depends upon electron mobility. It is the
page 323.) A current (d.c. or a.c.) passes through the highest in a semiconductor such as indium antimonide
2
which has a mobility of 7.8 m /Vs as compared to meander and the number of loops. The film is
50xl04* m2/Vs for a metal. Magneto-resistors are insulated from the substrate, which may be made
made from indium antimonide or indium arsenide from a magnetic base coated with a thin insulating
which have a mobility of 2.4 m /Vs. film of a non-magnetic material, such as ceramic or
Magneto-resistors are sensitive to the total magnetic plastic.
field and not to its rate of change. Figure 25.131 shows The value of resistance depends on the direction
the magneto-resistive characteristics. HQ is the of the magnetic field, as indicated in Fig. 25.133. The
effective anistropy field in the material and is sum of maximum change in resistance occurs when the nickel
the demagnization anistropy field and the anisotropy antimonide crystals are parallel to each other and the
field of elemental deposition. With no field applied magnetic and electric fields are at right angles to each
the domain, magnetization is along elemental length other. The temperature response of the magneto
at 0. As the field increases the resistance increases, resistor depends on the material doping. Generally
resistance decreases with temperature and the drop in
resistance is greater after the application of the
magnetic field, so that the ratio of resistance in a
magnetic field to resistance without a field decreases
with temperature.
Fig. 25.131 Basic magneto-resistive characteristics.
until at' b the elements are rotated by 45° to the

elemental length. Any further increase in field leads to
saturation at C. The magneto-resistive element may be
operated at O, or at b by means of an external bias
magnet. Operation at b gives linear characteristics.
The magneto-resistive effect is increased as the Fig. 25.133 Effect of magnetic field direction on a
ratio of length (/) to width (w) of the material magnetoresistor : (a) and (b) field direction,
decreases. This is shown in Fig. 25.132. (c) resistance curve.
The magneto-resistive effect, in some metals, is
even noticeable at room temperatures, for example,
Bismuth. The resistivity of bismuth doubles when it is
exposed to a field of 1.5 x 106 A/m. Therefore, this
metal could be used for measurement of flux density.
The bismuth transducer consists of a thin wire
wound in a flat bipolar spiral 0.5 mm to 30 mm in
diameter cemented between two sheets of mica.
Figure 25.134 shows an arrangement of using a
bismuth transducer for measurement of flux density.
A bismuth conductor has the property of experiencing
a change in electrical resistance if the conductor is
Fig. 25.132 Magnetoresistive curves for placed in a transverse magnetic field. This effect has
different geometry devices.
been used by several experimenters. One or two
Magneto-resistors are built by depositing a film of bismuth spirals are placed in some sort of thin
about 25 pm of indium antimonide/nickel antimonide mounting that can be inserted in the magnetic field, as
into a 0.1 mm thick substrate. The film is in the form of for example, between armature and poles of a d.c.
a meander and the value of resistance at zero magnetic motor. The spiral can be made one arm of a
field can be varied by changing the dimensions of this Wheatstone bridge (or two spirals may be used in
opposite arms as shown in Fig. 25.134). By calibration This transducer produces an acceptable emf for
the resistance can be related to field strength. One the input to an instrumentation system and is capable
difficulty is a rather low sensitivity to weak fields. of measuring field strength of the order of 10-7 Wb/m2.
Another and more serious, trouble is the effect of More modern transducers use either indium
temperature on the resistance of bismuth, so that large antimonide or indium arsenide which are more
errors can result unless the temperature is carefully sensitive than either bismuth or mu-metal. The
controlled or the effect compensated. magneto-resistive effect is more marked in indium
antimonide but indium arsenide is usually used for
transducers because the room temperature resistivity
of indium arsenide is 100 times greater than that of
indium antimonide.
The change in resistance is proportional to square
of the flux density for small values but deviates from
this relationship for larger values of flux densities.
25.32 MAGNETO-ELASTIC AND

MAGNETO-STRICTIVE TRANSDUCERS
A change in mechanical stress of a ferromagnetic
material causes its permeability to change. This
Fig. 25.134 Use of bismuth spirals in conjunction phenomenon is known as the Villari effect or
with a Wheatstone bridge for measurement of magnetic.
magnetostriction and is particularly strong in Nickel
For a bismuth transducer, the percentage change Iron alloys. The permeability changes in response to
of resistance against flux density is linear except at dimensional changes, such as compression, tension or
lower end. In all cases the temperature co-efficient of torque. This magnetic-elastic effect can cause the
resistance can cause errors and measurements should induction of voltages and hence can be used in
be made at constant temperature with low currents to mechanic-electric transducers.
avoid self heating effects of the transducer. A transducer utilising the Villari effect basically
The range of values of flux density for which this consists of a coil wound on a core of magneto-strictive
transducer can be used is from 0.01 to 1.5 Wb/m2. material to which a force, causing a stress in the core,
Bismuth gives a linearity of ±1% above a critical is applied. The stress causes a change in the
lower value. permeability of the core and hence the inductance.
Mu-metal has the property of changing its The range of force over which this transducer can
impedance if placed in a transverse magnetic field-. be used depends upon the cross-sectional area of the
core as the stress in the core should not exceed
This property may be used to measure flux density
70 M/m . Individual calibration is necessary to
with a conventional a.c. bridge.
determine the accuracy of the device which has a poor
This method is shown in Fig. 25.135 who two linearity and is subject to hysteresis.
mu-metal wires are placed in the unknown magnetic
If a magneto-strictive material is subject to pure
field. The impedance of the wires is a function of the
torsion the permeability increases irrespective of
strength of magnetic field and is measured with an a.c.
direction (See Fig. 25.136). Pure tension alters the B-H
bridge.
curve of the material and decreases the permeability
[Fig. 25.136(F)]. By applying sufficient tension to the
wire the permeability torsion curve becomes similar to
a B- H loop, Fig. 25.136(c).
A practical torsion transducer using this principle
consists of a nickel wire, 0.5 mm in dia, stretched
between the poles of a magnet and having a small
stylus rigidly fixed to the mid point. Before attaching
the wire between the poles, the wire is twisted. This
results in additional torsional stress. Two pick-up coils
Fig. 25.135 Measurement of flux density with are connected in series are wound around the two
Mu-metal wires. halves of the wire.
a force and hence produces a stress in the laminated

core thereby changing its permeability. The change in
permeability produces a voltage in coil C surrounding
the core. Since, the force and consequently the stress
are proportional to the acceleration, that is force
F = Md2 x / dt2 = Mx
and since the voltage is proportional to dF/dt, the
output is proportional to third derivative of displace
ment (x) of the mass M.
Magnetostrictive Effect
When a ferromagnetic magnetic material is
subjected to changing magnetisation, its permeability
changes with change in magnetisation (on account of
non-linear B-H characteristics of material) thereby
causing a change in the dimensions of the material.
This effect is magnetostriction and is very much
pronounced in nickel iron alloys, although in these
materials, the change in dimensions with change in
magnetisation is quite small.
If a rod is premagnetised by a d.c. field produced
by a coil as shown in Fig. 25.138 and an a.c. field
produced by another coil C2 is superposed, it will
Fig. 25.136 (a) Effect of pure torsion on the
permeability of nickel, (b) Effect of pure tension on the
B-H curve of nickel, (c) Effect of torsion and simultaneous
strong tension on the permeability of nickel.
As the displacement of stylus increases the stress

on one side of the torsion wire and decreases it by an
equal amount on the other half. This produces an
increase of flux in one half and a decrease in other half.
These changes in the magnetic flux produce voltages
in the two pick up coils as the movement takes place.
The resultant voltage is a function of the stress
applied. The frequency response of these transducers
is flat over a range of 150 Hz to 15 kHz.
Figure 25.137 illustrates the functioning of a magneto
elastic accelerometer. Acceleration of the mass M causes
Acceleration
Fig. 25.138 Magneto-strictive transducer for

generation of ultrasound.
periodically change the length of rod on account of

change in magnetization. The effect will be maximum
at resonance i.e., if the frequency coincides with the
lengthwise oscillation frequency of the rod. This
Fig. 25.137 Schematic diagram of frequency is in general, at the high end of the audio
Magneto-elastic transducer. frequency range or in the ultrasonic range.
Arrangements of the type shown in Fig. 25.138 assuming R is small in comparison with R y, is R since
can be used as powerful generators for ultrasonic junction R and Ry is a virtual earth. The voltage gain
oscillations which may cause effects like : is R/R.
(i) cavitation in liquids The voltage output of this transducer is quite low
(n) breaking up of particles such bacterial cells and amplification is needed before it could be used.
and An operational amplifier can be used with the circuit
shown in Fig. 25.140. The illumination level at which
(ni) formation of stable emulsions of oil and
the circuit switches is controlled by the bias
water or even mercury and water. The same
potentiometer.
system can also be used as a tuned magneto
elastic transmitter for ultrasound. +12 V
25.33 OPTO-ELECTRONIC TRANSDUCERS

The opto-electronic transducers include photo
voltaic cell, semiconductor photodiode and photo
transistors. These transducers have already been
explained in Chapter 19. However, some additional
information is being given here.
25.33.1 Photo-voltalic cell

The "photo-voltaic cell", or "solar cell" as it is Fig. 25.140 Circuit for control of switching
sometimes called, produces an electrical current when with a bias potentiometer.
connected to a load. Both silicon (Si) and selenium
types are used. An alternative trigger circuit to switch when the
Photo-voltaic cells may be used in a number of light exceeds a certain value is shown in Fig. 25.141.
applications. Multiple-unit silicon voltaic devices may This circuit uses an operational amplifier.
be used for sensing light as a means of reading
punched cards in the data processing industry.
Gold-doped germanium cells with controlled spectral
responses act as photovoltaic devices in the infra-red
region of the spectrum and may be used as infra-red
detectors.
Applications of Photo-voltaic cell

The characteristics of a photo-voltaic cell are logari
thmic in nature as shown in Fig. 19.29 on page 588.
A logarithmic characteristic may have useful
application in practice. When the transducer is remote
from the amplifier, any noise picked up or the con Fig. 25.141 Trigger circuit used for switching when
necting leads may be attenuated by using the high illumination exceeds a predetermined
CMRR (common-mode rejection ratio) of the ampli level.
fier as shown in Fig. 25.139. The input impedance The high input impedance presents a high load to
the transducer. Positive feedback is used and the
voltage at non-inverting input is set by the potential
divider Rj and R2. The voltage of the photovoltaic cell
must exceed VR2 /(RT + R2) to trigger the circuit.
Such a circuit may be used in a punched card or
punched tape reader to sense the pattern of holes in
the cards/tapes. The size of the transducer may be an
advantage if the holes are closely spaced.
The extension of the above method may be used
Fig. 25.139 Amplifier having a high value of CMRR. to add the outputs of several photocells together. Such
Fig. 25.142 Array of Photo-voltaic cells to

determine the width of material passing.
an application may occur while measuring the width 25.33.2 Photoconductive Cell
of a material passing over rollers if the mean position Another Photo-electric effect that has proved very
of the materials is subject to variations. Two rows of useful is the photo-conductive effect, which is used in
photo-voltaic cells are arranged so that both edges of photo-conductive cells or photo-cells. In this type of
material partially obscure (cut off) a row. The total device, the electrical resistance of the material varies
output is summed to give an output proportional to with the amount of light energy striking it.
the width of the material. This is shown in Fig. 25.142. A typical control circuit utilizing a photo
The accuracy and resolution is determined by the conductive cell is illustrated in Fig. 25.143. The
physical size of transducers, which should be small to potentiometer is used to make adjustments to
obtain good results. compensate for manufacturing tolerances in photocell
sensitivity and relay operating sensitivity. When the
The off-set control is adjusted to give zero output
photo-cell has the appropriate light incident upon it,
voltage with the transducers in the dark. The gain of
its resistance is low and the current through the relay
the amplifier is adjusted by varying the value of
is consequently high to operate the relay. When the
feedback resistor so that a full scale voltage of 10 V
light is interrupted or shut off partially or completely,
is obtained with all the transducers moderately
the resistance of the photocell increases thereby
illuminated (of course equally). reducing the current through the relay. The current
Such an array of transducers can be especially may drop down to a level where it will not be able to
manufactured, sometimes on a single chip of a semi operate the relay thereby de-energizing the relay.
conducting material. They have excellent thermal
tracking between individual cells, closely matched
outputs and accurate pitching dimensions. They can
be encapsulated in special mounts to suit the
specifications of the customers.
The other areas of applications of photovoltaic cell
which have been described earlier are their use
(i) in photographic exposure meters and
(ii) in space crafts to supply electric energy.
They are also being increasing used as an To controlled
unconventional source of electric power in remote circuit
areas. Fig. 25.143 Photocell and Relay control circuit.
Example 25.56 The relay of Fig. 25.144(a) is to be Applications of Photo-Conductive Cells

controlled by a photo-conductive cell. The characteristics of The low resistance of photo-conductive cells
the photo-conductive cell are shown in Fig. 25.144(b). The when they are exposed to light means that they can
circuit delivers 10 mA at a 30 V setting when the cell is and are, designed to carry moderate currents, such as
illuminated with about 400 lm/ni2. The circuit becomes are capable of operating a relay coil (See Example
deenergised when the cell is dark. Calculate (a) the required 25.56) directly without any amplification. They can be
series resistance and (b) The dark current. designed to operate upon low voltages and are thus
used in industrial control equipments. For example,
they can be used
(/) for counting packages moving on a conveyor
b«jdt
(ii) in burglar alarm circuits, wherein the
interception of light actuates an alarm
circuit. Actually, in the latter application a
device would be used which is sensitive in
the infra-red region, so that the burglar
would not see the beam of light.
Fig. 25.144 (a) Relay control by a Photo-conductive cell. Another application makes use of their light
dependant resistance property. If a photo-conductive
cell is inserted as a component in another circuit, light
can be made to control a parameter of that circuit. To
cite a few examples, the insertion of a photo-
conductive cell may alter the bias of a transistor or
change the gain of an amplifier. Such circuits are used
in automatic brightness compensation of T.V- receivers,
so that when the room light is switched on, the
brightness of the screen is automatically adjusted. The
volume of an audio amplifier can be controlled by
light-this is particularly useful if several channels
have to be controlled together. The device may also be
used as a light controlled switch.
Figure 25.145 shows a light measuring circuit
consisting of a balanced bridge for measurement of
light alternation at Photo-conductive cell R2- This is a
form of a differential circuit. The two photo-
Fig. 25.144 (b) Photocell illumination characteristics. conductive cells are similar and they keep the bridge
under conditions of balance whatever may be the
Solution, (a) Referring to Fig. 25.144(F), the environmental conditions. This reduces the effects of
resistance of cell corresponding to an illumination power supply variations, light history and tempe
level of 400 lm/m2 «1 kQ. rature drifts of photo-conductive cells and the
Hence from Fig. 25.144(a), External resistance variations of light emitted by the lamp, as both halves
of the bridge experience similar effects and the bridge
R2 = (30/10 x ICT3) - 1000 remains balanced in case initially R1R4 = R2R3.
= 2,000 Q =2 kQ If a transluscent object is inserted in the path of
light falling on photo-conductive cell R2, the light to it
(b) By extrapolating the resistance versus is partially cut off i.e., light is attenuated. This changes
illumination curve [Fig. 25.144 (F)], dark resistance the resistance of photo-conductive cell R2, thereby
corresponds to 100 kQ. rendering the bridge unbalanced. The output voltage
30 of the bridge, on account of the unbalance is amplified
Dark current =----- -5———~3 and measured with the help of an appropriate
2 x 103 + 100 x 10
detector. The output of the detector is a measure of the
« 0.3 mA. light attenuation.
2
light falling on R2 is now attenuated to 100 lm/m and
therefore its resistance increases to 2 ktl. The intensity of
light falling on R4 remains the same. Find the output
voltage of the bridge.
Solution. Initially each of the four resistances
forming the bridge is 1 kQ each with the result that the
bridge is balanced and its output voltage is zero.
When the light falling on cell R2 is attenuated, its
resistance increases to 2 kQ, with the other three
resistances remaining 1 kH each and the bridge
becomes unbalanced and an output voltage appears
across terminals b and d. This voltage is the open
circuit voltage, between terminals b and d since the
detector has an infinite impedance. This voltage can be
found by redrawing the bridge circuit as shown in
Fig. 25.147.
msumms
Fig. 25.145 Measurement of Light Attenuation.
Fig. 25.147 Diagram of Example 25.57.
Example 25.57 The bridge circuit of Fig. 25.146 is Potential of point
used for measurement of attenuation of light. R1 and R3 are 10 1
b = 10----- —,-xl03=5 V
resistors having a value of 1 kQ each. R2 and R4 are two 103 +103
photo-conductive cells whose values of resistance depend
upon the light incident upon them. The bridge input voltage Potential of point
is 10 V d.c. and the output of the bridge is measured with a d = 10--------- T x 2 x 103
detector which can be considered to have an infinite input 2 x 103 +103
impedance.
= 3.33 V
.’. Output voltage of the bridge when the light
falling on cell R2 is attenuated is
Ehd =5-3.33=1.67 V
25.33.3 Semi-conductor Photo-diode

A reverse biased semi-conductor diode passes
only a small leakage current (a fraction of 1 pA in
typical silicon diodes) if the junction is not exposed to
light. Under illumination, however, the current rises
almost in direct proportion to the light intensity. Thus,
the photodiode can be used in applications similar to
those in a photo-conductive cell.
When the device operates with a reverse voltage
applied, it functions as a photo-conductive device.
Initially the intensity of light incident on both R2 and When operating without the reverse voltage, it
R4 is 400 lm/m2 with the result both R? and R4 have a functions as a photo-voltaic device. It is also possible
resistance value ofl k£l each [Refer to Fig. 25.144(b)]. The to arrange for a photodiode to change from
photo-conductive mode to photo-voltaic mode. Plot point A on Fig. 25.148 at

However, the photodiode has very important lD=0 and Vd=-0.5V
advantages over the photo-conductive cell. These
where ID = current through diode.
advantages are its response, time is much faster, so
that it may be used in applications in which light When Vn=0, Vr.=Es,
fluctuations occur at high frequencies. / '41= A? =-2.5 mA
The photo-conductive cell is useful only at very D Rt 200
low frequencies.
Plot point B at ID = - 2.5 mA and VD = 0- Praw the
Figure 25.148 shows the symbol and typical load line through A and B. From the load line, we get
illumination characteristics for a silicon photodiode.
At 1500 lm/m2: ID =-0.2 mA Vp=-Q.45V
At 10,000 lm/m2 : ID =-1.9 mA VD=-0.12V
At 20,000 lm/m2 : ID =-3.6 mA VD =0.22 V-
Note that the polarity of VD changes from -ve tq

+ ve at the highest level of illumination.
Applications of Photodiodes
It is important to realize that the photodiode and
photo-voltaic cell are similar types of devices
operating on the same principle.
In the case of photodiodes, a way of reducing the
capacitance of the device and hence its time constant
(t = RC), a special device called PIN Photodiode may be
used. An I or intrinsic layer is introduced between P
and N ends. This effectively increases the width of
depletion layer thus reducing the capacitance. Thus
faster response and low noise are obtained-
Typical values for a photodiode are :
Reverse • Forward
voltage voltage Junction capacitance =10 pF,
mimhbmm
Fig. 25.148 The symbol and typical illumination Reverse resistance = 50 MQ and
characteristics for the silicon photodiode. Forward resistance = 100 Q
Example 25.58 A photodiode with illumination The following circuit (Fig. 25.150) is used for the
characteristics is shown in Fig. 25.148. It is connected in photodiode.
series with a 200 Q resistance and a 0.5 V supply. The
supply polarity is reverse biases the device. Draw the d.c.
load line for the circuit and determine diode currents and
voltages at 1500, 10,000 and 20,000 lm/m illumination.
Solution. A circuit is shown in Fig. 25.149 when
=0, = IpRj =0,
Fig. 25.150 High quality light meter.
This circuit used is becoming more popular as

integrated circuit operational amplifiers come down
in price. It has the disadvantage of requiring a dual
power supply but has a linear output voltage capable
of driving the meter directly. Thus it is used in high
quality light meters for photometry and studio
Fig. 25.149 Photodiode with load resistance. photographic work. Some of the applications of
photo-voltaic cell can be applied to a photodiode. 25.33.4 Phototransistors

Because of their fast response time, photodiodes are The sensitivity of a photodiode can be increased
used in film sound track readers. The sound track is by as large a factor 100 by addition of a junction which
printed on the film as a variable area. As it moves makes it a N-P-N device i.e., a photo-transistor. A
through the protector, it is examined through a fine simple representation of the construction is shown in
(<0.1 mm slit) and the light falling on the photodiode Fig. 25.153, which also shows the circuit represen
is varied. The highest mode that can be reproduced is tation of a photo-transistor.
thus dependant upon the response of the photodiode
as well as the film speed; the width of slit and the
definition of photographic emulsion. This is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 25.151.
Fig. 25.153 Photo-transistor and its circuit

representation.
Illumination of the central region causes the

release of electron hole pairs here. This lowers the
barrier potential across both junctions, causing an
increase in the flow of electrons from left hand region
into the central region and on to the right hand region.
For a given amount of illumination on a very
Fig. 25.151 Sound track reader. small area, the photo-transistor provides a much larger
output current than that is available from a
Photodiodes can be used as detectors of photodiode and therefore photo-transistor is much
modulated light in optical communication systems. more sensitive than a photodiode. The typical charac
The photodiodes can be used in switching circuits teristics of a photo-transistor are shown in Fig. 25.154.
as they have a fast response time. A switching circuit
using a photodiode is shown in Fig. 25.152. The
transistor is normally 'ON' due to the bias resistor.
When the photodiode is illuminated, the base current
is reduced turning the transistor 'OFF'.
Fig. 5.154 The circuit symbol and output

Fig. 25.152 A switching circuit using a photodiode. characteristics for the phototransistor.
Example 25-59 A photo-transistor of circuit shown in Another use of the base terminal is at extremely
fig. 25.155 (a) with characteristics shown in Fig. 25.155 (b) low light levels. Here the dark current is important
has a supply voltage of 20 Vand a collector load resistance of and can be reduced by connecting a high resistance
2 kQ- Determine the output voltage when the illumination between base and emitter. The resistance acts as a
level is : by-pass and greatly reduces the dark current through
2 2
(a) Zero (b) 200 W/m and (c) 400 W/m . the photo-transistor.
Although a meter in the collector circuit will
indicate illumination, the circuit is sensitive to
variations. If another transistor is used to amplify the
transducer current, feedback is available across the
emitter resistor for stabilising the gain of the
photo-transistor. This produces a good quality linear
light meter which may be calibrated against a
standard source or by comparison with a lux meter.
The circuit is shown in Fig. 25.156.
Fig. 25.155 The phototransistor circuit and d.c.

load line of Example 25.59.
Solution. The circuit and load line are shown in

Fig. 25.155. The load line for a 2 kfl resistance is drawn
with the following considerations :
When Ic = 0, VCE =20 V (Point A)
When Ic -10 mA, Fig. 25.156 Linear Light Meter.
VCE = 20-10 x 10~3 x 2 xlO3 2. Operation of Relay. A device for further
= 0 V (Point B) increasing the sensitivity is the photo-Darlington
transistor, shown diagrammatically in Fig. 25.157.
From the intersection of the load line and the
Here the photo-transistor has a second transistor
characteristics of photo-transistor, we obtain :
connected as a Darlington pair in the same case. The
(fl) For zero illumination, output voltage =20 V
2
(b) At an illumination level of 200 W/m , output
voltage = 12.5 V
2
(c) At an illumination level of 400 W/m , output
voltage = 4 V
Applications of Photo-Transistors
1. Linear Light Meter. As in normal use the
effective base current is supplied by the incoming
illumination, no connection is usually made to the
base terminal. In some applications it is necessary to
forward bias the transistor to the centre of its
operating characteristic by a d.c. voltage applied to the
base terminal. Thermal stabilisation techniques may
be employed, or an electrical threshold control is
possible. Fig. 25.157 Application of a photo-Darlington transistor.
two transistors can be matched and the photo-current

is multiplied by the combined of both transistors.
This gives enough current to operate a larger relay
directly as shown in the diagram.
It should be evident that although it has
disadvantages for analog work, the photo-transistor
will make an excellent switching device for digital
applications. Here load resistance is not so much a
consideration as we are only concerned whether the
transistor is 'on' or 'off'.
3. Modulated Light. If the light directed on the Fig. 25.159 Use of photo-transistor with logic.
photo-transistor is coded and the circuit of Fig. 25.158
responds only to that code, stray light can be ignored. 4; Use in Shaft Encoders^ Photo-transistors are
In practice an oscillator operating at a few kilo-hertz used in shaft encoders which translate angular
drives a light-emitting diode. The photo-transistor is position into a digital code. This is done by shining
followed by a tuned amplifier such that it responds lamps through a coded perspex disc on to photo
only to the frequency of operation. Stray light thus transistors. The Gray code is normally used which is
produces no output. If the beam is interrupted all then translated into binary code by a logic network
output ceases and the appropriate safety device can be and used as the input to a digital control system.
operated.
5. Use as Switching Devices for Digital Circuits.
It is evident that photo-transistors have disadvantages
as regards analog circuits, but they can be used as
excellent switching devices for digital applications. In
these applications, the load resistance is not of much
consequence as we are concerned only to know
whether the transistor is "ON" or "OFF". They are
useful in these applications because they have small
rise and fall times. Photo-transistors can be used in a
wide range of applications which include,
Fig. 25.158 Use of modulated light.
(z) computer punch card/tape readers
Modulated light is also used in communication
(zz) counting of objects
systems, for example, to transmit speech down a light
beam. Such a system has the advantages of secrecy (zzz) digital machine control
and freedom from interference but the transmitter and (iv) digital process control
receiver must be in line of sight and the range is (v) pattern recognition
limited to a few hundred metres.
Photo-transistors can also be used with logic
25.34 DIGITAL ENCODING TRANSDUCERS
circuits, either via an amplifier or trigger circuit, or
directly with TTL logic gates as shown in Fig. 25.159. The transducers often communicate with digital
These are used in tape readers for computers. Another computers and therefore transducers which have a
application is to sense an object between the doors of digital output are preferable as they are convenient to
an automatic lift and this information is entered into use since they can be directly interfaced with a digital
the logic circuits controlling the lift together with computer. However, few transducers exist which can
information about the position of the lift and which provide a direct digital output. In most of the situations
button is pressed. in measurement systems, we come across transducers
With the circuit shown, a controlled amount of which provide only an analog output. Therefore, with
hysteresis in the trigger circuit is provided by the such transducers we have to use an analog to digital
resistor R. Two gates are necessary to achieve the (A/D) converters to realize the digital data which
correct phase relationship. could be handled by digital computers.
Digital transducers are called Encoders. They are

I
available but they are normally in the form of linear or Tachometer encoder
rotary displacement transducers.
Digital encoding transducers, or Digitisers, Displacement
(rotary or translational)
enable a linear or rotary displacement to be directly
converted into digital form without intermediate
forms of analog to digital (A/D) conversion. Such Incremental encoder
3
digitisers may be known as digital encoders or linear
digitisers, or for rotary applications, shaft digitisers
or shaft encoders.
A digitiser is perhaps the most elementary form of nnnnnnnnnnn
Once per revolution pulse
analog to digital (A/D) converter because it converts a
continuous displacement an analog quantity to be
defined incrementally in some binary or decimal code.
There are several techniques used for achieving this
conversion, each with its own advantages and
limitations, which include cost, simplicity of
4-bit binary coded abs. encoder
associated circuitry and reliability etc.
25.35 CLASSIFICATION OF ENCODERS

The Digital Displacement transducers can be
classified into three major categories :
A tachometer transducers
A incremental transducers
A absolute transducers.
25.35.1 Tachometer Encoders

A tachometer encoder has only a single output signal
which consists of a pulse for each increment of displac
ement. This is shown in Fig. 25.160. If the motion were One revolution
always in one direction, a digital counter could
accumulate these pulses to determine the displacement Fig. 25.160 Classification of Encoders.
from a known starting point. However, any motion in
the opposite direction, would also produce identical An incremental encoder has the advantage of being
pulses, which would produce errors. Therefore, this able to rotate through as many revolutions as the
digital transducer, is usually used for measurement of application requires. However, any false pulses
speed, rather than for displacement, and in situations resulting from electric noise will cause errors that
where the rotation never reverses. persist even when the noise disappears. The failure of
system power also causes total information about the
25.35.2 Incremental Encoders position data which cannot be retrieved even after
The problems caused by reverse motion in the re-application of power.
case tachometer encoder are solved by using air
25.35.3 Absolute Encoders
incremental encoder. The incremental encoder uses at
least two (and sometimes a third) signal generating These are generally limited to measurement of a
elements. The two tracks (the tachometer encoder uses single revolution. They use multiple tracks and
only one track), in the case incremental encoder are outputs, which are read out in parallel to produce a
mechanically shifted by | cycle relative to each other. binary representation of the angular shaft input
This allows detection of motion which signal rises position. Since, there is a one-to-one correspondence
first. Thus an up down pulse counter can be used to between binary output, position data are recovered
subtract pulses whenever the motion reverses. A third when power is restorted after an outage. The transient
output, which produces one pulse per revolution at a electric noise causes only transient measurement
distinct point, is sometimes provided for zero reference. errors.
25.36 CONSTRUCTION OF ENCODERS While the code pattern of Fig. 25.161 is most
Encoders of all three types mentioned above, can convenient for explaining how motion is represented
be constructed as in the familiar natural binary system, many
commercial encoders use a different code patterns
A Contacting type and
such as Gray code in order to avoid errors resulting
A Non-contacting type. from small misalignments which occur in practical
25.36.1 Contacting or Brush Type applications. For example (Fig. 25.162), at the
(Resistive Encoders) midpoint of binary scale, if the shaded area of 2 bit
were displaced slightly to the left, instead of going
The shaded areas are made of conducting
material and the unshaded areas are made of MSB = Most significant bit
non-conducting materials. Brushes are placed on the
transducer which act as sliding contacts. The circuit of
sliding contacts, which come in contact with
conducting areas are completed and the circuits of
others which make contacts with insulated area are
not completed. Thus the encoder gives out a digital
read out which is an indication of position and hence
the encoder determines the displacement.
In Fig. 25.161, the read-out lamps are only shown
for an explanatory function. The voltages on the four
lamps-lines could be sent to a digital computer Fig. 25.162 Linear displacement transducers using
Natural binary and Gray codes.
directly. If a visual read-out were desired, these four
voltages would be applied to a binary-to-decimal from 0111(7) to 1000(8), the count would go from
conversion module and then read out decimally on a 0111(7) to 0011(3). The Gray code shown in the same
display. diagram does not suffer from this problem since only
one bit changes at each transition in the case of Gray
code. Since the Gray code output may not be
compatible with the read-out device, conversion from
Gray code to natural binary system (or vice versa) may
be necessary. This is accomplished by using standard
logic gates as shown in Fig. 25.163.
Gray code is used for overcoming the inherent
disadvantages of a natural binary code. In a natural
binary code, a change of decimal number by one may
result in a change of number of bits. In the example
quoted above, the transition from natural number to 7
to 8, would need a change in all four bits as number 7
is represented by 0111 and number 8 by 1000. Thus, an
error of one bit in a large digital number, in practice,
will result in large error when the binary number is
converted to decimal number. In the case of digital
transducers, an increment of this order, would result
in large errors when the result is reflected back into
the decimal system.
In case of Gray code, in which case the change in
one value to the next is by one bit only. For example,
the change in value from 7 to 8 (in decimal system) is
0100 (corresponding to 7) to 1100 (corresponding to a
value of 8). Thus there is a change in one bit only.
Therefore, the use of Gray system greatly reduces the
Fig. 25.161 Translational Encoder. errors.
<850 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
25.36.2 Optical Displacement Transducers

Optical transducers follow the following two
types of principles for their operation :
(?) they consist of a system of coded tracks
consisting of transparent and opaque sections
and associated lamps and photocells to
detect the corresponding switching sequence,
(iz) they rely on the use of Moire's fringe
techniques, capable of much higher
resolution when used for incremental
measurement.
A sector (Fig. 25.164) may be designed with a
MSB
pattern of opaque and translucent areas. A
photo-electric sensor and a light source is placed on
the two sides of the sector. The displacement is
applied to the sector and therefore changes the
amount of light falling on the photo-electric sensor.
The pattern of illuminated sensor then carries the
information as to the location of the sector.
Figure 25.164 shows a possible sector of pattern of
opaque and translucent areas. The number of levels in
the encoder determines the accuracy with which
LSB device operates.
Gray/Binary code convertions
using Exclusive OR gates
Fig. 25.163 Natural and Gray binary codes.
Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of this type of encoder are :
(/) It is relatively inexpensive.
(n) It can be made to any degree of desired
accuracy provided that the sector is made Fig. 25.164 Pattern of translucent and opaque
sectors used in optical encoders.
large enough to accommodate the required
number of rows for binary numbers, and are Moire Fringe Method
quite adequate for slowly moving systems.
The application of moire fringes has become
The disadvantages are : increasingly popular in recent years as a means of
(z) The major problem with the use of these obtaining the very high degree of resolution required
encoders is on account of wear of contactors for positioning machine tool cross-slides. Certain
and maintenance of the contacts. systems rely on a coarse/fme solution in which a
(zz) There is often an ambiguity of one digit in conventional coded pattern is used for approximate
the least significant binary digit. positioning and a moire fringe incremental encoder
and associated integrating counter for deriving fine
The resolution of digital transducers depends positioning information. The latter encoder may be
upon the number of digits comprising the binary either rotary or linear.
number. The resolution is 1/2" of full scale where n is
The Moire Fringe Method is an optical method of
the number of digits.
amplifying displacement and uses two identical
The range is up to several metres with an accuracy gratings. The gratings consist of a number of slits on
of 1 part in 20,000 of full scale. The accuracy obviously an opaque screen, the slits being transparent. The
depends on the accuracy with which the scale is pitch of the gratings is quite small, and may be
drawn. between 0.005 mm to 0.05 mm.
Figure 25.165 shows two gratings of the same The essential element of a moire fringe measuring
pitch, mounted face-to-face, with the ruling inclined at system, be it linear or rotary, is a length of transparent
angle G to each other. As shown in figure, a set of dark material engraved transversely or in the case of a
bands, called Moire fringes, is obtained, with fringe rotary transducer, radially with a precisely known
spacing very large as compared to pitch of the grating. number of lines per unit length or angle rotation.
When two similarly engraved sections are super
imposed at a slight angle, a beam of light projected
through the twin layer produces a dark area; caused
by the angular intersection of the individual lines.
Travel of one section in the direction of its long
axis produces a movement of this dark area (fringe) at
right angles to the movement; travel in the opposite
direction produces a reversal of the fringe movement.
One complete movement of the fringe across the
field represents a distance of one line division, thus a
Fig. 25.165 Moire Fringes. very small movement is translated into an easily
readable quantity resulting in a very accurate system
A movement of the grating in a direction perpen
for measurement-particularly when the engravings
dicular to the gratings would move the fringes in a
are finely spaced. Linear resolutions of 2.5 pm to an
direction perpendicular to the fringes by a larger
accuracy of ±1.2 pm in 250 mm travel are obtainable.
amount. The movement of the fringes can be
Defects due to possible minor local blemishes are
measured and from the same, movement of the
grating can be calculated or alternatively, the number integrated out because the fringe signal is derived
of fringes passing a given point can be counted, using from the interference pattern of a considerable
a photo-electric transducer. This method of number of lines. The use of Moire fringe technique
displacement measurement is used for measuring the reproduces a typical fringe pattern and resulting
movement of work in machine tools with an accuracy waveforms on the outputs of four photo-cells evenly
of ± 0.001 percent over a large range. spaced across the track is shown in Fig. 25.166.
Direction of travel -------------------------- ►
1/4 line
travel
1/4 line
travel
3/4 line
travel
Fig. 25.166 Moire fringe measuring technique.

A simple form of rotary encoder based on moire recirculating ball type of lead screw has offered one
fringes is illustrated schematically in Fig. 25.167. It practical solution to this problem however, and
comprises a drum, lamp, collimating lens, prism and marked a major step forward in pursuit of the 2.5 pm
photocell assembly. The drum consists of a metal strip goal of machine tool users. The linear type of Moire
0.05 mm thick and photo-etched to leave webs fringe digitiser possesses the advantage that it can be
comprising the grating, and formed as the periphery used to measure incremental motion directly but
between two end cheeks. Up to 500 lines may be tends to require engineering specifically to fit a
obtained for a drum size up to 75 mm diameter. In particular application.
operation the light from the lamp is collimated by the
lens and projected through the drum, via a prism. This 25.37 SHAFT ENCODER
enables a lens of reasonable focal length to be A shaft encoder is a digital device used for
accommodated by doubling back the light beam, measurement of angular position. An increasing
across the body of the encoder using a prism. The form number of measuring instruments are being-used to
of construction of the drum and optical system has the communicate with a digital computer for measure
advantage over the more conventional approach, the ment and control applications. The amount of raw
latter having one fixed and one moving section, in that data generated by large scale test programmes is so
great that automated computer reduction of these data
in meaningful form becomes a necessity. In addition,
the feedback control systems for complex processes
are becoming increasingly dependent on digital
computers for part or complete action of computers
for generation of control action. Therefore, there is a
necessity of measuring devices that form a basic part
of these systems whose output is compatible with
digital nature of the computer. In practice, there are
two forms of generation of digital signals. The first
Fig. 25.167 Drum type Moire fringe optical encoder.
form converts the analogue variable to a shaft rotation
the gratings on opposite sides of the drum, while (or translation in linear measurements) and then using
simulating the more traditional grating assembly, many types of shaft angle encoder to generate digital
move in opposite directions to each other, thereby voltage signals. The second approach is to convert the
generating twice as many Moire fringes as there are analogue variable to an analogue voltage which is
diffraction strips. Thus for a diffraction grating of 500 then converted to a digital voltage by one of many
strips comprising the circumference of the drum, 1000 voltage to digital converters as given in Chapter 26.
pulses would be sensed at the first photo-cell. The The shaft angle encoder and voltage to digital
number of pulses is further multiplied as in a converter are perhaps the most close approaches to
conventional system by the number of photo cells, the true digital transducers, the first being for motion and
number of four being chosen to permit both increase the second for voltage. Here we consider the shaft
resolution and direction of rotation to be obtained, the angle encoder for transducing the analogue motion to
latter by appropriate decoding logic. The drum is digital voltage.
rotated by means of a pressure roller in direct contact In order to understand the operation of a shaft
with a flat surface representing the axis of the linear encoder, we should first consider a translational
direction to be measured. encoder (a linear displacement digital transducer as
The benefits of a Moire fringe type of linear or given earlier) is shown in Fig. 25.161. The encoder
rotary digitiser (namely high resolution and accuracy) shown has four tracks (bits) and is divided into
may be easily lost by neglect of the fundamental conducting and insulating portions, with the smallest
limitations of the associated mechanical drive or increment being 0.01 mm. As the scale moves under
linkage. For example, attaching a digitiser to a lead the brushes, the respective lamp circuits are made or
screw is fraught with danger of impairing the system broken so that the numbers shown on the readout
accuracy because the incremental accuracy of the slide lamps is at every instant equal to one hundredth of a
position is directly dependant on the accuracy of the mm.
lead screw, and due allowance must be made for wear For angular displacements, the pattern given in
of the screw and associated nuts. The advent of the Fig. 25.164 is simply deformed so that the length of the
scale becomes the circumference of a circle on a flat adopted, depending on the form of encoder. These are
disc. The brushes are then placed along a radial line on the use of 'Gray codes' and 'Double-brush systems'.
the disc. Figure 25.168 shows the disc. The former are preferred for optical encoders which
tend to be inherently free from noise, while combi
nations of both techniques together with digital
complement systems, have been used for brush-type
encoders.
The problem of obtaining an unambiguous digital
output, irrespective of shaft position may be
appreciated from a study of a four bit pure binary
brush type encoder illustrated in Figure 25.169. It is
formed from a number of coded concentric tracks in
which live segments are separated by means of
Fig. 25.168 A rotary shaft encoder rising four track.
insulating segments and connected to a collector ring
The disc is divided into concentric circular tracks for applying an energising voltage via a contacting
and each of these is then divided into segments in a
manner depending upon the code being used. For
pure binary code, the inner track is halved, the next
quartered and the next divided into 8 parts and so on.
Each track has twice as many segments as the adjacent
one near the centre. The detection method determines
the treatment of the disc. The alternate segments on
each track are made transparent and opaque, if
transmitted light and photo-cells are used. If the
segments are made reflecting and non-reflecting,
reflected light and photo-cells are used. Electrical
methods are used for detection in case the segments
are made conducting and non-conducting alternatively.
Fig. 25.169 Binary coded encoder disc.
Thus if the scale is scanned radially a binary 0 or 1
is obtained from each track depending upon the
brush. Four coding brushes, (one per track) are shown,
angular position of the disc. Each position of the disc,
to enable a binary output to be detected from the
provided the resolution angle is exceeded between
positions, gives a unique number comprising the same appropriate patterns on the discs.
number of digits as there are tracks on the disc. The example shown is impractical, because if the
The accuracy depends upon the number of tracks shaft comes to rest at a transition between say, 0 and
and if there are n tracks, the accuracy obtained is : 15, mechanical positioning limitations preclude any
360° certainty that all four brushes were reading a binary 1
—— and is easy to obtain ± 10 s of arc accuracy.
on a conducting segment, or a binary '0' on an
adjacent insulator.
Such discs are manufactured with diameters
ranging from 50 mm to 250 mm. The sequence and 25.37.2 Brush Type Encoders
order of indications represent the position of shaft in
Continuing with the simple brush type encoder,
coded form.
let us look at application of a double brush system to
25.37.1 Coding Limitations 'V scanning' as shown in Fig. 25.170(a). The same
Irrespective of the form of the transducer the binary pattern is used as shown in Fig. 25.169 but with'
predominant problem associated with the absolute two sets of brushes disposed symmetrically as shown
position encoder is that of providing a noise free, about the least significant (2°) brush. The brushes are
stable and unambiguous output. Assuming that spaced so that each pair is nominally equal to the digit
practical limitations preclude obvious solutions such length of the previous lesser significant track. The
as stepping the shaft by means of an intermittent brushes are connected by a logic network as shown in
motion mechanism and electrically inhibiting the Fig. 25.170(b) and the output is transmitted according
output during movement, two main techniques are to the following rules of operation.
When the least significant brush reads 0, the next brushes. Thus although the least significant brush is
leading brush is read. on a point of transition the total encoder output is
When the least significant brush reads 1 the next stable on all '0"s“ or T's without ambiguity. An
lagging brush is read. alternative to ‘V scan is 'IT scan which is similar
except that the brushes are spaced one least significant
Thus for the position shown in Fig. 25.170, the
digit apart as shown in Fig. 25.171(a) with associated
least significant brush is reading 'O' and the leading
logic in Fig. 25.171(h) which has a faster readout speed.
brush is read to also give a 'O', and so on for successive
(a) Binary coded disc with U-scanning.
(b) Logic decoding for U-scan.
fig. 25.171
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers V :
25.37.3 Codes and Decoding In general, the construction of brush-type

Possibly the simplest way of overcoming the risk digitisers has evolved over some years with the result
of ambiguity is the use of a cyclic code in which only that reliable performance can be claimed. Early
one digit is changed at a time. attempts to produce the coded tracks were based on
An objective of Gray's innovation was to reduce conventional printed circuit technology but these
coding errors in pulse code transmission systems to proved unsatisfactory and sophisticated techniques
provide a code and corresponding encoder in which based on photo engraving are now applied to encode
the coding error is never greater than one counting the required pattern in gold-plated copper
unit. Another purpose was to simplify and to reduce interspersed with insulated melamine sectors ; the
the cost of manufacturing encoders. An example of a latter chosen for wear properties that match the
popular Gray coded disc is shown in Fig. 25.172(a) conducting sections. Precious metal brushes are
from which it can be seen that for any transition point shaped to conform to particular stiffness criteria so
e.g., 0 to 15 the readout encounters a change in one that vibrations are not induced and 'bounce' problems
brush position only. The code requires conversion to are minimised.
pure binary and involves the decode logic shown in In general, it is not usual to exceed three decade
Fig. 25.172(b) based on exclusive OR gates. Starting (12 bit B C D) on one disc, and if greater resolution is
required two or more discs may be geared together.
The alternative magnetic or optical forms of
encoders are generally conceded to be capable of
higher resolution, greater accuracy and to be less
prone to wear than the brush type, because wiping
contacts are eliminated. They tend to be more
expensive when applied to a system however, because
the signal output is several orders lower than that
obtainable from a brush-type digitiser. A brush-type
digitiser can switch voltage levels reliably up to 12 V
d.c. and may consequently be used for subsequent
processing or to switch indicator tubes directly,
whereas the magnetic or optical encoder requires
associated electronics to raise the signal level and
shape the output to a useful form for subsequent
processing.
25.37.4 Optical Encoders

There are two basic generic styles of optical
encoders :
A incremental
A absolute.
The incremental encoder provides a pulse each time
the shaft rotates through a predefined distance while
(b) Gray to binary decoder. an absolute encoder provides a “whole world" output
with a unique code pattern representing each position.
Fig. 25.172 An eight bit absolute optical shaft encoder is
shown in Fig. 25.173. The output code is derived from
with the most significant digit this time, the state of
each brush is either confirmed or reversed depending independent tracks on the encoder disc corresponding
on whether the sum of the previous more significant to individual photo detectors. The output from these
'1' is even or odd, respectively. Titus in Fig. 25.172(b) detectors would then be high or low (1 or 0)
the output of each gate is 'T when only one input is depending upon the code disc pattern for that
present. particular position.
(a) Straight binary system.
(b) Cyclic (Gray) code.
Fig. 25.174 Shaft Encoders.

Fig. 25.173 An 8 bit absolute optical shaft encoder.
Absolute Encoders are used in applications where Information about velocity is available by looking
a device is inactive for long periods of time or moves at the time interval between pulses or at the number of
at slow rates, such as for flood control, telescopes, pulses within a time period. These transducers have
cranes etc. been explained earlier in Art. 25.35.
Absolute encoders use the natural binary code or Optical encoders tend to follow one of two
Gray code and BCD in addition to many other codes. principles of operation ; they consist of either a system
The incremental encoder creates a series of of coded tracks consisting of transparent and opaque
equally spaced signals corresponding to the sections and associated lamps and photocells to detect
mechanical increment required. For example, if we the corresponding switching sequence, or they rely on
divide a shaft rotation into 100 parts, an encoder the use of moire fringe techniques, capable of much
would be selected to supply 1000 square wave cycles higher resolution when used for incremental
per revolution. By using a counter to count these measurement.
cycles, we can find out how much the shaft has The absolute digitiser comprises an assembly
rotated. Suppose the count is 100, then the shaft has consisting of a Gray-coded pattern photographically
rotated through 360 x (100 /1000) =360°. reproduced on a glass disc mounted on the input
The simpler type of incremental encoder is the shaft. The code consists of ten annular tracks each
tachometer encoder. Its output waveform and code with a pattern of opaque and transparent sections.
track on the disc are shown in Fig. 25.174. A The code reading system employs a filament lamp
tachometer encoder is sometimes called a single track and collimating lens from which light passes through
incremental encoder because it has only one output the disc and a narrow radial slit, to be detected by ten
and cannot detect direction. The output is usually a photovoltaic cells. Depending on the angular position
square wave. of the shaft, certain cells receive light from the
transparent portions of the disc and enable the synchros. Inductosyns are available in both
outputs from all ten cells to reproduce the shaft translational (best accuracy ± 0.001 mm) and rotary
position directly in parallel-Gray-coded form. The (best accuracy ± 0.5 second of arc) forms. The standard
output, which is noise free, is suitable for spacings s available are 1.25, 0.625 and 2 mm.
amplification and subsequent processing for use in
digital servo systems, computers, data logging and 25.39 PHOTO OPTIC TRANSDUCERS
visual displays. The fibre optic transducers can be classified into two
Figure 25.174 shows the shaft encoders using categories as explained before in Art. 19.20.5 on page
straight binary and Gray codes. 599. This classification places the optic transducers as:
(?) intensity or intrinsic transducers and
25.38 AUTOSYN (n) interferometric or extrinsic transducers.
It is a high resolution incremental encoder based The following paragraphs describe how physical
upon the electromagnetic coupling between a fixed parameters can be measured with fibre optic
scale provided with an a.c. excited serpentive transducers.
conductor, produced by printed circuit techniques,
and a similar but smaller sensing winding which 25.39.1 Temperature Transducers
travels over a scale as show in Fig. 25.175. When the Optical fibres can be used for measurement of
alignment is as shown in’Fig. 25.175(b), the output is at temperature. This is because the temperature induces
its positive maximum. A displacement of s/2 results in changes in refractive index of the fibre. The core and
minimum output while a movement of s gives claddings of the fibres have different indices of
negative maximum output. Further, a displacement of refraction because of the difference in their
composition. The refractive index is a function of both
composition and temperature, and it changes at
different rates in response to a temperature change. A
higher temperature change causes the critical angle of
the fibre to change slightly, which in turn changes the
amount of light lost through leakage in the cladding as
shown in Fig. 25.176. Total internal reflection occurs at
angles of incidence greater than the critical angle. At
angles of incidence less than the critical angle, some
light is lost due to refraction.
Cladding
Core
(n) Total internal reflection (b) Light leakage caused by

changes in the refractive
Fig. 25.175 Inductosyn transducer. incidence of core
and cladding
3 s/2 gives minimum again, and a travel of 2s gives a
Fig. 25.176 Fibre optic temperature transducer.
positive maximum. The output variation over 2s cycle
length is essentially consinusoidal. A coarse digital 25.39.2 Measurement of Sound
output is obtained by counting the cycles of spacing
The measurement of sound level can be done with
2 s, while fine resolution is obtained by electronically
either
digitizing the analog voltage variation within each
cycle. As in other incremental encoders, to detect (z) an intensity fibre optic transducer or with
direction of motion, the sensor element includes a (n) an interferometric type transducer. In this
second winding displaced s/2 from the first, case we have chosen an interferometric
providing a sinusoidal signal. With both a sine and transducer as shown in Fig. 25.177.
cosine output available, the device behaves essentially Part of the beam passes through the reference coil,
as a resolver and can use resolver-to-digital type of which is enclosed in stable environments and the
electronics similar to that discussed earlier under remaining passes through the sensing coil. Sound
25.35.8 Measurement of Level

Measurement of level is another application of
fibre optic sensors.
The principle of sensing liquid level using fibre
optic technology is straight forward. If one end of the
cable or rod is cut and polished properly to form a
beam
prism and the prism is in air, light transmitted from
Fig. 25.177 Interferometer-type optical fibre the other end is reflected back with negligible loss.
sound transducer. Under these conditions, the end near the light source
waves distort the sensing fibre, which causes its will appear bright as shown in Fig. 25.180(a).
optical length to change, thus altering the relative
phases of the light in each fibre. The sound level is a
function of the phase shift, which will be seen in the
interference pattern when the two beams are
recombined.
Figure 25.178 shows in details the operation of
Intensity and interferometric transducers. With
intensity senors, the measured variable causes a
Detector
(«) Intensity-microbend modified cladding.

polished end
Fig. 25.180 Optical fibre level detector in

air and liquid.
If the polished end of the rod is now submerged in

(b) Interferometric transducer - phase displacement. a liquid with a higher refractive index than that of the
fibre rod, most of the light transmitted through the rod
Fig. 25.178 will be absorbed by the liquid rather than being
reflected as shown in Fig. 25.180(b) and the light
change in the intensity propagating in the fibre. On source will appear as dark.
the other hand, with interferometric transducers, the The darkness is dependent upon the liquid level.
measured variable causes a phase change of the light Multilevel sensing can be achieved by bunding a
propagating in the fibre. This beam is then compared number of fibre optic rods of different lengths as
with the reference beam as shown in Fig. 25.179 and shown in Fig. 25.181.
the phase displacement owing to the sensed beam
causes a change in intensity of interference pattern
shown in Fig. 25.179.
Fig. 25.179 Change in intensity of the interference

pattern caused by phase displacement.
Review Questions
1. Describe with the help of neat diagrams, the 12. For a transducer, describe the following :
mechanical devices used as primary detectors.
(z) transfer function (zz) error.
Derive their output in terms of their physical
13. Explain the following types of errors for a transducer:
dimensions.
(z) Scale errors
2. Derive for a metallic diaphragm, expressions for
deflection, maximum stress and natural frequency (zz) Dynamic errors and
in terms of the physical dimensions, when it is (iii) Noise and drift errors.
subjected to a pressure on one side. 14. Define the following with reference to transducers:
3. Describe with neat sketches the following types of (i) Zero error,
primary detecting elements : (ii) Sensitivity error,
(z) Bourdon tubes (iii) Non-conformity error,
(z'z) Bellows and (iv) Hysteresis error,
(iii) Diaphragms. (v) Dynamic error, and
4. Describe the methods for measurement of flow (vi) Cross sensitivity.
using (i) venturimeters and (ii) orifice plates.
15. Describe the constructional details of a resistance
Derive the expressions for flow rate in each case.
potential divider and derive the expression for its
5. Explain how a Pitot tube can be used for output voltage when connected across a meter of
measurement of flow. Describe how the velocity finite impedance.
profile of a liquid flowing in a pipe is taken care of
16. Derive the expression for error for a resistance
in the measurements when using Pitot tubes.
potential divider when connected across a load of
6. Describe the different types of weirs and flumes finite resistance. Draw typical curves to shown the
are used for measurement of flow in open variation of error with input displacement for
channels. Derive the related expressions. different values of load resistance. Derive the
7. Differentiate between the following using suitable condition for maximum error.
examples : 17. Explain that sensitivity land linearity are two con
(z) control systems using feedback flicting requirements in a resistance potential
(z’z) measurement systems using feedback. divider.
8. Define the following : 18. Explain the construction of wire wound strain
(z) Transducer gauges and derive the expression for the gauge
factor.
(z'z) Inverse transducer and
19. (a) Describe the construction of foil type strain
(zzz) Output transducer
gauges and explain their advantages over wire
Give suitable examples. wound strain gauges.
9. Differentiate between the following citing suitable (b) Explain the construction of semi-conductor
examples : strain gauges and explain their advantages and
(z) Transducers and Inverse transducers disadvantages.
(zz) Active and passive transducers 20. Explain with diagrams, the bonded and unbonded
(zzz) Primary and secondary transducers types of strain gauges.
(iv) Analog and digital transducers For bonded strain gauges, describe the materials
(v) Output and inverse transducers used for base, and adhesive materials and also the
materials used for leads.
10. Describe the different criteria for selection of
21. Describe the working and construction of
transducers for a particular application.
resistance thermometers. Describe the materials
11. For a transducer, describe the following :
used for RTDs, along with their properties. Sketch
(z) Input characteristics their typical characteristics.
(zz) Transfer characteristics 22. What are thermistors ? Explain their different
(zzz) Output characteristics. forms of construction. Draw their resistivity versus
temperature characteristics and show that they 34. Derive the expressions for frequency response
have a very high value of sensitivity as compared characteristics of piezo-electric transducers.
with that of metal resistance thermometers. 35. Derive the expression for impulse response of
Describe their applications. piezo-electric transducers. Sketch the response curves.
23. Draw and describe the following for thermistors : 36. Describe the construction, principle of working
(z) Resistance-temperature characteristics and applications of Hall Effect transducers.
(zz) Voltage-current characteristics, and 37. Explain the constructional features of
(iii) Current-time characteristics. (z) synchro-transmitters and
24. Describe the construction, theory and working of (ii) synchro transformers.
thermocouples. Describe the different types of Explain how the above pair can be used as an error
compensations used and also the methods of detector in a servomechanism.
measurement of their output voltage.
38. Derive the expressions for voltages in the three
25. Describe the method for measurement of phases of a synchro-transmitter. Derive also the
temperature with use of
equations for voltages between line and the neutral
(i) RTDs (ii) Thermistors, and point and explain the concept of 'zero' in a
(iii) IC sensors. synchro-transmitter and a synchro-transformer.
Describe their advantages and limitations. 39. Explain how a synehro-transmitter and receiver
26. Give an overview of the inductive transducers pair can be used as transducers in the torque
explaining their principle of operation like variation transmission mode.
of number of turns, geometric configuration and 40. Explain the construction, working and appli
permeability. Draw neat sketches to show the above cations of resolvers.
effects. 41. Explain the principle of working, constructional
27. How is a differential output taken from an inductive details and applications of light dependent resistors.
transducer ? Explain the advantages when inductive 42. Explain the principle of working, constructional
transducers are used in push-pull configuration. details and applications of photo-diodes. Draw the
28. Explain the construction and principle of working characteristics.
of a linear voltage differential transformer 43. Explain the principle of working constructional
(L.V.D.T). Explain how the magnitude and details and applications of photo-transistors. Explain
direction of the displacement of core of an L.V.D.T. why are they preferred for digital applications.
detected ? Why is the frequency of excitation of Draw their characteristics.
primary winding kept very high as compared to 44. Explain the principle of working and construc
the frequency of the signal being detected ? tional details of a photo-voltaic cell. Explain, why
29. Explain the different principles of working of is it very useful for space applications.
capacitive transducers. 45. Define a digital transducer and explain its applica
30. Explain how by using a differential arrangement a tions for measurement of linear and angular
capacitive transducer which works on the principle displacements.
of variation of capacitance with displacement between 46. Describe the following :
two plates the response can be made linear.
(0 Tachometer Encoder (zz) Incremental Encoder
31. Describe the properties of materials used for (zzz) Absolute Encoder.
piezo-electric transducers. Derive expressions for
47. Describe in details the contact type of encoders and
voltage and charge sensitivities.
explain why Gray code is used in them.
32. Describe the different modes of operation of
48. Describe the following types of shaft encoders :
piezoelectric transducers. Define and sketch binders
(z) resistive type (zz) optical type.
and twisters. Explain the applications of piezo
electric transducers. 49. Describe the method of using Moire Fringes for
33. Draw the equivalent circuit of piezo-electric measurement of linear and rotational displacements
in encoders. Describe its advantages and limitations.
transducers. Derive the expression for magnitude
of voltage across the load by making simplifying 50. Describe how fibre optic transducers are used for:
assumptions. Prove that for medium and high (z) measurement of temperature
frequencies the magnitude of the voltage across the (zz) measurement of sound level
load is independent of frequency. (zzz) measurement of liquid level.
Unsolved Problems
1. A steel diaphragm is used for pressure measure velocity V2 at the orifice to give this flow value and
ment. It is 50 mm in diameter and is to be designed also the pressure differential. The value of density
to measure a maximum pressure of 1.5 MN/m2. is 1000 kg/m and the kinematic viscosity is
10"6 m 2 / s. [Ans. 3.33 m/s, 130 kN/m2]
The modulus of elasticity of steel is 200 GN/m2
3
and Poisson's ratio is 0.3. Calculate the thickness of 6. The density of air in a duct is 1.2 kg/m and its
diaphragm in order that the maximum deflection maximum velocity is 20 m/s. The duct is 100 mm in
is not more than 1/3 of its thickness. Calculate the diameter and the velocity is to be measured using a
natural frequency of diaphragm. The density of 80 mm diameter orifice and a differential manometer.
steel is 7800 kg/m3. [Ans. 1.1 mm, 26,600 Hz] If the co-efficient of discharge is assumed to be 0.6,
2. A torsion bar is made of mild steel and has a calculate the necessary range of the manometer in
diameter of 25 mm. The shear modulus of mild mm of H2O. [Ans. 100 mm of H2O]
2
steel is 80 GN/m . Calculate the value of shear 7. A Pitot tube is to be used to measure the speed of
sensitivity. Suppose a torque of 10 x 103 Nm is
an aeroplane. The pressure differential is measured
applied to the bar, calculate the value of shear
by a U tube manometer using water. The density of
strain angle. If the bar is notched to 15 mm air is 1.22 kg/mJ. If the reading of the manometer is
diameter, what is the value of shear sensitivity and
80 mm of water and the velocity correction factor is
the shear angle for the above torque ?
0.98, calculate the velocity of the aeroplane. Assume
[Ans. 4 x 10-6 rad/Nm,
that air is incompressible. [Ans. 35.15 m/s]
18.8 x 10“6 rad/Nm, 0.188 rad]
8. A Pitot tube with a thermometer attached is used
3. A vertical venturimeter has its inlet and throat to measure the velocity of air in a duct. A differential
diameters as 20 mm and 100 mm respectively. A
pressure of 100 mm of water is recorded. The tem
differential mercury manometer connected to the
perature is 27°C. The static pressure is 10 kN/m . The
inlet and throat points gives a reading of 250 mm.
barometer reading is 760 mm of mercury. The gas
Determine the rate of flow of water if the co
constant is 287 J/kg and the specific gravity of mercury
efficient of discharge is 0.98.
is 13.6. The velocity correction factor is 0.98. Calculate
[Ans. 0.0628 m3/s]
the mean velocity of air. [Ans. 38.2 m/s]
4. A venturi tube of throat diameter 60 mm is placed
9. A submarine moves horizontally in sea and has its
in a water pipe of diameter 100 mm to measure
axis 15 m below the surface of water. A Pitot tube
volumetric flow. The volumetric flow rate through
the tube is 80 x 10~3 m3 /s. Water has a density of properly placed in front of submarine and along its
103kg / m2 and a viscosity of 10-3Ns I m2. axis, is connected to the two limbs of a U tube
containing mercury. The difference of mercury
(a) Determine Reynold's number. level in the two limbs is 170 mm. Find the speed of
(b) Given that the co-efficient of discharge is 0.99, submarine. Assume that sea water is 1.26 times as
determine the upstream and throat differential dense as compared to normal water. The specific
pressure. gravity of mercury is 13.6. [Ans. 6.4 m/s]
(c) The differential pressure is applied at the 10. Water flows over a rectangular notch 1 m wide
centre of a mild steel diaphram having the over a depth of 0.15 m and afterwards passes
following data : through a triangular right angled notch. Find the
diameter = 10 mm, thickness = 0.2 mm depth of water through the latter notch. The
2
modulus of elasticity = 206 GN/m and Pois co-efficient for discharge are 0.62 and 0.59
son's ratio = 0.28. respectively for rectangular and triangular
notches. [Ans. 0.357 m]
Calculate the deflection of the centre of diaphragm.
[Ans. 1698 x 103, 356.1 kN/m2, 23.3 x 10"6 mm] 11. A 5000 Q voltage dividing potentiometer feeds a
load of 8000 Q. Calculate the percentage error
5. An orifice plate is situated in a water pipe of 50 mm based upon full scale for slider positions at 0, 0.2,
diameter and has an orifice of 30 mm diameter. For 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 p.u. of the total travel. Plot the
a Reynold's number of 1,00,000 the discharge graph between p.u. travel and percentage error.
co-efficient is 0.61. Calculate this nominal exit
[Ans. Percentage error : 0, 1.8. 5.2. 7.8. 7.2. 0]
12. A potentiometer has a resistance of 5000 Q and is have a maximum non-linearity of 0.5 percent when
rated at 3 W. What is the maximum allowable driving a load of 10 kQ resistance. Find out the
excitation voltage ? Calculate the value of the maximum value of resistance of potentiometer.
sensitivity and resolution if the length of potentio [Ans. 333 Q]
meter is 0.1 m and there are 200 turns. Also
18. A resistive potentiometer is rated as 200 Q, 1 W
calculate the percentage leading error at 0.67 of the
(derate at 10 mW/°C above 60°C) 30°C/W thermal
travel if a meter of 5000 Q is connected across the
resistance. It is used with 10 V supply at 70°C
pot. [Ans. 122 V, 12.2 V/mm, 0.61 V, - 12.1%]
ambient temperature. Calculate,
13. A voltage dividing potentiometer is used to
(i) the power dissipated by potentiometer
measure an angular displacement. The angle of
(ii) actual temperature of potentiometer
displacement is 60° and total angle of travel of
potentiometer is 355°. Calculate the voltage output (iii) power dissipation allowed.
on open circuit if the potentiometer is excited by a Can the potentiometer be used safely under the
60 V source. Calculate the actual value of the above conditions ?
output voltage at this setting if a voltmeter of 1 MQ [Ans. 500 mW, 85°C, 750 mW, yes]
resistance is connected across the output. The 19. Find the strain that results from a tensile force of
resistance of the potentiometer is 1 kQ. The turns 1000 N applied to a 10 m long aluminium bar
are uniformly distributed. Calculate the percentage having cross-sectional area of 4 xlO-4 m~. The
error. [Ans. 10.14 V, 10.1386 V, - 0.014%] 2
modulus of elasticity of aluminium is 69 GN/m“.
14. A resistive displacement transducer with a shaft [Ans. 38.23 microstrain]
stroke of 25 mm is applied to the circuit shown in
20. A resistance wire strain gauge having a nominal
Fig. 25.182. The applied voltage is 10 V. What is the
resistance of 350 Q is subjected to a strain of
displacement indicated for each of the voltage
500 microstrain. Find the change in the value of
readings 3.0 V, 5.0 V, 8.0 V ? Assume that the
resistance neglecting the piezo-resistive effect.
resistance of output device R is infinite.
[Ans. 0.35 Q]
21. Compare the resistance change produced by a
strain of 150 microstrain if a strain gauge of
nominal resistance of 120 Q is used (z) when made
of wire resistance having a gauge factor of 2.13 and
(iz) when made of a semiconducting material
having a gauge factor of 151.
[Ans. (z) 0.03834 Q, (zi) 2.718 Q]
Fig. 25.182 Resistance potentiometer. 22. A strain gauge has a gauge factor of 4. If the strain
gauge is attached to a metal bar that stretches from
[Ans. 7.5 mm, 12.5 mm, 20 mm]
0.25 m to 0.255 m when strained, what is the
15. The circuit shown in Fig. 25.182 is used by a
percentage change in resistance ? If the unstrained
resistive displacement transducer. The input voltage
value of gauge is 120 Q, what is the resistance
is 5 V. If the resistance of potentiometer (R + ) is
value of gauge after application of strain ?
1000 Q and the wiper is set so that R^ = 300 Q,
calculate the value of output voltage. Assume the [Ans. 8%, 129.6 Q]
resistance, Rin to be infinity. [Ans. 1.5 V] 23. A metallic strain gauge has a resistance of 120 Q
16. A resistive displacement transducer with a shaft and a gauge factor of 2. It is installed on an
stroke of 50 mm is used in the circuit shown in aluminium structure which has a yield point stress
of 0.2 GN/m and Young's modulus of 68.7 GN/m2,
Fig. 25.182. The total resistance of potentiometer
R^ + R, =400Q and the input voltage is 4 V. The determine the change in resistance of the gauge
wiper is 37.5 mm from B (fl). What is the value of that would be caused by loading the material to
Ro ? (b) What is the value of output voltage ? Assume yield point. [Ans. 0.7 Q]
the value of Rm to be infinity. [Ans. 300 Q, 3 V] 24. A semiconductor gauge having a resistance of
17. In a resistive potentiometer the maximum 1000 Q and a gauge factor of -133 is subjected to a
percentage error is 15 Rf) / Rm where R? and RWiare compressive strain of 500 microstrain. Calculate
respectively the resistance of potentiometer the the new value of resistance of the gauge.
load respectively. A position measurement may [Ans. 1066.5 Q]
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers
25. A strain gauge having a gauge factor of 4 is used 31. The resistance temperature relationship for a
for testing a machine. If the gauge resistance is thermistor is given by :
10 Q, and the strain is 20 x 10~6, how much will the Rp2= RriexpP(l/T2-l/T1)
resistance of strain gauge change ?
[Ans. 8 xlO'3Q] If the value of 0 is 4000 °K and the resistance of
thermistor is 200 kQ at - 100°C, find the value of
26. A strain gauge has a resistance of 120 Q unstrained resistance at 400°C. Find the ratio of two resis
and the gauge factor is - 12. What is the resistance tances. Find the ratio of two resistances for
value if the strain is 1%. [Ans. 105.6 Q] platinum over the same temperature range.
27. A strain gauge with a gauge factor of 4 has a Platinum has a resistance temperature co-efficient
of 0.0039/°C. [Ans. 6.93 x 103Q, 28.8 xlO6, 2.95]
resistance of 500 Q. It is to be used in a test in which
the strain to be measured may be as low as 5 x 10-6. 32. A thermistor may be assumed to have a linear
What will the change in resistance of gauge be ? temperature resistance over a limited temperature
[Ans. 10 xlO-3Q] range. The variation resistance is - 05°C rise of
28. A strain gauge is bonded to a steel beam 0.25 m temperature. The thermistor has a resistance of
long and has a cross-sectional area of 0.4 x 10~3m2. 1000Q at 20°C. Calculate the value of its resistance
at 25°C. Supposing this thermistor is used in series
Young's modulus of elasticity for steel is
with a copper coil, what is the value of the
207 GN/m". The strain gauge has a unstrained
resistance of copper coil if the resistance at 20°C
resistance of 240Q and a gauge factor of 2.20. When
and 25°C is the same for the series connected
the load is applied, the gauge's resistance changes
circuit comprising of coil and the thermistor ? The
by 0.013 Q. Calculate the change in length of the
resistance temperature co-efficient of copper may
steel beam and the amount of force applied to the
be assumed as 0.004°C. [Ans. 750 Q, 12.5 kQ]
beam. [Ans. 2.46 x 10~ 6 m, 2.037 x 103 N]
33. An LVDT has an output of 6 V rms when the
29. A platinum resistance thermometer has a displacement is 0.4 x 10 3 mm. Determine the
resistance of 150 Q at 0°C. What is the resistance sensitivity of this instrument in V/mm. A 10 V
when the temperature is 200°C ? When the voltmeter with 100 scale divisions is used to read
thermometer has a resistance of 400 Q, what is the the output. Two-tenths of a division can be
value of the temperature ? The resistance estimated with ease. Determine the resolution of
temperature co-efficient of plantinum is 0.0039/°C. the voltmeter.
[Ans. 170.25 Q, 427°C] The above arrangement is used in a pressure trans
30. The following table gives the variation of ducer for measuring the deflection of a diaphragm.
resistance with temperature for a RTD. The diaphragm is deflected through 0.5 x 10“3 mm
2
by a pressure of 1000 N/m . Determine the
Temperature °C Resistence Q sensitivity and resolution of this instrument.
[Ans. 15000 V/rmn, 0.02 V,
15 106.06
7.5 m V/N-m , 2.67 Nm]
18 167.14
34. An LVDT with a secondary voltage of 5 V has a
21 108.22 range of ± 25 mm.
24 109.3 (fl) Find the output voltage when the core is
- 18.75 mm for the centre
26.5 110.38
(b) Plot the output voltage versus core position for
29.5 111.46
a core movement going from + 18.75 mm to
33 112.75 - 10 mm.
[Ans. (a) — 3.75 V (b) 3.75 V to — 2 V linearly]
Find the linear and quadratic approximation of the 35. An LVDT with a secondary voltage of 5 V has a
above resistance temperature curve for tempe range of ± 25 mm.
rature variations between 15°C and 33°C about a (a) Find the core movement from centre if the
mean temperature of 24°C. output voltage is - 3 V
[Ans.Rg = 109.3 [1 + 3.41 x 10’3 (9-24)],
(b) Plot the core positions versus output voltages
Rq = 109.3 [1 + 3.55 x 10- 9 (0 - 24.3) varying from + 3 V to - 4.5 V.
-0.66 x 10'6 (0 -24)2]] [Ans. (fl) - 15 mm (b) 15 mm to - 22.5 mm linearly]
36. A parallel plate capacitive transducer has plates of 43. The voltage sensitivity for barium titanate is
600 mm2 area which are separated by air by a 12 x 10’2 Vm I N Vm/N while that of quartz is
distance of 0.2 mm. The resistance of the 50 x 10-2 Vm / N. The permittivity of barium
transducer is 20 x 106 Q. Calculate the time titanate is 12.5 x 10~9 F/m and that of quartz is
constant of the transducer and find the attenuation 40.6 x 10-12 F/m. Calculate the charge sensiti
of the output at 1000 Hz. The permittivity of air is vities and their ratio. If the thickness of crystal in
8.85 x 10~12 F/m. [Ans. 0.531 ms, 4.2~2]
each case is 2.5 mm, calculate the sensitivities in
37. Two plates of parallel plate capacitive transducer each case and their ratio.
are 30 mm apart and the space is filled with two [Ans. 150 p C/N, 2 pC/N, 75 ; 30 x 10“6 V/N-m"2,
different dielectric materials, one material is 1 cm 125 x 10’6 V/N-m’2, 0.24]
thick with a dielectric constant of 5 and the other 44. A quartz crystal h$s the dimensions of
material is 20 mm thick with a dielectric constant 2 mm x2mm xlmm. Quartz has the following
10. If the capacitive transducer were to be made up properties charge sensitivity =21 C/N. Young's
of a single dielectric material ? What is the modulus = 8.6 x 1010 N/m2.
dielectric constant of that material ? [Ans. 7.5]
Permittivity = 40.6 x 10“12 F/m.
38. A parallel plate capacitive transducer uses air as
Calculate the value of force, charge and voltage if
the dielectric medium for measurement of
the crystal is subjected to a strain of
displacement as shown in Fig. 25.114. The plates
10 x 10-6 m / m. [Ans. 34 N, 6.88 pC, 43 V]
are 300 mm in area and are separated by a
distance of 1.25 mm. Find the time constant an 1 45. A barium titanate crystal has dimensions of
series resistance if the output is attenuated by 5% 5 mm x 5 mm x 1.5 mm. The Young's modulus of
by a frequency of 30 Hz. The permittivity of air is barium titanate is 12xlO6N/m2, its charge
8.85 x 10‘12 F/m. [Ans. 16.1 ms, 7580 MQ] sensitivity is 150 pC/N and permittivity
39. In a variable capacitance transducer the 12.5 x 10-9 F/m. A capacitance of 10 pF in parallel
diaphragms are 20 mm in diameter and 4 mm with 100 MQ resistance is connected across the
apart. If a pressure produces an average deflection crystal. Calculate the rms value of voltage under
of 0.25 mm, calculate the value of capacitance after open circuit and load conditions when a force of
the application of force. The capacitance before 0.0142 sin 100 t newton is applied to the crystal.
application of force is 400 pF. [Ans. 427 pF] Calculate the rms value of deflection. The
40. A displacement capacitive transducer uses a resistance of the crystal may be neglected.
differential arrangement with two outer plates [Ans. 72 mV, 62.4 mV, 0.05 mm]
which are fixed and a central plate which is 46. A flat frequency response within 10% is required
movable. The distance between fixed and movable from a piezo-electric crystal. Find the value of
plates is 5 mm when no displacement is applied. A minimum frequency for which it can be used if the
voltage of 1000 V rms is applied across the fixed time constant is 2 ms. Find also the phase shift.
plates. Find the differential output voltage if a [Ans. 164 Hz, 26°]
displacement of 0.01 mm is applied to the central 47. A piezo electric transducer has an input
plate. Find also the sensitivity of the transducer: Xj = At 0 < t < T, Xj = 0 T < t < co.
[Ans. 2 V ; 200 V/mm]
Solve the differential equation to find the value of
41. For vibration measurement a d.c. voltage of 90 V is
output voltage. For -t = T, find the error.
applied across the series combination of a parallel
Calculate this error by using the following
plate air capacitor and a C.R.O. The parallel plate
approximation.
air capacitor has plates of 625 mm area displaced
by 0.25 mm. The oscilloscope may be considered as T KTV
a resistance of 10 MQ in parallel with a capacitance exp - T / t = 1---- 4— — 4- ...
of 10 pF. The sensitivity of the oscilloscope is
T 2VTJ
1 mV/cm. Determine the displacement sensitivity Explain the error as a percentage of the ideal value
and the frequency for which a flat response within of output voltage. What must be the value of TI r
5% can be obtained. [Ans. 3.6 x 106 ; 22 kHz] if the error is to be 5 percent ? For this value of
42. Air exhibits a breakdown strength of about T/t evaluate the error caused by truncating the
3 kV/mm. What limitation does this impose on the series.

ultimate sensitivity of a variable displacement 48. The hot junction of a chromel alumel thermocouple
capacitive transducer ? is connected to a potentiometer terminals are at
24°C. The potentiometer whose terminals are at 51. The emf of an iron constantan thermocouple is to
24°C reads 25.76 mV. What is the temperature of be measured by the potentiometer shown in Fig.
the thermocouple junction ? 25.80. A potential difference of 1.0186 V is applied
The calibration chart of the thermocouple is : over points A and B and is standardized using a
Weston cell. The current through the resistor is to
Temperature °C Voltage, mV be 2 mA, and the range of temperature
20 0.8 measurement is to be from 250°C to 850°C.
24 0.95 Calculate the value of resistances Rv R2 and R$, for
28 1.12 an ambient temperature of 20°C. The emf of the
iron constantan couple with reference junction at
0°C is 1.019 mV at 20°, 13.553 mV at 250°C and
480 26.25
48.716 mV at 850°C.
488 26.72
[Ans. 1?! = 6.27 Q, R2 = 485.5 Q, Rs = 17.58 Q]
493 26.04
52. A germanium crystal having dimensions of
[Ans. 488°C] 5x5x2 mm is used for measurement of flux
49. A thermopile arrangement of the copper density. Hall effect co-efficient is
- 8 x 10~13 V - m / A Wb m-2. If the current
constantan thermocouple consists of three junction 2
pairs and has the reference junction at 200°C. If the density in the crystal is 0.3 A/mm and the voltage
output voltage is 3.3 mV, determine the tempe developed is - 0.36 V, find the value of flux
density. [Ans. 0.012 Wb/m2]
rature of the detecting junction.
The calibration chart for a thermocouple junction 53. The circuit of Fig. 25.144(a) uses a supply voltage of
is : 20 V d.c. A current of 5 mA flows when the cell is
2
illuminated with 400 lm/m and de-energized
Temperature °C Voltage, mV when the cell is dark. Find (a) the value of R1 and
(b) dark current. The characteristics of the
photocell are shown in Fig. 25.144(b).
[Ans. (fl) 3 kfi (b) 0.194 mA]
100 54. The circuit of a photodiode is shown in Fig. 25.149

4.22
and its characteristics curves with load line are
200 9.23
shown in Fig. 25.148. At an illumination level of
250 11.95 5000 lm/m2, find
[Ans. 171.95°C] (a) the diode current

50. A PMMC instrument has a resistance of 5 Q and is (b) voltage drop across resistance Rj and
calibrated to read correctly when the resistance of (c) diode voltage drop.
the external circuit is 2 Q. Calculate the percentage [Ans. (fl) 0.9 mA, (b) 0.18 V, (c) 0.32 V]
error if the resistance of the circuit is changed to 55. The circuit and characteristic curves of a photo
4 Q. What would have been the error if the PMMC transistor are shown in Fig. 25.155. At an illumi
instrument had a resistance of 500 fl ? nation level of 300 W/m2, find (fl) VCE, (b) VRL (c) Zc.
[Ans. 22.2%. 0.397%] [Ans. (fl) 8.5 V (b) 11.5 V (c) 5.6 mA]
M ------------- --------------------- - ---------------------- —................................ ........... ........................................................
Objective Type Questions

Tick (\) the most appropriate answer : 2. An Inverse transducer converts
1. A transducer converts (a) electrical energy to any other form of energy
(fl) mechanical energy into electrical energy (b) electrical energy to light energy
(b) mechanical displacement into electrical signal (c) mechanical displacement into electrical signal
(c) one form of energy into another form of energy (d) electrical energy to mechanical form.
(d) electrical energy into mechanical form.

3. One of the following can act as an Inverse (b) only the output characteristics should be
transducer considered
(a) electrical resistance potentiometer (c) only the transfer characteristics should be
(b) L.V.D.T. considered
(c) capacitive transducer (d) input, output and transfer characteristics
(d) piezo electric crystals. should be considered.
12. A cantilever is used as a primary sensing element
4. One of the following is an active transducer
for measurement of force. The measured deflection
(a) strain gauge (b) selsyn
0.5 mm for a particular set up. Suppose each of
(c) photovoltaic cell (d) photo-emissive cell. the dimensions i.e., length, width and thickness of
5. A strip chart recorder is the cantilever of the cantilever are doubled with the
(a) an active transducer (b) an inverse transducer force and material of cantilever remaining the
(c) an output transducer (d) (b) and (c). same, the deflection is
6. In a transducer, the experimentally obtained (a) 1 mm (b) 2 mm

transfer function is different from the theoretical (c) 0.251 mm (d) 0.125 mm.
transfer function, the errors result from this 13. A closed coil spring has a stiffness of 20 x 10 6
difference are called N/m. Suppose the diameter of the wire is doubled,
(a) Zero errors (b) Sensitivity errors its outer diameter is made two times and its
(c) Non-conformity errors number of turns are made 2 times, the stiffness of
(d) Dynamic errors. the new spring will be
7. In a transducer, the observed output deviates from (a) 20 x 10-6 N/m (b) 80 x 10-6 N/m
the correct value by a constant factor the resulting (c) 10 x 10“6 N/m (d) 160 x W6 N/m.
error is called 14. A diaphragm has a natural frequency of 30 kHz. If
(fl) Zero Error (b) Sensitivity Error both its diameter and thickness are halved, the
(c) Non-conformity Error natural frequency is
(d) Hysteresis Error. (a) 15 kHz (b) 240 kHz
8. A transducer has an output impedance of 1 kfl and (c) 60 kHz (d) 120 kHz.
the load resistance is 1 MQ, the transducer behaves 15. A pressure of 256 kN/m2acting on a diaphragm
as produces a deflection of 0.2 mm at the centre. What
(fl) a constant current source pressure would produce the same deflection if the
(b) a constant voltage source diameter is 2 times the earlier one and the
1
(c) a constant power source thickness is — of the earlier one
2
(d) none of the above.
(a) 2 kN/m2 (b) 128 kN/m2
9. If a transducer has an output impedance of 1Q and
(c) 64 kN/m2 (d) 0.5 kN/m2.
a load resistance of 1 kfl, it behaves as
16. A pressure applied to a bellows element produces
(fl) a constant current source
a linear displacement of 2 mm. Suppose the
(b) a constant voltage source
number of bellows elements is made 3 times and
(c) a constant impedance source thickness of the bellows element is halved, what
(d) none of the above. would be the displacement of the element for the
10. The lower limit of useful working range of a same applied pressure ?
transducer is determined by (fl) 24 mm (b) 12 mm
(fl) minimum useful input level (c) 48 mm (d) 3 mm.
(b) by transducer error and noise 17. A torsion bar of 30 mm diameter produces a twist
(c) cross sensitivity of 1 minute when torque of 200 Nm is applied.
(d) dynamic response. Supposing the diameter of the torsion bar is
11. While selecting a transducer for a particular reduced to 15 mm, what would be the angle of
application twist for the same torque ?
(fl) only the input characteristics should be consid (fl) 4 minute (b) 8 minute
ered (c) 2 minute (d) 0.125 minute.
Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 86/
18. A Reynold's number of 1000 indicates meter (3000 of movement full scale) with a total of
(a) turbulent flow (b) laminar flow 5000 turns of wire. Its resolution is
(c) a flow which can either be turbulent or laminar (a) 0.1 mm (b) 0.2 mm
(J) none of the above. (c) 0.01 mm (rf) 0.02 mm.
19. In a venturi meter the flow is 0.15 m /s when the 27. In wire wound strain gauges, the change in
2
differential pressure is 30 kN/m . What is the value resistance on application of strain is mainly due to
* 9
of flow when the differential pressure is 60 kN/m . (a) change in length of wire
(a) 0.212 m3/s (b) 0.106 m3/s (b) change in diameter of wire
(c) 0.3 m3/s (rf) 0.075 m3/s. (c) change in both length and diameter of wire
20. Pitot tubes are useful (rf) change in resistivity.
(fl) for industrial applications 28. Unbonded strain gauges are
(b) for laboratory experimental purposes (a) exclusively used for transducer applications
(c) for both industrial and laboratory applications (b) exclusively used for stress analysis
(rf) none of the above. (c) commonly used for both transducer applica
21. Water is flowing with a depth of 0.9 m over a tions as well as for stress analysis
rectangular notch 1.2 m wide. Find the depth of (rf) none of the above.
flow over a right angled notch if the same were to 29. The gauge factor is defined as
pass over it. Assume that both the notches have the Z.AL/L
same co-efficient of discharge (a)--------- (b)---------
V AR/R AL/ L
(a) 0.91 n (b) 1.1 m ,'AR/R
(c)--------- («)----- 7~
(c) 2.2 m (rf) 0.45 m. AD/D Ap/p
22. A resistance potentiometer is a where L, D, p and R are respectively the length,
(fl) first order instrument diameter, resistivity and resistance of strain gauge.
(b) zero order instrument 30. For wire wound strain gauges the approximate
(c) second order instrument value of gauge factor is
(rf) none of the above. (fl)l+2Ap/p (b)l+2AR/R
23. In a resistance potentiometer, the non-linearity (c)l+2v (rf)l+2AD/D.
(a) increases with increase of load to potentiom where p, R, v and D are respectively resistivity,
eter resistance resistance, poisson's ratio and diameter.
(b) decreases with increase of load to potentiom 31. Metal foil type of strain gauges are superior to wire
eter resistance wound metal strain gauges because
(c) is not dependent upon load to potentiometer (fl) they have a higher heat dissipation capacity
resistance (b) they have a larger surface area which makes
(rf) none of the above. the bonding easier
24. In a resistance potentiometer high value of (c) they can be fabricated economically using tech
resistance of POT leads to niques which are similar to those used for fabri
(a) high value of sensitivity cation of microelectronic circuitry
(rf) all the above.
(b) low value of sensitivity
32. Metal foil gauges use fat end turns in order to
(c) low value of non-linearity
(fl) reduce transverse sensitivity
(rf) low value of error.
(b) reduce longitudinal sensitivity
25. A 100 Q resistive potentiometer is used with an
input supply voltage of 10 V. The temperature of (c) reduce cross sensitivity
the POT is of the thermal resistance 30°C/W and (rf) all the above.
the ambient temperature is 40°C 33. In semi-conductor strain gauges, the change in
(a) 60°C (b) 80°C resistance on application of strain
(c) 70°C (rf) 100°C. (fl) is much higher than that in the case of metal
26. A helipot is used for measurement of linear strain gauges and this is mainly due to change
displacement of 0.1 m. It uses a 10 turn potentio in dimensions
(b) is much higher than that in the case of metal 39. A thermistor exhibits
strain gauges and this is mainly due to change (a) only a negative change of resistance with
in resistivity increase in temperature
(c) is lower than that in the case of metal strain (fe) only a positive change of resistance with
gauges increase in temperature
(d) none of the above. (c) can exhibit either a negative or positive change
34. In semi-conductor strain gauges, when tensile of resistance with increase of temperature
strain is applied depending upon the type of material used
(a) resistance increases in N-type of materials (d) none of the above.
(b) resistance increases in P-type of materials 40. The resistance value of a thermistor is 5000 Q at
(c) resistance increases in both P and N type mate 25°C and its resistance temperature co-efficient is
rials 0.04/°C. A measurement with a lead resistance of
(d) resistance decreases in both P and N type mate 10 Q will cause an error of
rials. (a) 0.02°C (fe) 0.05°C
35. The RTDs use the principle of change of resistance (c) 0.1°C (d) none of the above.
with temperature. The properties of a conductor 41. The temperature transducers exhibit non-linear
material to be used as an element of an RTD should
behaviour. The order in which they exhibit
possess the following properties
non-linearity (highest to lowest) is
(a) the change in resistance per unit change in
(a) Thermocouples, RTDs. thermistors
temperature should be as small as possible
(fe) Thermistors, thermocouples, RTDs
(b) the resistance of the materials should not have
a continuous and stable relationship with (c) RTDs, thermocouples, thermistors
temperature (d) Thermistors, RTDs, thermocouples.
(c) the change of resistance with temperature 42. Three types of temperature transducers are
should not be a linear function compared as regards their sensitivity. The order in
(d) none of the above. which they exhibit their sensitivities (highest to
lowest) is
36. Platinum is the commonly used metal for RTDs.
This is because (a) Thermistors, RTDs, thermocouples
(a) platinum has a constant value of resistance (fe) Thermocouples. RTDs, thermistors
temperature co-efficient of 0.004°C for a (c) TDs, thermistors, thermocouples
temperature range between 0 to 100°C (d) RTDs, thermocouples, thermistors.
(b) the resistivity of platinum tends to increase less 43. Thermocouples are
rapidly at higher temperatures (fl) passive transducers
(c) platinum is available in pure form for commer (fe) active transducers
cial applications and has a stability over higher
(c) both active and passive transducers
ranges of temperature
(d) output transducers.
(d) all the above.
44. Thermocouples
37. The resistance of a thermometer is 5 Q at 30°C and
(fl) are most commonly used temperature trans
6.5 Q at 60°C. Using linear approximation, the
ducers
value of resistance temperature co-efficient at 45°C
(fe) require reference junction compensation
(a) 0.009/°C (fe) 0.0087/°C
(c) have a low output voltage level
(c) 0.0085/°C (d) 0.01/°C.
(d) all the above.
38. The sensitivity of thermistors as compared with
sensitivity of platinum resistance temperature 45. A thermocouple produces a voltage of 50 mV. Its
detector over a temperature range of -100°C to internal resistance is 50 Q. The resistance of its
leads is 10 Q. Its output is read by a PMMC meter
400°C to changes in temperature is
having an internal resistance of 120 Q. The output
(a) 100 times (fe) 106 times
voltage indicated is
(c) 107 times
(fl) 33.3 mV (fe) 25 mV
(d) 10° times.
(c) 40 mV (d) 10 mV.
46. Air cored Inductive transducers are suitable for 53. An L.V.D.T.
use
(fl) exhibits linear characteristics upto a displace
(a) at lower frequencies ment of ± 5 mm
(b) at higher frequencies (b) has a linearity of 0.05%
(c) at equal frequencies (c) has an infinite resolution and a high sensitivity
(d) as are employed for iron cored transducers. which is of the order of 40 V/mm
47. The size of air cored transducers as compared with (d) all the above.
their iron cored counterparts is 54. An L.V.D.T.
(a) smaller (b) bigger (fl) has very good frequency response as the mass
(cj same (d) all the above. of the core to which the input signal is applied
48. An iron cored transducer is exited with a is fairly large
frequency of 20 kHz. The maximum value of (b) is immune to stray magnetic fields
frequency of displacement to be measured with (c) has a zero voltage at the null point even if the
this transducer should not exceed supply voltage contains and harmonics and
(fl) 0.5 kHz (b) 1 kHz even if the two secondary windings are not
(c) 1.5 kHz (d) 2 kHz. exactly similar and even asymmetrically placed
with respect to primary winding
49. Inductive transducers are used in differential con
figuration because the output is not influenced by
55. There are two modes in which synchro transmitter
(a) external magnetic fields
-transmitter pairs are used i.e., (z) error detection
(b) temperature changes
mode (z'z) torque transmission mode. The torque in
(c) variations of supply voltage and frequency the torque transmission mode
(d) all the above. (fl) is greater than that in the error transmission
50. Two inductive transducers working on the mode
principle of change of self inductance L, are con (b) is smaller than that in the error transmission made
nected in a push pull arrangement. If the change of (c) the torque is the same in both the modes
inductance of transducers is AL the change of
inductance exhibited at the output terminals is
56. The rotor of a synchro-transmitter
(fl) AL (b) 2AL
(zz) uses a salient pole type of construction
(c)±2AL (d) zero.
(b) uses a cylindrical pole type of construction
51. In an L.V.D.T., the two secondary windings are
(c) may use either salient pole or cylindrical type
connected in differential to obtain
of construction
(fl) higher output voltage
(b) an output voltage which is phase sensitive i.e.,
the output voltage has a phase which can lead 57. The electrical zero of synchro-transmitter is when
the voltage induced
us to a conclusion whether the displacement of
the core took place from right to left or from left (zz) in coil Sr of stator is maximum
to right (b) in coil S3, of stator is maximum
(c) in order to establish the null or the reference (c) in coil S2, of stator is maximum
point for the displacement of the core (d) in coil S2, of stator is maximum and the voltage
(d) both (b) and (c). across terminals S3,S1 is zero.
52. In an L.V.D.T., the core is made up of a 58. The electrical zero of a synchro-transformer is
(fl) non-magnetic material (fl) displaced by an angle 180° from the zero of a
(b) a solid ferro-electric material synchro-transmitter
(c) high permeability, nickel-iron hydrogen annealed (b) displaced by an angle 90° from the zero of a
material in order to produce low harmonics, synchro-transmitter
low null voltage, and high sensitivity. The core (c) displaced by an angle 0° from the zero of the
is slotted to reduce eddy current losses transmitter
(d) all the above. (d) none of the above.
8 70 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation
59. In a synchro-transmitter, the voltages induced in 65. Capacitive transducers are normally used for
the three windings of the stator are
(a) static measurements
(a) displaced 120° in time phase
(b) dynamic measurements
(b) are in time phase with each other
(c) both static and dynamic measurements
(c) displaced 90° in time phase
(J) transient measurements.
66. The dynamic characteristics of capacitive trans
60. When a synchro-transmitter synchro control
ducers are similar to those of
transformer pair is used as an error detector the
(fl) low pass filters (b) high pass filters
output voltage obtained from the rotor terminals of
the synchro-transformer is (c) notch filters (d) band stop filters.
(a) sinusoidal 67. A capacitive transducer working on the principle

of change of capacitance with change of displace
(b) suppressed carrier modulated
ment, exhibits non-linear characterics. The response
(c) half wave rectified
of these transducers can be made linear by using
(J) none of the above.
(fl) differential arrangement
61. The rotor of a synchro-transformer is made
(b) use of an OPAMP
cylindrical in construction
(c) working them over a small displacement range
(fl) in order that air gap remains uniform
(d) all the above.
(b) there is no change of reactance of the rotor
68. Capacitive transducers can be used for
winding with change of rotor position
measurement of liquid level. The principle of
(c) there should not be any change in the rotor operation used in this case is
winding impedance with position of rotor since
(a) change of capacitance with change of distance
the rotor winding is connected to an amplifier
between plates
(tf) all the above.
(b) change of area of plates
62. A synchro-transmitter transformer pair is used as
(c) change of dielectric strength
error detector. The sensitivity of the pair is
100 V/rad. The rotor of the transformer turns through (J) none of the above.
an angle of 0.5 rad while the transformer rotor 69. What is the order of minimum displacement that
turns through an angle of 0.45 rad. The value of can be measured with capacitive transducers ?
error signal representing the two shaft positions is: (a) 1 cm (b) 1 mm
(a) 5V (b) 99.5 V (c) 90 V (d) 10 V. (c) 1 pm (d) 1 x ICT12 m.
63. How many windings does a simple resolver have ? 70. The capacitive transducers have a high output
(a) one stator and two rotor windings impedance and therefore,
(b) one rotor and two stator windings (a) to reduce loading effects long lengths of cable
should be used
(c) two stator and two rotor windings
(b) to increase the value of resonant frequency
(d) a one stator and one rotor winding.
long lengths of cables should be used
64. In Fig. 25.102, a simple resolver is shown. The
(c) long cable lengths should be used in conjunc
stator windings are excited with voltages £S1_3 and
tion with capacitive transducers in order to
ES24‘ Find the voltages across rotor windings £R_13
improve their frequency response
and £R2^when an angle 0
(«) Eri-3 ~ ^si-3 si11® + ES2-4COS® 71. The voltage sensitivities of Barium titanate and
£r2-4 - ^si-3 s* 11® ~ £$2-4COS$ quartz are respectively 12 x IO-3 Vm/N and
50 x IO-3 Vm/N. Their respective permittivities are
(^) Eri-3 = ^si-3 cos® ~ES2 4sinO
12.5 x IO-9 F/m and 40.6 x IO-12 F/m. What are their
ER2-4 = £$i-3 cos$ + ES2 4 sin 0
charge sensitivities ?
(c) Era 3 = £^ 3 cos© + ES2 4sin0 (fl) 1.04 xlO6C/N, 1.23 x109C/N
£r2-4 £$i cos 0 Es 24 sin 0 (b) 150 pC/N, 2 pC/N

(d) Era3 = £^ 3 cos0 + £<., 4sin0 (c) 20 pC/N, 50 pC/N
E^2-4 = £$1-3 cos 6 + £St 4sin0. (d) none of the above.

72. Ceramic materials are used for piezo-electric 79. Tuned magneto-elastic transducers can be used for
transducers generation of
(a) they are polycrystalline in nature (a) radio waves (b) electric current
(b) they are basically made of barium titanate (c) ultrasound waves (d) all the above.
(c) they do not have piezo-electric properties in 80. A Hall effect transducer can be used for
their original state but these properties are measurement of
produced by special polarizing treatment (fl) power (b) current
(d) all the above. (c) displacement (d) all the above.
73. Quartz and Rochelle salt belong to 81. A Hall effect transducer is used for measurement
(a) natural group of piezo-electric materials of a magnetic field of 1.5 Wb/m with a copper
(b) synthetic group of piezo-electric materials transducer for which the Hall effect co-efficient is
-52 x 10-12 V-m / A-Wb m~2. The thickness of
(c) can belong to natural or synthetic group of
piezo-electric materials provided properly the element is 2 mm and the current passing is 5 A,
polarized find the voltage generated
(d) all the above. (fl)-0.195 pV (b) 0.195 pV

(c) -390 mV (d) -390 x 10'9 V.
74. Piezo-electric transducers are
(fl) passive transducers (b) active transducers 82. A photo-voltaic cell is connected across a very
large value of resistance, its sensitivity at higher
(c) inverse transducers (d) (b) and (c).
illumination levels is typical
75. A barium titanate crystal has a thickness of 2 mm. (a) infinity (b) zero
Its voltage sensitivity is 12 x 10-3 Vm/N. It is
subjected to a pressure of U.5 MN/m2. Calculate the (c) some finite value which is very large
voltage generated (d) some finite value which is very small and nears
zero.
(fl) 3 V (b) 6 V
83. Which of the following photo-electric devices is
(c) 12 V (d) 5 V.
most suitable for digital applications ?
76. A pieze-electrical transducer has an output voltage
(fl) photo-emissive cell (b) photo-diode
of 3 V at no load conditions. It has a capacitance
(c) photo-transistor (d) photo-voltaic cell.
250 pF. It is connected to load capacitance of
125 pF. Find the voltage across the load at high 84. Which of the photo-electric transducers is used for
frequencies. production of electric energy by converting solar
energy
(a) IV (b) 2 V
(c) 9 V
(c) photo-transistor (d) (b) and (c)-
(d) cannot be determined with the data given.
85. Which of the following optical transducers is an
77. Magneto-elastic transducers work on the principle of
active transducer ?
(a) change of dimensions with change of applied
stress
(c) photo-transistor (d) photo-voltaic cell.
(b) change of permeability with change in stress
(c) change of co-ercive force with change of stress 86. A cadmium sulphide cell has the highest response
for a light of wavelength of nearly
(fl) 300 nm (b) 800 nm
78. Magnetostriction is the effect produced when a
(c) 500 nm (d) 600 nm.
magnetic material is subjected to change of
magnetization 87. A photo-diode functions as
(a) the change of magnetization results in change (fl) photo-conductive device while working with
of permeability reverse voltage
(b) the change in magnetization results in change (b) photo-voltaic device while working without a
of dimensions reverse voltage
(c) the change in magnetization results in change (c) photo-voltaic devices while working with or
in temperature without reverse voltage
(d) none of the above. (d) none of the above.
88. A photo-conductive cell is useful for (7 three outputs

(fl) high frequency applications (d) all the above.
(b) medium frequency applications 95. A tachometer encoder can be used for
(c) low frequency applications measurement of displacement
(d) all the above. (fl) in both the directions
89. The photo-diode as compared to a photo-transistor (b) in one direction only
has (7 its output pulses are counted only for the
(a) faster switching time (b) lower sensitivity forward direction
(c) higher size for the same value of output current (d) its output pulses are counted for only the
(J) all the above. reverse direction.
90. For measurement of temperature 96. Incremental counters use
(fl) only intensity type fibre optic transducers can (fl) one channel (b) two channels
be used (7 two channels and sometimes three
(b) only interferometric type Jibre-optic trans (d) none of the above.
ducers can be used
97. Absolute Encoders are used for
(c) both intrinsic and interferometric type of trans
(fl) normally one revolution
ducers can be used
(b) continuous speed
(c) continuous speed in both the directions
91. When measuring sound level-with a inter
ferometric type transducer (d) none of the above.
(fl) a laser beam is used with a beam splitter 98. Moire Fringes are used for measurement of rotary
(b) measured variable causes a phase shift in the displacement along with
light propagating through optic fibre (fl) only contact type encoders
(7 the phase shift is a measure of sound level (b) only optical encoders
(d) all the above. (7 both contact type and optical encoders
92. While measuring liquid level with fibre optic (d) none of the above.
transducers, the fibre rod or cable is cut in the form 99. The resolution of a 8 bit shift encoder is
of (fl) 360727 (b) 360729
(fl) sphere (b) rectangle (c) 360728 (d) none of the above.
(7 prism (d) none of the above.
100. Absolute encoders are used where
93. A linear displacement transducer (digital)
(fl) fast varying signals are not used
normally uses
(b) when position data is to be recovered even alter
(fl) straight binary code (b) BCD
a temporary power out age
(7 Gray code (d) Hexadecimal code.
(7 transient noise can be tolerated as it causes only
94. A tachometer encoder has a transient disturbance
(fl) one output (b) two outputs (d) all the above.
1. (7 2. (a) 3. (d) 4- (7 5. (d) 6. (7 7. (b) 8. (b) 9- (7 10. (b)

11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (fl) 14. (7 15. (fl) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (7 20. (b)
21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (fl) 29. (b) 30. (7
31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (d) 36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (b) 39. (7 40. (b)
41- (b) 42. (fl) 43. (b) 44. (d) 45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (d) 49. (7 50. (c)
51- (d) 52. (c) 53. (d) 54. (d) 55. (b) 56. (fl) 57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (b) 60. (b)
61. (d) 62. (fl) 63. (7 64. (7 65. (b) 66. (b) 67. (d) 68. (7 69. (7 70. (d)
71. (b) 72. (d) 73. (fl) 74. (d) 75. (c) 76. (b) 77. (b) 78. (b) 79. (7 80. (d)
81. (a) 82. (d) 83. (d) 84. (d) 85. (d) 86. (7 87. (a) 89. (d) 90. (7
88. (7
91. (d) 92. (c) 93. (7 94. (fl) 95. (b) 96. (7 97. (fl) 98. (b) 99. (7 100. (d)

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Primary Sensing Elements

25.1 INTRODUCTION absolutely no energy is extracted from the measurand

Table 25.1 Mechanical quantities and their Modes of Operation

i 1. Seismic mass Forcing function to displacement.

25.3 MECHANICAL SPRING DEVICES

25.3.1 Cantilever 25.3.2 Helical Spring

Fig. 25.2 Cantilever.

Deflection at the free end

Fig- 25.4 Flat spiral spring.

These elastic members are of many types and convert

Fig. 25.7 Pressure sensitive primary devices.

displacement of the free end can be obtained by

The advantages of helix elements include the high

Deflection of bellows when opposed by a spring is,

Lowest natural frequency (for air or gas medium)

% = 201 ,----- ^-5-

The deflection at a radius r from the centre is :

Maximum stress at the circumference

measurement are based upon differentia! pressure or B = expansion ratio,

For liquids, the fluid density can be considered to

...(25.23) Fig. 25.20 Pitot tube.

Fig. 25.23 Venturi flume.

The discharge can be calculated as in the case of a

The discharge through a V notch is, C = venturi flume co-efficient (0.95 to 1)

Q=^c^H2'5‘an| ...(25.27) The maximum value of flow occurs when

= 0.02 m =2 mm = 0.205 xlO-3 m =0.0205 mm

:. Compression of spring = 150/3 =50 mm = 0.236xlO-3 rad =0.81'

.-. Q = 0.99x 1.25x 1 x—(60x 10-3)2 = 0.08

or dQ = ±2.5x0.2506x0.01/0.5 25.7 ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

(iv) The electrical or electronic systems can be 25.8 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS

_______________________ __________ Passive transducers (externally powered)

Fig. 25.27 Force measurement with load cell

Glass scales can be read optically by means of a

desired output (non-electrical quantity). The input

Fig. 25.35 Transducer Non-conformity.

in this particular case.

Errors due to Noise and Drift

Fig. 25.38 Frequency response plot. 25.9.4 Output Characteristics

to be manipulated i.e., their magnitudes changed or

25.10 SUMMARY OF FACTORS INFLUENCING

range. need consideration while selecting a transducer

Any method of varying one of the quantities Displacement

The helical resistive elements are multiturn

If the distribution of the resistance with respect to

The output voltage under ideal conditions is :

=--------------------------- ... (25.51)

The ratio of output voltage to input voltage under

25.12.3 Linearity and Sensitivity

where is the resistance between the pair of adjacent

80 180 280 380 480 580 680 780 880 980

•— ei —*| eo Non-linear potentiometer

Fig. 25.49 Non-linear-potentiometer-function

8 34.4 3,440 780 3,540

It will be remembered that servo circuits are

or when the axis is shifted 90°. 1. Wire Wound Potentiometers

more sensitive to temperature changes, have a higher The disadvantages are :

K Error, V £2 =(75/125)x 5000 =3000 Q

0 Hence, output voltage

The sensitivity of potentiometer when it is a single

Example 25.13 A helipot is provided with

_____________ Passive transducers (externally powered)