ECT401:MICROWAVE &

ANTENNAS
S7 Electronics & Communication
Engineering

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 2
MODULE III

Arrays of point sources, field of two isotropic point sources, principle of

pattern multiplication, linear arrays of ‘n’ isotropic point sources. Array
factor, Grating lobes. Design of Broadside,End fire and Dolph Chebyshev
arrays. Concept of Phase array.
References :
1. Antenna Theory : Analysis and Design – Ballanis
2. Electromagnetic waves and radiating systems- E.C.Jordan
3. Antennas – John D Krauss
CO3: Design of various array antennas and its radiation patterns.
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 3
ANTENNA ARRAYS
• The field strength can be increased in preferred directions by properly exciting
group of antennas simultaneously in an arrangement known as array of
antennas.
• In array of antennas, individual antennas are so spaced and phased that their
individual contributions coming in one direction add up and cancel in all other
directions
Linear Array: an antenna array is said to be linear, if the individual antennas of
the array are equally spaced along a straight line.
Individual antennas of an antenna array system are called as elements.
Uniform Linear Array is one in which the elements are fed with current of equal
magnitude with uniform progressive phase shift along the line.

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 4 ARRAY OF POINT SOURECS
Array of Two Point Sources
Two point sources are separated by a distance d and have same
polarization.
Array of two point sources with equal amplitude and phase
Path difference =  d cos + d cos  metres
2 2 
d
= d cos metres = cos wavelengths

Phase angle 𝜓 = 2𝜋 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑
= 2𝜋 cos 𝜃 = 𝛽𝑑 cos 𝜃 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝜆

 
−j j
The total field at distant point P E = E1 e 2
+ E2 e 2

E1 = E 2 = E 0
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
  − j2 j


5 e + e 2 
 − j2 
  
 E = E0  e
j
+e 2  = 2 E0   = 2 E cos = 2 E cos d cos
 2
0
2
0
2
 

 d cos   
E = cos  = cos cos 
 2  2 
Maxima Direction:
(
cos  cos = 1
2
)
or  cos max = n where n = 0,1,2,3....
2
for n = 0  cos max = 0
2
cos max = 0
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III  max = 90  and 270  11/12/2022
 6
Minima Direction:
(
cos 
2
)
cos = 0

or  cos min =  (2n + 1)  where n = 0,1,2,3....

2 2
 cos min =  
for n = 0
2 2
cos min = 1
 min = 0  and 180 

Half Power point Direction:

( )
cos  cos =  1
2 2
or  cos HPPD =  (2n + 1)  where n = 0,1,2,3....
2 4
for n = 0  cos HPPD =  
2 4
1
cos HPPD = 
2
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III  HPPD = 60  and 120  11/12/2022
 7

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 8 Array of two point sources with equal amplitude and opposite phase
 
−j j
E = − E1 e 2
+ E2 e 2

E1 = E 2 = E0
 − j2 j

   d cos 
 E = E0  −e +e 2  = 2 jE0 sin = 2 jE0 sin
  2 2
d =
2
 d cos   
E = sin   = sin  cos 
 2  2 
Maxima Direction:
(
sin  cos = 1
2
)
or  cos max =  (2n + 1) where n = 0,1,2,3....
2 2
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 for n = 0  cos max =  
9 2 2
cos max = 1
 max = 0  and 180 

Minima Direction:
(
sin  cos = 0
2
)
or  cos min = n where n = 0,1,2,3....
2
for n = 0  cos min = 0
2
cos min = 0
 min = 90  and − 90 

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 10 Half Power point Direction: (
sin  cos =  1
2
)2

or  cos HPPD =  (2n + 1) where n = 0,1,2,3....

2 4
for n = 0  cos HPPD =  
2 4
1
cos HPPD = 
2
 HPPD = 60  and  120 

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 11 Array of two point sources with unequal amplitude and any phase
 =  d cos + 

E = E1e j 0 + E2 e j

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 LINEAR ARRAY WITH n ISOTROPIC POINT SOURCES OF EQUAL AMPLITUDE AND SPACING
12
Et = E 0 e j 0 + E 0 e j + E 0 e j 2 + E 0 e j 3 + E 0 e j 4 + ............. + E 0 e j (n −1)
( )
Et = E 0 1 + e j + e j 2 + e j 3 + e j 4 + ......................e j (n −1) − − − − − −(1)

ψ = (βd cosθ + α )
Multiplying equation (1) by e j

( )
Et e j = E0 e j + e j 2 + e j 3 + e j 4 + ......................e jn − − − − − − − −(2)
(1) – (2) yields

Et (1 − e j ) = E0 (1 − e jn )
(1 − e jn )
Et = E 0 j
− − − − − − − − − (3)
(1 − e )

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 1 − e jn 2 e jn 2  −e
jn  jn − jn 
−e 2 
13   2
e 2

Et = E 0  =E  
1 − e j 2 e j 2  j  j − j 
0

  −e  e 2 2
−e 2 
   
 n 
j ( n −1)
 sin 
2 2 
= E0 e
 sin  
 
 2 
 n 
 sin 
 2  j  n −1
Et = E 0 e − − − − − − − − − (4) where  =  
 sin    2 
 
 2 
 n 
 sin 
Et =  2 
 sin  
 
 2 
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 VARIOUS FORMS OF ANTENNA ARRAYS
14
1. Broadside Array
2. End Fire Array
3. Collinear Array
4. Parasitic Array

1. Broadside Array

Identical parallel antennas are setup along a line drawn

perpendicular to their respective axis.

Equally spaced along a line, each element fed with current of

equal magnitude, all in the same phase.

Maximum radiations perpendicular to line of array axis

Radiation pattern of broadside array is bidirectional.

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 15

The bidirectional pattern of a broadside array can be converted into unidirectional by installing an
identical array behind this array at distance λ/4 and exciting it by current leading in phase by 90º.

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 2. End Fire Array
16
Individual elements are fed in, out of phase, usually 180º

Principal direction of radiation coincides with the direction of array axis.

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 3. Collinear Array
17
Antennas are arranged coaxially ie mounted end to end in a single line.

Fed with equal in phase currents

The gain of collinear array is maximum, when the spacing between the elements is of the order of 0.3λ to
0.5λ.

The increase in the length of collinear arrays increases the directivity.

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 4. Parasitic Array
18
The element supplied power directly from source is called as driven element.

Parasitic elements derive power by radiation from nearby driven element.

The amplitude and phase of the current induced in a parasitic element depends on its tuning and distance
between parasitic element and driven element to which it is coupled.

100-1000MHz.

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 DESIGN OF BROAD-SIDE ARRAY
19
 = d cos +   0 = d cos90 + 

 =0
Direction of pattern maxima

sin n 2
Et = E 0
sin  2
sin n 2 = 1

n 2 = (2 N + 1) where N = 1,2,3,....
2
N = 0 corresponds to major lobe maxima.

 2 = (2 N + 1)
2n

 = (2 N + 1)
n
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 
d cos( max ) min +  = (2 N + 1)
20 n

[(2 N + 1) −  ]}
1
cos( max ) min = {
d n
−1  1  
( max ) min = cos  [(2 N + 1) −  ]
 d n 
For broadside array α = 0

 1  
( max ) min −1
= cos  [ ( 2 N + 1) ]
d n 
Let n=4 ; d =λ/2 ; β =2π/λ

  2 N + 1  
( max ) min = cos    
−1
 
  4  
If N = 1,  3
( max ) min = cos−1   
 4
( max ) min = 41.4  or  138.6  N≥2 does not exist.
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 Directions of pattern minima:
21
sin n 2
Et = E 0 =0
sin  2

sin n 2 = 0 provided sin 2  0

n 2 =  N

2 N
 =
n
2 N
d cos( min ) min +  = 
n
1 2 N
cos( min ) min = [ −]
d n
 1 2 N 
( min ) min = cos−1  [ −  ]
 d n 

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 22 For broadside α =0
 1 2 N 
( min ) min −1
= cos  [ ]
d n 
Let n = 4; d = λ/2; β=2π/λ
 N
( min ) min = cos −1  
 2
For N = 1
 1
( min ) min −1
= cos  
 2
( min ) min = 60  or  120 
For N = 2
( min ) min = cos−1  1
( min ) min = 0  or  180 
N≥3 does not exist.
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 23

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 24 Beam width of major lobe:
It is defined as the angle between first nulls or double the angle between first
null and major lobe maximum directions (γ).
γ = 90 – θ.
Beamwidth of major lobe ( BWFN) = 2 × angle between first null and
maximum of major lobe.
= 2×γ
 N 
( min ) = cos 
−1

 nd 
 N 
90 −  = cos−1  
 nd 
 N 
cos(90 −  ) = sin  =  
 nd 
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 25  N 
 =  
 nd 
2 2 2 2  57.3
BWFN = 2   1 = = = radian = degree
nd L L L
 

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 26 DESIGN OF END-FIRE ARRAY
For an array to be end fire, ψ = 0º and θ= 0º or 180º
 = d cos + 
0 = d cos 0  + 
 = − d
Direction of pattern maxima
sin n 2
Et = E 0
sin  2
sin n 2 = 1

n 2 = (2 N + 1) where N = 1,2,3,....
2
N = 0 corresponds to major lobe maxima.
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
  
 2 = (2 N + 1)  = (2 N + 1)
2n n
27
For end fire case α = -βd

 = d cos( max ) min +  = (2 N + 1)
n

d cos( max ) min − d = (2 N + 1)
n

d (cos( max ) min − 1) = (2 N + 1)
n
 
 (2 N + 1) 
1
(cos( max ) min − 1) =
d  n

  (2 N + 1)    (2 N + 1) 
cos( max ) min = + 1 ( max ) min −1
= cos  + 1
 dn   dn 
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 Let n = 4; d = λ/2; β=2π/λ
28  
−1  ( 2 N + 1)  −1   ( 2 N + 1)  −1  ( 2 N + 1)
    
( max ) min = cos  + 1 = cos  + 1 = cos  + 1
  dn   2    4   4 
  2 
If N = 1
 3  7 1
( max ) min = cos −1   + 1 = cos −1  , 
 4  4 4
−1  7  −1  1 
cos   doesnot exists cos   = 75.5
4 4
If N = 2

 5  −1  9 1
( max ) min = cos   + 1 = cos  , − 
−1

 4  4 4
−1  9  −1  1
cos   doesnot exists cos  −  = −75.5
4  4
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 Directions of pattern minima:
29
sin n 2
Et = E 0 =0
sin  2

sin 𝑛𝜓Τ2 = 0 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 sin 𝜓Τ2 ≠ 0

𝑛𝜓Τ2 = ± 𝑁𝜋

2 N
 =
n
2 N 2 N
d cos( min ) min + =  d cos( min ) min − d = 
n n

2 N
d cos( min ) min − 1 = 
n
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 2 N
cos( min ) min − 1 = 
nd
30
2 N
cos min =  +1
nd
 2 N 
 min −1
= cos   + 1
 nd 
Let n = 4; d = λ/2;β=2π/λ
 
  
2 N −1  N 
( min ) min −1
= cos   
+ 1 = cos   + 1
 2  4     2 
 
  2 
For N = 1
 1  −1  3 1 
( min ) min = cos  + 1 = cos  , 
−1

 2  2 2
−1  1 
( min ) min = cos   = 60
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 2 11/12/2022
  2 
For N = 2 ( min ) min = cos  + 1 = cos−1 2,0
−1
31  2 
( min ) min = cos−1 0 = 90

For N = 3
 3  −1  5 1
( min ) min −1
= cos  + 1 = cos  ,− 
 2  2 2
 1
( min ) min = cos−1 −  = 120
 2
For N = 4
 4 
( min ) min = cos  + 1 = cos−1 3,−1
−1

 2 
( min ) min = cos−1 − 1 = 180

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 32

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 Beam width of major lobe:
33 Beamwidth of major lobe ( BWFN) = 2 × angle between first null and maximum
of major lobe. = 2 × θ1
2 N 2  min 2 N
cos min = + 1  1 − 2 sin = +1
nd 2 nd
 min 2 N
2 sin 2
=
2 nd
Putting β=2π/λ:

 N 
 min 
= 2 sin   −1

2nd 
 
 N  2 N
sin  min   min 
= 2  =
2nd  nd
 
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 34 beam width between first nulls = 2   min
 2 N 
= 2    

 nd 
 2 N   2 N 
21 = 2     = 2
 


 nd   L 
For N =1
   
 2   2 
BFWN = 2    = 57 .3 
 2    degree
 L  L 
   
2
BFWN = 114 .6 
degree
L


ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 35 GRATING LOBES

When the spacing between the elements is equal to or greater than λ, multiple maxima of
equal magnitude are formed.
The principle maximum is referred to as the major lobe and the remaining as grating
lobes.
A grating lobe is defined as “a lobe other than major lobe, produced by an array
antenna when the inter element spacing is sufficiently large to permit the in-phase
addition of radiated fields in more than one direction” .

To avoid any grating lobe the largest spacing between the elements should be dmax < λ.

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 BINOMIAL ARRAYS

36 It is an array of n-isotropic sources of non-uniform amplitudes.

In this, the amplitudes of the radiating sources are arranged according to the
coefficients of successive terms of the following binomial series

(a + b)n−1 = a n−1 + n − 1 a n−2b + (n − 1)(n − 2) a n−3b 2 + (n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) a n−4b 3 + ........

1! 2! 3!
If the secondary or side lobes in the linear broadside array are to be eliminated
totally then the radiating sources must have current amplitudes proportional to
the coefficients of binomial series.

With uniform linear array, as the array length is increased to increase the
directivity, the minor lobes appear.
To minimize the side lobes, the array is arranged in such a way that radiating
sources in the centre of broadside array radiate more strongly than the radiating
sources at the edges.
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 The secondary lobes can be eliminated completely, if two conditions are satisfied:
37 • Spacing between two consecutive radiating sources does not exceed λ/2

• The current amplitude in radiating sources is proportional to the coefficients

of the successive terms of binomial series above.

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 38 The coefficients can also be found using Pascal’s triangle.

The elimination of secondary lobes takes place at the cost of

directivity.
Half power beam width of binomial array is more than that of uniform array for
the same length.
Thus in uniform array secondary lobes appear but principal lobe is sharp and
narrow whereas in binomial array width of beam widens but without secondary
lobes.

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 39 Design Procedure

Disadvantages:
1. HPBW increases and hence directivity decreases
2. For design of large array, large amplitude sources are required.

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 DOLPH CHEBYSHEV ARRAY
40
Narrowest beam width besides low side level.
Tchebyshev polynomials

Dolph chebyshev current amplitude distribution is optimum provided d 
2
Tchebyshev Polynomial
(
Tm (x ) = cos m cos−1 x ) x  1 .
(
Tm (x ) = cosh m cosh−1 x ) x  1
Let m=0
(
T0 ( x ) = cos m cos −1 x ) = cos ( m ) = cos ( 0 ) =1
T0 (x ) = 1  = cos−1 x
x = cos
ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022
 T1 (x) = cos(1 ) = x
m =1
41
T1 (x ) = x
m =2
T2 ( x ) = cos(2 ) = 2 cos2  − 1
T2 ( x ) = 2 x 2 − 1
m=3
T3 ( x ) = cos(3 ) = 4 cos3  − 3 cos
T3 ( x ) = 4 x 3 − 3 x

For higher terms we can use the recursion formula

Tm+1 ( x) = 2 xTm ( x) − Tm−1 ( x)

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 42

Fig: Tchebyshev polynomial m=4

Fig: m =5

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 EC306: ANTENNA & WAVE
PROPAGATION
S6 Electronics & Communication
Engineering
Topic: Module 3 Session 8 : Chebyshev array

44 21-05-2021 (Fri,1)

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

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ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

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ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 EC306: ANTENNA & WAVE
PROPAGATION
S6 Electronics & Communication
Engineering
Topic: Module 3 Session 9 : Chebyshev array –Design (Numerical
problems)
50
26-05-2021 (wed,3)

ECE|MBITS - EC 306 : Module III 11/12/2022

 NON-ISOTROPIC BUT SIMILAR POINT SOURCES
51
Idea of array isotropic point sources can be extended to sources which are not isotropic; provided their field
patterns are similar to that of isotropic point source.

In other words field patterns of non-isotropic must have same shape and orientation.

However it is not necessary that amplitude of individual non-isotropic source is equal.

Such source is given the name, non-isotropic but similar point source.

If amplitudes of individual sources are equal, the sources would be non-isotropic but identical.

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 52 PATTERN MULTIPLICATION
It is stated as:
“ The total field pattern of an array non-isotropic but similar sources is the multiplication of individual
source patterns and the pattern of an array of isotropic point source having same location, relative
amplitude and phase, whereas the total phase pattern is the addition of phase pattern of individual sources
and that of array of isotropic point sources”.

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