TABLE OF CONTENTS

2
CHAPTER 1
Roots of Polynomial Equations

3 Rational Functions
CHAPTER 2

4
CHAPTER 3
Polar Coordinates

7
CHAPTER 4
Mathematical Induction

8
CHAPTER 5
Summation of Series

10
CHAPTER 6
Vectors

13 Matrices
CHAPTER 7
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= (𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 − 𝛽𝛾) − 2(𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾) + 3
1. ROOTS OF POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS ∴ −2 − 2(−3) + 3 = 7

1.1 Coefficients of Polynomials 3. (𝛼 − 1)(𝛽 − 1)(𝛾 − 1)

• Quadratic Equations (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎)
𝟐 = (𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼 − 𝛽 + 1)(𝛾 − 1)
𝑏 = 𝛼𝛽𝛾 − 𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛼 − 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 − 1
o ∑α = α + β = −𝑎 = 𝛼𝛽𝛾 − (𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾) + (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾) − 1
𝑐
o ∑ αβ = αβ = 𝑎 ∴ −5 − (−2) + (−3) + 1 = −7
o 𝑆𝑛 = α𝑛 + β𝑛
• Cubic Equations (𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅 = 𝟎) Thus, equation is: 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟔𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝒙 + 𝟕 = 𝟎
b
o ∑α = α + β + γ = −a
c
o ∑ αβ = αβ + αγ + βγ = a 1.3 Substitution
d
o ∑ αβγ = αβγ = − • For Finding sums of roots to a specific degree of power
a
o 𝑆𝑛 = α𝑛 + β𝑛 + γ 𝑛 {SP20-P01} Question 4:
𝟑 𝟐
• Quartic Equations (𝒂𝒙𝟒 + 𝒃𝒙𝟑 + 𝒄𝒙𝟐 + 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒆 = 𝟎) The Cubic Equation 𝒛 − 𝒛 − 𝒛 − 𝟓 = 𝟎 has roots 𝜶,
𝑏 𝜷 and𝜸
o ∑α = α + β + γ + δ = −𝑎
c
a) Show that 𝜶𝟑 + 𝜷𝟑 + 𝜸𝟑 = 𝟏𝟗
o ∑ αβ = αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ = a b) Find the value of 𝜶𝟒 + 𝜷𝟒 + 𝜸𝟒
o ∑ αβγ = αβγ + αβδ + αγδ + βγδ = −
𝑑 Solution:
𝑎 We can use Recurrence Notation since:
𝑒
o ∑ αβγδ = αβγδ = 𝑎
𝑆3 = 𝛼 3 + 𝛽3 + 𝛾 3
o 𝑆𝑛 = α𝑛 + β𝑛 + γ𝑛 + δ𝑛 Find𝑺𝟏 and𝑺𝟐 .From the polynomial:
• Recurrence Notation 𝑆1 = 1
o ∑ α is also known as 𝑆1 𝟐
Using 𝑺𝟐 = (∑ 𝜶) − 𝟐 ∑ 𝜶𝜷
o ∑ α2 = (∑ α)2 − 2 ∑ αβ is also known as 𝑆2
1 𝑆2 = (1)2 − 2(−1) = 3
o ∑ is also known as 𝑆−1 . It’s always equal to the From our polynomial, we know that:
α
negative of the coefficient of the linear term divided 𝑆3 − 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 − 15 = 0
by the coefficient of the constant term Substitute in values and find 𝑆3
𝑆3 − (3) − (1) − 15 = 0
1.2 Algebraic Combinations
→ 𝑆3 = 15 + 3 + 1
• Finding an equation through algebraic manipulation
→ 𝑆3 = 19 (Ans for a)
Ex 1.3 Question 2b:
𝟑 𝟐
𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓 = 𝟎 has roots 𝜶, 𝜷, 𝜸
In order to find 𝑆4 , we will need to use a substitution,
Find equation with roots (𝜶 − 𝟏), (𝜷 − 𝟏), (𝜸 − 𝟏)
Solution:
we will be letting 𝑦 = 𝑧 2 → 𝑧 = √𝑦
Using coefficients: Rearrange the terms:
1. 𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜸 = −𝟑 𝑧3 − 𝑧 = 𝑧2 + 5
2. 𝜶𝜷 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜶𝜸 = −𝟐 Square both sides:
3. 𝜶𝜷𝜸 = −𝟓 𝑧 6 − 2𝑧 4 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑧 4 + 10𝑧 2 + 25
Equation to find:
Rearrange the terms back and substitute in 𝑧 = √𝑦:
1. (𝛼 − 1) + (𝛽 − 1) + (𝛾 − 1) =
= 𝛼+𝛽+𝛾−3
𝑧 6 − 3𝑧 4 − 9𝑧 2 − 25 = 0
∴ −3 − 3 = 6 → 𝑦 3 − 3𝑦 2 − 9𝑦 − 25 = 0

2. (𝛼 − 1)(𝛽 − 1) + (𝛼 − 1)(𝛾 − 1) + 𝑺𝟐 in the new equation is 𝑺𝟒 in the old equation

(𝛽 − 1)(𝛾 − 1) 𝑆2 = (3)2 − 2(−9) = 27 (Ans for b)
= 𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼 − 𝛽 + 1 + 𝛼𝛾 − 𝛼 − 𝛾 + 1 + 𝛽𝛾 − 𝛽 − 𝛾 + 1

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2. RATIONAL FUNCTIONS • Leave columns between each value of 𝑥 and place signs
to indicate whether value +ve or –ve in each cell
2.1 Partial Fractions • Example:
• To split an improper fraction into partials, use 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 6
𝑦=
Polynomial Division and make sure the degree of the (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 2)
numerator is higher than the denominator. 𝑥 −3 2
• If the degree of the numerator is less than the 2
3𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 6 + + + + +
denominator, use partial fraction method and equate 𝑥+3 − 0 + + +
coefficient. 𝑥−2 − − − 0 +
𝑦 + ∞ − ∞ +
2.2 Vertical Asymptote
• Making denominator 0 resulting in ∞ 2.6 Range of Function
• Example: • Discriminant:
1 o 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 : Tangent
𝑦=
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) o 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 : Lines do not meet (are not in range)
Thus, vertical asymptotes at:𝑥 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 o 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 : Lines do meet (are in range)
• We can use the discriminant to show the Range of the
2.3 Horizontal Asymptote function. Most of the time we use 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 to show
• By dividing the top and bottom of a fraction by 𝑥, we can what values of 𝑦 that does not exist to then show what
see what value 𝑦 tends to when 𝑥 becomes very large values of 𝑦 exists.
• Example:
3𝑥 − 2 2.7 Curve Sketching
𝑦=
𝑥+1 • When you sketch the curve, include the following:
o 𝑦-intercept
Divide numerator and denominator by 𝑥 o 𝑥-intercepts
o Stationary points (maxima, minima, inflections)
3𝑥−2 2
𝑥
3−𝑥 o Vertical asymptote(s)
𝑦= 𝑥+1 = 1 o Horizontal or oblique asymptote(s)
𝑥
1+𝑥
{SP20-P01} Question 7:
𝟐𝒙𝟐 −𝟑𝒙−𝟐
3
When 𝑥 is very large, 𝑦 = 1 = 3 The Curve 𝑪 has equation 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 −𝟐𝒙+𝟏
Thus, horizontal asymptote at:𝑦 = 3 a) State the equations of the asymptotes of 𝑪
𝟐𝟓
b) Show that 𝒚 ≤ at all points on 𝑪
𝟏𝟐
2.4 Oblique Asymptotes c) Find the coordinates of any stationary points
• Occurs only with improper fraction of 𝑪
• Example: d) Sketch 𝑪, stating the coordinates of any
2 3 intersections of 𝑪 with the coordinate axes
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 + − and the asymptotes
𝑥−1 𝑥+2
When 𝑥 becomes very large, 𝑦 ≈ 2𝑥 − 1 In order to find all the asymptotes, we will have to
Thus, oblique asymptote at:𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1 split the improper fraction as much as possible:

2.5 Sign Tables Apply polynomial division to our function:

• Used to visualize graph as it shows in which quadrant 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 𝑥+2
𝑦= 2 =2+
the graph lies 𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 − 1)2
• Enter values of 𝑥 which result in different parts of the
fraction equaling zero

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As 𝒙 → ∞, 𝒚 = 𝟐 which is our horizontal asymptote
Our vertical asymptote will be when the denominator
=0, which means:
(𝑥 − 1)2 = 0
𝑥=1
Therefore, the equations of asymptotes are:
𝑦 = 2, 𝑥 = 1 (Ans for a)

To show the range of 𝐶, we will be using the

discriminant 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 to show the values where (Ans for d)
𝑦 do not exist.
Rearrange terms: 3. POLAR COORDINATES
2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2
𝑦= 2
𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1 3.1 Definitions
• A point, 𝑃, has coordinates (𝑟, 0) where:
→ 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 o 𝑟 is the distance from
the pole,𝑂
→ (𝑦 − 2)𝑥 2 + (3 − 2𝑦)𝑥 + (2 + 𝑦) = 0
o 𝜃 is angle measure
Applying discriminant: from base half line to
(3 − 2𝑦)2 − 4(𝑦 − 2)(2 + 𝑦) < 0 radius 𝑂𝑃

→ 25 − 12𝑦 < 0

25 • Important points:
𝑦>
12 o (𝑟, 𝜃)is an ordered pair – must always be in that order
We found the Range of values for 𝒚that DO NOT
o Angle always measured positive anticlockwise,
EXIST, this implies the range of values where
principal value which is −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 𝜋
𝒚 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒕:
𝟐𝟓 o Angle measured in radians
𝒚≤ (Ans for b) o 𝑟 can only be positive
𝟏𝟐

Of course, we will have to differentiate the function in 3.2 Converting between Cartesian and Polar
order to find the stationary points, differentiating it • Basic facts:
we get: 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑦 7−𝑥 𝑟 2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
tan 𝜃 = 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)3
𝒅𝒚 • Represented on a diagram:
Equate 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎 :
7−𝑥
=0
(𝑥 − 1)3

→𝒙=𝟕
Putting the 𝒙-value to the function to give its 𝒚-value,
𝟐𝟓
we get 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟐. Which is just the highest point in our
graph.
𝟐𝟓
(𝟕, ) (Ans for c)
𝟏𝟐

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{S04-P01} Question 3: Cardioids
The curve 𝑪 has equation • 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝟐 )𝟐 o |𝑂𝐴| = 2𝑎
(𝒙𝟐
+𝒚 = 𝟒𝒙𝒚
o |𝑂𝐵| = |𝑂𝐶 | = 𝑎
Show that the polar equation of 𝑪 is 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
Solution: o 𝑟 = 2 + 2 cos 𝜃
Using identities, form an equation in terms of 𝒓 and 𝜽
(𝑟 2 )2 = 4(𝑟 cos 𝜃)(𝑟 sin 𝜃)
𝑟 4 = 4𝑟 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑟 2 = 2(2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃)
𝑟 2 = 2 sin 2𝜃 • 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 sin 𝜃
o |𝑂𝐴| = 2𝑎
3.3 Sketching Polar Curves o |𝑂𝐵| = |𝑂𝐶 | = 𝑎
Circles o 𝑟 = 5 + 5 sin 𝜃
•𝑟=𝑎
o Radius is 𝑎
o Centre of circle: (0, 0)

Flowers
• 𝑟 = 𝑎 cos 𝑏𝜃 or 𝑎 sin 𝑏𝜃
o Length of petal = 𝑎
o No. of petals:
𝑟=2
▪ if 𝑏 odd then 𝑏 petals
• 𝑟 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
▪ if 𝑏 even then 2𝑏 petals
o Diameter is 𝑎
𝑎 𝜋 o Cosine flower graphs start from𝜃 = 0° line
o Centre of circle: ( 2 , 2 ) o Sine flower graphs start from 𝜃 = 45° line

𝑟 = 2 sin 𝜃

• 𝑟 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃
o Diameter is 𝑎
𝑎 𝑟 = 2 sin 2𝜃
o Centre of circle: ( 2 , 0) 𝑟 = 2 cos 2𝜃

𝑟 = 4 cos 𝜃

𝑟 = 2 sin 3𝜃 𝑟 = 2 cos 3𝜃

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Spirals We can refer to Section 3.3 for sketching cardioids to
• When sketching spirals, first recognize the type they help us draw.
𝜋 Sketching C, we get:
are, locate the centre and find intersections at 𝑛 ( ) 2
• 𝑟 = 𝑎𝜃
o 𝑎 > 1 looser spiral
o 𝑎 < 1 tighter spiral
o Begins at (0, 0)

𝑟=𝜃
• 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑏𝜃

o First intersection to
origin = 𝑎
o Begins at (𝑎, 0) (Ans for a)

Use the formula to find area of a Polar Curve:

π
1
∫ (2 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ)2  𝑑θ
0 2

3.4 Extremes – Maxima, Minima & Tangents π

1
→∫ (4 + 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ + 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θ) 𝑑θ
Required Results Maximize/Minimize Find 0 2
Furthest point 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 π
from origin 𝑑𝜃 → ∫ (2 + 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 θ)  𝑑θ
Horizontal 𝑑𝑦 0
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Tangent 𝑑𝜃 Use the double angle formula:
π
𝑑𝑥
Vertical Tangent 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 → ∫ 2 + 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ + 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2θ 𝑑θ
𝑑𝜃 0

3.5 Calculus in Polar Curves 1 π

• Area enclosed by a curve: → [3θ + 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2θ]

2 0
1
∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
2 1
• Length of an arc: → 3π + 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 π + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2π = 3π (Ans for b)
2
𝑑𝑟 2 Using the formula shown in Section 3.2, let 𝒓𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐 +
∫ √𝑟 2 + ( ) 𝑑𝜃 (Not needed for AS level)
𝑑𝜃 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒙 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽and𝒚 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽.

𝑟 = 2 + 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
{SP20-P01} Question 3
𝑥
The curve 𝑪 has a polar equation 𝒓 = 𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛉, for → √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2 + 2 ×
𝟎 ≤𝛉≤𝛑 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
a) Sketch 𝑪
b) Find the area of the region enclosed by 𝑪 and → 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥
the initial line
c) Show that the Cartesian equation of 𝑪 can be → 2√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥
𝟐 𝟐) 𝟐
expressed as 𝟒(𝒙 + 𝒚 = (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙) 𝟐 Squaring both sides:
𝟐
𝟒(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ) = (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙) (Ans for c)

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4.2 Proof of Divisibility
{S03-P01} Question 1: {SP20-P01} Question 2:
It is given that 𝛟(𝒏) = 𝟓𝒏 (𝟒𝒏 + 𝟏) − 𝟏, for
𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … Prove, by mathematical induction,
that𝛟(𝒏) is divisible by 8 for every positive integer 𝒏
Solution:
Step 1:
Let 𝒏 = 𝟏
∴ ϕ(1) = 5(4 + 1) − 1 = 8 × 3
Our formula is true for 𝑛 = 1
Step 2:
The curve 𝑪 has polar equation
𝟏 𝜽𝟐
Assume formula is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 for an integer 𝑘
𝒓 = 𝜽𝟐 𝒆 𝝅 ϕ(𝑘) = 5𝑘 (4𝑘 + 1) − 1 = 8𝑝
where 𝟎 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 𝝅. The area of the finite region Where 𝒑 is just a dummy value
bounded by 𝑪 and the line 𝜽 = 𝜷 is 𝝅. Show that
𝟏
𝜷 = (𝝅 𝐥𝐧 𝟑)𝟐 Let 𝒏 = 𝒌 + 𝟏
Solution:
Form an equation by using the area of sector formula ϕ(𝑘 + 1) = 5𝑘+1 (4(𝑘 + 1) + 1) − 1
1 → ϕ(𝑘 + 1) = 5𝑘 (5)(4𝑘 + 5) − 1
∫ 𝑟 2 𝜃 . 𝑑𝜃 = 𝐴 → ϕ(𝑘 + 1) = 5𝑘 (20𝑘 + 25) − 1
2
𝛽 2
1 1 𝜃2
∫ (𝜃 2 𝑒 𝜋 ) 𝜃 = 𝜋 Calculate 𝛟(𝒌 + 𝟏) − 𝛟(𝒌)
0 2
Take ½ to the other side and clean up ϕ(𝑘 + 1) − ϕ(𝑘) = 5𝑘 (20𝑘 + 25) − 1 − (5𝑘 (4𝑘 + 1) − 1)
𝛽 2𝜃2 𝜙(𝑘 + 1) − 𝜙(𝑘) = 5𝑘 (20𝑘 + 25) − 1 − 5𝑘 (4𝑘 + 1) + 1
∫ 𝜃𝑒 𝜋 = 2𝜋 𝜙(𝑘 + 1) − 𝜙(𝑘) = 5𝑘 (20𝑘 + 25 − 4𝑘 − 1)
0 𝜙(𝑘 + 1) − 𝜙(𝑘) = 5𝑘 (16𝑘 + 24)
Integrate the expression with respect to 𝜃 𝜙(𝑘 + 1) − 𝜙(𝑘) = 5𝑘 (8)(2𝑘 + 3)

𝜋 2𝜃2 𝛽 Add 𝛟(𝒌)to both sides

[ 𝑒 𝜋 ] = 2𝜋
4 0 𝛟(𝒌 + 𝟏) = 𝟓𝒌 (𝟖)(𝟐𝒌 + 𝟑) + 𝛟(𝒌)
Take constant to other side and substitute 𝛽 and 0 From the equation, because 𝝓(𝒌)divisible by 8,
2𝛽2 therefore 𝛟(𝒌 + 𝟏)is also divisible by 8.
𝑒 𝜋 −1= 8 Conclusion:
2𝛽2
𝑒 =9
𝜋 Thus, since 𝛟(𝟏)is true and 𝛟(𝒌) → 𝛟(𝒌 + 𝟏) is true
Take ln 𝑒 on both sides and simplify by mathematical induction.
2𝛽2
= ln 9
𝜋
𝛽2 = 𝜋 ln 3 4.3 Proof of Summation
𝟏
∴ 𝜷 = (𝝅 𝐥𝐧 𝟑) 𝟐 {S03-P01}: Question 2:
Prove by induction that, for all 𝑵 ≥ 𝟏,
4. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 𝑵
𝒏+𝟐 𝟏
∑ 𝒏
= 𝟏−
𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟏)𝟐 (𝑵 + 𝟏)𝟐𝑵
4.1 Proof by Induction 𝒏=𝟏
Solution:
• Step 1: proving assertion is true for some initial value of
Step 1:
variable
Let 𝑵 = 𝟏,
• Step 2: the inductive step
1+2 3
• Conclusion: final statement of what you have proved 1
=
1(1 + 1)2 4
Using the formula given:
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1 1 3 𝑑𝑘
1− 1
= 1− = (𝑥𝑒𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑒𝑥 + 𝑘𝑒𝑥
(1 + 1)2 4 4 𝑑𝑥𝑘
Therefore, true for 𝑵 = 𝟏 To find 𝒏 = 𝒌 + 𝟏,differentiate expression:
Step 2: 𝑑𝑘+1
(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑒 𝑥
Assume formula true for 𝑵 = 𝒌 𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1
When 𝑵 = 𝒌, = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + (𝑘 + 1)𝑒 𝑥
Prove that formula gives same result, 𝒏 = 𝒌 + 𝟏,
1
1− 𝑑 𝑘+1
(𝑘 + 1)2𝑘 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + (𝑘 + 1)𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑘+1
When 𝑵 = 𝒌 + 𝟏 By the Principle of Mathematical Induction,
1 1 𝒙𝒆𝒙 + 𝒏𝒆𝒙 is the 𝒏th derivative of 𝒙𝒆𝒙 for all 𝒏 ≥ 𝟏.
1− = 1−
(𝑘 + 1 + 1)2𝑘+1 (𝑘 + 2)2𝑘+1
If formula is true then, 5. SUMMATION OF SERIES
𝑘+1 𝑘
𝑛+2 𝑛+2
∑ 𝑛
=∑ + (𝑘 + 1)𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 5.1 Standard Results of Sums
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)2 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)2𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
1
1 𝑘+3 ∑ 𝑟 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
= 1− + 2
(𝑘 + 1)2𝑘 (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)2𝑘+1 𝑟=1
𝑛
2(𝑘 + 2) − 𝑘 − 3 1
= 1− ∑ 𝑟 2 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)2𝑘+1 6
𝑟=1
2𝑘 + 4 − 𝑘 − 3 𝑛
= 1− 1
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)2𝑘+1 ∑ 𝑟 3 = 𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1)2
𝑘+1 4
𝑟=1
= 1−
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)2𝑘+1
𝟏 5.2 General Summation Rules
=𝟏−
(𝒌 + 𝟐)𝟐𝒌+𝟏 ∑ 𝑘𝑟 = 𝑘 ∑ 𝑟
Conclusion:
By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, the formula ∑(𝑟 + 𝑠) = ∑ 𝑟 + ∑ 𝑠
is true for all 𝑵 ≥ 𝟏. 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎−1

∑𝑟 = ∑𝑟 − ∑𝑟
4.4 Proof of Derivatives 𝑎 1 1

Example: {S04-P01}: Question 1:

Find the 𝒏th derivative of 𝒙𝒆 𝒙 Use the relevant standard results in the List of Formulae
Solution: to prove that
𝑵
Step 1: Specialise
𝑑 𝑺𝑵 = ∑(𝟖𝒏𝟑 − 𝟔𝒏𝟐 ) = 𝑵(𝑵 + 𝟏)(𝟐𝑵𝟐 − 𝟏)
(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝒏=𝟏
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 Hence show that
(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝟐𝑵
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑3 ∑ (𝟖𝒏𝟑 − 𝟔𝒏𝟐 )
(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝒏=𝑵+𝟏
𝑑𝑥 3 Can be expressed in the form
Step 2: Generalise
We can see that the pattern that for the 𝒏th 𝑵(𝒂𝑵𝟑 + 𝒃𝑵𝟐 + 𝒄𝑵 + 𝒅)
derivative, there are 𝒏𝒆𝒙s. Where the constants 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅 are to be determined.
Step 3: Conjecture Solution:
𝑑𝑛 Split up using summation rule
(𝑥𝑒𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑒𝑥 + 𝑛𝑒𝑥 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝑑𝑥𝑛
Step 4: Proof ∑(8𝑛3 − 6𝑛 ) = 8 ∑ 𝑛 − 6 ∑ 𝑛2
2 3

Let 𝒏 = 𝒌, 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1

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Using standard results of sums Solution:
1 1 We can directly calculate 𝒇(𝒓 − 𝟏) − 𝒇(𝒓)by simply
= 8 ( 𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1)2 ) − 6 ( 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)) substituting in the function:
4 6
1 1
2( 2
= 2𝑛 𝑛 + 1) − 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) −
(
𝑟 𝑟+1 ) ( 𝑟 + 1 𝑟 + 2)
)(
= 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛(𝑛 + 1) − (2𝑛 + 1))
= 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛2 − 1) 𝑟+2 𝑟
→ −
For the next part, split the summation into two parts ( )(
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+2) 𝑟 𝑟 + 1)(𝑟 + 2)
(
𝟐𝑵 𝑵+𝟏−𝟏

= ∑(𝟖𝒏𝟑 − 𝟔𝒏 𝟐)
− ∑ (𝟖𝒏𝟑 − 𝟔𝒏𝟐 ) 𝟐
→ (Ans for a)
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏=𝟏 𝒓 𝒓 + 𝟏)(𝒓 + 𝟐)
(

Using the rule above, substitute and simplify

Relating to a), we can see that:
= 2𝑁(2𝑁 + 1)(8𝑁 2 − 1) − 𝑁(𝑁 + 1)(2𝑁 2 − 1) 𝒏 𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑁((4𝑁 + 2)(8𝑁 2 − 1) − (𝑁 + 1)(2𝑁 2 − 1)) ∑ = ∑ −
( )(
𝒓 𝒓+𝟏 𝒓+𝟐 ) 𝟐 (
𝒓 𝒓+𝟏 ) (𝒓 + 𝟏 𝒓 + 𝟐)
)(
Expand and simplify 𝒓=𝟏 𝒓=𝟏

= 𝑵(𝟑𝟎𝑵𝟑 + 𝟏𝟒𝑵𝟐 − 𝟑𝑵 − 𝟏)
We will use the Method of Differences as shown in
Section 5.3
5.3 Method of Differences
• In general, telescoping sums are finite sums in which 1 1
𝒓=𝟏 + −
pairs of consecutive terms cancel each other, leaving 2 6
only the initial and final terms. 𝟏 1
𝒓=𝟐 + −
• Let 𝑎𝑛 be a sequence of numbers. Then, 𝟔 12
𝟏 1
𝑁 𝒓=𝟑 + −
𝟏𝟐 20
∑(𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛−1 ) = 𝑎𝑁 − 𝑎0
𝑛=1 ⋮ ⋮ − ⋮

5.4Convergence 𝒓 𝟏 1
+ −
• Finite series approaches a limit as more terms are added = 𝒏−𝟐 (𝒏 − 𝟐)(𝒏 − 𝟏) (𝑛 − 1)(𝑛)
• One condition is that terms must get smaller 𝒓 𝟏 1
+ −
• Satisfying this condition alone is not always sufficient = 𝒏−𝟏 (𝒏 − 𝟏)(𝒏) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
• We denote it using the following: 𝟏 1
𝒓=𝒏 + −
𝑁 𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟏) (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 1)
lim ∑ 𝑓 (𝑛) = ⋯ Therefore:
𝑁→∞ 𝒏
𝑛=1 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
∑ = ( − )
𝒓(𝒓 + 𝟏)(𝒓 + 𝟐) 𝟐 𝟐 (𝒏 + 𝟏)(𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝒓=𝟏
{SP20-P01} Question 1: (Ans for b)
𝟏
a) Given that 𝒇(𝒓) = (𝒓+𝟏)(𝒓+𝟐), show that
For c), we can set the limit as n goes to infinity:
𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒇(𝒓 − 𝟏) − 𝒇(𝒓) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( − )
𝒓 𝒓 + 𝟏)(𝒓 + 𝟐)
( 𝒏 →∞ 𝟐 𝟐 (𝒏 + 𝟏)(𝒏 + 𝟏)
b) Hence find
𝒏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
∑ → ( )
𝒓(𝒓 + 𝟏)(𝒓 + 𝟐) 𝟐 𝟐
𝒓=𝟏 𝟏
= (Ans for c)
c) Deduce the value of 𝟒
∞
𝟏
∑
𝒓(𝒓 + 𝟏)(𝒓 + 𝟐)
𝒓=𝟏

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6. VECTORS o Find 2 direction vectors e.g. 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐴𝐶 (can be any
pair) and find the cross product. This is the normal:
6.1 Vector Product −4
∴ 𝐧 = 𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐶 = (−5)
−1
o Substitute point 𝐴to get 𝐷
−4
∴ 𝐫. (−5) = −13
−1
• Given a point and a line on the plane: Make 2 points on
• The vector product of two vectors results in the the line by substituting different values for 𝜆. Repeat the
common perpendicular to both vectors 3-point process as above.
• For two vectors 𝐚 and 𝐛: • Given 2 lines on a plane: Find a point on one line and 2
𝑎1 𝑏1 points on the other line by substituting different values
𝐚 = (𝑎2 ) 𝐛 = (𝑏2 ) for 𝜆. Repeat the 3-point process as above.
𝑎3 𝑏3
The vector product can be found the determinant of a 6.4 ⊥ Distance from a Point to a Plane
matrix consisting of the two vectors:
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤 |𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑|
𝐷=
𝐚 × 𝐛 = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 | √𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
• You can calculate the angle between the two vectors by 6.5 Line of Intersection of
|𝐚 × 𝐛| = |𝐚||𝐛| sin 𝜃 Two Planes
• The direction of the line of intersection would be normal
6.2 Equation of a Plane to both the normal of the plans so
𝐝 = 𝐧𝟏 × 𝐧𝟐
• To find a point on the plane, set one of the variables to a
value and solve to find two other points
• Two ways there is no line of intersection:
o Planes may be parallel – if so, normal vectors would be
the same (or negative)
o May be the same plane with different equations

• Parametric form: a plane is made up of two direction 6.6Intersection of a Line and a Plane
vectors hence can be written as • Find point by substituting line as 𝐫into the scalar product
𝐫 = 𝐚 + 𝜆𝐝𝟏 + 𝜇𝐝𝟐 of the plane, find 𝜆 and find coordinates
• Scalar product form: find the normal vector by finding • Two ways there is no point of intersection:
cross product of the two direction vectors. Find 𝐷 by o Line is parallel to the plane – equation with 𝜆s won’t
substituting a point in 𝐫 solve and 𝐝. 𝐧 = 0
𝑛1 o Line lies in the plane – equation ends with 0 = 0 and
̃𝐫. (𝑛2 ) = 𝐷 any point on the line will be a solution. Also 𝐝. 𝐧 = 0
𝑛3
• Cartesian form: coefficients are components of the
normal vector
𝑛1 𝑥 + 𝑛2 𝑦 + 𝑛1 𝑧 = 𝐷

6.3 Finding the Equation of a Plane

• Given 3 points on a plane:
𝐴 = (1,2, −1), 𝐵 = (2,1,0), 𝐶 = (−1,3,2)
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6.7 Distance between Two Skew Lines Question asks Question asks Question asks
for acute angle for obtuse angle for both angles

Use +ve and -

Use +ve value Use -ve value
ve value of dot
of dot product of dot product
product

{SP20-P01} Question 6
𝐿1 : 𝐫 = 𝐚 + 𝜆𝐝𝟏 𝐿2 : 𝐫 = 𝐛 + 𝜇𝐝𝟐
The position vectors of the points A, B, C, D are
• Observing diagram above, one can follow line 𝐿1 to 𝟐𝒊 + 𝟒𝒋 − 𝟑𝒌
point 𝑃 and then moving along the normal of the two −𝟐𝒊 + 𝟓𝒋 − 𝟒𝒌
lines to point 𝑄. This can be represented by a line as 𝒊 + 𝟒𝒋 + 𝒌
𝐫 = 𝐚 + 𝜆𝐝𝟏 + 𝑡(𝐝𝟏 × 𝐝𝟐 ) 𝒊 + 𝟓𝒋 + 𝒎𝒌
• This point can also be reached simply with line 𝐿2 . Hence respectively, where 𝒎 is an integer. It is given that the
as they both get to the same point; we can equate above shortest distance between the line through A and B
line and 𝐿2 and the line through C and D is 3.
𝐚 + 𝜆𝐝𝟏 + 𝑡(𝐝𝟏 × 𝐝𝟐 ) = 𝐛 + 𝜇𝐝𝟐 a) Show that the only possible value of m is 2.
b) Find the shortest distance of D from the line
• Form three equations using each coordinate and solve
through A and C.
to find 𝜆, 𝑡 and 𝜇.
c) Show that the acute angle between the
• The perpendicular distance required between the two 𝟏
planes ACD and BCD is𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏
skew lines is |𝑡(𝐝𝟏 × 𝐝𝟐 )| √𝟑
Solution:
• Shortest distance of two skew lines where both lines are
𝒓𝑨𝑩 = 𝟐𝒊 + 𝟒𝒋 − 𝟑𝒌 + (−𝟒𝒊 + 𝒋 − 𝒌)𝐭
expressed in the form of 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝑡:
𝐫𝐂𝐃 = 𝒊 + 𝟒𝒋 + 𝒌 + (𝒋 + (𝒎 − 𝟏)𝒌)𝐬
(𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟏 ) ⋅ (𝒃𝟏 × 𝒃𝟐 )
| 𝒃𝟏 × 𝒃𝟐 | Using cross product to find normal vector:
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
Equation of the Line of the Shortest Distance: 𝒏 = |−𝟒 𝟏 −𝟏 | = 𝒎𝒊 + 𝟒(𝒎 − 𝟏)𝒋 − 𝟒𝒌
• The equation we are looking for is 𝑃𝑄, the one we 𝟎 𝟏 𝒎−𝟏
Using the formula for the shortest distance of two
formed initially:
skew lines:
𝐫 = 𝐚 + 𝜆𝐝𝟏 + 𝑡(𝐝𝟏 × 𝐝𝟐 ) (𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟏 ) ⋅ (𝒃𝟏 × 𝒃𝟐 )
• Substitute all the values, simplify, and form the equation | 𝒃𝟏 × 𝒃𝟐 |
with the parameter 𝑡
Equate to 3 ∵ shortest distance is 3
6.8 Angles
𝑎. 𝑏 (𝒊 − 𝟒𝒌) ⋅ (𝒎𝒊 + 𝟒(𝒎 − 𝟏)𝒋 − 𝟒𝒌)
= cos 𝜃 → =𝟑
|𝑎||𝑏|
𝟐
• Angle between two skew lines: √𝒎𝟐 + (𝟒(𝒎 − 𝟏)) + (−𝟒)𝟐
o Dot product between the two direction vectors
o If vectors in opposite directions, find obtuse angle 𝐦 + 𝟏𝟔
→ =𝟑
• Angle between line and plane: √𝐦𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝐦𝟐 − 𝟑𝟐𝐦 + 𝟏𝟔 + 𝟏𝟔
o Dot product between the line’s direction vector and
the plane’s normal 𝐦 + 𝟏𝟔
→ =𝟑
o Angle found is with the normal so do 90 − 𝜃 √𝟏𝟕𝐦𝟐 − 𝟑𝟐𝐦 + 𝟑𝟐
• Angle between line and plane:
o Dot product between their normal’s Square both sides and rearrange:
o If obtuse find equivalent acute
• When using dot product rule to find an angle, 𝒎𝟐 + 𝟑𝟐𝒎 + 𝟐𝟓𝟔 = 𝟗(𝟏𝟕𝒎𝟐 − 𝟑𝟐𝒎 + 𝟑𝟐)

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𝟐
→ −𝟏𝟓𝟐𝒎 + 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎 − 𝟑𝟐 = 𝟎 𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑩𝑫
𝑩𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝟑 −𝟏 𝟓| = −𝟔𝒊 − 𝟑𝒋 + 𝟑𝒌
Divide both sides by -8 𝟑 𝟎 𝟔
Use dot product to find angle between the two
𝟏𝟗𝒎𝟐 − 𝟒𝟎𝒎 + 𝟒 = 𝟎 normals:
𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃 = |𝒂||𝒃| 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛉
𝒂⋅𝒃
→ (𝟏𝟗𝒎 − 𝟐)(𝒎 − 𝟐) = 𝟎 → 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛉 =
|𝒂||𝒃|
𝟐 Substituting values into our formula:
𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑨𝑪 𝑨𝑫) ⋅ (𝑩𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑫)
𝟏𝟗 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛉 =
We take 𝒎 = 𝟐because the question says that 𝒎 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑨𝑫
|𝑨𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑩𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑩𝑫⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
an integer. Therefore:
𝒎 = 𝟐 (Ans for a) (−𝟒𝒊 + 𝒋 − 𝒌) ⋅ (−𝟔𝒊 − 𝟑𝒋 + 𝟑𝒌)
→ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛉 =
|−𝟒𝒊 + 𝒋 − 𝒌||−𝟔𝒊 − 𝟑𝒋 + 𝟑𝒌|
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟐𝒊 + 𝟒𝒋 − 𝟑𝒌 + (−𝒊 + 𝟒𝒌)𝒕
𝑶𝑪
or (𝟐 − 𝒕)𝒊 + 𝟒𝒋 + (−𝟑 + 𝟒𝒕)𝒌 𝟐𝟒 − 𝟑 − 𝟑
→ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛉 =
√𝟏𝟖 √𝟓𝟒
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑫 = 𝒊 + 𝟓𝒋 + 𝟐𝒌
𝟏
Find vector connecting D to line C parametrically: → 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛉 =
√𝟑
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫𝑶 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑪 = (𝟏 − 𝒕)𝒊 − 𝒋 + (−𝟓 + 𝟒𝒕)𝒌 𝟏
−𝟏
𝛉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ) (Ans for c)
√𝟑
Use the dot product against the direction vector of AC
which is −𝒊 + 𝟒𝒌
7. MATRICES
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ (−𝒊 + 𝟒𝒌) = −(𝟏 − 𝒕) + 𝟒(−𝟓 + 𝟒𝒕)
𝑫𝑪 7.1 Standard Operations
Equate to 0 since we need the case where 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛉 = 𝟎 𝑎 𝑏) 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎  ±  𝑒 𝑏  ±  𝑓
•(  ±( )  =  ( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐  ±  𝑔 𝑑  ±  ℎ
−(𝟏 − 𝒕) + 𝟒(−𝟓 + 𝟒𝒕) = 𝟎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑔 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏ℎ
𝟐𝟏 •( )( )=( )
𝒕= 𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑔 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ
𝟏𝟕 • In general, 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and get its distance
Put the value back into 𝑫𝑪
• For square matrices, 𝐴 × 𝐴 × 𝐴 × 𝐴 … × 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑛
𝟐
𝟐𝟏 𝟐 𝟐𝟏 • The identity matrix is a square matrix in the form
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝟏 − ) + (−𝟏)𝟐 + (−𝟓 + 𝟒 ( ))
|𝑫𝑪
𝟏𝟕 𝟏𝟕 1 0 0 ⋯ 0
0 1 0 ⋯ 0
𝑰= 0 0 1 ⋯ 0
𝟏𝟖 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √ ≈ 𝟏. 𝟎𝟑
|𝑫𝑪 (Ans for b)
𝟏𝟕 (0 0 0 0 1)
Has property such that 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼
Find relevant vectors to find normal of the plane:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒊 + 𝟒𝒌 7.2 Inverse Matrices
𝑨𝑪
𝑎 𝑏)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝟓𝒌
𝑨𝑫 • For 2 × 2 matrices if 𝐴 = ( then
𝑐 𝑑
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 = 𝟑𝐢 − 𝐣 + 𝟓𝐤 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐀−𝟏   =   ( 𝑑 −𝑏)
𝑩𝑫 = 𝟑𝒊 + 𝟔𝒌 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑨𝑫
Find 𝑨𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑩𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑩𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ • For 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrices we can use row operations on an
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤 augmented matrix of the form:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑨𝑫
𝑨𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |−𝟏 𝟎 𝟒| = −𝟒𝒊 + 𝒋 − 𝒌 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ⋮ 1 0 0
−𝟏 𝟏 𝟓 (𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ⋮ 0 1 0)
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 ⋮ 0 0 1
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• For any two square matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 7.4 Transformations
(𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 • The following transformations are for 2 × 2 matrices.
• A matrix without an inverse is known as singular Transformation Matrix
• A matrix with an inverse is non-singular Stretch by a scale factor of factor
(𝑘 0)
𝒌 in the x-direction 0 1
7.3 Determinants Stretch by a scale factor of factor 1 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ( )
𝒌 in the y-direction 0 𝑘
• The determinant of 3 × 3 matrix 𝐴 = (𝑑 𝑒 𝑓) is Enlargement with center of
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑘 0
enlargement the origin by a scale ( )
calculated as: 0 𝑘
factor of factor 𝒌
𝑒 𝑓 𝑑 𝑓 𝑑 𝑒 Reflection in the x-axis 1 0
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = 𝑎 | |−𝑏| |+𝑐| | ( )
ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ 0 −1
• When the determinant of a matrix is 0, the matrix will be Reflection in the y-axis (
−1 0
)
singular. 0 1
Reflection in the line 𝒚 = 𝒙 0 1
• The value of the determinant changes by factor 𝑘 when (
1 0
)
row operations of 𝑟𝑖 → 𝑘𝑟𝑖 + 𝑚𝑟𝑗 are used. Rotation about the origin by 𝛉 in 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ
( )
• The value of the determinant is also the factor increase the anticlockwise direction 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ
of the area, or volume, when the matrix is used as a
transformation. 7.5 Invariant Lines
• For two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 𝑎 𝑏) ( 𝑡 ) ( 𝑇 )
• For 2-dimensional cases, use ( = to
𝑐 𝑑 𝑚𝑡 𝑚𝑇
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝑨𝑩) = 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝑩𝑨) = 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝑨) × 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝑩) determine two equations of the form 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏𝑚𝑡 = 𝑇
𝑎+𝑏𝑚 1
Example:
and 𝑐𝑡 + 𝑑𝑚𝑡 = 𝑚𝑇. Divide to get = , then
𝑐+𝑑𝑚 𝑚
Find the determinant of solve for value(s) of 𝑚 to find invariant line(s) of the
transformation in the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 {SP20-P03} Question 5
(𝟒 𝟓 𝟔) The matrix 𝑨 is given by
𝟕 𝟖 𝟗
(𝟓 𝒌)
−𝟑 −𝟒
Solution: a) Find the value of 𝒌 for which 𝑨 is singular
Laplace expansion using the first row and applying
the signs: 𝟓 𝟔)
it is now given 𝒌 = 𝟔 so that 𝑨 = (
−𝟑 −𝟒
b) Find the equations of the invariant lines, through
the origin, of the transformation in the x-y plane
represented by 𝑨
c) The triangle DEF in the x-y plane is transformed by
𝟓 𝟔 𝟒 𝟔 𝟒 𝟓
= 𝟏| |−𝟐| | +𝟑| | 𝑨 onto triangle PQR.
𝟖 𝟗 𝟕 𝟗 𝟕 𝟖
i) Given that the area of triangle DEF is 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎𝟐, find
Find the determinant of each matrix the area of triangle PQR.
ii) Find the matrix which transforms triangle PQR
[𝟏 × (𝟒𝟓 − 𝟒𝟖)] − [𝟐 × (𝟑𝟔 − 𝟒𝟐)] onto triangle DEF.
+ [𝟑 × (𝟑𝟐 − 𝟑𝟓)] Solution:
When 𝑨is singular, means that its determinant is
Hence find the determinant of the 3 by 3 matrix equal to 0. Using the equation 𝒂𝒅 − 𝒃𝒄, we find its
det.
(−𝟑) − (−𝟏𝟐) + (−𝟗) = 𝟎
5(−4) − 𝑘 (−3) = 0

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20
𝑘= (Ans for a)
3

Use the equation to find invariant lines shown is

section 7.5:
𝑡 𝑇
(𝑎 𝑏 ) ( ) = ( )
𝑐 𝑑 𝑚𝑡 𝑚𝑇
Substitute values in:

(5 6 )( 𝑡 ) ( 𝑇 )
=
−3 −4 𝑚𝑡 𝑚𝑇

5𝑡 + 6𝑚𝑡 ) ( 𝑇 )
→( =
−3𝑡 − 4𝑚𝑡 𝑚𝑇

We now have two equations:

5𝑡 + 6𝑚𝑡 = 𝑇 − 3𝑡 − 4𝑚𝑡 = 𝑚𝑇

Divide the 1st equation with the 2nd equation:

5 + 6𝑚 1
=
−3 − 4𝑚 𝑚
Solve for 𝑚:
6𝑚 2 + 9𝑚 + 3 = 0

1
𝑚1 = −1 𝑚2 =
2
Therefore, the answers are:
1
𝑦 = −𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑥 (Ans for b)
2

Since determinants shows the factor increase of

area/volume, we will find the determinant of 𝐴.

5(−4) − 6(−3) = −2

Therefore, ignoring the sign, the area of the new

triangle is:
2 × 10 = 20𝑐𝑚 2 (Ans for ci)

Finding the matrix that transforms the new triangle

back to the old triangle just means that we must find
the inverse of the matrix:
1
A−1   =   ( 𝑑 −𝑏)
𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎

1 −4 −6
A−1   = ( )
−2 3 5

𝟐 𝟑
𝐀−𝟏 = ( 𝟑 𝟓) (Ans for c ii)
− −
𝟐 𝟐

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