Grammar 1

Chapter 1: word classes

Nouns: zelfstandige naamwoorden
- Countable noun: can take a/an and have a plural
o Table(s), house(s), computer(s)
- Uncountable noun: cannot take a/an and they have no plural
o Music, milk, wood
- Proper noun: names of people, places, and things

Articles: lidwoorden
- Definite article
o The
- Indefinite article
o A, an

Verbs: werkwoorden
- Lexical verb: forms the predicator (gezegde) on its own, it does not need another
verb
o He works in an office
- Modal/auxiliary verb: cannot form the predicator on its own (hulpwerkwoord)
o Will, shall, have, can, may, must
- Linking verb: koppelwerkwoord
o Be, become, get, grow, seem, feel, smell, taste, look, sound

Adjectives: bijvoeglijk naamwoorden

- Tells something about a noun, you can make degrees of comparison
o Cold, colder, coldest

Adverbs: bijwoorden
- Refers to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb
- Are formed by adding ‘-ly’ to the adjective (except for hard or fast)
o Accurate -> accurately
- Some adverbs are not derived from adjectives
o Always, never, often, soon, sometimes

Pronouns: voornaamwoorden
- Personal pronoun
o I, you, she, he, it, we, you, they, him, us, them
- Possessive pronoun
o My, your, her, his, its, our, your, their
- Demonstrative pronoun
o This, that, these, those
- Interrogative pronoun
o Who, what, which
- Relative pronoun
o Who, which, that
- Indefinite pronoun
o Some, any, every, each, all, etc
- Reflexive pronoun
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o Myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves

Conjunctions: voegwoorden
- Joins together words, word groups and clauses
- Common conjunctions
o And, but, or, because, until, though, if, unless, while, when, before, as

Preposition: voorzetsels
- Often indicate place, time, direction

Chapter 2: the tenses of ‘be’

Present tense: onvoltooid tegenwoordige tijd
- I am / I’m

Past tense: onvoltooid verleden tijd

- I was
- ‘if’ can be followed by were or was, were is more formal

Present future tense: tegenwoordig toekomende tijd

- I will be
- Will and shall can be used, though shall is usually restricted to formal usage

Past future tense: verleden toekomende tijd

- I would be

Present perfect tense: voltooid tegenwoordige tijd

- I have been

Past perfect tense: voltooid verleden tijd

- I had been

Would have been: zou/zouden geweest zijn

Chapter 4: Spelling
Regular plural of nouns
- The plural of nouns is regurly formed by adding -s.
o Don’t use ‘s when the noun ends in a vowel.
Book Books
Camera Cameras

Plural of nouns ending in a ‘hissing sound’

- The plural is formed by -es when the word ends in a ‘hissing sound’
 s, sh, ch, x
- also applies to verbs:
 to fish - he fishes
Bus Buses
Fish Fishes
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Nouns and verbs in -y

- When a word end in a consonant + y, the y changes into ie.
- There is no change when y is preceded by a vowel.
Carry – carries/carried Stay – stayes/stayed
Company - companies Monkey - monkeys

Plural of nouns ending in -o

- There is no clear rule for making plurals of nouns ending is -o. they have to
remember them. If your doubting you can consult a dictionary.
- A few nouns ending in -o have plurals in -es. Other nouns have plurals in -s. if a noun
ends in a vowel + o (radio), the plural is always formed by -s.
o The singular form euro can be used in prices:
 100 euro(s) per night.
Plural in -es Plural in -s
Hero – heroes Avocado – avocados Logo – logos
Potato – potatoes Casino – casinos Memo – memos
Tomato - tomatoes Disco – discos Photo – photos

The following nouns have plurals in -s or -es. The plural in -es is more common.

Mosquito – mosquitoes/mosquitos
Stiletto – stilettoes/stilettos
Tornado – tornadoes/tornados

- Most plurals of nouns ending in -o have a regular plural -os.

- With a smaller number of these nouns the plural ends in -oes, there is no rule.

Doubling of final consonant

- A final consonant is doubled when it is preceded by one stressed vowel letter.
- The final consonant is not doubled when the stress is not on the last syllable.
Exceptions:
o Kidnapped, worshipped, programmed,
focussed/focused,
- There is no doubling of the final consonant when it is preceded by two vowel
letters. Exceptions:
o Acquitted (vrijspreken), equipped (uitrusten)
- These rules also apply when a verb ends in -ing: stopping, developing.

Stop - Stopped (one stressed vowel letter: o)

Prefer - Preferred (one stressed vowel letter: e)
Develop - Developed (no stress on last syllable)
Book - Booked (two vowel letters: oo)

Doubling of ‘I’
- In British English the final I is doubled, except when it is preceded by two vowel
letters.
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 Exception:
o Dialled (He dialled the wrong number.)
- In American English the ‘I’ is not doubled
o Traveled, canceled, dailed, fueled.
- However the I is doubled when the stress is on the last syllable.
o Controlled, expelled, patrolled.

Travel Travelled
Cancel Cancelled
Mail Mailed

No hyphen in geographical names

Great Britain New Zealand
South Africa North America

Months and days of the week

- Months and days of the week begin with a capital letter.
January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November,
December.
Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday

Full/-ful/till/until
- Full is written with double ‘L’.
- The suffix (achtervoegsel) ful has only one ‘L’.
- Till is spelled with double ‘L’, but until has only one ‘L’.
The car park was full.
Beautiful/wonderful/successful.
We stayed till/until Saturday.

Verbs ending in -ise/-ize

- Nearly all verbs ending in -ise can also be written with -ize.
 In American English -ize is more usual
- When in doubt about the correct spelling, you can always use the -ise ending.
 Advise - adviseren
 Advice - advies
 Practise - oefenen
 Practice - oefening/praktijk
-ise/ize -ise
Apologise – Apologize Advertise
Authorise – Authorize Advise
Criticise – Criticize Despise
Economise – Economize Improvise
Recognise – Recognize Practise
Modernise – Modernize Surprise

Than/then
- Than is used after a comparative (vergrotende trap)
- Then is used in the meaning of toen.
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Bigger than. Groter dan.

Then he left. Toen vertrok hij
Plural of abbreviations
- With abbreviations the plural is formed by adding s. Dates add s or ‘s.

ASC – ASCs MP – MPs

CEO – CEOs NGO – NGOs
CV – CVs TV – Vs
DVD – DVDs De Jaren 1980 – The 1980s / 1980’s
GP - GPs

British English / American English

- There are a number of spelling differences between BE and AE. We obly mention the
differences for which some sort of ‘rule’ can be given. Apart from these caes, there
are a number of individual words which hace different spellings.
o Words ending in -our in BE end in -or in AE.
o Words ending in -tre in BE end in -ter in AE.
o BE verbs ending in -L get double ‘L’ before -ed and -ing.
 Single ‘L’ in AE
- BE program is only used in computer program, in other cases programme (TV
programme) is used.
 Always program in AE
- BE verbs spelled in -ise/ize = ize in AE
- In BE the verb is practise, whereas in AE the spelling is practice.

BE AE
Colour, honour, labour, neighbour Color, honor, labor, neighbor
Centre, theatre Center, theater
Travelled, travelling Traveled, traveling
Programme Program
Realise, realize Realize
Practise (oefenen) Practice

Use of comma and full stop in numbers

- English uses a comma to separate thousands
 No comma in dates and telephone numbers.
- English uses a full stop (pronounced as ‘point’) before decimals.
 A full stop is also used to separate units of money and time.

1,500 / 10,000 / 100,000

In the year 2015
My phone number is 3435177
3.5 per cent / 45.2 seconds
The price was €3.50
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The train left at 8.15

Chapter 5: irregular verbs

Regular verbs and irregular verbs
- The dictionary form of a verb is known as the infinitive (infinitief/hele werkwoord)
 For example
o Walk, go, find
- The past tense and past participle (voltooid deelwoord) of regular verbs is formed by
adding -ed to the infinitive.
- The past tense and past participle or irregular verbs cannot be predicted and must
learned by heart.

infinitive past tense past participle

Regular verb Work Worked Worked
irregular verb Begin Began Begun

The most important irregular verbs

Infinitive Past tense Past participle NL
Arise Arose Arisen Ontstaan
Awake Awoke Awoken Wekken/wakker geworden
Be Was Been Zijn
Bear Bore Borne Dragen (kosten/pijn)
Beat Beat Beaten Slaan/verslaan
Become Became Become Worden
Begin Began Begun Beginnen
Bend Bent Bent Buigen
Bet Bet Bet Wedden
Bid Bid Bid Bieden (van geld)
Bind Bound Bound Binden
Bite Bit Bitten Bijten
Bleed Bled Bled Bloeden
Blow Blew Blown Blazen/waaien
Break Broke Broken Breken
Bring Brought Brought Brengen
Broadcast Broadcast Broadcast Uitzenden
Build Built Built Bouwen
Burn Burnt/Burned Burnt/Burned Branden
Burst Burst Burst Barsten
Buy Bought Bought Kopen
Catch Caught Caught Vangen
Choose Chose Chosen Kiezen
Come Came Come Komen
Cost Cost Cost Kosten
Creep Crept Crept Kruipen
Cut Cut Cut Snijden/knippen
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Deal Dealt Dealt Handelen

(deal with = behandelen)
Dig Dug Dug Graven
Infinitive Past tense Past participle NL
Do Did Done Doen
Draw Drew Drawn Trekken/opnemen (geld)
Dream Dreamt/Dreamed Dreamt/Dreamed Dromen
Drink Drank Drunk Drinken
Drive Drove Driven Rijden
Eat Ate Eaten Eten
Fall Fell Fallen Vallen
Feed Fed Fed Voeden/voeren
Feel Felt Felt Voelen
Fight Fought Fought Vechten
Find Found Found Vinden
Flee Fled Fled Vluchten
Fly Flew Flown Vliegen
Forbid Forbade Forbidden Verbieden
Forget Forgot Forgotten Vergeten
Freeze Froze Frozen (be) vriezen
Get Got Got Krijgen
Give Gave Given Geven
Go Went Gone Gaan
Grow Grew Grown Groeien
Hang Hung Hung Hangen
Have Had Had Hebben
Hear Heard Heard Horen
Hide Hid Hidden Verbergen
Hit Hit Hit Raken/treffen
Hold Held Held Houden
Hurt Hurt Hurt Bezeren/pijn doen
Keep Kept Kept Houden
Kneel Knelt/Kneeled Knelt/Kneeled Knielen
Know Knew Known Kennen/weten
Lay Laid Laid Leggen
Lead Led Led Leiden
Learn Learnt/Learned Learnt/Learned Leren
Leave Left Left Verlaten/vertrekken
Lend Lent Lent Lenen (aan)
Let Let Let Laten/verhuren
Lie Lay Lain Liggen
Light Lit/Lighted Lit/Lighted Aansteken/verlichten
Lose Lost Lost Verliezen
Make Made Made Maken
Mean Meant Meant Betekenen/bedoelen
Meet Met Met Ontmoeten
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Pay Paid Paid Betalen

Prove Proved Proven/Proved Bewijzen/blijken
Put Put Put Leggen/zetten
Infinitive Past tense Past participle NL
Quit Quit Quit Verlaten/stoppen
Read Read Read Lezen
Ride Rode Ridden Rijden
Rise Rose Rizen Stijgen
Run Ran Run Rennen
Say Said Said Zeggen
See Saw Seen Zien
Seek Sought Sought Zoeken
Sell Sold Sold Verkopen
Send Sent Sent Zenden
Set up Set up Set up Opzetten (zaak)
Shake Shook Shaken Schudden
Shine Shone Shone Schijnen
Shoot Shot Shot Schieten
Show Showed Shown Laten zien
Shrink Shrank Shrunk Kirmpen
Shut Shut Shut Sluiten
Sing Sang Sung Zingen
Sink Sank Sunk Zinken
Sit Sat Sat Zitten
Sleep Slept Slept Slapen
Smell Smelt/Smelled Smelt/Smelled Ruiken
Speak Spoke Spoken Spreken
Spell Spelt/Spelled Spelt/Spelled Spellen
Spend Spent Spent Uitgeven/doorbrengen
Spill Spilt/Spilled Spilt/Spilled Morsen
Split Split Split Splijten/splitsen
Spoil Spoilt/Spoiled Spoilt/Spoiled Bederven/verwennen
Spread Spread Spread Spreiden/zich verspreiden
Stand Stood Stood Staan
Steal Stole Stolen Stelen
Stick Stuck Stuck Stelen/plakken
Sting Stung Stung Steken
Strike Struck Struck Slaan/staken/treffen
Swear Swore Sworn Zweren/vloeken
Sweep Swept Swept Vegen
Swim Swam Swum Zwemmen
Swing Swung Swung Zwaaien
Take Took Taken Nemen
Teach Taught Taught Onderwijzen
Tear Tore Torn Scheuren
Tell Told Told Vertellen
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Think Thought Thought Denken

Throw Threw Thrown Gooien
Understand Understood Understood Begrijpen/verstaan
Infinitive Past tense Past participle NL
Wake Woke Woken Wekken/wakker worden
Wear Wore Worn Dragen (kleding/bril)
Weep Wept Wept Huilen
Win Won Won Winnen
Withdraw Withdrew Withdrew Terugtrekken/opnemen
(geld)
Write Wrote written schrijven

Chapter 6: the present tense

Present simple
- Permanent/general truths
o Water freezes when cold.
- Habits (used with adverbs of time)
o I play video games every day.
- To express the future or the past
o The World Cup starts next month.
o In 1969, Americans land on the moon.

Present continuous
- Actions that are going on or around the moment of speaking
o It’s snowing outside!
- Future arrangements/plan
o I am going to a concert tonight.
- Habits and irritation
o He is always gaming.
Chapter 7: The past tense
Past simple: the finished past
- Something in the past happened at a specified time
o I saw him last week.
- Questions with when
o When did you see him?
- Sentences that are clearly in the past because of the context
o My grandfather lived through the Great War.
o Shakespeare wrote many sonnets and plays.

Present perfect: no clear indication of past time

- It started in the past and is still going on or has a very strong link to the present
o I have bought lots of clothes.
o She has fallen from a tree.

Past continuous
- When something was going on in the past
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o Last night during the storm, I was driving home.

- To contrast with the simple past (long vs short action, emphasis on duration, an
interruption)
o While he was reading the manual, he found lots of spelling mistakes.

Chapter 8: the present perfect tense

Present perfect simple
- No clear indication of time, this shows a link to now
- Formed by have/has + past participle
o I have worked
- Markers
o Since/for, just/already/yet/now, ever/never, FYNE JAS

Present perfect continuous

- An action or habit that started in the past and still continues (+emphasis on duration)
o I have been scrubbing this floor for hours.
- An explanation
o I have been sleeping. (That’s why I didn’t hear my phone.)

Chapter 9: the past perfect tense

Past perfect simple
- Had + past participle
o I had talked.
- To describe something that happened before another event in the past
o He could not come to school, because he had fallen ill.
- Tells you in which order completed actions in the past happened

Past perfect continuous

- Had been + -ing form
o I had been talking.
- To explain something that began and continued in the past
o When I joined the band, I had been playing the guitar for five years.
- To explain something
o He seemed confused. He said he had been dreaming.

Chapter 10: the future tense

Present future simple
- Will + infinitive
o I will/shall work
- Only I and we can get both will and shall, to make offers or suggestions
o Shall we go to the supermarket?
- Used for certainty, question, promise, threat, impulse
o I will find you.

Present future continuous

- Will + be + -ing form
o I will be working.
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- Used for things that will be going on for a while in the future and arrangements
o I will be going to Canada next year.

Present simple
- Used in context of timetables, schedules, and programs
o The museum opens at eight.
- MUST be used in a time clause
o I will stay till the plane takes off.
- MUST be used in a conditional clause
o I will give a party if I pass my exam.

Present continuous
- Used for arrangements
o We are having dinner at seven.

Be going to
- Intentions and predictions
o I am going to leave you.

Be about to
- Immediate future
o I am about to lose my mind.

Be to
- Official arrangements and plans/decisions
o The King is to visit Spain next month.
o Our school is to elect a new director soon.

Past future
- Would
- Used for reported speech
o I hear that she would be late.
- Used for the future expressed from the past
o I knew that Ben would be late.
- Used for a promise from the past
o I guaranteed I would repay her.
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Chapter 11: conditional sentences

A conditional sentence (voorwaardelijke zin) consists of two parts
- A condition (in the conditional clause or if-clause)
- A result (in the result clause or main clause)
Conditional sentences are used for unreal/hypothetical situations, situations that
could/might happen or situations that did not happen.

Zero conditional Facts and general truths present simple present simple
If you heat ice, it melts.
First conditional Possible or probable situations present simple will + infinitive
If I find her
I will send her a card.
address,
Second
Improbable situations past simple would + infinitive
conditional
If I won the
I would buy a new car.
lottery,
Third Situations in the past that did would have + past
past perfect
conditional not happen participle
If I had studied I would have passed my
harder, exam.

A conditional ‘if’ can be replaced by

- When(ever) in zero conditional
- Unless, on condition that, in case, provided in first conditional

Chapter 12: the passive

When to use
- The agent is unknown
o The cave paintings of Lascaux were made in the Stone Age.
- The agent is irrelevant
o A solar power plant will be built in the Australian desert.
- The agent is obvious
o The bank robbers were apprehended.
- You want to be vague about who is responsible
o Mistakes were made.
- You are talking about a general truth
o Rules are made to be broken.
- You want to stress the person or thing acted on (not focus on the agent)
o Insulin was first discovered in 1921 by researchers at the University of
Toronto
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In an active sentence (A), the subject performs the actions. In a passive sentence, the subject
undergoes it.
- The object of an active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
o They build these houses by hand. (A)
o These houses are built by hand. (P)
o She cleans this room every day. (A)
o This room is cleaned every day. (P)
- Subject + direct object
o John broke the window. (A)
o The window was broken (by John). (P)
- Subject + direct object + indirect object
o John gave me an apple. (A)
o I was given an apple (by John). (P1)
o An apple was given to me (by John). (P2)

Chapter 13: the passive

Dutch ‘er’
- Often require a passive translation
- Start with the subject
o Er werd een besluit genomen.
o A decision was taken.

Dutch ‘men’
- Often translated by a passive sentence
o Men vreest dat niemand de ramp heeft overleefd.
o It is feared that no one has survived the disaster.
- Using ‘one’ instead of a passive
- Including the speaker and hearer, formal
o Men moet niet zo lawaaierig zijn.
o One should not be so noisy.
- Using ‘you’ instead of a passive
- Including speaker and hearer, informal
o Men/je moet niet zo lawaaierig zijn
o You should not be so noisy.
- We don’t use ‘one’ or ‘you’ to talk about whole groups
o They speak French in Quebec. OR French is spoken in Quebec.
o NOT One speaks French in Quebec.
- ‘One’ and ‘you’ are not used if they could not apply to the speaker
o Where Carlos comes from, a child normally starts school at seven.
o NOT Where Carlos comes from, one/you normally….
- Using ‘they’ instead of a passive
- Speaker excluded; ‘the people around’ or ‘the authorities’ or ‘the government’
o Men wil hier huizen bouwen.
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o They want to build houses here.

- Using ‘people’ instead of a passive
- Speaker excluded; vague, general
o Men wil hier huizen bouwen
o People want to build houses here.
Chapter 14: the passive
The passive continuous
- Ongoing actions in present or past

Present continuous (passive)

- Am/is/are + being + past participle
o The lorry is just being loaded.
o De vrachtwagen wordt net geladen.

Past continuous (passive)

- Was/were + being + past participle
o The lorry was just being loaded.
o De vrachtwagen werd net geladen.

Passive + indication of time

- Indication of past time in a sentence? You must use the past simple tense of the
passive.
o The department was informed yesterday.
- Is there an indication of future time in a sentence? You must use the future tense of
the passive.
o The new computers will be installed tomorrow.
- Did something start in the past and is it still going on in the present? You must use
the present perfect tense of the passive.
o This system has been used for years.

Kunnen/konden worden
- Kan/kunnen worden -> can be
o These problems can be solved.
- Kon/konden worden -> could be
o The damage could not be claimed.
Moeten worden
- Moet(en) worden -> has/have to be, must be
o A trademark has to be registered.
- Moest(en) worden -> had to be
o The bills needed to be paid.

Mogen worden
- Mag/mogen worden -> may be, is/are allowed to be
o These animels are not allowed to be imported.
- Mocht(en) worden -> was/were allowed to be
o The gas price was not allowed to be raised.

Passive infinitive
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- Is the meaning of the infinitive passive in Dutch? Then use the passive infinitive in
English. Do not do this after an adjective!

Passive infinitive
o The information is to be found on the internet.
o It is to be expected/to be hoped.

Active infinitive
o It is hard to understand/to believe.
Both active and passive to-infinitive possible
- In some cases, both infinitives can be used. The active infinitive is more common,
especially in informal English.
o There is not time to lose/to be lost.
o There is still a lot of work to do/to be done.

Chapter 22: the noun

Rules
- Regular: +s
o Cars, cows, pizzas, radios
- After hissing sound: +es
o Kisses, churches
- Consonant + y > -ies
o Cities
- Vowel + y > -s
o Monkeys
- -o > -s or -es
o Echoes, dominoes, kilos, solos
- -f > some -ves
o Leaves, knives, chiefs, roofs
- Abbreviations: -s
o DVDs, VIPs
- Dates: -s or ‘s
o 1990s, 80’s
- Letters: ‘s
o There are three a’s in the name ‘Barbara’.
Numbers
- In general, the plural is used when the number is more than one
o I paid 50 euros for that coat.
o They parked their bikes.
- The singular is used when the noun is preceded by a number+hyphen
o A two-hour journey
o A 50-dollar banknote

Men and women

- Different words, only in a few cases
o Actor/actress, chairman/chairwoman/chairperson
- One word, for most jobs and positions
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o Male nurse

Chapter 23: the noun

Irregular plurals
Man – men Goose – geese Child – children
Englishman – Englishmen Tooth – teeth Louse – lice
Woman – women Foot – feet Mouse – mice

Plurals of nouns ending in -is/-us/-um/-on

- Nouns mainly derived from Latin and Greek have a plural form in -es, -i or -a. Some
of them also have a regular plural
Basis Bases
Crisis Crises
Oasis Oases
Analysis Analyses
Thesis Theses
Hypothesis Hypotheses
Stimulus Stimuli
Cactus Cacti/cactuses
Terminus (eindstation) Termini/terminuses
Aquarium Aquariums/aquaria
Referendum Referendums/referenda
Bacterium Bacteria
Medium (i.e. radio, television, etc.) Media
Curriculum Curricula/curriculums
Stadium Stadia/stadiums
Criterion Criteria
Phenomenon Phenomena
- If medium means ‘a person who claims to be able to contact dead people’, it has a
regular plural: mediums
- Data can be used as a singular or as a plural (particularly in research contexts)

Nouns having one form for singular and plural

Sheep Deer Fish Series
Species Means Barracks Works
Headquarters Japanese Chinese Vietnamese
Portuguese Swiss Craft Aircraft/spacecraft

Nouns consisting of two equal parts

- Are always plural, their Dutch equivalent is singular
- When these nouns are preceded by a/an or a number, pair of is used
Jeans Trousers Shorts Pyjamas
(Under)pants Knickers (damesslip) Tights (panty’s)

Other nouns that are always plural

Contents Inhoud
Police Politie
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Cattle Vee
People Men
Surroundings Omgeving
Proceeds Opbrengst
Premises Pand
Damages Schadevergoeding
Customs Douane
Headquarters Hoofdkantoor
Staff Personeel
Wages (have a singular form: wage) Loon
Holidays (have a singular form: holiday) Vakantie
Savings Spaargeld
Stairs Trap
- Their Dutch equivalent is singular

Nouns that are always singular

Business Zaken
Advice Adviezen
Information Inlichtingen
Furniture Meubelen
Progress Vorderingen
- Their Dutch equivalents are singular

Nouns ending in -ics

- Are always singular
o Mathematics is my best subject. (Said no English teacher ever)

Collective nouns
- Can be either singular or plural
- Sports teams usually take plural forms
Army Crew Ministry Team
Band Enemy Majority Union
Bank Family Minority Names of clubs/teams
Class Firm Opposition Names of companies
Club Government Party Organisations (e.g., FIFA)
Committee Group Public
Company Jury School
Council Management Staff