Transformer

This article is about the electrical device. For the media and toy franchise,
see Transformers. For other uses, see Transformer (disambiguation).

Pole-mounted distribution transformer with center-tappedsecondary winding used to provide "split-phase"

power for residential and light commercial service, which in North America is typically rated 120/240 V.[1]

A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one

electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the
transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, which induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF) across any other coils wound around the same core.
Electrical energy can be transferred between separate coils without a metallic
(conductive) connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction, discovered
in 1831, describes the induced voltage effect in any coil due to a changing magnetic flux
encircled by the coil.
Transformers are used to change AC voltage levels, such transformers being termed
step-up or step-down type to increase or decrease voltage level, respectively.
Transformers can also be used to provide galvanic isolation between circuits as well as
to couple stages of signal-processing circuits. Since the invention of the first constant-
potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become essential for
the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electric power.[2] A
wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power
applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic
centimeter in volume, to units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect the power
grid.
 Contents

 1Principles
o 1.1Ideal transformer
o 1.2Real transformer

Principles[edit]
Ideal transformer equations
By Faraday's law of induction:
(Eq. 1[a][3])
(Eq. 2)

where  is the instantaneous voltage,  is the number of turns in a winding, dΦ/dt

is the derivative of the magnetic flux Φ through one turn of the winding over
time (t), and subscripts P and S denotes primary and secondary.
Combining the ratio of eq. 1 & eq. 2:
Turns ratio  (Eq. 3)

where for a step-up transformer a < 1 and for a step-down transformer a >

1.[4]
By the law of conservation of energy, apparent, real and reactive power
are each conserved in the input and output:
(Eq. 4)
where  is apparent power and  is current.
Combining Eq. 3 & Eq. 4 with this endnote[b][5] gives the ideal
transformer identity:
(Eq. 5)

where  is winding self-inductance.

By Ohm's law and ideal transformer identity:
(Eq. 6)
(Eq. 7)
where  is the load impedance of the secondary circuit &  is
the apparent load or driving point impedance of the primary
circuit, the superscript denoting referred to the primary.
Ideal transformer[edit]
An ideal transformer is linear, lossless and perfectly coupled.
Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic
permeability and winding inductance and zero
net magnetomotive force (i.e. ipnp − isns = 0).[4][c]
Ideal transformer connected with source VP on primary and load
impedance ZL on secondary, where 0 < ZL < ∞.

Ideal transformer and induction law[d]

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates

a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core, which is also
encircled by the secondary winding. This varying flux at the
secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force or
voltage in the secondary winding. This electromagnetic
induction phenomenon is the basis of transformer action and,
in accordance with Lenz's law, the secondary current so
produced creates a flux equal and opposite to that produced
by the primary winding.
The windings are wound around a core of infinitely high
magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux passes
through both the primary and secondary windings. With
a voltage source connected to the primary winding and a load
connected to the secondary winding, the transformer currents
flow in the indicated directions and the core magnetomotive
force cancels to zero.
According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux
passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an
ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding
proportional to its number of windings. The transformer
winding voltage ratio is equal to the winding turns ratio.[7]
An ideal transformer is a reasonable approximation for a
typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding
turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the
corresponding current ratio.
The load impedance referred to the primary circuit is equal to
the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load
impedance.[8]
Real transformer[edit]

Leakage flux of a transformer

Deviations from ideal transformer[edit]

The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear
aspects of real transformers:
(a) Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses,
consisting of[9]

 Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear magnetic effects in the

transformer core, and
 Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that
are proportional to the square of the transformer's applied
voltage.
(b) Unlike the ideal model, the windings in a real transformer
have non-zero resistances and inductances associated with:

 Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and

secondary windings[9]
 Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes
through one winding only resulting in primary and
secondary reactive impedance.
(c) similar to an inductor, parasitic capacitance and self-
resonance phenomenon due to the electric field distribution.
Three kinds of parasitic capacitance are usually considered
and the closed-loop equations are provided[10]

 Capacitance between adjacent turns in any one layer;

 Capacitance between adjacent layers;
 Capacitance between the core and the layer(s) adjacent to
the core;
Inclusion of capacitance into the transformer model is
complicated, and is rarely attempted; the ‘real’ transformer
model's equivalent circuit shown below does not include
parasitic capacitance. However, the capacitance effect can be
measured by comparing open-circuit inductance, i.e. the
inductance of a primary winding when the secondary circuit is
open, to a short-circuit inductance when the secondary
winding is shorted.
Leakage flux[edit]
Main article: Leakage inductance
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated
by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding,
including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take
it outside the windings.[11]Such flux is termed leakage flux, and
results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually
coupled transformer windings.[12] Leakage flux results in energy
being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic
fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a
power loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing
the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the
primary voltage, particularly under heavy load.[11] Transformers
are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage
inductance.
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long
magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may
deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit
the short-circuit current it will supply.[12] Leaky transformers
may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance,
such as electric arcs, mercury- and sodium- vapor lamps
and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become
periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.[9]: 485 
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating,
especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a
DC component flowing in the windings.[13] A saturable
reactor exploits saturation of the core to control alternating
current.
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when
transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if
the percent impedance [e] and associated winding leakage
reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two transformers were
the same, the transformers would share the load power in
proportion to their respective ratings. However, the impedance
tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also,
the impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers
tends to vary.[15]