Chapter 6:

SQL (Structured Query

Language)
Contents

1 The COMPANY Database

2 SQL developments: an overview
3 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
4 DML: select, insert, update, delete
5 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
Trigger, Store Procedure, Function & Cursor in
6
Oracle

Jan-2015 2
The COMPANY Database

Jan-2015 3
Contents

1 The COMPANY Database

2 SQL developments: an overview
3 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
4 DML: select, insert, update, delete
5 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
Trigger, Store Procedure, Function & Cursor in
6
Oracle

Jan-2015 4
SQL developments: an overview
◼ In 1986, ANSI and ISO published an initial
standard for SQL: SQL-86 or SQL1
◼ In 1992, first major revision to ISO standard
occurred, referred to as SQL2 or SQL-92
◼ In 1999, SQL-99 (SQL3) was released with
support for object-oriented data management
◼ In late 2003, SQL-2003 was released
◼ Now: SQL-2006 was published

Jan-2015 5
SQL developments: an overview
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL)
Year Name Alias Comments

1986 SQL-86 SQL-87 First published by ANSI. Ratified by ISO in 1987

1989 SQL-89 Minor revision

1992 SQL-92 SQL2 Major revision (ISO 9075)

1999 SQL:1999 SQL3 Added regular expression matching, recursive queries, triggers, non-
scalar types and some object-oriented features. (The last two are
somewhat controversial and not yet widely supported)
2003 SQL:2003 Introduced XML-related features, window functions, standardized
sequences and columns with auto-generated values (including identity-
columns)
2006 SQL:2006 ISO/IEC 9075-14:2006 defines ways in which SQL can be used in
conjunction with XML. It defines ways of importing and storing XML data
in an SQL database, manipulating it within the database and publishing
both XML and conventional SQL-data in XML form. In addition, it provides
facilities that permit applications to integrate into their SQL code the use of
XQuery, the XML Query Language published by the World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), to concurrently access ordinary SQL-data and XML
documents

Jan-2015 6
Basic SQL
◼ DDL: Data Definition Language
❑ Create, Alter, Drop

◼ DML: Data Manipulation Language

❑ Select, Insert, Update, Delete

◼ DCL: Data Control Language

❑ Commit, Rollback, Grant, Revoke

Jan-2015 7
Basic SQL
◼ SQL
❑ Structured Query Language
❑ Statements for data definitions, queries, and
updates (both DDL and DML)
❑ Core specification
❑ Plus specialized extensions

Jan-2015 8
Contents

1 The COMPANY Database

2 SQL developments: an overview
3 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
4 DML: select, insert, update, delete
5 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
Trigger, Store Procedure, Function & Cursor in
6
Oracle

Jan-2015 9
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
CREATE SCHEMA
◼ SQL schema
❑ Identified by a schema name
❑ Includes an authorization identifier and
descriptors for each element
◼ Schema elements include
❑ Tables, constraints, views, domains, and other
constructs
◼ Catalog
❑ Named collection of schemas in an SQL
environment

Jan-2015 10
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
CREATE SCHEMA
◼ CREATE SCHEMA SchemaName
AUTHORIZATION AuthorizationIdentifier;
◼ To create a relational database schema:
started with SQL-92

CREATE SCHEMA Company AUTHORIZATION

JSmith;

◼ Homework: SCHEMA in ORACLE

Jan-2015 11
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
CREATE TABLE

◼ CREATE TABLE SchemaName.TableName

…
or
◼ CREATE TABLE TableName …

Jan-2015 12
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE TableName
{(colName dataType [NOT NULL] [UNIQUE]
[DEFAULT defaultOption]
[CHECK searchCondition] [,...]}

[PRIMARY KEY (listOfColumns),]

{[UNIQUE (listOfColumns),] […,]}
{[FOREIGN KEY (listOfFKColumns)
REFERENCES ParentTableName [(listOfCKColumns)],
[ON UPDATE referentialAction]
[ON DELETE referentialAction ]] [,…]}
{[CHECK (searchCondition)] [,…] })

Jan-2015 13
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
CREATE TABLE
◼ Base tables (base relations)
❑ Relation and its tuples are actually created and
stored as a file by the DBMS.
◼ Virtual relations
❑ Created through the CREATE VIEW statement.
◼ Some foreign keys may cause errors
❑ Specified either via:
• Circular references
• Or because they refer to a table that has not yet been
created

Jan-2015 14
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL
◼ Basic data types
❑ Numeric data types
• Integer numbers: INTEGER, INT, and SMALLINT
• Floating-point (real) numbers: FLOAT or REAL, and
DOUBLE PRECISION
❑ Character-string data types
• Fixed length: CHAR(n), CHARACTER(n)
• Varying length: VARCHAR(n), CHAR VARYING(n),
CHARACTER VARYING(n)

Jan-2015 15
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL
❑ Bit-string data types
• Fixed length: BIT(n)
• Varying length: BIT VARYING(n)
• Ex: B’1001’
❑ Boolean data type
• Values of TRUE or FALSE or NULL
❑ DATE data type
• Ten positions
• Components are YEAR, MONTH, and DAY in the form
YYYY-MM-DD

Jan-2015 16
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL
◼ Additional data types
❑ Timestamp data type (TIMESTAMP)
• Includes the DATE and TIME fields
• Plus a minimum of six positions for decimal fractions of
seconds
• Optional WITH TIME ZONE qualifier
❑ INTERVAL data type
• Specifies a relative value that can be used to increment
or decrement an absolute value of a date, time, or
timestamp

Jan-2015 17
Attribute Data Types and Domains in
SQL
◼ Domain
❑ Name used with the attribute specification
❑ Makes it easier to change the data type for a
domain that is used by numerous attributes
❑ Improves schema readability
❑ CREATE DOMAIN DomainName AS
DataType [CHECK conditions];
❑ Example:
• CREATE DOMAIN SSN_TYPE AS CHAR(9);

Jan-2015 18
The COMPANY Database

Do create tables
& constraints !!
CREATE TABLE TableName
{(colName dataType [NOT NULL]
[UNIQUE]
[DEFAULT defaultOption]
[CHECK searchCondition] [,...]}
[PRIMARY KEY (listOfColumns),]
{[UNIQUE (listOfColumns),] […,]}
{[FOREIGN KEY (listOfFKColumns)
REFERENCES ParentTableName
[(listOfCKColumns)],
[ON UPDATE referentialAction]
[ON DELETE referentialAction ]]
[,…]}
{[CHECK (searchCondition)] [,…] })

Jan-2015 19
Defining the COMPANY DB schema (1)

Jan-2015 20
Defining the COMPANY DB schema (2)

Jan-2015 21
Specifying Constraints in SQL
◼ Basic constraints:
❑ Key and referential integrity constraints
❑ Restrictions on attribute domains and NULLs
❑ Constraints on individual tuples within a relation

Jan-2015 22
Specifying Attribute Constraints and
Attribute Defaults
◼ NOT NULL
❑ NULL is not permitted for a particular attribute
◼ Default values
❑ DEFAULT <value> can be specified for an attribute
❑ If no default clause is specified, the default value is NULL for
attributes that do not have the NOT NULL constraint
◼ If NOT NULL option is specified on attribute A and no value is
specified as inserting a tupe r(…A…) ?
◼ CHECK clause:
DNUMBER INT NOT NULL CHECK (DNUMBER>0 AND
DNUMBER<21);
❑ CREATE DOMAIN can also be used in conjunction with the
CHECK clause:
CREATE DOMAIN D_NUM AS INTEGER CHECK (D_NUM>0 AND
D_NUM<21);

Jan-2015 23
Jan-2015 24
Specifying Key and Referential
Integrity Constraints
◼ PRIMARY KEY clause
❑ Specifies one or more attributes that make up the
primary key of a relation.
❑ Dnumber INT PRIMARY KEY;
◼ UNIQUE clause
❑ Specifies alternate (secondary) keys.
❑ Dname VARCHAR(15) UNIQUE;

Jan-2015 25
Specifying Key and Referential
Integrity Constraints (cont’d.)
◼ FOREIGN KEY clause
❑ Default operation: reject update on violation
❑ Attach referential triggered action clause
• Options include SET NULL, CASCADE, and SET
DEFAULT
• An option must be qualified with either ON DELETE or
ON UPDATE

Jan-2015 26
 An example

Jan-2015 27
Specifying Constraints in SQL
◼ Giving names to constraints
❑ This is optional.
❑ Keyword CONSTRAINT
❑ The name is unique within a particular DB
schema.
❑ Used to identify a particular constraint in case it
must be dropped later and replaced with another
one.

Jan-2015 28
Specifying Constraints in SQL
◼ Specifying constraints on tuples using
CHECK
❑ Affected on each tuple individually as being
inserted or modified (tuple-based constraints)
❑ Department create date must be earlier than the
manager’s start date:
CHECK (DEPT_CREATE_DATE < MGRSTARTDATE);
❑ More general constraints: CREATE ASSERTION

Jan-2015 29
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
DROP Command
◼ Used to drop named schema elements:
tables, domains, constraints, and the schema
itself
◼ Drop behavior options:
❑ CASCADE and RESTRICT
DROP SCHEMA Company CASCADE;
or
DROP SCHEMA Company RESTRICT;

Jan-2015 30
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
DROP Command
◼ Drop a table:
DROP TABLE Dependent CASCADE | RESTRICT;
❑ RESTRICT option: dropped on if it is not
referenced in any constraints or views.
❑ CASCADE option: all such constraints and views
that reference the table are dropped
automatically from the schema along with the
table itself.

◼ Similarly, we can drop constraints & domains.

Jan-2015 31
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
ALTER Command
◼ Base tables: adding or dropping a column or
constraints, changing a column definition
ALTER TABLE Company.Employee ADD Job VARCHAR(15);
❑ Job value for each tuple: default clause or UPDATE
command
❑ What value does each tuple take wrt. the attribute Job if:
ALTER TABLE Company.Employee ADD Job VARCHAR(15) NOT
NULL;

Jan-2015 32
DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
ALTER Command
◼ Drop a column: similarly to drop a table,
CASCADE or RESTRICT option must be
specified
❑ CASCADE option: all constraints and views referencing the
column are dropped along with the column
❑ RESTRICT option: successful only if no constraints and

views are referencing the column

ALTER TABLE Company.Employee DROP Address
CASCADE;

Jan-2015 33
Contents

1 The COMPANY Database

2 SQL developments: an overview
3 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
4 DML: select, insert, update, delete
5 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
Trigger, Store Procedure, Function & Cursor in
6
Oracle

Jan-2015 34
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
◼ SQL has one basic statement for retrieving information
from a database: the SELECT statement.
◼ This is not the same as the SELECT operation of the
relational algebra.
◼ Important distinction between SQL and the formal
relational model; SQL allows a table (relation) to have two
or more tuples that are identical in all their attribute
values.
◼ Hence, an SQL relation (table) is a multi-set (sometimes
called a bag) of tuples; it is not a set of tuples.
◼ SQL relations can be constrained to be sets by specifying
PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE attributes, or by using the
DISTINCT option in a query.

Jan-2015 35
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
◼ Basic form of the SQL SELECT statement is called a
mapping or a SELECT-FROM-WHERE block
SELECT <attribute list>
FROM <table list>
WHERE <condition>

❑ <attribute list> is a list of attribute names whose values are to be

retrieved by the query
❑ <table list> is a list of the relation names required to process the
query
❑ <condition> is a conditional (Boolean) expression that identifies
the tuples to be retrieved by the query

Jan-2015 36
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
◼ Logical comparison operators
❑ =, <, <=, >, >=, and <>
◼ Projection attributes
❑ Attributes whose values are to be retrieved
◼ Selection condition
❑ Boolean condition that must be true for any
retrieved tuple

Jan-2015 37
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL]
{* | [columnExpression [AS newName]] [,...] }
FROM TableName [alias] [, ...]
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY columnList]
[HAVING condition]
[ORDER BY columnList]

Jan-2015 38
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
◼ SELECT Specifies which columns are to appear
in output
◼ FROM Specifies table(s) to be used
◼ WHERE Filters rows
◼ GROUP BY Forms groups of rows with same
column value
◼ HAVING Filters groups subject to some
condition
◼ ORDER BY Specifies the order of the output

Jan-2015 39
The COMPANY Database

Jan-2015 40
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
◼ Basic SQL queries correspond to using the SELECT,
PROJECT, and JOIN operations of the relational algebra
◼ Query 0: Retrieve the birthdate and address of the
employee whose name is 'John B. Smith'.
Q0: SELECT BDATE, ADDRESS
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE FNAME='John' AND MINIT='B’ AND
LNAME='Smith’;

❑ Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT pair of relational algebra

operations; the SELECT-clause specifies the projection attributes
and the WHERE-clause specifies the selection condition.
❑ However, the result of the query may contain duplicate tuples.

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DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
◼ Query 1: Retrieve the name and address of all
employees who work for the 'Research' department.

Q1: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNUMBER=DNO;

❑ Similar to a SELECT-PROJECT-JOIN sequence of relational

algebra operations.
❑ (DNAME='Research') is a selection condition (corresponds to a
SELECT operation in relational algebra).
❑ (DNUMBER=DNO) is a join condition (corresponds to a JOIN
operation in relational algebra).

Jan-2015 42
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
◼ Query 2: For every project located in 'Stafford', list the
project number, the controlling department number, and
the department manager's last name, address, and
birthdate

Jan-2015 43
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
SELECT
Q2: SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME,
BDATE,ADDRESS
FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN
AND PLOCATION='Stafford‘;

◼ There are 2 join conditions:

❑ The join condition DNUM=DNUMBER relates a project to its
controlling department
❑ The join condition MGRSSN=SSN relates the controlling
department to the employee who manages that department

Jan-2015 44
Ambiguous Attribute Names
◼ In SQL, we can use the same name for attributes as long
as the attributes are in different relations. Query referring
to attributes with the same name must qualify the
attribute name with the relation name by prefixing the
relation name to the attribute name
◼ Examples:
DEPARTMENT.DNUMBER, DEPT_LOCATIONS.DNUMBER

Jan-2015 45
Aliases
◼ Some queries need to refer to the same relation twice:
aliases are given to the relation name
◼ Query 3: For each employee, retrieve the employee's
name, and the name of his or her immediate supervisor.

Q3: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN;

❑ The alternate relation names E and S are called aliases or tuple

variables for the EMPLOYEE relation
❑ We can think of E and S as two different copies of EMPLOYEE;
E represents employees in role of supervisees and S represents
employees in role of supervisors

Jan-2015 46
Aliases
◼ Aliases can also be used in any SQL query
for convenience. Can also use the AS
keyword to specify aliases
Q4: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME,
S.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, EMPLOYEE AS S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN;
◼ Renaming using aliases:
EMPLOYEE AS E(FN, MI, LN, SSN, BD, ADDR, SEX,
SAL, SSSN, DNO)
(in the FROM clause)

Jan-2015 47
Unspecified WHERE-clause
◼ A missing WHERE-clause indicates no condition;
hence, all tuples of the relations in the FROM-clause are
selected.
◼ This is equivalent to the condition WHERE TRUE.
◼ Query 5: Retrieve the SSN values for all employees.

Q5: SELECT SSN

FROM EMPLOYEE;

Jan-2015 48
Unspecified WHERE-clause
◼ If more than one relation is specified in the FROM-clause
and there is no join condition, then the CARTESIAN
PRODUCT of tuples is selected.
◼ Example:
Q6: SELECT SSN, DNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT;

◼ It is extremely important not to overlook specifying any

selection and join conditions in the WHERE-clause;
otherwise, incorrect and very large relations may result.

Jan-2015 49
Use of ASTERISK (*)
◼ An asterisk (*) stands for all the attributes.
◼ Examples:

Q7: SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO=5;

Q8: SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND
DNO=DNUMBER;

Jan-2015 50
USE OF DISTINCT
◼ SQL does not treat a relation as a set: duplicate tuples
can appear in a query result. To eliminate duplicate
tuples, use the keyword DISTINCT.
◼ For example, the result of Q9 may have duplicate
SALARY values, but Q9A’s
Q9: SELECT SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEE;

Q9A: SELECT DISTINCT SALARY

FROM EMPLOYEE;

Jan-2015 51
Set Operations
◼ Set union (UNION), set difference (EXCEPT) and set
intersection (INTERSECT) operations.
◼ The resulting relations of these set operations are sets of
tuples: duplicate tuples are eliminated from the
result.
◼ The set operations apply only to union compatible
relations.
◼ UNION ALL, EXCEPT ALL, INTERSECT ALL ??

Jan-2015 52
Set Operations
◼ Query 10: Make a list of all project numbers for projects
that involve an employee whose last name is 'Smith' as a
worker or as a manager of the department that controls
the project.
Q10:(SELECT DISTINCT PNUMBER
FROM PROJECT, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUM=DNUMBER AND MGRSSN=SSN
AND LNAME='Smith')
UNION
(SELECT DISTINCT PNUMBER
FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON, EMPLOYEE
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO AND ESSN=SSN AND
LNAME='Smith');

Jan-2015 53
Substring pattern matching and arithmetic
operators
◼ Two reserved characters: % and _
Q11: SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE Address LIKE ‘%HCMC%’;

Q12: SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE BDate LIKE ‘_ _8_ _ _ _ _ _ _’;

Jan-2015 54
Substring pattern matching and arithmetic
operators
◼ Standard arithmetic operators: +, -, *, /
◼ Query 13: show the resulting salaries if every
employee working on “ProductX” is given 10%
raise

Q13: SELECT FNAME, LNAME, 1.1*Salary AS INC_SAL

FROM Employee, Works_on, Project
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER AND
PNAME=‘ProductX’;

Jan-2015 55
NULL & 3-valued logic
AND True False Unknown
True T F U
False F F F
Unknown U F U NOT
True F
OR True False Unknown
False T
True T T T
Unknown U
False T F U
Unknown T U U

SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE SuperSSN IS NULL;

SELECT * FROM Employee WHERE SuperSSN IS NOT NULL;

Jan-2015 56
Nested Queries
◼ Complete select-from-where blocks within WHERE
clause of another query.
◼ Comparison operator IN
❑ Compares value v with a set (or multiset) of values V
❑ Evaluates to TRUE if v is one of the elements in V
◼ Query 14: Retrieve the name and address of all
employees who work for the 'Research' department

Q14:SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' );

Jan-2015 57
Correlated Nested Queries
◼ If a condition in the WHERE-clause of a nested query
references an attribute of a relation declared in the outer
query , the two queries are said to be correlated.
◼ Query 15: Retrieve the name of each employee who has
a dependent with the same first name as the employee.
◼
Q15: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE E.SSN IN (SELECT ESSN
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE ESSN=E.SSN AND
E.FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME);

Jan-2015 58
Correlated Nested Queries
◼ A query written with nested SELECT... FROM...
WHERE... blocks and using IN comparison operator can
always be expressed as a single block query For
example, Q15 may be written as in Q15A:

Q15A: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE E, DEPENDENT D
WHERE E.SSN=D.ESSN AND
E.FNAME=D.DEPENDENT_NAME;

Jan-2015 59
Nested Query Exercises
◼ Query 16: Retrieve the SSNs of all employees who work
the same (project, hours) combination on some project
that employee John Smith (SSN=123456789) works on
(using a nested query)

Q16: SELECT DISTINCT ESSN

FROM Works_on
WHERE (PNO, HOURS) IN
(SELECT PNO, HOURS
FROM Works_on
WHERE ESSN=‘123456789’);

Jan-2015 60
More Comparison Operators
◼ Use other comparison operators to compare a single
value v
❑ = ANY (or = SOME) operator
❑ Returns TRUE if the value v is equal to some value in the set V
and is hence equivalent to IN
◼ Other operators that can be combined with ANY (or
SOME), ALL: >, >=, <, <=, and <>
◼ Query 17: Retrieve all employees whose salary is
greater than the salary of all employees in dept. 5
Q17: SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE Salary > ALL (SELECT Salary
FROM Employee
WHERE DNO=5);

Jan-2015 61
The EXISTS and UNIQUE Functions
in SQL
◼ EXISTS function
❑ Check whether the result of a correlated nested
query is empty or not.
◼ EXISTS and NOT EXISTS
❑ Typically used in conjunction with a correlated
nested query.
◼ SQL function UNIQUE(Q)
❑ Returns TRUE if there are no duplicate tuples in
the result of query Q.

Jan-2015 62
The EXISTS Function
◼ Query 15: Retrieve the name of each employee who has
a dependent with the same first name as the employee.

Q15B: SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME

FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND
FNAME=DEPENDENT_NAME);

Jan-2015 63
The EXISTS Function
◼ Query 18: Retrieve the names of employees who have
no dependents
Q18: SELECT FNAME, LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM DEPENDENT
WHERE SSN=ESSN);

❑ In Q18, the correlated nested query retrieves all DEPENDENT

tuples related to an EMPLOYEE tuple. If none exist , the
EMPLOYEE tuple is selected.
❑ EXISTS is necessary for the expressive power of SQL.

Jan-2015 64
Enumerated Sets
◼ It is also possible to use an explicit (enumerated) set
of values in the WHERE-clause rather than a nested
query
◼ Query 19: Retrieve the SSNs of all employees who work
on project numbers 1, 2, or 3.

Q19:SELECT DISTINCT ESSN

FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE PNO IN (1, 2, 3);

Jan-2015 65
Joined Relations Feature in SQL2
◼ Can specify a "joined relation" in the FROM-
clause
◼ Allows the user to specify different types of
joins (EQUIJOIN, NATURAL JOIN, LEFT
OUTER JOIN, RIGHT OUTER JOIN)

Jan-2015 66
Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins
◼ Joined table
❑ Permits users to specify a table resulting from a
join operation in the FROM clause of a query
◼ The FROM clause in Q1A
❑ Contains a single joined table

Jan-2015 67
Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins
◼ Specify different types of join
❑ NATURAL JOIN
❑ Various types of OUTER JOIN
◼ NATURAL JOIN on two relations R and S
❑ No join condition specified
❑ Implicit EQUIJOIN condition for each pair of
attributes with same name from R and S

Jan-2015 68
Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins
◼ Inner join
❑ Default type of join in a joined table
❑ Tuple is included in the result only if a matching
tuple exists in the other relation
◼ LEFT OUTER JOIN
❑ Every tuple in left table must appear in result
❑ If no matching tuple
• Padded with NULL values for attributes of right table

Jan-2015 69
Joined Tables in SQL and Outer Joins
◼ RIGHT OUTER JOIN
❑ Every tuple in right table must appear in result
❑ If no matching tuple
• Padded with NULL values for the attributes of left table
◼ FULL OUTER JOIN
◼ Can nest join specifications

Jan-2015 70
Joined Relations Feature in SQL2
◼ Examples:
SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE S
WHERE E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN;

can be written as:

SELECT E.FNAME, E.LNAME, S.FNAME, S.LNAME
FROM (EMPLOYEE E LEFT OUTER JOIN
EMPLOYEE S ON E.SUPERSSN=S.SSN);

◼ Any differences ??

Jan-2015 71
Joined Relations Feature in SQL2
◼ Examples:
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research' AND DNUMBER=DNO;
could be written as:
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM (EMPLOYEE JOIN DEPARTMENT ON
DNUMBER=DNO)
WHERE DNAME='Research’;
or as:
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS
FROM (EMPLOYEE NATURAL JOIN (DEPARTMENT
AS DEPT(DNAME, DNO, MSSN, MSDATE)))
WHERE DNAME='Research’;

Jan-2015 72
Joined Relations Feature in SQL2
◼ Query 2: For every project located in 'Stafford', list the
project number, the controlling department number, and
the department manager's last name, address, and
birthdate
◼ Q2 could be written as follows; this illustrates multiple
joins in the joined tables

SELECT PNUMBER, DNUM, LNAME, BDATE, ADDRESS

FROM ((PROJECT JOIN DEPARTMENT ON DNUM=
DNUMBER) JOIN EMPLOYEE ON
MGRSSN=SSN))
WHERE PLOCATION='Stafford’;

Jan-2015 73
Aggregate functions
◼ COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, AVG

◼ Query 20: Find the max, min, & average

salary among all employees

Q20:SELECT MAX(SALARY), MIN(SALARY),

AVG(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEE;

Jan-2015 74
Aggregate functions
◼ Queries 21 and 22: Retrieve the total number of
employees in the company (Q17), and the number of
employees in the 'Research' department (Q18)

Q21:SELECT COUNT (*)

FROM EMPLOYEE;

Q22:SELECT COUNT (*)

FROM EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNO=DNUMBER AND
DNAME='Research’;

◼ Note: NULL values are discarded wrt. aggregate

functions as applied to a particular column

Jan-2015 75
Grouping
◼ In many cases, we want to apply the aggregate functions
to subgroups of tuples in a relation.
◼ Each subgroup of tuples consists of the set of tuples that
have the same value for the grouping attribute(s).
◼ The function is applied to each subgroup independently.
◼ SQL has a GROUP BY-clause for specifying the
grouping attributes, which must also appear in the
SELECT-clause.
◼ If NULLs exist in grouping attribute
❑ Separate group created for all tuples with a NULL
value in grouping attribute

Jan-2015 76
Grouping
◼ Query 23: For each department, retrieve the department number,
the number of employees in the department, and their average
salary.

Q23: SELECT DNO, COUNT (*), AVG (SALARY)

FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY DNO;

❑ In Q23, the EMPLOYEE tuples are divided into groups, each

group having the same value for the grouping attribute DNO.
❑ The COUNT and AVG functions are applied to each such group
of tuples separately.
❑ The SELECT-clause includes only the grouping attribute and
the functions to be applied on each group of tuples.
❑ A join condition can be used in conjunction with grouping.

Jan-2015 77
Grouping: Q23 result

Jan-2015 78
Grouping: the having-clause
◼ Sometimes we want to retrieve the values of
these functions for only those groups that
satisfy certain conditions.
◼ The HAVING-clause is used for specifying a
selection condition on groups (rather than on
individual tuples).

Jan-2015 79
Grouping: the having-clause
◼ Query 24: For each project on which more than two
employees work , retrieve the project number, project
name, and the number of employees who work on that
project.

Q24: SELECT PNUMBER, PNAME, COUNT (*)

FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE PNUMBER=PNO
GROUP BY PNUMBER, PNAME
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2;

Jan-2015 80
Order by
◼ The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the tuples in a
query result based on the values of some attribute(s)
◼ Query 25: Retrieve a list of employees and the projects
each works in, ordered by the employee's department,
and within each department ordered alphabetically by
employee last name.

Q25: SELECT DNAME, LNAME, FNAME, PNAME

FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE, WORKS_ON,
PROJECT
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO AND SSN=ESSN AND
PNO=PNUMBER
ORDER BY DNAME, LNAME [DESC|ASC];

Jan-2015 81
SELECT – summarization
SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL]
{* | [columnExpression [AS newName]] [,...] }
FROM TableName [alias] [, ...]
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY columnList] [HAVING condition]
[ORDER BY columnList]

Jan-2015 82
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
INSERT
◼ In its simplest form, it is used to add one or
more tuples to a relation.
◼ Attribute values should be listed in the same
order as the attributes were specified in the
CREATE TABLE command.
◼ INSERT INTO <table name> [(<list of columns>)]
VALUES (<list of expressions>);
◼ INSERT INTO <table name> [(<list of columns>)]
SELECT statement;

Jan-2015 83
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
INSERT
◼ Example:
U1: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE
VALUES ('Richard','K','Marini', '653298653', '30-DEC-52',
'98 Oak Forest,Katy,TX', 'M', 37000,'987654321', 4);

◼ An alternate form of INSERT specifies explicitly the attribute names

that correspond to the values in the new tuple, attributes with NULL
values can be left out
◼ Example: Insert a tuple for a new EMPLOYEE for whom we only
know the FNAME, LNAME, and SSN attributes.
U2: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (FNAME, LNAME, SSN)
VALUES ('Richard', 'Marini', '653298653');

Jan-2015 84
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
INSERT
◼ Important note: Only the constraints specified
in the DDL commands are automatically
enforced by the DBMS when updates are
applied to the database.
◼ Another variation of INSERT allows insertion
of multiple tuples resulting from a query into
a relation.

Jan-2015 85
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
INSERT
◼ Example: Suppose we want to create a temporary table that has the
name, number of employees, and total salaries for each department.
A table DEPTS_INFO is created by U3, and is loaded with the
summary information retrieved from the database by the query in
U3A

U3:CREATE TABLE DEPTS_INFO

(DEPT_NAME VARCHAR(10),
NO_OF_EMPS INTEGER,
TOTAL_SAL INTEGER);
U3A:INSERT INTO DEPTS_INFO (DEPT_NAME, NO_OF_EMPS,
TOTAL_SAL)
SELECT DNAME, COUNT (*), SUM (SALARY)
FROM DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNUMBER=DNO
GROUP BY DNAME;

Jan-2015 86
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
DELETE
◼ Removes tuples from a relation.
◼ Includes a WHERE-clause to select the tuples to be
deleted.
◼ Tuples are deleted from only one table at a time (unless
CASCADE is specified on a referential integrity
constraint).
◼ A missing WHERE-clause specifies that all tuples in the
relation are to be deleted; the table then becomes an
empty table.
◼ The number of tuples deleted depends on the number of
tuples in the relation that satisfy the WHERE-clause.
◼ DELETE [FROM] <table name>
[WHERE <row conditions>];

Jan-2015 87
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
DELETE
◼ Examples:
U4A: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE LNAME='Brown’;
U4B: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SSN='123456789’;
U4C: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE DNO IN
(SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research');
U4D: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;

Jan-2015 88
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
UPDATE
◼ Used to modify attribute values of one or more selected
tuples.
◼ A WHERE-clause selects the tuples to be modified.
◼ An additional SET-clause specifies the attributes to be
modified and their new values.
◼ Each command modifies tuples in the same relation.
◼ Referential integrity should be enforced.
◼ UPDATE <table name> [<alias>]
SET <column1> = {<expression>, <subquery>}
[, <column2> = {<expression>, <subquery>} …]
[WHERE <row conditions>];

Jan-2015 89
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
UPDATE
◼ Example: Change the location and controlling
department number of project number 10 to
'Bellaire' and 5, respectively.

U5: UPDATE PROJECT

SET PLOCATION = 'Bellaire', DNUM = 5
WHERE PNUMBER=10;

Jan-2015 90
DML: Select, Insert, Update, Delete
UPDATE
◼ Example: Give all employees in the
'Research' department a 10% raise in salary.

U6: UPDATE EMPLOYEE

SET SALARY = SALARY *1.1
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research');

Jan-2015 91
Advanced DDL: Assertions & Triggers
◼ CREATE ASSERTION
❑ Specify additional types of constraints outside
scope of built-in relational model constraints.
❑ components include: a constraint name, followed
by CHECK, followed by a condition.
◼ CREATE TRIGGER
❑ Specify automatic actions that database system
will perform when certain events and conditions
occur.

Jan-2015 92
Advanced DDL: Assertions & Triggers
◼ CREATE ASSERTION
❑ Specify a query that selects any tuples that violate
the desired condition.
❑ Use only in cases where it is not possible to use
CHECK on attributes and domains.

Jan-2015 93
Advanced DDL: Assertions & Triggers
◼ “The salary of an employee must not be
greater than the salary of the manager of the
department that the employee works for.’’
CREATE ASSERTION SALARY_CONSTRAINT
CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE M, DEPARTMENT D
WHERE E.SALARY>M.SALARY AND E.DNO=D.NUMBER
AND D.MGRSSN=M.SSN));

Jan-2015 94
Advanced DDL: Assertions & Triggers
◼ Triggers: to specify the type of action to be
taken as certain events occur & as certain
conditions are satisfied.

Jan-2015 95
VIEWs
◼ A view is a “virtual” table that is derived
from other tables.
◼ Allows for limited update operations (since
the table may not physically be stored).
◼ Allows full query operations.
◼ A convenience for expressing certain
operations.

Jan-2015 96
VIEWs
◼ SQL command: CREATE VIEW
❑ a view (table) name
❑ a possible list of attribute names
❑ a query to specify the view contents
◼ Specify a different WORKS_ON table (view)
CREATE VIEW WORKS_ON_NEW AS
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, PNAME, HOURS
FROM EMPLOYEE, PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER;

Jan-2015 97
VIEWs
◼ We can specify SQL queries on a newly
create table (view):
SELECT FNAME, LNAME FROM WORKS_ON_NEW
WHERE PNAME=‘Seena’;

◼ View always up-to-date

❑ Responsibility of the DBMS and not the user
◼ When no longer needed, a view can be
dropped:
DROP VIEW WORKS_ON_NEW;

Jan-2015 98
View Update and Inline Views
◼ Update on a view defined on a single table
without any aggregate functions
❑ Can be mapped to an update on underlying base
table.
◼ View involving joins
❑ Often not possible for DBMS to determine which
of the updates is intended.

◼ More details: 5.3.3

Jan-2015 99
View Update and Inline Views
◼ Clause WITH CHECK OPTION
❑ Must be added at the end of the view definition if
a view is to be updated
◼ In-line view
❑ Defined in the FROM clause of an SQL query

Jan-2015 100
Contents

1 The COMPANY Database

2 SQL developments: an overview
3 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
4 DML: select, insert, update, delete
5 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
Trigger, Store Procedure, Function & Cursor in
6
Oracle

Jan-2015 101
DCL: Commit, Rollback, Grant, Revoke
◼ Chapter 17: Transaction Processing
◼ Chapter 23: DB security

Jan-2015 102
Contents

1 The COMPANY Database

2 SQL developments: an overview
3 DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
4 DML: select, insert, update, delete
5 DCL: commit, rollback, grant, revoke
Trigger, Store Procedure, Function & Cursor in
6
Oracle

Jan-2015 103
Trigger, Store Procedure, Function &
Cursor in Oracle
◼ Trigger

◼ Store Procedure & Function

◼ Cursor

Jan-2015 104
Trigger Overview
◼ A trigger is a procedure which is executed
implicitly whenever the triggering event
happens.
◼ Executing a trigger is to “fire” the trigger.
◼ Triggering Events are:
❑ DML Commands: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
❑ DDL Commands : CREATE, ALTER, DROP
❑ Database Events: SERVERERROR,
LOGON, LOGOFF, STARTUP, SHUTDOWN

Jan-2015 105
Trigger Overview
◼ Uses for triggers:
❑ Automatically generate derived column values.
❑ Maintain complex integrity constraints.
❑ Enforce complex business rules.
❑ Record auditing information about database
changes.
❑ Invoke a program when database changes.

Jan-2015 106
Simple DML Trigger Syntax
CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER schema.trigger_name
BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF
DELETE | INSERT | UPDATE [OF columns list ] [OR …]
ON schema.table_name
[REFERENCING OLD [AS] <old_name> | NEW [AS]
<new_name>]
[FOR EACH ROW]
[WHEN (condition)]
BEGIN
PL/SQL_block | call_procedure_statement;
END trigger_name;

Jan-2015 107
Types of Triggers
Category Values Comments
DML Insert Type of DML which makes the
Update trigger fire.
Delete
Timing Before When the trigger fires.
After
Instead of
Level Row Row level triggers fire for each
affected row.
Identified by keywords FOR EACH
ROW
Statement Statement level triggers fire once
per DML Statement
Jan-2015 108
Trigger Firing Order
1. Before statement triggers fire.
2. For Each Row:
A) Before row triggers fire.
B) Execute the Insert/Update/Delete.
C) After row triggers fire.
3. After statement triggers fire.

Jan-2015 109
REFERCING Clause: Old and New
Data
◼ When row-triggers fire, there are 2 pseudo-
records created called new and old.
new table_name%ROWTYPE;
old table_name%ROWTYPE;
◼ old and new are of datatype ROWTYPE from
the affected table. Use dot notation to
reference columns from old and new.
◼ old is undefined for insert statements.
◼ new is undefined for delete statements.
Jan-2015 110
REFERCING Clause: Old and New
Data
◼ Instead of a REFERENCING clause, Oracle
assumes that new tuples are referred to as
“new” and old tuples by “old.”
◼ Also, for statement-level triggers: “newtable”
and “oldtable”.
◼ In actions, but not in conditions, you must
prefix “new,” etc., by a colon
❑ :new
❑ :old

Jan-2015 111
Example: Row Level Trigger
CREATE TRIGGER NoLowerPrices
AFTER UPDATE OF price ON Product
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (old.price > new.price)
BEGIN
UPDATE Product
SET price = :old.price
WHERE p_name = :new.p_name;
END;
Jan-2015 112
Bad Things Can Happen
CREATE TRIGGER Bad_trigger
AFTER UPDATE OF price ON Product
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (new.price > 50)
BEGIN
UPDATE Product
SET price = :new.price * 2
WHERE p_name = :new.p_name;
END;

Jan-2015 113
Trigger, Store Procedure, Function &
Cursor in Oracle
◼ Trigger

◼ Store Procedure & Function

◼ Cursor

Jan-2015 114
Database Stored Procedures
◼ Stored procedures
❑ Program modules stored by the DBMS at the
database server
❑ Can be functions or procedures
◼ Persistent stored modules
❑ Stored persistently by the DBMS

Jan-2015 115
Stored Procedures & Functions
◼ Useful:
❑ When database program is needed by several
applications
❑ To reduce data transfer and communication cost
between client and server in certain situations
❑ To enhance modeling power provided by views

Jan-2015 116
Stored Procedures & Functions
◼ Declaring stored procedures:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE
procedure_name
[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT]
datatype )]
{IS | AS}
BEGIN
procedure_body
END procedure_name;

Jan-2015 117
Stored Procedures & Functions
◼ Parameter:
❑ Data type: one of the SQL data types.
❑ Parameter mode: IN, OUT, or IN OUT
◼ IN: you must supply a value for the parameter when
calling the procedure.
◼ OUT: procedure passes a value for this parameter back
to its calling environment after execution.
◼ IN OUT: you must supply a value for the parameter
when calling the procedure and that the procedure
passes a value back to its calling environment after
execution.
◼ Defaults: IN.

Jan-2015 118
Stored Procedures & Functions
◼ Example of store procedure:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE update_salary
(p_emp_id IN EMPLOYEE.SSN%type,
p_factor IN NUMBER)
AS
v_emp_count INTEGER;
BEGIN
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO v_emp_count
FROM employee
WHERE SSN = p_emp_id;
IF v_emp_count = 1 THEN
UPDATE employee
SET salary = salary * p_factor
WHERE SSN = p_emp_id;
COMMIT;
END IF;
Jan-2015 119
END update_salary;
Stored Procedures & Functions
◼ Calling a store procedure:
❑ EXECUTE update_salary (‘123456789’, 1.5);

❑ BEGIN
update_salary (‘123456789’, 1.5);
END;

Jan-2015 120
Stored Procedures & Functions
◼ Declaring function:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name
[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT]
datatype )]
RETURN datatype
{IS | AS}
BEGIN
function_body
END function_name;

Jan-2015 121
Stored Procedures & Functions
◼ Example of Function:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION get_salary
(p_emp_id IN EMPLOYEE.SSN%TYPE)
RETURN NUMBER
AS
v_sal NUMBER;
BEGIN
SELECT salary into v_sal
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SSN = p_emp_id;
RETURN v_sal;
END get_salary;
Jan-2015 122
Stored Procedures & Functions
◼ Calling a function:
❑ SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE salary = get_salary (‘123456789’);

❑ SELECT get_salary (‘123456789’) FROM dual;

Jan-2015 123
Trigger, Store Procedure, Function &
Cursor in Oracle
◼ Trigger

◼ Store Procedure & Function

◼ Cursor

Jan-2015 124
Database Access Using Cursors
◼ When the result of an SQL query (select
statement) consists of more than one row,
the simple select into statement can not be
used.
◼ A PL/SQL cursor allows the program to fetch
and process information from the database
into the PL/SQL program, one row at a time.

Jan-2015 125
Explicit Cursor
◼ Explicit cursor: used for processing a query
resulting in more than one row.
◼ Implicit cursor: is automatically defined by
PL/SQL for the select into statements, which
result in one or fewer rows.
◼ Syntax of explicit cursor:

cursor <cname> [return-spec]

is <select-statement>;

Jan-2015 126
Cursor Example
cursor c1 return customers%rowtype is
select * from customers;
has return clause
cursor c2 is
select pno, pname, price*markdown sale_price
from parts;
Use PL/SQL variable
markdown

Jan-2015 127
Process cursor
◼ One a cursor has been declared, it can be
processed using the open, fetch, and close
statements.

open <cname>;
fetch <cname> into <Record-or-VariableList>;
close <cname>;

Jan-2015 128
Explicit Cursor Attributes
◼ Obtain status information about a cursor.
Returns TRUE if the last fetch returned a row,
%FOUND or FALSE if the last fetch failed to return a
row.
%NOTFOUND The logical opposite of %FOUND.
Before the first fetch, returns 0.
When a cursor is opened, %ROWCOUNT is
zeroed.
%ROWCOUNT
Thereafter, returns the number of rows
fetched so far. The number is incremented if
the latest fetch returned a row.
If a cursor is open, returns TRUE; otherwise,
%ISOPEN
it returns FALSE.

Jan-2015 129
Explicit Cursor Attributes example
IF c1%ISOPEN THEN
FETCH c1 INTO v_ename, v_sal,
v_hiredate;
ELSE
OPEN c1;
END IF;
LOOP
FETCH c1 INTO v_ename, v_sal,
v_hiredate;
EXIT WHEN c1%ROWCOUNT > 10;
END LOOP;
Jan-2015 130
Cursor Example
sailorData is a
variable that
DECLARE can hold a
cursor c is select * from sailors; ROW from
the sailors
sailorData sailors%ROWTYPE; table

BEGIN
open c; Here the
fetch c into sailorData; first row of
sailors is
inserted into
sailorData

Jan-2015 131
 Cursor Example
RAD_VALS
DECLARE
Pi constant NUMBER(8,7) := 3.1415926;
radius area NUMBER(14,2);
Rad_cursor cursor rad_cursor is select * from RAD_VALS;
3 rad_val rad_cursor%ROWTYPE;
f
e 6 BEGIN
open rad_cursor;
t fetch rad_cursor into rad_val;
c
8
area:=pi*power(rad_val.radius,2);
h insert into AREAS values (rad_val.radius,
Rad_val area);
close rad_cursor;
END;
AREAS /
Radius Area
Jan-2015 132
3 28.27
Cursor FOR LOOP statement
◼ This loop is very useful when all rows of the
cursors are to be processed.
for <record_index> in <cursor name>
loop
<loop-body>;
end loop;

◼ <record_index> is a record variable that is

implicitly declared by PL/SQL. Its scope is the
for loop, and it can not be accessed outside the
for loop.
Jan-2015 133
Cursor FOR LOOP statement
◼ The loop terminates automatically when all
rows of the cursor have been fetched.
◼ There is no need to open, fetch, or close the
cursor, and there is no need to declare the
record into which the cursor rows are to be
fetched.

Jan-2015 134
Cursor FOR LOOP example
declare
cursor c1 is
select cno, cname, city
from customers, zipcodes
where customers.zip = zipcodes.zip;
begin
for c1_rec in c1 loop
dbms_output.put_line(‘Row number ’ ||
c1%rowcount || ‘> ‘ || c1_rec.cno || ‘
‘ || c1_rec.cname || ‘ ‘ || c1_rec.city);
end loop
end; c1_rec
No declare for the record into
which the cursor rows are to be
Jan-2015 fetched 135
Another controlling Cursor Example

OPEN c_1;
LOOP
-- fetch from cursor variable
FETCH c_1 INTO a, b, c;
-- exit when last row is fetched
EXIT WHEN c_1%NOTFOUND;

-- process data record

END LOOP;

Jan-2015 136
Summary
◼ SQL developments: an overview
◼ SQL
❑ DDL: Create, Alter, Drop
❑ DML: select, insert, update, delete
❑ Introduction to advanced DDL (assertions &
triggers), views, DCL (commit, rollback, grant,
revoke)
◼ Trigger, Store Procedure, Function & Cursor
in Oracle

Jan-2015 137
Jan-2015 138
Exercise

Jan-2015 139
1. For each employee, retrieve the employee’s first name
and last name and the first and last name of his/her
immediate supervisor.
2. Retrieve the names of all employees in the departments
which are located in Houston.
3. List the names of all employees who have a dependent
with the same first name as themselves.
4. For each project, calculate the total number of
employees who work for it, and the total number of
hours that these employees work for the project.
5. Retrieve the average salary of all female employees.
6. For each department whose average employee salary
is more than $30.000, retrieve the department name
and the number of employees work for that department.

Jan-2015 140
7. Write a trigger for ensuring that the employee’s
ages must be between18 and 60.
8. Write a trigger to enforce that when an
employee has a new project, his or her salary
will be increased by 10% * number of hours per
week working on that project.
9. Write a store procedure to read an employee’s
id and print the names of his/her dependents.
10. Write a function to read a project’s id and return
the total number of employees who work for
that project.

Jan-2015 141
Review questions
1) How do the relations (tables) in SQL differ from the
relations defined formally in Chapter 4? Discuss
the other differences in terminology.Why does
SQL allow duplicate tuples in a table or in a
query result?
2) List the data types that are allowed for SQL
attributes.
3) How does SQL allow implementation of the
entity integrity and referential integrity
constraints described in Chapter 4? What about
referential triggered actions?

Jan-2015 142