EDEXCEL International Advanced Level | a Edexcel IAL Physics Unit 4 Summary? HASAN SAYGINEL WSFurther Mechanics 1 Momentum Momentum is a useful measure of motion, which is defined mathematically as the product of mass and velocity: Momentum = mass x velocity p=mxv Momentum is a vector quantity and always has both magnitude and direction. The momentum of an object is a measure of the accelerating force, applied over a period of time that Is needed to: bring the abject from rest to the spaed at which It is moving. An ‘object's momentum is also the force required, over a period of time, to bring the moving object to rest. 2 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW Newton's law, F=ma only holds true if the mass remains constant. A more precise way in which this law is explained is: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the resultant force applied to the body, and is in the same direction as the force. This can be written mathematically as: dp _ d(mv) Pon at The <= term is a mathematical expression meaning the rate of change of x, oF how quickly x changes. i the quantities are not constantly changing, we can express this as: sf ot The product of a force applied for a certain time is known as the impulse. impulse = F x At = Op To stop something moving, we need to remove all of its momentum. This idea allows us to calculate the impulse needed to stop a moving object. And if we know for how long a force is applied, we can work out the size of that force which ought to be negative as itis in the reverse direction. F Hasan SAYGINEL HS 23 NEWTON'S THIRD LAW Conservation of momentum is directly responsible for this law. It tells us that for every force, there is an equal and opposite force. if we think of a force as a means to change momentum, then a force changing momentum in one direction must be countered by an equal and opposite force to ensure that overall momentum is conserved. 4 COLLISIONS Conservation of linear momentum The total momentum of a system remains constant provided that no external forces act on the system. This applies to all objects moving in a straight line. This tells us that if we aleulate the momentum of each body before the collision, the sum total of these momenta accounting for their direction will be the same as the sum total afterwards. This principle is dependent on the candition that no external force acts.on the objects in question. An external force would provide an additional acceleration, so the motion of the objects would not be dependent on the collision alone. Explosions ita stationary object explodes, then the total momentum of all the shrapnel parts added up must be zero. The object had zero momentum at the start, so the principle of conservation of linear momentum tells us this must be the same total after the explosion. Conservation of linear momentum in 2D ‘When the objects are moving along different lines, we can resolve the velocity vectors into perpendicular directions and carry out the momenta sums for the component directions. sate a teen ry 11 LTH = Meehan! qe pment OH = eg Pact DH NO OAM vr etcringest Mets Toman tector dy fame Mn+ onan pele vera reugne:! SAFES ort ema eat * wie aap we gra eo ea 5 ENERGY IN COLLISIONS Elastic collisions Acollision in which kinetic energy is conserved Is called an elastic collision. In life, these are rare. A collision caused by non-contact forces, such as alpha particles being scattered by a nucleus is perfectly elastic. ftsan SAYGINEL HS 3Inelastic collisions A.collision in which kinetic energy is not conserved is called an inelastic collision. Some of the kinetic energy is converted into other forms such as heat and sound. 6 PARTICLE COLLISIONS ‘We know that the formula for calculating kinetic energy is Ey = mv? ‘and that the formula for momentum is p = mv. By combining these relationships we can get an equation that gives kinetic energy in terms of the momentum and mass. and en bk m This is a particularty useful formula when dealing with the kinetic energy of subatomic particles travelling at non-relativistic speeds. This formula offers an alternative way of calculating the de Broglie wavelength for a particle it we know its energy and mass: A asp ae h Peg 7 CIRCULAR MOTION Angular displacement ‘When we are measuring rotation, we often use an alternative measure of angle called the radian. The angle, through which the object maves, measured in radians, is defined as the Gistance it has travelled along the circumference divided by its distance from the centre of orcle. 3 - * radians = 180° ‘Angular displacement is the vector measurement of the angle through which something has tumed. The standard convention is that anticlockwise rotation is a positive number and clockwise rotation is a negative number. Hasan SAYGINEL HS 4Angular velocity The rate which the angular displacement changes, is called the angular velocity, w. so, constant angular velocity is defined mathematically by: If the object completes a full circle in a time period T, then the angular is given by: 2x oT The frequency of rotation is the reciprocal of the time period: 1 r So: w= 2nf Instantaneous velocity We know that » = =and from the definition of the angle in radians 8 = =, so that ¢ = r9. Thus: 8 CENTRIPETAL FORCE Asan object such as a hammer is whirled at a constant speed, the magnitude of the velocity is always the same. However, the direction the velocity is constantly changing and a change in velocity is an acceleration. Newton's first law tells us that acceleration will only happen if there is.a resultant force. The hammer is constantly being pulled towards the centre of the Gircle. For any object moving in a circle, there must be a force to cause this acceleration toward the centre of the circle ~ this is called the centripetal force. if a force causes something to move in a circle, we identify it as the centripetal force for that circling object. ‘The resultant centripetal force needed will be larger if; # The rotating object has more mass + The object rotates faster ® The object is closer to the centre of the circle Hasan SAYGINEL HSCentripetal force and acceleration ‘The mathematical formula for the centripetal force on an object moving ina circe is: me? rF=— Tr Using the relationship, v = ra, we can derive an alternative for centripetal force in terms of angular velocity: Since Newton's second law states that the resultant force is related to the acceleration it Causes by the equation, F = ma, we can find the centripetal acceleration very easily: Foma=" Again using, v = rw, the centripetal acceleration can be expressed in terms of the angular velocity as: a= ro? dasan SAYGINEL HS sElectric and magnetic fields 1 ELECTRIC FIELDS Electric field is a region in space in which a charged object experiences a force. To visualize the forces caused by the field, we draw electric field lines which show the direction in which a positively charged particle will be pushed by the force the field Produces. Like ail field pattems the closer the lines are together, the stronger the field is. ‘The force that a charged particle will feel is the electric field strength (E) multiplied by the amount of charge on the particle in coulombs (Q), as given by the equation: FoEQ From this force equation, we can also quickly calculate how a charge would accelerate. Newton's second law states that F = ma, so we can equate the equations for force: F=EQ =ma E oni ™ Electric field strength € is a vector quantity. The direction of € is the same as the direction of the electric force F, which is defined as the force on a positive charge. 2 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND ELECTRIC FIELDS For a charged particle moving in an electric field, the change in its kinetic energy is provided in a transfer from the electric potential energy the electron had by virtue of its location within the electric field. Every location within a field has a certain potential. The different between the potential at an electron’s original location and the potential at 2 new location ts the potential difference through which the electron maves. Potential difference is defined as the energy transferred per coulomb of charge passing through the device. In an electric field, we can follow exactly the same idea in order to find ‘out how much kinetic energy a charged particle will gain by moving within the field. This is Biven by the equation: E=vg vasan SAYGINEL HS ?3 UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELDS An electric field exists between any objects which — = are at a different electric potential. Two oppositely charged plates placed parallel to each other produce 2 uniform electric field between. in 2 uniform electric * field, the electric lines of force are equally spaced. ‘When you mave a small charged object around in a uniform electric field, the force on it remains constant. Because E = thismeans that the value mw aeemmem neem sees Sania nes eos ae of Eis the same everywhere. —— ‘The strength of a uniform electric field is a measure of how rapidlly the potential changes. The equation which describes this divides the potential difference by the distance over which the potential difference exists: v d Where Vis the potential difference between the oppositely charged parallel plates or surfaces producing the electric field and d is the separation of the surfaces. Equipotentiats ‘As we move through an electric fieid, the electrical potential changes from place to place. Those locations which all have the same potential can be connected by lines called equipotential. The field will always be perpendicular to the equipotential lines, as a field is. defined as a region which changes the potential. Remember that field lines never cross each other. vasanSATGINEL HS 84 RADIAL FIELDS In the region around a positively charged sphere, or a point charge like a proton, the electric field will act outwards in all directions away from the centre of the sphere. The arrows in the diagram get further apart as you move further away from the sphere, indicating that the field strength reduces as you move away from the centre. This means that the distance between equipotentials also increases. The field is, the means by which the potential changes, so if it is weaker, then the potential changes less quickly. 5 COMBINATION ELECTRIC FIELDS Ina region where there are electric fields caused by more than one charged object, the overall field Is the vector sum at each point of the contributions from each field. ‘Charge is particularly concentrated in regions around spikes or points on charged objects. ‘The field lines are close together at these places and the field will be strong around them. HSW-= This is why lightning conductors are spiked. The concentrated charge at the point will attract the lightning more strongly. See BEN Compe hen ee pe pe a pe (6 CHARGE PARTICLE INTERACTIONS — COULOMB'S LAW ‘The attraction between a proton and an electron can be imagined as the proton creating an electric field because of its positive charge, and the electron feeling a force produced by the proton’ field. The basic law describing the size of the force F between two point charges Qs and Qa, which are separated by a distance r, is described by Coulomb's law and is given by the inverse- square law relationship: kQ,Q2 _ 8.99 x 10" Nm? C2. Here €q is a constant known as the permittivity of ‘space, which is a measure of how easy it is for an electric field to pass through space. Hasan SAYGINEL HS 9Radial field calculations We have seen that an electric field can be defined as 2 region of space which will produce a force on a charged particle. This definition allows us to come up with an expression for the strength of a radial electric field using the expressions for force on a charged particle met earlier: _ kQ, ay HSW = Powers of ten There are, of course, differences between the two phenomena. One obvious one is == Se eee ty ele is about charges. Other differences ee include amt = ‘+ Gravitational forces affect all ae. particles with mass, but Ss electrostatic forces affect only ow. =e particles that carry charge. oo we 8 ee © Gravitational forces are always om fm attractive but electrostatic forces can be either attractive or HSW — Comparing gravitational and repulsive electric fields © Its not possible to shield amass = from a gravitational field but itis possible to shield a charge from an electrostatic field. Hasan SAYGINEL HS 107 CAPACITANCE Circuit symbol of a capacitor: = 1) = Electric fields in cireuits ‘An electric field can cause charged particles to move. indeed, this is why a current flows through a circuit ~ an electric field is set up within the conducting material and this causes electrons to feel a force and thus move through the wires and components of the circuit. Where there is a gap in a circuit, although the effect of the electric field can be felt by charges across empty space, conduction electrons are generally unable to escape their conductor and move across a gap. This is why a complete path is needed for a simple electric Gircuit to function. However, charge can be made to flow in an incomplete circuit. When the power supply Is connected, the electric field created in the conducting wires, causes electrons flow towards the positive terminal. Since the electrons cannot cross the gap between the plates they build Up on the plate connected to the negative terminal, which becomes negatively charged. Electrons in the plate connected to the positive terminal flow towards the positive terminal, ‘resulting in 3 positive charge on that plate. The attraction between opposite charges across the gap creates an electric field between the plates, which increases until the pd across the plates is equal to the pd of the power supply. ‘Apair of plates like this with an insulator between them is called a capacitor. Charge will build up on a capacitor until the pd across the plates equals that provided by the power ‘supply to which it is connected. At that stage itis said to be fully charged. The capacitor is acting as a store of charge. The amount of charge a capacitor can store, per wolt applied ‘across it, is called its capacitance, C, and is measured in farads (F). The capacitance depends on the size of the plates, their separation, and the nature of the insulator between them. Capacitance can be caiculated from the equation: @Q fey Energy stored on a charged capacitor Accharged capacitor is a store of electrical potential energy. When the capacitor is discharged, this energy can be transferred into other forms. e=W However, the energy stored in a charged capacitor is given by: Hasan SAYGINEL HS a‘+ inorder to charge a capacitor, it begins with zero charge stored on it and slowly fills Lup a5 the pd increases, until the charge at voltage V is given by Q. Each time extra charge Is added, it has to be done by increasing the voltage and pushing the charge ‘on, which requires energy. Work is done against the repulsion between like charges. Q=CV, so we can use this to find two other versions of the equation for stored energy: 1 B=50" : =E=lcyy 8 CAPACITOR DISCHARGE the two way-switch is moved to position B, the electrons on the Capacitor will be able to move under the influence of the electric field towards the positive side of the capacitor. To do this they will flow through the lamp. At first, the rush of electrons as the capacitor discharges is as high as it canbe ~ the current starts at a maximum. As electrons flow from the discharging capacitor, the pd across itis reduced and the electric field and hence the push on the remaining electrons is weaker. The current is less. Eventually, the capacitor will be fully discharged and there will be no more electrons moving from one side of the capacitor to the other - the current will be zero. The discharging current, pd across the capacitor, and charge remaining on the capacitor will foliow the patterns as shown below: WO Ww | } i i | en ee Hasan SAYGINEL HS 2Increasing the time of discharge: There are two possibilities. For the same maximum pd, increasing the capacitance, C, will increase the charge stored, as Q = CV. Alternatively, the charge would flow more slowly if the resistance, R, in the lamp circuit was greater. ‘An overall impression of the rate of discharge of a capacitor can be gained by working out the time constant, r = RC, and with resistance in ohms and capacitance in farads, the answer is in seconds. In fact, the time constant tells you haw many seconds it takes for the Current to fall to 37% of its starting value. By considering the charging process in the same way, it is possible to work out that the charging process produces similar graphs. When charging through a resistor, the time constant RC has exactly the same implications. A greater resistance, oF a larger capacitance, or both, means the circuit will take longer to r Ih charge up the capacitor. . 118 erase bo copntr mete nae 9 DISCHARGING CAPACITOR MATHS The charging and discharging of a capacitor follows curved graphs in which the current is constantly changing, and so the rate of change of charge and pd are also constantly changing. These graphs are known as exponential curves. The shapes can be produced by plotting mathematical formulae which have power functions in them. Inthe case of discharging a capacitor, C, through a resistor, R, the function which describes the charge remaining on the capacitor, @, at a time, t, is: Q= Quek Hasan SAYGINEL HS 3The pd across a discharging capacitor will fall as the charge stored falls. By substituting the equation Q © CV into our exponential decay equation, we can show that the formula that describes vottage on a discharging capacitor has exactly the same form as that for the charge itself: Q = Qe" and Q= cv CV = Chyenhe From which the capacitance term, C, can be cancelled, leaving © Vewew The discharging current also dies away following an exponential curve. Ohm's law tells us. that V = IR, and hence Vo = foR. IR = [gReH From which the resistance term, R will cancel on both sides: ft I= [ge7FC 10 MAGNETIC FIELDS Amagnetic field is a region in which magnetic materials or moving electrical charges. experience a force. * Magnetic lines are used just as electric lines to illustrate the direction and strength of magnetic fields. + There isa simple convention for the N and S labels on the magnets and for the arrows on the lines of the force. * Magnetic lines of force flow from N to S. © Nand S are called the poles of the magnet. © Like electric fields, the magnetic field is strongest, that it exerts the largest forces, at places where the magnetic field lines are most closely bunched. ‘© Unlike positive and negative electric charges, an isolated N or S pole has never been found, Electric and magnetic fields are in fact very similar as seen and utterly intertwined, as ‘Maxwell's work on the nature of electromagnetic radiation taught us. ‘Maxwell's Uneoretical research on electromagnetic radiation essentially unified roving electric and magnetic fields to explain how light moves and interacts with mate i anions are ute comple but fo ed fel thee a seme ute sila outcomes which hava important applentions fr ut hat + enelecc ed can ene force 00 charged pate + amagnei ft can eet force oa charged particle 8 moving Hasan SAYGINEL HS 14Electric currents also produce magnetic fields. Magnetic lines of force in these magnetic fields are always closed loops. The field with the simplest shape is that produced by a steady current in a long straight wire. [ewrentonstte ] [covecenonsee ] ‘The magnetic field lines are a series of concentric circles; the field is getting weaker further from the wire. Magnetic field of current-carrying coil 11. «MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH ‘When a current-carrying wire is placed at right angles to a uniform magnetic field, the magnetic fields interact, resulting in a force F on the wire. This force depends on the current {in the wire and the length | of the wire that lies in the field: Foil ‘The strength of the field, which is called the magnetic flux density B, is a vector quantity, and is defined as the constant of proportionality, so: FoR ‘The suffix 1 indicates that the wire carrying the current must be perpendicular to the ‘magnetic field. This equation can be written as: F = Bilsin€ Where B, = Bsin® and 0 is the angle between B and the wire. ‘The unit N A? m7 emerges from the calculation. This unit is usually given the mame tesla, symbol T. ‘Hasan SAYGINEL HS 1sAconsequence of the expression F = B, lis that a motor can be made more powerful, or faster by: © Increasing the current through the motor * Increasing the number of turns of wire in the motor © Increasing the magnetic field within the motor 12 FLEMING’S LEFT HAND RULE F Uke gravitational field strength, and electric field strength, magnetic B_ field strength, B, is.a vector quantity. But unlike gravitational and electric fields, where the forces are parallel to the fields, the magnetic force is perpendicular to both the field and the current- T carrying wire. Left-hand rule is used to illustrate this in 3D, Remember that the left hand rule applies to the sense of conventional current, or to the sense of motion of pasitive charge, and not to the direction of motion of negatively charged electrons, which will be in the opposite direction. 13 F=Bovsine The current | in the wire is the result of the drift of very large numbers of electrons in the wire. The relationship linking the current to the drift speed of the charged particles is: T= nAvq Where nis the number of charge carriers per unit volume, A is the cross-sectional area of the wire, qis the charge on each charge carrier and vis the drift speed of the charge carsiers. As the force on a wire is given by F = Jl, inserting | = nAvg gives F = By(nAvq)l, which can be rearranged as: F = Bivqgxndl In this equation Al is the volume of the wire in the magnetic field, so nAl is the total number N of charge carriers in that piece of wire. Hence is equal to, that is it is the force on one of these charge carriers. magnetic field of flux density is given by: F=B,qv Hence, F = Bqusind As the force on a charged particle is always at right angles to the direction of its velocity, it acts as a centripetal force, and the particle follows a circular path. This means that, given the Hasan SAYGINEL HS 16right combination of conditions, a moving charged particle could be held in place by a magnetic field, continuously orbiting a central point. This is the principle by which artifiialty generated antimatter is contained to save it from annihilation, for future use or study. The force on a charged particle moving at right angles to a magnetic field is given by: F = Biqv Centripetal force is given by: Combining these gives: my P. Bq Bg 14 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION The movement of a charged particle in a magnetic field causes it to feel a force. Newton’s third law of motion states that this force must have a Counterpart which acts equally in the Opposite direction. Moreover, this pair of electromagnetic forcesis generated whenever there is relative mation between a charge and a magnetic field. Thus, a magnetic field moving past a stationary charge will create the same force. The velocity term in the expression F = B qu actually refers to the relative perpendicular velocity between the magnetic field tines and q. This means that if we move a magnet near a wire, the electrons in the wire will feel a force tending to make them move through the wire, This is an emf if the wire is ina complete Gircuit, then the electrons will move, forming an electric current. This is one principle by which we generate electricity. Reversing the direction of the magnetic field, or the direction of the relative motion will reverse the direction of the force on the electrons, reversing the polarity of emf. 15 FLUX LINKAGE The produet of magnetic flux density and the area through which it acts is called the magnetic flux through the area, symbol &. O=BA However, for a coll with N number of turns this equation becomes: >= NBA ‘As F = B. qv, itis no surprise that the faster the relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor, the greater the induced emf. Faraday investigated this and determined a law on matter. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that: ‘The magnitude of an induced emf Is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage. vasan SAYGINEL HS ”16 LENz'SLAW Lenz's law states that the induced emf must cause a current to flowin such a direction as. to oppose the change in flux linkage that produces It, otherwise energy would appear from nowhere. 17 CALCULATING INDUCED EMFS Putting Faraday’s and Lenz's laws together gives us an expression for calculating an induced emf: (ND) dt Faraday’s law told us that the emf would be proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage. The ‘minus sign in the equation comes from Lenz's law, to indicate the opposing direction. HSW and RECALL from IGCSE OC motors Asa current passes through a coil in a magnetic field, one side of it will experience and upward force while the ather side experiences a downward force. So there is a Aturning moment in the coil. Commutator changes the direction of the current once in a half tum, so rotation is continuous. impractical motors: © The permanent magnets are replaced with electromagnets, Single loop is replaced with several coils of wire wrapped.on the same axes. * The coils are wrapped on a laminated iron core. Toincrease the rate of turning of motors: © Increase the current © Increase the number of turns in coil © Increase magnetic field Electromagnetic induction ‘When a wire is moved in a magnetic field, a woltage is induced. If the wire is a part of complete circuit, an induced current passes through it. This is called electromagnetic induction, Toincrease the size of induced voltage: © Move wires faster © Increase the number of turns in coil © Increase magnetic field © Cross-sectional area of the call can be increased, ‘Masan SAYGINEL HS 18Faraday ’s law of elects induction The size of the induced voltage across the ends of wire is directly proportional to the rate at which the magnetic lines of flux are being cut. Lborslaw When a current is induced, it always opposes the change in magnetic field. ‘To increase the size of induced current: Move magnet faster increase the number of tums in the solenoid Use stronger magnet Use a thicker iron core Loudspeakers Motor effect is applied to loudspeakers. coil is attached to a paper cone. The changing current in the coil produces a changing magnetic field which interacts with the field from the permanent magnet. This creates backwards and forwards motion of the coil and paper cone. This makes the air vibrate and sound waves are generated. Electric generator > As the coil rotates, its wires cut through magnetic field lines and a currentis induced in them. The current induced in the coil flows first in one direction and then in opposite direction. This kind of current is alternating current. It changes direction ‘once every half turn. Toincrease the size of pd: © Turning the coil faster Using stronger magnets Increasing the number of tums © Using aniron core Transformers transformer changes the size of an alternating voltage by having different number of turns ‘on the primary coil and secondary coil. Alternating current in the primary coil produces an alternating magnetic field. Iron core is magnetised and links the alternating magnetic field to the secondary coil. An alternating current is induced in the secondary coi. % my Z-= Power input equals the pawer output in ideal transformers. Therefore,Particle physics 1 ALPHA PARTICLE SCATTERING Geiger and Marsden undertook an experiment in which they es aimed an alpha particle source at an extremely thin gold foil. - Their expectation was that all the alpha particles would pass through, possibly with little deviation. The results generally followed this pattern ~ the vast majority passed straight through the foil. However, a few alpha particles had their trajectories deviated by quite large angles. Some were even repelled back the way they had come. ia on ow ao arc p singh Dong wth Mento Da 8 rey Ha tee Seva to00 Sor sera partici setae tag the ace poten cha sip mee cancmiraad noe pre om | tr apr parce ae vepein backtomars Most tt ano post Care (he ease cow te OL Sin ty cowl cis, ase etme ant cerca howe Rhett HOA pri eaten pret 2 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE ‘The nucleus made up from two partictes: the proton and the neutron. Collectively these two particles, when in a nucleus, are known as nucleons. The number of protons in a nucleus determines which element the atom will be. The periodic table is allist of the elements ‘ordered according to the number of protons in each atomn’s nucleus. This number is called the proton number or the atomic number. For small nuclei, the number of neutrons in the nucleus fs generally equal to the number of protons. Above atomic number 20, for the nucleus to be stable more neutrons than protons are generally needed. The neutrons help to bind the nucleus together as they exert a strong nuclear force on other nucleons, and they act as a space buffer between the mutually repelling positive charges of the protons. 3 ELECTRON BEAMS Free conduction electrons in metals need a certain amount of energy if they are to escape from the surface of the metal structure. The electrons can gain enough energy through heating of the metal. The release af electrons from the surface of a metal as it is heated is known as thermionic emission. Hon escaping, these electrons find themselves in an electric field, they will be accelerated by the field, moving in the positive direction. The kinetic energy they gain will depend on the pd, V, that they move through, according to the equation: Hasan SAYGINEL HS 20c= Using thermionic emission to produce electrons, and applying an electric field to accelerate them, we can generate a beam of fast-moving electrons, traditionally known as cathode ray. This beam of electrons will be deflected by 3 magnetic field. Ifa fast-moving electron hits a screen painted with a certain chemical, the screen will fluoresce — it will emit light. 4 ELECTRONS AS WAVES Electrons do not just behave as particles — they also have wave properties. De Broglie’s wave equation relates the wavelength of a particle to its momentum: A ass > The idea of electrons acting as waves has allowed scientists to study the structure of crystals. ‘When waves pass through a gap which is about the same size as their wavelength, they are diffracted — they spread out. The degree of diffraction spreading depends on the ratio of the size of the gap to the wavelength of the wave. Electron diffraction and alpha partide scattering both highlight the idea that we can study the structure of matter by probing it with beams of high-energy particles. The more detail — or smaller scale - the structure to be investigated, the higher energy the beam of particles needs toibe. S PARTICLE ACCELERATORS To inwestigate the internal substructure of particles, scientists collide them with other particles at very high speeds (very high energies). if we can coltide particles together hard ‘enough they will break up, revealing their structure. In most cases additional particles are created from the energy of the collision. The challenge for scientists has been to accelerate particles to sufficient speeds. Charged particles can be accelerated in straight lines using a potential difference, and their direction changed along a curved path by a magnetic field. Linear accelerators Alinear accelerator operates on the same principle as an electron gun - electrons or other charged particles are accelerated across gaps between charged electrodes. In a linac, there often many drift tubes connected toa high-frequency, high-voltage AC supply. These are ‘arranged in such a way that the particles gain kinetic energy between the tubes and move at constant speed inside the tubes. The main principles are: © Alternate tubes are connected to each terminal of the AC supply. The charged particles spend one haif of each period of the altemating voltage between two tubes and the other haif of each cycie inside one of the tubes. Hasan SAYGINEL HS 2* During a half-cycle when the voltage would oppose their motion, the particles are inside a tube, where they are shielded from the electric field; the parties therefore travel at constant speed within the tube. + The particles gain kinetic energy as they travel across successive gaps, and can be accelerated to high energies. * The length of the drift tubes increases along the accelerator so that although the speed of the particles is increasing, the time needed to pass through each tube will always be the same (equal to the half period of the alternating electric field). (N¢ 222 Perm fa e seen Cyclotron The main disadvantage of linear accelerators is that, in order to produce high energies, they need to be very long. Cyclotrans, while based on the same principle of synchronous acceleration as linacs, use a magnetic field to make the charged particles move in a spiral path. Accelerating particles in circles By Fleming’s left-hand rule, a partide carrying a charge q moving with speed v at right angles toa magnetic field of flux density B will experience a force of magnitude Bqv ina direction perpendicular to its motion. The particle will therefore follow a circular path, and we have: Bye F Bao =" reg The main principles of a cyclotron are: A cyclotron consists of two hollow, semicircular D-shaped sections which are placed at right angles to a uniform magnetic field and have a high-frequency alternating voltage applied between them. * Anion source fires charged particles into the gap between the dees close to the centre. dasan SAYGINEL HS a© The particles are accelerated across the gap during a haif-cycle of the alternating voltage when the polarity is appropriate. © During the next haif-cycle, the particles follow a circular path at constant speed in ‘one of the dees. + The particles are then accelerated across the gap into the other dee. © Faster particles follow paths of greater radius, so that all particles spend the same amount of time in the dees and their acceleration is synchronised with the appropriate half-cycie of alternating voltage. Relativistic effects For speeds approaching the speed of light, relativistic effects need to be taken into account. tis a basic postulate of the theory of relativity that nothing can travel beyond the speed of light. Therefore, for energy to be conserved, the mass of the electron must increase. Relativistic effects can therefore create synchronisation problems in high-energy particle accelerators. Synchrotrons, such as CERN, account for these relativistic effects and can produce particles with extremety high energy. 6 PARTICLE DETECTORS Particies can be detected when they interact with matter to cause ionisation or when they excite electrons to higher energy levels, accompanied by the emission of photons. In bubble tanks and cloud chambers, a charged particle passing through will generate a trail of ions along which bubbles or vapour droplets are formed, making these paths visible. The nature of the particles can be deduced from the length of trails they leave, and from how these paths are affected by electric and magnetic fields. Interpreting Images + Neutral particles do not produce a trail and cannot be observed. © Oppositely charged particles are deviated in opposite directions, which is determined by Fleming's left-hand rule. * From the relation r = p/ Bq, we can infer that particles with greater momentum spiral less, so trails with greater radius indicate massive and/or energetic particles. © Athicker trail indicates more intense tonisation, which is usually due to the particle having greater momentum or charge. © Particles spiral Inwards. This |s because, as they lose energy, their momentum ecreases and the radius of the path become smaller. 7 PARTICLE INTERACTIONS Anany interaction: ‘+ Momentum is conserved. © Mass/energy is conserved. Hasan SAYGINEL HS 2© Charge is conserved. © Baryon number is conserved. * Lepton number is conserved. ‘© Strangenessis conserved. Conservation of mass-energy ‘The rest mass of particies can be represented as an equivalent energy by means of Einstein's equation: Ey = moc? or me e The rest mass can be thought of as the energy that wauld be transferred if the entire mass were to be dematerialised, or if the particle were to be made up completely from other forms of energy. Remember mass of particles moving close the speed of light are greater than their rest mass. This is because nothing can travel beyond the speed of light, thus for momentum to be conserved mass must increase. The mass of moving particles can be taken as being the same as their rest mass unless the sped is close to the speed of light. Units of mass and energy Itis often convenient to represent the rest mass of subatomic particles in terms of the non: Sl units MeV/c? of GeV/c. MeV and GeV are units of energy; MeV/c? and GeV/c are the corresponding units of mass. ‘Another unit used in particle physics is the unified atomic mass unit, denoted by u. It is defined as one-tweifth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, so Iu = 1.66 x 107g 8 CREATION AND ANNIHILATION OF MATTER AND ANTIMATTER Early work with particle detectors showed that cosmic rays could produce some tracks identical to those of an electron, but which curve in the opposite direction. This was the first piece of evidence for the existence of antimatter. Energy of photons was creating particles in @ process known as pair production. This is called creation. Conversely, if a particle and antiparticie meet, they will spontaneously vanish from existence to be replaced by the equivalent energy. This is called annihilation. Einstein's famous equation is used to calculate the energy or mass created as a result of these processes. AE = 7am In order to create a new particle the energy converted must be at least equal to the rest mass energy of the particle. If there is more energy converted, the new particle will gain some kinetic energy. vasan SAYGINEL HS 29 THE STANDARD MODEL ur current ideas about fundamental particles are summarised by the standard model of particle theory. in this mode! there are two types of fundamental particle - quarks and leptons. 1+) Quarks are strongly interacting particles, and it is believed they do not exist occur in two possible combinations. gly. They © In quark ~ anti-quark pairs, called mesons © In quark triplets, called baryons. Collectively mesons and baryons are referred to as hadrons. The proton and the neutron are familiar examples of baryons. 2:) Leptons are weakly interacting particles. Leptons occur singly; the electron to a familiar example of a lepton. In the standard model there are six quarks and six leptons, plus their antiparticle equivalents, i [loscnnensom | |e one i ie z oe o ic ce ce Se os : v ronan ele co ‘ 4 i ‘Hasan SAYGINEL HS 310 WaAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY - AGAIN Diffraction patterns can be observed when high-energy electrons from an electron gun are fired through a thin slice of carbon, indicating that the electron, as well as being a partide, behaves like a wave. It is also possible to measure the radiation pressure of light from the Sun, which shows that photons have momentum, an attribute to all particles. This wave- particle duality applies to all particies, but it is significant only on a subatomic scale. The relationship between momentum p of a particle and its wavelength A is expressed by de Brogtie’s wave equation: ash P where h is the Planck constant. In the electron diffraction experiment it was also observed that when the voltage across the electron gun is increased, the higher-energy electrons produced have a shorter wavelength. This relationship can be seen from Planck's photon equation. he Bey ‘The wavelength of a 100 keV electron is of the same order of magnitude as the diameter of a tarbon atom, so a noticeable diffraction pattern is produced when an electron beam is focused on a specimen containing carbon. This principle is applied to electran microscopes. If a high-energy accelerator is used, the wavelength of the electrons will be much shorter, and this enables the structures of hadrons to be probed using deep inelastic scattering. Hasan SAYGINEL HS 26EDEXCEL International Advanced Level | ed Edexcel IAL Physics Unit 5 Summary® HASAN SAYGINEL 4SThermal energy 1 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE Heat is energy and is more accurately referred to as thermal energy; heating is a process which involves a flow of thermal energy. Heating can occur through 3different processes ‘and these are namely conduction, convection and radiation. ‘On the other hand, temperature is related to the mean, random, kinetic energy of the vibrating atoms of a body, According to the kinetic theory, when energy is supplied to. an object, the particles in that object take up the energy as kinetic energy, and move faster. In solids, this motion Is usually in the form of vibrations, If we are considering a gas, we Imagine the molecules whizzing around their container at a greater speed, Its this kinetic eneray that determines the temperature. Hf the average kinetic energy of the molecules of 3 substance increases, then It |s at a higher temperature. Temperature is one of the fundamental SI quantities. The base S/ unit of temperature is the Kelvin, symbol K. This |s defined in terms of what is called the absolute thermodynamic scale of temperature, which has absolute zero as its zero and defines the melting point of ice as 273 K. The formula for the interconversion between Celsius and Kelvin are as follows: TK = 8/*C +273 A change in temperature of A@ measured in °C is numerical change of temperature AT In K. he same as the corresponding Absolute zero Absolute zero Is the lowest temperature that can theoretically exist and is given a temperature of 0 K. In terms of the kinetic theory, absolute zero Is the temperature at which the molecules of matter have their lowest possible average kinetic energy. in a simplified madel, the molecules are considered to have no average kinetic energy at absolute zero, in other words they have no random movement. in practice, quantum mechanics requires that they have a minimum kinetic energy, called the zero-point energy. 2 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY ‘Transferring the same amount of heat energy ta two different objects will Increase their Internal energy by the same amount. However, this will not necessarily cause the same rise In temperature in both, The effect that transferred heat energy has an the temperature of an abject depends on three thing:1- The amount of heat energy transferred 2- The mass of the object 3+ The specific heat capacity of the material from which the object is made ‘Specific heat capacity: the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a particular substance by 1K. Different materials have different specific heat capacities because their molecular structures, are different and so their molecules will be affected to different degrees by additional heat ‘energy. For a certain amount of energy, AE, transferred to a material, the change in temperature A8 is related to the mass of the material, m, and the specific capacity, c, by the expression: AE = mca 3 INTERNAL ENERGY ‘The average kinetic energy of the molecules in a material give it its temperature. However, as well as having kinetic energy, each molecule will have some potential energy virtue of its position within the structure of the material, or in relation to other mokecules in the substance. This potential energy is due to the bonds between molecules. if we sum the kinetic and potential energies of all molecules within a given mass of a substance, we have measured its internal energy. Itis important to note that the molecules do not all have the same amount of kinetic and potential energies. The internal energy ts randomly distributed across all the molecules according to the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution. If we identify the individual velocity of each molecule in a particular sample, the values will range from a few moving slowly to a few moving very fast, with the majority moving at clase to the average speed. Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution: piot of the kinetic energy against the number of molecules that have that energy. emt tte ~~ ‘A Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution graph is for one specific temperature. As the temperature changes, so the graph changes. The peak on the graph moves towards higher energies (and. therefore higher speeds) as the temperature increases.4 THEKINETIC THEORY Evidence for the existence of molecules a5 well as the kinetic theory comes from Brownian, motion. Robert Brown noticed that tiny grains of pollen, when suspended in water and viewed under a microscope, continually moved backwards and forwards with small, random, Jerky paths. This happens because of the unequal bombardment of the very fine grains of pollen by the invisible water molecules, which themselves must therefore be in continuous: mation, Brownian motion provides a strong evidence for particies of matter being in continuous motion. Kinetic theory relates the macroscopic behaviour of an ideal gas, in terms of its pressure, volume and temperature, to the microscopic properties of its molecules. These molecules are in continuous, rapid, random motion. Collisions between molecules and between molecules and the walls of 9 container are perfectly elastic (Le. no kinetic energy is If not, molecules would gradually slow down = this cannot be the cave a4 Brownian motion is observed to be continuous. It would alto mean that the gas would gradually cool down. It ts. easy to compress a gas by a large amount. From the above it follows that on average the molecules are very far apart relative to their size and so the intermolecular forces become very small. This also foliows from the fact that the molecules, on average, are very much further apart than their size.5 KINETIC MODEL OF TEMPERATURE‘wre let the symbol reprevent the average or mean value of all the squares of the components in the Ox direction, we have 2 2 a2 tal t my? oe arett ie 8 Naat = of tudtagtt tay6 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES A> Boyle’s law Boyle’s law states that: For a constant mass of gas at a constant temperature, the pressure exerted by the gas Inversely proportional to the volume it occupies. 2 pay ‘The graph of p against V is called an isothermal, An isothermal is 2 curve that shows the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at a particular temperature. As this is a straight line through the origin we can deduce that: P= orp = constant x ¢ Giving pV = constant Aconvenient way af remembering Boyle’s law for calculations is: Pi = Pave ‘Three different graphs may be drawn which illustrate Boyle's law and these are shown below: along with how each graph would be altered with an increase in temperature,8- Charles's law Charles's law states that: For a constant mass of gas at # constant pressure, the volume occupies by the gas is proportional to its absolute temperature. Var veut ‘Act emperatne C- The pressure law The pressure law states that: For a constant mass of gas at # constant volume, the pressure exerted by the gas is proportional to its absolute temperature. The pressure law can be shown in symbols as: per ‘As the graph is a straight line through the origin, it shows that pet or 2= constant for a fixed mass of gas at constant volume,7 IDEALGAS LAW Assuming an ideal gas, we can combine the three gas laws to produce a single equation relating the pressure, volume, temperature and amount of gas: pV = NkT Where N is the number of molecules of the gas and k is the Boltzmann constant, The temperature must be absolute temperature in Kelvin. This is known as the equation of state for an ideal gas, expressed in terms of the number of molecules present. To make this more useful in practice, where we are dealing with very large numbers of ‘molecules, we replace the Boltzmann constant and the number N to obtain: pY = nRT Where n is the number of moles of the gas; R is the Universal gas constant, R = 8.31) kg* mol? Nuclear decay 1 BACKGROUND RADIATION Background radiation: low levels of radiation always present in the environment, largely from natural sources. The main natural sources of background radiation are: Radioactive gases (mainly radon) emitted from the ground, which can be trapped in buildings and build up to potentially dangerous level - high levels of radon can greatly increase the risk of lung cancer. Radioactive elements in the Earth’s crust - mainly uranium and the isatopes it forms when it decays - these give rise to gamma radiation, which is emitted from the round and rocks and building materiats. © Cosmic rays from outer space which bombard the Earth’s atmosphere producing showers of lower-energy particles such 2s muons, neutrons and electrons also gamma rays. ‘Naturally occurring radiosctive isotopes present in our food and drink, and in the air we breathe, including carbon-14 and potassium-40. Background radiation also comes from artificial sources such as medical sources.2 NUCLEAR RADIATION When a nuclear decay occurs, the radiation particle emitted will leave the nucleus with a Certain amount of kinetic energy. As the particie travels, it will ionise particles in its path, losing 2 small amount of that kinetic energy at each ionisation. When all the kinetic energy is transferred, the radiation particle stops and is absorbed by the substance itis in that moment. Alpha particles Alpha particles are compased of twa protons and two neutrons, the same as a helium nucleus. This is a relatively large particle with a significant positive change (+2e), so itis highly ionising. As it ionises so much, it quickly loses its kinetic energy and is easily absorbed. Afew centimetres travel in air is enough to absorb alpha particles, and they are completely blocked by paper and skin. Geta particles ‘A beta particle is an electron emitted at high speed from the nucleus when a neutron decays into a proton. With its single negative charge and much smaller size, the beta particle is much less ionising than an alpha particle, and thus penetrate much further. Several metres. of air, or a thin sheet of aluminium, are needed to absorb beta particles. Gamma rays Gamma rays are high energy, high frequency, electromagnetic radiation. These photons have no charge and no mass and so will rarely interact with particles in their path, which ‘means they are the least ionising nuclear radiation. They are never completely absorbed, although their energy can be significantly reduced by several centimetres of lead, or several meters of concrete. if the energy ts reduced to a safe level, gamma rays are often said to have been absorbed. 3 DANGERS FROM NUCLEAR RADIATIONS lonising radiations can interact with the particles which make up human cells. There may be $0 much ionisation that the cells die as 3 result. Where there is less ionisation, the molecules of DNA in the cells may change slightly. These DNA mutations can cause cells to have an increased tendency to become cancerous. As the different types of nuciear radiation ionise to different extents, the hazard to humans is different for each type.4 RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY Nuclear decay Is spontaneous and random in nature. Any radioactive nucleus may decay at any moment. For each second that it exists, there is a certain probability that the nucleus will decay. This probability Is called the decay constant, A. The likelihood that a particular nucleus will decay Is not affected by factors outside the nucleus, such as temperature and Pressure, or by the behaviour of the neighbouring nuclei - each nucleus acts entirely Independently, if we have a large sample of the nuclei, the prabability of decay will determine the fraction of these nuclei that will decay each second. Naturally, if the sample is larger, then the number that decay in a second will be greater. So the number decaying per second, called the activity A, is proportional to the number of nuclei in the sample, N, Mathematically, this Is expressed as: AN AN As iN de> The minus sign in the formula occurs because the number of nuclel in the sample, N, decreases with time. The formula for the rate decay of nuclei ina sample is a differential equation. It can be solved to give a formula for the number of nuclei remaining in a sample, N, after a fixed time, t: N=Nye* Half-life The activity of a radioactive sample decreases over time as the radioactive nuclei decay. While activity of a sample depends an the nuclei present, the rate at which the activity decreases depends only on the particular Isotope. A measure of this rate of decrease of activity is the half-life. This is the time taken for half of the atoms of that nuclide within a sample to decay. ‘Mathematically, the half-life can be found by putting N= ¥5 Nj into the slecay: equation:Rearranging, this also gives us: In2 aa Half-life graphs An experiment to determine the half-life of a substance will usually measure its activity over time. As activity Is proportional to the number of nuclei present, when the activity is plotted against time, the shape of the curve is exponential decay. The activity, A, follows the equation: A=Agc% We can use the graph of activity against time to determine the half-life of the substance by finding the time taken for the activity to halve. ‘~ Notice that the time interval is not identical each time. This is due to random nature of ca radioactive decay, plus experimental and graphing errors. The best-fit curve will be a saa matter of the drawer's judgement. Thus, to a get the best answer for the half-life, we must undertake the analysis on the graph = Several times in different parts of the graph and average the results 5 NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY Energy-mass equivalence ‘We might expect that we fe 1007279 Tsarters « known the constituent parts of a) or) listen? sepreses tataesoaie (ican Tomosesa | ton « 0 (ta enags by finding the total mass of its nucleons. However, in practice we find that the actual, measured mass of a nucleus is always less than the total mass of its constituent nucleons, This difference is called the mass deficit, or sometimes the mass defect. Lue 1.66 e107”Nuclear binding energy ‘The mass deficit comes about because a small amount of the mass of the nudeons Is converted into the energy needed to hold the nucleus together. This is called binding energy. It is calculated using Einstein's mass-energy relationship: AE =c*m where cis the speed of light. There are two common systems of units for calculating binding energy. If you have calculated the mass deficit in kilograms (SI units) then using ¢ = 3.00 x 10" m 5 will give the binding energy in joules. Alternatively, if you have calculated the mass deficit in atomic mass units, then you convert this into binding energy in mega-electronvolts (MeV) using: 1u=9315Mev 6 NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON Nuclear binding energy per nucleon which is the energy that would be needed to remove one nucleon from a nucleus can be calculated by dividing the nuclear binding energy by the number of nucleons. Drawing a graph of binding energy per nucleon against mass number for the nuclei gives us a useful means of comparing how tightly different nuclides are bound together. ‘The graph shows us that small nuclides can combine together to make larger nuclei (up to Fe-S6) with a greater binding energy per nucleon. This process is called nuclear fusion. Sinitarly, larger nuclei can break up into smaller pieces which have a greater binding energy per nucleon. Reactions like this are called nuctear fission. Ey 100 150 200 Mass umber, fig. 5.2.2 Graph of binding energy per nucleon against mass number, A.7 NUCLEAR FISSION Nuclear fission is the process by which a large nucleus breaks up into smaller daughter nuclei, with the release of some neutrons and energy. Process of fission of U-235 U-235 absorbs a slow-moving neutron. wa U-235 splits and daughter elements are formed. . . *Tenlestetenergy adore unt —s c © Once fission has taken place, the neutrons can be absorbed by other nuclei and further a reactions can take place. This is called a chain reaction. j ‘Nuclear power stations use fission ee, Sor reactions to generate the heat needed to produce steam. The nuclear reactor controls the chain reaction so that energy {s steadily released. Fission occurs in the fuel rods and causes them to become very hot. The coolant is a fluid pumped through the reactor. Control rods, made falvods OY of boron, absorb neutrons, preventing the chain reaction getting out of control, Moving the contro! rods in and out of the reactor core changes the amount of fission that takes place. 8 NUCLEAR FUSION we take some light nuclei and force them to join together, the mass of the new, heavier, nucleus willl be less than the mass of the constituent parts, as some mass is converted into energy. However, not all of this energy is used as binding energy for the new larger nucleus, so energy will be released from this reaction, The binding energy per nucleon afterwards is higher than at the start. This is the process of nuclear fusion and is what provides the energy to make stars shine. a +r penne ‘ge an prota cag no freer hie oe ‘age 3 mcr pon pio mategsaina cee ‘ag mtProblems about nuclear fusion ‘Scientists have not yet successfully maintained a controlled nuclear fusion reaction. + Very high temperatures are needed + Toovercome electrostatic repulsion / forces + Nuclei come close enough to fuse / for strang (nuclear) force to act + Very high densities are needed + (Together with high nudei speeds} this gives a sufficient collision rate ‘© (Very high) temperatures lead to confinement problems * Contact with container causes temperature to fail (and fusion to cease) Oscillations 1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION Simple harmonic motion is periodic motion about an equilibrium position and all SHMs share ‘two common characteristics: + The resultant force acting on the oscillating body, and therefore its acceleration, is proportional to the displacement of the body from the equilibrium position. + The resultant force, and therefore the acceleration, always acts in a direction towards the equilibrium position. ‘These conditions are combined into a simple equation: F =-krora = —Aa™ Xis the horizontal distance from the centre. The matian isa projection of a circular motion so the equations for angular velocity, displacement, frequency and time are equally valid for ‘simple harmonic motion. | ‘When the object is at position A, this projected distance x is equal to ‘the radius of the cirele, r, but at position B this distance is shown by OC. This distance can be taleulated from: x=roos@ Or: x = reos(wt) In this experiment a spring is used therefore r is replaced with A which denotes the displacement. The equation for SHM is then: F = -kAcos(wt)Equations for displacement, velocity and acceleration can be derived from this single equation. 2 so, = Inf 2 GRAPHS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION ‘There are two key points in the motion: + Ateach end of the oscillation, when the velocity is momentarily zero, the displacement curve is 2 maximum, positive or negative (A or — A), and its gradient = 0. * At the centre of the motion, ‘corresponding to x-= 0, the velocity has its maximum value — you can see from the graph for x that the gradient, and hence the velocity, is 2 maximum at each point where the curve ‘crosses the t-axis; furthermore, the gradient alternates between being positive and negative .a5 the body moves first one way, and then back again, through the mid-point af its oscillations. AS a pendulum swings to and fro there isa ‘continuous interchange of kinetic and gravitational potential energy. At one end of its swing, the pendulum momentarily comes to rest and so its kinetic energy is zero. At this point it will have maximum potential energy because the bob is at its highest point. As the bob swings down, it lases gravitational potential energy and gains kinetic energy. At the bottom of the swing, the midpoint of motion, the bob will have maximum velocity and thus ‘maximum kinetic energy. As this is the lowest point of its motion, its gravitational potential energy will have its minimum value. This cyclic interchange of energy is repeated twice every oscillation.3_ SPRING The equation for a spring that obeys Hooke’s law is F = kar where kis the spring constant, or stiffness of the spring, and x is the extension. In this context simple means © Asmall, dense, pendulum bob and © Alight, inextensible string {nthe case of the simple pendulum, the force causing the oscillation is provided by a component of the weight of the pendulum bob. ‘The required force is the component mgsin 8. If @ is small then sin @ is dose to @ and so the force is proportional to displacement. It can then be shown, for oscillations of small amplitude that the period, toa good approximation is given by Tae |e 95 FREE, DAMPED AND FORCED OSCILLATIONS A free oscillation Is one in which no external force acts on the oscillation system except the force that gives rise to the oscillation. A damped oscillation Is one in which energy is being transferred to the surroundings, resulting in oscillations of reduced amplitude and energy. An oscillation system does work against external forces acting on it, such as air resistance, and so uses up some energy. This ‘wanster of energy from the oscillating system to internal energy of the surrounding air ‘causes the oscillations to slow down and eventually die away. Forced oscillations occur if force is repeatedly or continually applied to keep the oscillation ‘going so that the system is make to vibrate at the frequency of the vibrating source and not at its own natural frequency of vibration. 6 RESONANCE Ifa system or object is forced to vibrate at its natural frequency, It will the maximum ‘energy and amplitude of the oscillations will reach Its maximum. ‘The effects of resonance can be reduced by means of damping. if there is damping, the resonant frequency at which the amplitude is a maximum is lower than the natural ‘frequency, and that this difference increases as the degree of damping increases. As the amount of damping increases, the resonant peak is much lower, and the resonance curve broadens aut. Damping can be achieved by using a material which absorbs energy from the ‘oscillation (energy Is transferred into the internal energy of the object) or it can be achieved by the plastic deformation of ductile materials.Astrophysics and cosmology 1 GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS A particle that has mass will feet a force when it is in a gravitational field. Like electric fields created by charged particies, a massive particle will generate a radial gravitational field around itself. Unlike electric fields, gravity is always attractive. The force that a body will feel is the strength of the gravitational field (g) multiplied by the ‘amount of mass (m), as given by the equation: Femg Newton was the first scientist ta determine the equation that gives us the gravitational force between two masses, m: and m2, which are separated by a distance, r, between their centres of gravity. -Gmyn, rm G has the value 6.67 x 107) N m? kg? Radial fields Any mass will generate a gravitational field that will exert a force on any mass within the field. As gravity is always attractive, the field produced by a point mass will be radial in shape and the field lines will always point towards the mass. Gravitational field strength ‘The radial field produced by a point mass naturally has its field lines closer together nearer the mass, This means that the strength of the field decreases with increasing distance from the mass causing it i.e. the field strength is independent of the object being acted upon.Similarities and differences between gravitational and electric fields Eran & (Objects with charge eel 41.93 Can be attractive or repulsive 2 LUMINOSITY AND FLUX Luminosity is used to describe the total output power of a star, unit W. For example, the luminosity of the Sun is Lo = 3.90 x 10°* Ww. The electromagnetic wave energy per second per unit area fram a star reaching us on Earth is called the radiation flux from the star, symbol F, unit Wom? (Le. J st m2), L aad? 3 STANDARD CANDLES + Standard candles are stellar objects of known luminosity. ‘* Standard candle's brightness (radiation flux) on earth is measured or knawn. . ‘* Distance to standard candle is calculated. Cepheid stars are an example for standard candles. These stars have a luminosity which varies periodically. The process of finding the distance to a Cepheid star is: Locate the Cepheid variable star. Measure its period T. Find the star’s luminosity L. . . . Measure the radiation flux (brightness) F from the star at Earth © Calculate dusing= |=.4 TRIGONOMETRIC PARALLAX To measure the distance to relatively close stars, astronomers use a method that is commonly used in surveying, known as trigonometric parallax. As the Earth moves around the Sun, a relatively close star will appear to move across the background of more distant stars. This optical illusion is used to determine the distance of the star. The star itself does not move significantly during the course of the observations. To determine the trigonometric parallax you measure the angle to a star, and observe how that changes as the position of the Earth changes. We know that in six months the Earth will be exactly on the opposite side of its orbit, and therefore will be two astronomical units from its location today. Using observations of the star to be measured against a background of much more distant stars, we can measure the angle between the star and the Earth in these two different positions in space, six months apart. As we know the size of the Earth's orbit, geometry allows calculation of the distance to the star. * paslyatr ® The star is viewed from two positions at 6 months intervals. ‘The change in angular position of the star against background of fixed stars is measured. > Trigonometry is used to calculate the distance to the star. > The diameter/radius of the Earth's orbit about the Sun must be known, ~ This method of distance measurement is only suitable for the stars and star clusters closest tothe Earth, © if the stars are too far away the angular displacement is too small to be determined and the uncertainty is too large.5 THEHERTZSPRUNG-RUSSELL DIAGRAM The H-R diagramis a plot of stellar luminosity against surface temperature. Note it is a diagram not a graph - each dat represents a single star. To understand the diagram you need to remember what the two axes are telling you. } The vertical axis is luminosity, scaled in Sun-powers, i.e. multiples of Lo. The positions of the stars go up and down from 1 in powers of 10, Le. the scale is logarithmic. The Sun's luminosity Lo= 3.90.x 10% W. > The horizontal axis is the surface temperature T of the star in Kelvin. This scale is also logarithmic and goes from high temperature on the left to low temperatures on the right. 6 WIEN’S LAW To calculate luminosity, we need to know the temperature oF the star. When we examine the range of wavelengths emitted by a star, known as its spectrum, we find that some wavelengths are given off with more intensity than others. This law assumes stars are black-body radiators meaning they emit all wavelengths, yet with different intensities. Very hot stars are blue and cool stars are red. At higher temperatures the curve has a more pronounced peak, and the wavelength of the peak output gets shorter ‘as the temperature rises, the relationship between the peak wavelength and temperature is Gescribed by Wien'slaw: 4 = 2.898 x 1077 mK.7 ~=THESTEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW ‘The electromagnetic spectrum goes from the smaller y-rays and X-rays to the langer microwaves and radio waves. A star emits a continuous spectrum for which the total power ‘output, its luminosity L, is proportional not to its temperature T, but to T*. That this does not match up with the L-T relationship shown for main sequence stars on an H-R diagram is because the high-luminosity stars on the H-R diagram are larger than stars like the Sun, and the Sun is larger than stars at the bottom right of the H-R diagram. The full relationship is called the Stefan-8oltzmann law: ‘Working on the assumption that a star acts like a black body emitter, which is a very good approximation, this equation describes the luminosity of a star. 8 THE LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR “} —® eee tamer mie 0 0-9" eta ‘The majority of material in the Universe is hydrogen or helium, and it is from these elements that stars are initially formed. From an accreting collection of these gases, called a protastar, the life cycle of a star follows 2 number of stages, with the star ending its life as a white dwarf, neutron star or black hole.® As the star undergoes nuclear fusion, the binding energy differences of the nuclei before and after fusion mean that the process releases energy, often as electromagnetic fadiation, to heat the star. The pressure from the vibration of its particles and the electromagnetic radiation trying to escape hold up the structure of the star against gravitational collapse. itis this constant battle between outward pressure and gravity that drives the evolution of a star throughout its lifetime. The initial mass of the star is a critical factor in determining how the battle wages, and thus which of the possible life cycles a star will follow. low-mass stars (Life cycle of our Sun) ‘Stage 1: The Sun was formed or born from a cloud of hydrogen and helium. ‘Stage 2 (current stage): The Sun joined the main sequence stars as it undergoes nuclear fusion of hydrogen, converting into helium. Stage 3: Eventually, the Sun will run low on hydrogen fuel, but will have produced so much energy that it will expand slightly. This expansion causes the temperature to fall and the star becomes a red giant. Once most of the hydrogen fuel is used, the star will start fusing helium nudel. This complex process can cause an explosion that throws some material from the star out inta space, farming a planetary nebula. As the fuel to produce energy to support the star funs out, the outward pressure from fusion drops and gravity takes hold, causing the star to contract toa much smaller size. This heats significantly and it becomes a white dwarf. ‘Stage 4 (theoretical): As time continues, the star will slowly run out of energy and die, passing through the red dwarf stage to become a black dwarf. Main sequence stars: ‘+ Fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium nuclei * Constant size ‘* Fusion of helium nuclei and formation af =. heavier elements ‘© Loss of material into space and formation of a planetary nebula ‘* Decrease in size and increase in temperature leading to formation of white dwarfs White dwarfs: ‘© White dwarf stars are the core remnant of a red giant star ‘© There is no fusion going on in the white dwarf © They have small surface area so they are not very luminous They are very hot, and appear white (because they emit all visible wavelengths)Massive stars {fa protostar has more than four times the mass of our Sun, the star begins life as a blue supergiant. As with low mass stars, nuclear fusion begins and the star enters a stable stage of life in which heat pressure and gravity are in equilibrium. However, the fusion processes happen at much higher temperatures than in lower mass stars. This means that it bums very quickly, and the conditions make it possible for further fusion of some of the larger atoms it produces to occur. The fusion of helium can produce a variety of the larger elements. When the material of such a star has been fused to the point where it is mostly iron, it can ‘no longer undergo nuclear fusion and it stops producing energy. With the enormous gravitational forces produced by the large mass, the star undergoes an incredible collapse. This sudden increase in density produces a sudden huge burst of energy, effectively bouncing the collapse back out. This explosion is a supernova and it is the most immense burst of energy ever witnessed. Within a supernova explosion there is so much energy that nuclear reactions occur which produce the elements above iran in the periodic table. The natural occurrence of these elements is evidence that supernovae must have occurred in the past, as the binding energies of these heavy elements are such that they cannot be created in other natural processes in the Universe. After a high-mass star has exploded as a supernova, the entire star may be completely shattered. If there remains a central core of stellar material, this will either be a neutron star or a black hole. A neutron star consists almost entirely of neutrons, packed as densely together as the nucteons within the nucieus of an atom. Black holes are even smaller and hold even more matter than neutron stars. This means that their gravitational pull is immense — so strong that even things travelling at the speed of light cannot escape. 9 THE AGE OF THE UNIVERSE AND HUBBLE’S LAW Doppler red shift The amount of red shift a galaxy exhibits, z, allows us to calculate how fast it is moving. This can be done using measurements of either wavelength or frequency changes.Hubble's law ‘The recession velocity af a galaxy is directty proportional to its distance away fram us. The ‘constant of proportionality, the Hubble constant, can be found from the gradient of the graph. The best modern value is considered accurate to within 5%. Ho = 71 km s* Mpc? ‘With an accurate valve for Ho, astronomers can now use Hubble's law to determine distances to newly observed objects. veld ‘Age of the universe As all distant objects show a red shift, they are all moving away from us. This implies that the Universe as a whole is expanding. If we imagine time running backwards from the present, ‘then the Universe would contract until a moment where everything was in the same place. ‘This would be the time of the Big Bang, when everything first exploded outwards from that single point. Thus, if we can find the Hubble constant, it will tell us how quickly the Universe Is expanding. FFor an object to travel a distance d, from the beginning of time, at a speed ‘of fy the time taken, T;,. can be calculated from the basic equation for spec spon «= stance ume at Uwe conser the gradnt of the Hubble graph, fp = 3 T.«t To Oy Note that in this calculstor you should use the same writs for the distance: an for the lengih component of the units for recession velocity, Usually, the ‘Hubble constant is quoted in units of tama“ Mpc! My = Then! Spe = 71000ms! Spe Ip © 3.08 « 10m UMpe © 3.08 = 1072 m 000 308 = 1072 223110 met aie My 2231 10 et Ty 2433 x 100s ‘This value for Ti gives the age of the Univerac av 13-7 billion yearn10 THE FATE OF THE UNIVERSE The 5% of the universe > Nearby galaxies do not have enough visible gravitationally attracting {hadranic) matter to keep the outermost stars moving in circles around the galaxy’s centre, » Distant galaxies appear to be moving sway from the Solar system at an accelerating rate, ‘ather than slowing down as predicted by Newton's law of gravitation. The first problem suggests 24% of the mass of nearby galaxies consist of dark matter. Oark matter cannot be detected via the EM-interaction but it has mass and exerts gravitational force. The second problem suggests that about 71% of our universe consists of a mysterious antigravity material known as dark energy. Therefore, 95% of the universe Is unknown while the 5% of it Is ordinary atoms. The future of the universe ‘What the fate of the universe will be depends an the average density of matter it now contains. With a high density the universe implodes into a Big Crunch; with a small density it will go on expanding forever. When cosmologists try to estimate the average density of matter in the universe, they discover problems. Some of these problems are: ‘© bifficulty in making accurate measurement of distance to Jren— alaxies a © Hubble constant has a large uncertainty or age = 1/H may. a not be valid as gravity is changing the expansion rate © Because of the existence of dark matter * Values of the average density/mass of the universe have a large uncertainty + Dark energy may mean we don't understand gravity as well as we thought we did (so It’s hard to predict how gravity will determine the ultimate fate. loved Tne Open universe: If the density of the universe is lower than the critical density, the universe will continue expanding forever. Closed universe: If the density of the universe is greater than the critical density, the universe will reach a maximum size and will then reduce in size until imploding in a Big Crunch