MODULE 3

INDIAN RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY, AND PRACTICES

 Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion

 Buddhism
 Jainism
 Six System Indian Philosophy
 Shankaracharya
 Various Philosophical Doctrines
 Other Heterodox Sects
 Bhakti Movement
 Sufi movement
 Socio religious reform movement of 19th century
 Modern religious practices
 MODULE-3
INDIAN RELIGION, PHILOSOPHY AND PRACTICES

India is a beautiful, lovely and a lively country to be in. This is because religion has always been a significant
factor in influencing the lives of people in India from the earliest times. The relationship between religion and
philosophy has been an intimate one and hence their growth and development need to be studies in an
interrelated manner.

Religion
 Religion is the science of soul. Morality and ethics have their foundation on religion.
 Religion played an important part in lives of the Indians from the earliest times.
 Religion in India was never static in character but was driven by an inherent dynamic strength.
 Every system of philosophy in India is a quest for Truth, which is one and the same, always and
everywhere. The modes of approach differ, logic varies, but the purpose remains the same – trying to
reach that Truth.
 Indian spiritually is deeply rooted in ancient philosophical and religious traditions of the land.
Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and existence.
The sages found that the true nature of the human being is not the body or the mind, which are ever changing
and perishable but the spirit which is unchanging, immortal and pure consciousness. They called it the Atman.
The Atman is the true source of human’s knowledge, happiness and power. The rishis further found that all
individual selves are parts of infinite consciousness which they called Brahman. Brahman is the ultimate reality,
the ultimate cause of the universe. Ignorance of human’s true nature is the main cause of human suffering and
bondage. By gaining correct knowledge of Atman and Brahman, it is possible to become free from suffering
and bondage and attain a state of immortality, everlasting peace and fulfillment known as Moksha.
Religion in ancient India meant a way of life which enables a human to realize his true nature and attain
Moksha.

Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion

 From the archaeological findings in the pre and proto-historic sites it seems that these people believed in
the sanctity of the creative force and venerated the male and female aspects of divinit y.
 The nature of the religious beliefs and practices of the Aryans is also known from the Rig Veda. They
believed in many gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya and Rudra.
 Sacrifices and rituals offering of food and drink to fire in honour of the Gods, constituted the main
religious practices.
 The Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda elaborated in the Brahmanas.
 The Atharva Veda contained a great deal of animistic beliefs.
 India down the ages attempted to grapple with the fundamental problems of life and thought.
 Philosophy in India began with a quest after the highest truth-truth not as mere objective certitude, but as
being closely linked with the development of personality and leading to the attainment of the highest
freedom, bliss and wisdom.
The Aranyaka and Upanishad sections of the Vedic literature envisage a progressive outlook.
The Upanishads represent the early stage in the origin and development of the religions-metaphysical concepts
which were used later by the religious leaders and reformers of ancient and medieval India. Some of them
followed the traditional lines while others proceeded along the paths of unorthodoxy.

Unorthodox Religious Movements

 The Religious movements associated with persons like, Mahavira and the Buddha in about the middle of
the first Millennium BCE fall under this category.
 There were many other creeds during this time as well. The creeds preached by some of them contained
elements that were not in keeping with the Vedic tradition.
 They ignored the infallibility and supernatural origin of the Vedas. Unlike the Vedic seers who were
Brahmin sages, many of these new teachers were Kshatriya.
 Both Buddhism and Jainism were atheistic creeds in the beginning.

Theistic Religions
 Creeds of theistic character evolved almost simultaneously with the non-theistic religions.
 The important deities of these religions were not primarily Vedic ones but those that came from
unorthodox sources.
 Influence of pre-Vedic and post-Vedic folk elements were most conspicuous in their origin.
 The primary factor that motivated these creeds was Bhakti, the single-souled devotion of the worshipper
to a personal god with some moral link.

 This led to the evolution of different religious sects like Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Saktism, which
came to be regarded as components of orthodox Brahminism.
 These sects in course of time came to have a significant impact on the popular forms of Buddhism and
Jainism.

Religion of the Rig Vedic people was very simple in the sense that it consisted mainly of worship of numerous
deities representing the various phenomena of nature through prayers.
  It was during the later Vedic period that definite ideas and philosophers about the true nature of soul or
Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman who represented the ultimate reality were developed.
 These Vedic philosophical concepts later on gave rise to six different schools of philosophies called
shadadarshana.
 They fall in the category of the orthodox system as the final authority of the Vedas is recognised by all
of them.

Jain Philosophy
 Like the Charvakas, the Jains too do not believe in the vedas, but they admit existence of a soul.
 The Jaina philosophy was first propounded by the Tirthankara Rishabha Deva.

Jain Theory of Reality: Nine Tattvas (Principles)

• The nine tattvas, or principles, are the single most important subject of Jain philosophy.
• It deals with the karma theory of Jainism, which provides the basis for the path of liberation.
• Without the proper knowledge of this subject, a person cannot progress spiritually.
• The proper understanding of this subject brings about right faith (samyak-darshana), right knowledge
(samyak-jnana), and right conduct in an individual.
• The Nine Tattvas are:-
1) Jiva - soul or living being (Consciousness)
2) Ajiva - non-living substances
3) Asrava - cause of the influx of karma
4) Bandha - bondage of karma
5) Punya – virtue
6) Papa – sin
7) Samvara - arrest of the influx of karma
8) Nirjara - exhaustion of the accumulated karma
9) Moksha - total liberation from karma

Buddhism Philosophy
Gautama Buddha, who founded the Buddhist philosophy, was born in 563 BCE at Lumbini, a village near
Kapilavastu in the foothills of Nepal. His childhood name was Siddhartha. His mother, Mayadevi, died when he
was hardly a few days old. He was married to Yashodhara, a beautiful princess, at the age of sixteen. After a
year of the marriage, he has a son, whom they named Rahul. But at the age of twenty-nine, Gautama Buddha
renounced family life to find a solution to the world’s continuous sorrow of death, sickness, poverty, etc. He
then travelled a lot to spread his message and helped people find the path of liberation or freedom.
Gautama’s three main disciplines known as Upali, Ananda and Mahakashyap remembered his teachings and
passed them on to his followers.

Main Characteristics of Buddha Philosophy:

 Buddha presented simple principles of life and practical ethics that people could follow easily.
 He considered the world as full of misery. Man’s duty is to seek liberation from this painful world.
 He strongly criticized blind faith in the traditional scriptures like the Vedas.
 Buddha’s teachings are very practical and suggest how to attain peace of mind and ultimate liberation
from this material world.

SIX SYSTEMS OF ANCIENT INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

Metaphysics played an extremely important role in Ancient Indian learning and social system. These
metaphysics formed the philosophical foundation of life. Hence, it was given the term Darshana which literally
means showing the path (of life). The Shad-Darshanas or the six systems of the Astika or the orthodox schools
of Indian Philosophy consider the authority of Vedas.

Nyaya – Valid knowledge through Logical Criticism

The short form for Nyaya is N. The founder of the Nyaya system was Akshapada Gautama. It is also known as
Nyaya Vidya or Tarka Sastra – ‘the science of logic and reasoning’. Because Nyaya analyses the nature and
source of knowledge, it validity and invalidity, it is also known as Anviksiki which means ‘the science of
critical study’. For example, it is when one knows a snake as a snake or a cup as a cup. Nyaya system of
philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and destroys the universe.

Nyaya asserts that obtaining valid knowledge of the external world and its relationship with the mind and self is
the only way to attain liberation. If one masters the logical techniques of reasoning and dutifully applies these to
daily life, he will rid himself of all suffering. The ultimate aim of Nyaya philosophy like other systems of Indian
philosophy is liberation – the complete cessation of pain and suffering. Although concerned with the study of
logic and epistemology Nyaya is a philosophy of life.

The common aims of all the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy are to describe the nature of the external
world and its relationship to the individual, to discuss the metaphysical aspects of the ultimate Reality, and to
state the goal of life and means for attaining this goal. In this attempt, all Indian systems divide their course of
study into two categories, the study of the unmanifested reality and manifest reality.
In Nyaya, both these aspects are studied under 16 major divisions called Padarthas. The sixteen divisions are:-
1) Pramana – The Source of Knowledge
2) Prameya – The Object of Knowledge
3) Samsaya – Doubt/Confusion
It is a state of mind where the mind wavers between conflicting views regarding a single object, is a
product of a confused state of mind that is not able to perceive with clarity.
4) Prayojana - The Purpose/Aim
Without an aim or target no one can perform any action. One acts to achieve desirable objects or to get
rid of undesirable ones, these objects that motivate one’s activities are known as prayojana.
5) Drstanta – Example/Familiar Instance
It is the use of an example to illustrate a common fact and establish an argument. This is a very
important aspect of reasoning for frequently an example can be accepted by both parties to resolve a
difference of opinion.
6) Siddhanta – Establish Principle/Doctrine
It is a postulate that is accepted as the undisputed truth and that serves as the foundation for the entire
theory of a particular system of philosophy. This accepted truth might be derived from direct experience
or from reasoning and logic. For e.g. it is the doctrine of Nyaya philosophy that there is a God who is the
efficient cause of the universe and who organizes / regulates the atoms.
7) Avayava – The Elements/Constituents of Inference
The term literally means constituents or parts and in this context it refers to the constituents of inference.
This is an important part in Nyaya philosophy because Nyaya strongly emphasizes describing the minute
complexities of the pramanas, the sources or methods of receiving correct knowledge. Among these
methods inference is the most important source of correct knowledge and Nyaya provides a technical
method to test the validity of the inference. If an inference contains the following five constituents, then
it can give correct knowledge. These are pratijna (statements), hetu (reason), udaharana (example),
upanaya (universal proposition) and nigamana (conclusion).
8) Tarka – Reasoned Argument
9) Nirnaya – Conclusion
10) Vada – Discussion to arrive at the truth
11) Jalpa – Wrangling to win an argument
12) Vitanda – Irrational Argument or baseless argument for proving someone wrong
13) Hetvabhasa – Specious/Erroneous Reasoning
 14) Chala – Unfair Reply/Willfully misinterpreting the words of others
15) Jati – Generality Based on a False Analogy
16) Nigrahasthana – The Grounds for Defeat.

Prameya - The Object of Knowledge

Prameya or P for short may be translated as ‘that which is knowable’ or ‘the object of true knowledge’. The
word P is derived from the Sanskrit word prama meaning ‘buddhi’ or cognition. That which is the object of
cognition is prameya and whatever is comprehended or cognized by buddhi is categorized into twelve objects of
cognition known as the Prameyas. These 12 divisions are –
1) Atman the Self,
2) Sarira the body that experiences pleasure and pain, the seat of all organic activities,
3) Indriyas the five senses i.e. smell, taste, sight, touch and hearing that contact external objects and
transmit the experience to the mind,
4) Artha the objects of the senses,
5) Buddhi cognition,
6) Manas or the mind that is concerned with the perception of pleasure and pain and according to N limits
cognition to time and space. The mind is compared to an atom because it is minute, everlasting,
individual and all pervading.
7) Pravrti is activity – vocal, mental and physical,
8) Dosa – mental defects that include attachment (raga), hatred (dvesa), and delusion (moha),
9) Pretyabhava – rebirth or life after death,
10) Phala – the fruits or results of action experienced as pleasure and pain,
11) Dukha – suffering, and
12) Apavarga – liberation or complete cessation of all suffering without the possibility of its reappearance.

According to Nyaya philosophy, the goal of life is to understand these 12 aspects of reality as they actually are.
Bondage is born of the misunderstanding of these 12 knowable objects and one obtains freedom when he attains
the correct knowledge of these 12 aspects of reality.

Vaisheshika
Kannada is the founder of this school, which is associated with the Nyaya system. Vaisheshika system is
considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of universe. It is popularly understood as the atomistic
school of Indian Philosophy. It elaborates on seven elements of matter with the nomenclature of Saptapadartha-
1) Dravya (substance and also includes the Panchamahabhutas)
2) Guna (distinct quality)
3) Karma (action/activities)
4) Samanya (generalist traits)
5) Vishesha (uniqueness/specialty)
6) Samavaya (inherence/inter-relatedness)
7) Abhaava (non-existence/absence)
Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of the universe are composed of five elements–earth, water, air, fire
and aether. They believe that God is the guiding principle. The living beings were rewarded or punished
according to the law of karma, based on actions of merit and demerit. Creation and destruction of universe was
a cyclic process and took place in agreement with the wishes of God.
This school is called Vaisesika because it considers, uniqueness, as an aspect of reality and studies it as a
separate category. Under the topic of substance, it deals with the physics and chemistry of the body and the
universe. The theory of atomic structure was established by this school. Its practical teaching emphasizes
dharma, the code of conduct that leads man to worldly welfare and to the highest goal of life.

Samkhya System
The propounder of this philosophy was Kapila, who wrote the Samkhya sutra. The Samkhya-karika of
Isvarakrsna, the oldest text on this philosophy, cites the name of Kapila, Asuri and Pancasikha as previous
teachers of this school. It is considered to the oldest of the philosophical systems.
Samkhya is an extremely complex school of philosophy that goes deep into the understanding of the creator and
the creation. There are terms like Mahat, Purusha, Prakriti and Tri-Gunas are explored in this school.
The Samkhya philosophy holds that reality is constituted of two principles one female and the other male i.e.
Prakriti, Purusha respectively. Prakriti and Purusha are completely independent and absolute. According to this
system, Purusha is mere consciousness, hence it cannot be modified or changed. Prakriti on the other hand is
constituted of three attributes, thought, movement and the change or transformation of these attributes brings
about the change in all objects. The Samkhya philosophy tries to establish some relationship between Purusha
and Prakriti for explaining the creation of the universe.
Samkhya is a dualistic philosophy that believes in the coexistent and interdependent realities, conscious Purusha
and unconscious Prakrti. Purusha is ever pure, wise and free but it becomes a subject of pain and pleasure when
it identifies itself with Prakrti. Prakrti is the material cause of the universe and is composed of three gunas –
sattva, rajas and tamas that correspond to light, activity and inertia respectively. The state in which the gunas
are in equilibrium is called Prakrti but when disturbed the state is called Vikrti. Disturbance of the equilibrium
of Prakrti produces the material world, including the mind, which is supposed to be the finest form of material
energy.
The Mahat is the universal cosmic spirit. Purusha is the passive element whereas Prakriti is the active element
which creates Manas (Mind) and the three Gunas- Sattva (Calm and composed), Rajas (momentum, dynamism
and egoistic) and Tamas (imbalanced, chaotic and destructive).
Samkhya philosophy explains the dynamics of the body and nature of mind. It is the mother of mathematics as
well as Ayurveda and is indeed the very basis of Eastern philosophy.

Yoga
Yoga literally means the union of the two principal entities. The origin of yoga is found in the Yogasutra of
Patanjali believed to have been written in the second century BC. The Yoga Sutras contain 196 aphorisms,
which are divided into four sections. Yoga studies all aspects of human personality and teaches one how to
control the modifications of the mind through practice of meditation and detachment and surrender to higher
consciousness.
Yogic techniques control the body, mind and sense organs. Thus this philosophy is also considered a means of
achieving freedom or mukti. This freedom could be attained by practising self-control (yama), observation of
rules (niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath control (pranayama), choosing an object (pratyahara) and fixing
the mind (dharna), concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana) and complete dissolution of self, merging the
mind and the object (Samadhi). Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher and guide. In this system the
individual self is the seeker and pure consciousness is the ultimate reality that he finds within. Practicality is the
main feature of this system.

Ashtanga Yoga
While Samkhya highlights the three Gunas of Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas, the eight-limbs of Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali highlight how to connect with the greater cosmic essence and enhance spirituality. These eight-limbs
include- Yama (moral conduct), Niyama (Disciple), Asana (right posture), Pranayama (effective breathing),
Pratyahara (withdrawing the senses), Dharana (to concentrate on one object), Dhyana (meditation), Samadhi
(supreme bliss/ salvation).

Mimamsa
Jamini was the founder of this system that accepts the Veda as the final authority on all questions. Mimamsa
philosophy is basically the analysis of interpretation, application and the use of the text of the Samhita and
Brahmana portions of the Veda. According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all
knowledge, and religion means the fulfillment of duties prescribed by the Vedas.
It lays great emphasis on rituals, worship and ethical conduct and provides a systematic lifestyle and direction.
Mimamsa offers guidelines for practical application of Vedantic theory. This school is foremost in the analysis
of sound and mantra.
The names associated with this philosophy are Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta.
Eventually this school was divided into two groups: the school founded by Prabhakara and the one founded by
Kumarila Bhatta. According to the former there are five sources of valid knowledge: perception, inference,
comparison, testimony and postulation. According to the latter there is only one source of knowledge – non-
cognition. The essence of the system according to Jaimini is Dharma which is the dispenser of fruits of one’s
actions, the law of righteousness itself. This system lays stress on the ritualistic part of Vedas.

Purva Mimamsa
Sage Jaimini is associated with Purva Mimamsa who is considered to be the disciple of Sage Vyasa. This text
provides details on why is it important to conduct Vedic rituals for a person to attain the last ultimate goal of
life which is Moksha (usually understood as Salvation). This deals with Karma Khanda i.e action based
compendium of knowledge in the Vedas.

Vedanta or Uttara Mimamsa

Vedanta (the end of the Vedas or knowledge) refers to the Upanishads which appeared at the end of each Veda
with a direct perception of reality. It is the concluding portion of the Vedas. Shankaracharya wrote the
commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita.
According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true, the world is false and self and Brahman are not different’.
Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent, unchanging, the highest truth and the ultimate
knowledge. He also believes that there is no distinction between Brahman and the self. The knowledge of
Brahman is the essence of all things and the ultimate existence. Ramanuja was another well known Advaita
scholar.
Vedanta, as the name suggests, is the last of the four forms of Vedas, the other three being Brahmanas,
Samhitas, and Aranyakas. Aranyakas and Vedanta form the Jnana Khada viz. a more metaphysical element for
a person to explore. The beginning of Vedanta is credited to Sage Bhadrayana.
Vedanta was analyzed and interpreted by many thinkers that deserve a definite mention --Advaita
(nondualistic) Vedanta by Shankaracharya, Vishishta Advaita (qualifies nondualism) by Ramanujacharya,
Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta by Madhavacharya, Dvaitadvaita (both dualistic and non dualistic) Vedanta by
Nimbaraka and Shuddha Advaita (pure non-dualism) Vedanta by Vallabhacharya.
Vedanta is a philosophy and a religion. As a philosophy it inculcates the highest truths that have been
discovered by the greatest philosophers and the most advanced thinkers of all ages and all countries Vedanta
philosophy teaches that all these different religions are like so many roads, which lead to same goal.
The core message of Vedanta is that every action must be governed by the intellect – the discriminating faculty.
The mind makes mistakes but the intellect tells us if the action is in our interest or not. Vedanta enables the
practitioner to access the realm of spirit through the intellect. Whether one moves into spirituality through
Yoga, meditation or devotion, it must ultimately crystallize into inner understanding for atitudinal changes and
enlightenment.
The main teachings of Vedanta is that self-realization is the actual goal of life, that the essence of the self is the
ever existent consciousness and bliss, the Self is free from all qualifications and limitations, that the self is
essentially Brahman, supreme consciousness and this Brahman is the absolute, transcendent, attributeless reality
but it eternally embodies itself within itself the capacity or power called maya, which is the basis of mind and
matter.
Shankaracharya’s discourse or his philosophical views came to be known as Advaita Vedanta. Advaita literally
means non-dualism or belief in one reality. Shankaracharya expounded that ultimate reality is one, it being the
Brahman.

Heterodox Sects (Sramaṇic Schools)

Several Sramaṇic movements have existed before the 6th century BCE, and these influenced both the astika and
nastika traditions of Indian philosophy. The Sramaṇa movement gave rise to diverse range of heterodox beliefs,
ranging from accepting or denying the concept of soul, atomism, antinomian ethics, materialism, atheism,
agnosticism, fatalism to free will, idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life, strict ahimsa (non-
violence) and vegetarianism to permissibility of violence and meat-eating. Notable philosophies that arose from
Sramaṇic movement were Jainism, early Buddhism, Charvaka, Ajnana and Ajivika.

Ajnana Philosophy
Ajnana was one of the nastika or "heterodox" schools of ancient Indian philosophy, and the ancient school of
radical Indian skepticism. It was a Sramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They
have been recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of
metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was
possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation. They were sophists who specialised in
refutation without propagating any positive doctrine of their own.

Jain Philosophy
Jain philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that separates body (matter) from the soul (consciousness)
completely. Jainism was revived and re-established after Mahavira, the last and the 24th Tirthankara,
synthesised and revived the philosophies and promulgations of the ancient Śramaṇic traditions laid down by the
first Jain tirthankara Rishabhanatha millions of years ago. According to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition,
historians date the Mahavira as about contemporaneous with the Buddha in the 5th-century BC, and accordingly
the historical Parshvanatha, based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th century BC.
Jainism is a Śramaṇic religion and rejected the authority of the Vedas. However, like all Indian religions, it
shares the core concepts such as karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara and moksha. Jainism places strong
emphasis on asceticism, ahimsa (non-violence) and anekantavada (relativity of viewpoints) as a means of
spiritual liberation, ideas that influenced other Indian traditions.
Jainism strongly upholds the individualistic nature of soul and personal responsibility for one's decisions; and
that self-reliance and individual efforts alone are responsible for one's liberation. According to the Jain
philosophy, the world (Saṃsara) is full of hiṃsa (violence). Therefore, one should direct all his efforts in
attainment of Ratnatraya,that are Samyak Darshan, Samyak Gnana, and Samyak Chàritra which are the key
requisites to attain liberation.

Buddhist Philosophy
Buddhist philosophy is a system of thought which started with the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the
Buddha, or "awakened one". Buddhism is founded on elements of the Śramaṇa movement, which flowered in
the first half of the 1st millennium BCE, but its foundations contain novel ideas not found or accepted by other
Sramana movements. Buddhism and Hinduism mutually influenced each other and shared many concepts,
states Paul Williams, however it is now difficult to identify and describe these influences. Buddhism rejected
the Vedic concepts of Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (soul, self) at the foundation of Hindu
philosophies.
Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in karma – a cause-and-
effect relationship, samsara – ideas about cyclic afterlife and rebirth, dharma – ideas about ethics, duties and
values, impermanence of all material things and of body, and possibility of spiritual liberation (nirvana or
moksha). A major departure from Hindu and Jain philosophy is the Buddhist rejection of an eternal soul (atman)
in favour of anatta (non-Self).

Ajivika Philosophy
The philosophy of Ajivika was founded by Makkhali Gosala, it was a Śramaṇa movement and a major rival of
early Buddhism and Jainism. Ajivikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete monastic communities
prone to an ascetic and simple lifestyle.
Original scriptures of the Ajivika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently
unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ajivikas in the secondary sources
of ancient Indian literature, particularly those of Jainism and Buddhism which polemically criticized the
Ajivikas. The Ajivika school is known for its Niyati doctrine of absolute determinism (fate), the premise that
there is no free will, that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and
a function of cosmic principles. Ajivika considered the karma doctrine as a fallacy. Ajivikas were atheists and
rejected the authority of the Vedas, but they believed that in every living being is an atman – a central premise
of Hinduism and Jainism.

Charvaka Philosophy
Charvaka or Lokayata was a philosophy of scepticism and materialism, founded in the Mauryan period. They
were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time. Charvaka deemed Vedas to be tainted by the
three faults of untruth, self-contradiction, and tautology. Likewise they faulted Buddhists and Jains, mocking
the concept of liberation, reincarnation and accumulation of merit or demerit through karma. They believed that,
the viewpoint of relinquishing pleasure to avoid pain was the reasoning of fools.

Comparison of Indian Philosophies

The Indian traditions subscribed to diverse philosophies, significantly disagreeing with each other as well as
orthodox Hinduism and its six schools of Hindu philosophy. The differences ranged from a belief that every
individual has a soul (self, atman) to asserting that there is no soul, from axiological merit in a frugal ascetic life
to that of a hedonistic life, from a belief in rebirth to asserting that there is no rebirth.
Political Philosophy
The Arthashastra, attributed to the Mauryan minister Chanakya, is one of the early Indian texts devoted to
political philosophy. It is dated to 4th century BCE and discusses ideas of statecraft and economic policy.
The political philosophy most closely associated with modern India is the one of ahimsa (non-violence) and
Satyagraha, popularised by Mahatma Gandhi during the Indian struggle for independence. In turn it influenced
the later independence and civil rights movements, especially those led by Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson
Mandela. Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar’s Progressive Utilization Theory is also a major socio-economic and political
philosophy.

Religion and Philosophy in Medieval India:

The Sufi Movement and Importance of Sufi Movement

Nearly every month a programme is going on in any auditorium in the city where songs of the Sufi saints and
Bhakti saints are sung. The songs and the teachings of the Sufi and the Bhakti saints are relevant even today.
The Sufi and Bhakti saints played an important role in bringing the Muslims and Hindus together.

The Sufi Movement

Background-Rise of Islam
Islam was founded by Prophet Muhammad. Islam saw the rise of many religious and spiritual movements
within it. These movements were centered mainly around the interpretation of the Quran.
There were two major sects that arose within Islam- the Sunnis and Shias.
Our country has both the sects, but in many other countries like Iran, Iraq, Pakistan etc. The greatest challenge
to orthodox Sunnism came from the rationalist philosophy or Mutazilas, who professed strict monotheism.

The Sufis
Contrary to the ulena were the Sufis. The Sufis were mystics. They were pious men who were shocked at the
degeneration in political and religious life.
The Sufi philosophy also differed from the ulena. The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and liberal ideas.
They were against formal worship, rigidity and fanaticism in religion. The Sufis turned to meditation in order to
achieve religious satisfaction. Like the Bhakti saints, the Sufis too interpreted religious as ‘love of god’ and
service of humanity.

Sufism in India
The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. One of the early Sufis of
eminence, who settled in India, was AI-Hujwari who died in 1089, popularly known as Data Ganj Baksh.
The Sufis came to India vis Afghanistan on their own free will. Their emphasis upon a pure life, devotional love
and service to humanity made them popular and earned them a place of honour in Indian society.

The Chishti Silsilah

The Chishti Silsilah was founded in a village called Khawaja Chishti. In India, the Chishti Silsilah was founded
by Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti who came to India around 1192.
He made Ajmer the main centre for his teaching. He believed that serving mankind was the best form of
devotion and therefore he worked amongst the downtrodden. He died in Ajmer in 1236.
The Suhrawardi Silsilah
This Silsilah was founded by Sheikh Shahabuddin Suhrawardi. It was established in India by Sheikh Bahauddin
Zakariya.
He set up a leading khanqah in Multan, which was visited by rulers, high government officials and rich
merchants.
The Suhrawardi Silsilah was firmly established in Punjab and Sind. Besides these two Silsilah there were others
such as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Shattari Silsilah, Qadiri Silsilah, Naqshbandi Silsilah.

The Importance of the Sufi Movement

The Sufi movement made a valuable contribution to Indian society. Like the Bhakti saints who were engaged in
breaking down the barriers within Hinduism, the Sufis too infused a new liberal outlook within Islam.
The interaction between early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid the foundation for more liberal movements of the
fifteenth century.
The Sufi movement encouraged equality and brotherhood. In fact, The Islamic emphasis upon equality was
respected far more by the Sufis than by the Ulena. The doctrines of the Sufis were attacked by the orthodoxy.

The Importance of the Bhakti and Sufi Movements and Philosophy in Medieval India
The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the seventh and twelfth centuries. It
was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars and Alvars. These saints looked upon religion not as a
cold formal worship but as a loving bond based upon love between the worshipped and worshipper.
In course of time, the ideas of the south moved up to the North but it was a very slow process. Sanskrit, which
was still the vehicle of thought, was given a new form.
Thus we find that the Bhagavata Purana of ninth century was not written in the old Puranic form. It centered
around Krishna’s childhood and youth, this work uses Krishna’s exploits to explain deep philosophy in simple
terms. This work became a turning point in the history of the Vaishnavite movement which was an important
component of the Bhakti movement.
During this period, another movement based upon devotion towards a sakar form of God had also developed
this movement, called the Vaishnavite movement.
The Importance of the Bhakti and Sufi Movements
 Bhakti movement was a socio-religious movement that opposed religious bigotry and social rigidities.
 It emphasised good character and pure thinking. At a time when society had become
 stagnant, the Bhakti saints infused new life and strength.
 The importance of the Bhakti and Sufi saints lies in the new atmosphere created by them, which
continued to affect the social, religious and political life of India even in later centuries.
 The popular verses and songs of the Bhakti saints also served as forerunners of a musical renaissance.
 New musical compositions were written for the purpose of group singing at kirtans. Even today Mira’s
bhajans and Tulsidas’s chaupais are recited at a prayer meeting.

Philosophy in Medieval India

 The major religious movements were brought about by the mystics. They contributed to the religious
ideas and beliefs.
 Bhakti saints like Vallabh Acharya, Ramanuja, Nimbaraka brought about new philosophical thinking
which had its origin in Shankaracharya’s Advaita philosophy.

Socio-Religious reform Movements of 19th Century

The Indian society in the first half of the 19th century was caste ridden, decadent and rigid. It followed certain
practices which are not in keeping with humanitarian feelings or values but were still being followed in the
name of religion.

Common Characteristics of Religious and Social Reform Movements

From the late 19th century a number of European and Indian scholars started the study of ancient India’s
history, philosophy, science, religious and literature.
This growing knowledge of India’s past glory provided to the Indian people a sense of pride in their civilization.
It also helped the reformers in their work of religious and social reform for their struggle against all type of
inhuman practices, superstitions etc. Since they had become associated with religious beliefs, therefore most of
the movements of social reform were of a religious character. They worked for abolition of castes and
untouchability, purdah system, sati, child marriage, social inequalities and illiteracy.

Brahmo Samaj and Raja Rammohan Roy

Men and women enjoy certain rights and freedom today. Among the great reformers of this period, Raja
Rammohan Roy deserves special mention.
He presented a fine combination of East and the West. A man of great literary talent and well versed in Indian
culture, he also made special effort to study Christianity and Islam so that he could deal with them with
understanding.
His main pre-occupation was how to rid the Hindu religion of image worship, sacrificial rites and other
meaningless rituals. His greatest achievement in the field of religious reform was a setting up in 1828 of the
Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj was an important organization of religious reforms. It forbade idol worship
and discarded meaningless rites and rituals.
Raja Rammohan Roy’s greatest achievement was the abolition of Sati in 1929. He realized that the practice of
Sati was due to the extremely low position of Hindu women. Therefore he started working as a stout champion
of women’s rights.
He was also deeply opposed to the caste system that prevailed in Indian society. A humanist and democrat to
the core, he wrote and talked against the caste system.
The Brahmo Samaj stood for the principles of individual freedom, national unity, solidarity and collaboration
and the democratisation of all social institutions and relations.It thus became the first organised vehicle for the
expression of national awaking and inaugurated a new era for the people of India.

Religious Reform Movements in Modern India

The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang in 1876 with the objective of
rational worship and social reform.
Two great members of this Samaj were Shri R.C. Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade. They
devoted themselves to the work of social reform such as inter-caste dinning, inter-caste marriage, widow
remarriage and improvement of the lot of women and depressed classes.
Mahadev Govind Ranade devoted his entire life to Prarthana Samaj. He was the founder of the Widow
Remarriage Association and the Deccan Education Society. He established the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha as
well to Ranade, Religious reform was inseparable from social reform. He also believed that if religious ideas
were rigid there would be no success in social, economic and political spheres.
Ranade’s great message to the persons who were involves in social service was “Strength of numbers we
cannot command, but we can command earnestness of conviction, singleness of devotion, readiness for
self-sacrifice, in all honest workers in the cause.”

Derozio and Young Bengal Movement

Henry Lui Vivian Derozio joined the Hindu College of Calcutta as a teacher. He had come from Scotland to sell
watched in Calcutta, but later made the spread of modern education in Bengal as his life’s mission.
Derozio promoted radical ideas through his teaching and by organizing as association for debate and
discussions on literature, philosophy, history and science. He inspired his followers and students to question all
authority. Derozio and his famous followers, known as the Derzians and Young Bengal, were fiery patriots.
The Young Bengal Movement continued even after Derozio’s dismissal and his sudden death. Though deprived
of leadership, the embers of this group continued preaching radical views through of teaching and journalism.

Spread of the Reform Movements in Western and Southern India

After Bengal, the most important region where the movement for reforms spread was western India.
Bal Shastri Jambekar was one of the first reformers in Bombay. He attacked Brahmanical orthodoxy and tried to
reform popular Hinduism.
In 1849, the Parmahansa Mandali was founded in Poona, Satara and other towns of Maharashtra. Its followers
had faith in one God and they opposed caste system. At its meetings, members took food cooked by low-caste
people. They favoured education of women and supported widow remarriage.
Mahadev Ranade believed that without social reforms it was not possible to achieve any progress in the political
and economic fields. He was a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity.
Two other great reformers in Western India were Gopal Deshmukh Lokahitwari and Joti Rao Govind Rao Phule
popularly known as Jotiba.
Jotiba Phule was also a pioneer of the widow remarriage movement in Maharashtra.
An important movement particularly significant for the emancipation of the so-called backward and oppressed
sections of Indian society was started by Shree Narayan Guru in Kerala.
In 1903 he founded the Shree Narayan Dharma Paripalana Yogam to carry on the work of social reform.
He considered differences based on caste and religion as meaningless and advocated what he called „One
Caste, one Religion and on God for all.‟

Religious Reform Movements in Modern India

Attend a meeting of the Arya Samaj any day. They are also performing yajana and reading the scriptures. This
was the basic contribution of Mool Shanker an important representative of the religious reform movement in
India from Gujarat. He later came to be known as Dayanand Saraswathi. He founded the Arya Samaj in 1875.
The most influential movement of religious and social reform in northern India was started by Dayanand
Saraswathi. He held that the Vedas contained all the knowledge imparted to man by God and essentials of
modern science could also be traced in them. He was opposed to idolatry, ritual and priesthood, particularly to
the prevalent caste practices and popular Hinduism as preached by the Brahmins. He favoured the study of
western science. With all this doctrine, he went about all over the country and in 1875 founded the Arya Samaj
in Bombay. Satyarth Prakash was his most important book. The use of Hindi in his writings and preaching made
his ideas accessible to the common people of northern India.
Arya Samajis opposed child marriages and encouraged remarriage of widows. It made rapid progress in Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat. Arya Samaj tried to inoculate the spirit of self-respect and self-reliance
among the people of India. This promoted Nationalism.

The Ramakrishna Mission and Swami Vivekananda

Gadadhar Chattopadhyay was a poor Brahmin priest who later came to be known as Ramakrishna Parmahansa.
His education did not proceed beyond the elementary stage and he had no formal education in philosophy and
shastras. He dedicated his life to God. He believed that there were many roads to God and the service of man
was the service of God, because man was the embodiment of God.
Narendra Nath Datta later known as Swami Vivekananda was the most devoted pupil of Ramakrishna
Parmahansa who carried the message of his Guru Ramakrishna all over the world, especially in America and
Europe.
Vivekananda was indeed, a patriot from the core of his heart. He had tremendous faith in the evolution of Indian
culture and an intense zeal to revive all that was good and great in her culture so as to serve her in all possible
ways for her onward march. In 1893 he participated in the All World Religious Conference at Chicago in the
United States of America. He argued that Vedanta was the religion of all and not of the Hindus alone. He
argued his countrymen to work for their own salvation. For this purpose bands of workers devoted to this cause
were trained through the Ramakrishna Mission. Thus, Vivekananda emphasized social good or social services.