ht. J. Engng Sci., 1974, Vol. 12, pp. 273-293. Pergamon Press.

Printed in Great Britain

REVIEW ARTICLE

APPLICATIONS OF MICROCONTINUUM FLUID MECHANICS

T. ARIMAN, M. A. TURK and N. D. SYLVESTER
Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana
46556, American Oil Company, Whiting, Indiana, and the Department of Chemical Engineering, University of
Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma

Abstract-A comprehensive review of the existing theories of microcontinuum fluid mechanics has been
presented by the authors in a previous paper. In this paper the published applications of these microfluid
theories to real and ideal flow problems have been reviewed briefly and these short reviews are presented in
tabular form for easy reference.

INTRODUCTION
IN A COMPANION paper [l] the theoretical developments in the area of microcontinuum
fluid mechanics have been reviewed. The most general theories formulated to describe
the rheological behavior of microfluent media were presented; in particular, the funda-
mental mechanics and constitutive relations developed in these general theories were
discussed. However, owing to the mathematical difficulties encountered in attempting
to apply a general microfluid approach to real flow problems, researchers have been led
to consider subclasses of these microfluids, which resulted from simplification and
restriction of these general theories. A discussion of these specialized theories was also
presented in [l]. The relative mathematical simplicity of many of these specialized mic-
rocontinuum fluid theories (e.g. micropolar fluids [35], dipolar fluids [76] etc.) enabled
them to be successfully applied to the analysis of a wide variety of flow problems in
fluid mechanics. It is the purpose of this paper to present a review of these applications.
A discussion of each individual application would prove tedious and lengthy, and
the benefits gained by such a rendition certainly do not warrant the effort. Hence, in
order to simplify the presentation, and yet maintain a degree of order, we have chosen
to tabularize the numerous applications; these appear in Table 1. This table is divided
into six main sections according to the type of theory applied. These major divisions
are:
I. Fluids with rigid non-spherical or deformable microelements
II. Micropolar fluids
III. Polar and dipolar fluids
IV. Couple stress fluids
V. Anisotropic fluids
VI. Liquid crystals.
Within each of these major divisions the various applications are categorized ac-
cording to the type of flow analysis considered (e.g. steady shearing flows, nonsteady
flows etc.). A comment (or comments) is supplied with each reference cited in order to
briefly summarize the objectives of the specific analysis and/or the important results
obtained therein. The authors have attempted to mention all papers published before
1972; however, since we have undoubtedly missed a few, we would appreciate being
informed of our omissions.
273

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274 T. ARIMAN et al.

Table 1. Applications of microcontinuum fluid theories to real and ideal flow problems

I. FLUIDS WITH RIGID NON-SPHERICAL OR DEFORMABLE MICROELEMENTS

A. Steady shearing flows

2 Simp/e rectilinear shearing motion

By employing the theory of oriented fluids, authors investigate the viscoelastic spheres which are initially
spherical and when subjected to a uniform shear field they deform into ellipsoids (assuming small deforma-
tion). Although the authors named their theory as oriented fluids and employed a different notation, they
essentially reproduced the work already in the literature[3, 11.

4 Simple rectilinear shearing motion

Authors apply the theory of oriented fluids to investigate the behavior of a dilute suspension of
viscoelastic spheres in steady laminar flow. They restrict their consideration to small deformation of
suspensions. Namely the theory is linear in director gradients. However, it is indicated in [5] that the stress
tensor should not contain a measure of substructure deformation for oriented fluids linear in director gra-
dients as wrongly supposed by authors. Therefore, the results of the paper are doubtful. Furthermore, as in
their other work[2] authors under the title of oriented fluids essentially reproduced a restricted form (particle
deformation is linear) of microfluids by Eringen[6,3, I]. However, no reference is made to several prior
publications on microfluids by Eringen [3,6,35].

5 Simple rectilinear shearing motion

Investigates the influence of a shear field on a dilute suspension of initially spherical particles which can
undergo small elastic deformations. Use of linear theory predicts results in agreement with experimental ob-
servations on dilute polymer suspensions. It appears that authors in this paper and in their other publications,
essentially reproduced, in different notation, the work by Eringen already in the literature[6]. However, their
variational formulation did not lead to a complete set of boundary conditions[l].

7 Simple rectilinear shearing motion

Consideration of the problem of simple shear of dilute suspensions of randomly coiling macromolecules
for the purpose of obtaining functional dependence of apparent viscosity and normal stress differences on
shear rate. Authors claim that their paper presents the first complete thermodynamical theory of suspensions
of &formable particles. Since in contrast to the theory of thermomicrofluids [l, 91 authors did not incorporate
the effect of heat conduction into the constitutive equations, their claim is not agreeable.

8 Couette flow between parallel plates

Considers plane Couette flow of a fluid containing a deformable substructure in which particle-particle in-
teraction effects are important (i.e. concentrated suspensions). Exact solutions are obtained to governing
equations for two different spin boundary conditions. However, as indicated by Eringen[9] Kline and Allen’s
choice of constitutive variables implies a kind of fluid with incomplete elastic structure.

10 Couette flow between parallel plates

Presents exact solutions to the equations governing the plane Couette flow of a fluid containing a
deformable microstructure. Solutions exhibit some interesting phenomena due to arbitrariness of particle
spin and deformation boundary conditions. It is interesting to note that some of the profiles are similar to
those found in fully developed turbulence. However, physically such arbitrariness of particle spin and
deformation at the boundary is not quite realistic.

10 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates

Use of arbitrarv particle spin and deformation boundary conditions in exact solutions enables a wide
variety of velocity-and particlk spin profiles to emerge. Profile shapes are dependent on the relative mag-
nitudes of certain material coefficients. Although a possible kinematic description of the deformation of fluid
substructure was given by Kirwan and Newman, they did not consider the microelement moment-of-inertia
tensor as a measure of the deformation.

11 Poiseuille f7ow between parallel plates

Fluids with stretch are introduced as a subclass of simple microfluids. In these fluids the local fluid
elements are allowed to undergo only a uniform stretch, or contraction without microrotation. These fluids
might find applications especially in Newtonian Fluids with bar-like polymeric additives. The field equations
for density, microinertia, velocity, and microstretch are obtained and the appropriate intial and boundary con-
ditions are discussed. The solution of the problem of Poseuille flow between two parallel plates is given. In
addition. microstretch fluids with constrained microrotation are briefly discussed as a subclass of simple
 Applications of microcontinuum fluid mechanics 215

Table l(cont.)

I. FLUIDS WITH RIGID NON-SPHERICAL OR DEFORMABLE MICROELEMENTS

A. Steady shearing flows

microfluids. The assumption that the local fluid elements undergo only a uniform deformation without mic-
rorotation requires experimental verification.

12 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates

The steady flow of isothermal microfluids under a pressure gradient in a channel with fixed walls is
presented. By letting the velocity equal to zero at the walls of the channel and leaving the values of
microgyrations at the walls as parameters velocity profiles are presented. The velocity profiles can take a
shape anywhere from a Poiseuille flow type to a turbulent profile displaying a flat central region. For another
value of the microgyration at the walls, the two maxima occur near the walls. Such profiles may be expected
in the case of polymeric suspensions added to the fluid. Indeed, the radial migration of suspensions to a region
near the wall is a well-observed phenomenon.

13 Helical flow
Considers the helical flow of a fluid containing deformable structures through two infinitely long concen-
tric cylinders. General analytical solutions are obtained for the case of theouter cylinder rotating with respect
to the inner cylinder. Sample calculations are presented graphically for a variety of spin and substructure de-
formation boundary conditions and a wide range of values for the phenomenological coefficients. Many
interesting flow phenomena are observed (e.g. multi-maxima as well as blunted velocity profiles). Experi-
ments are necessary for the determination of the phenomenological coefficients for each type of fluid
containing deformable particles, because profile shapes greatly change with relative magnitudes of certain
material coefficients.

B. Blood flow studies

14 Steady blood flow in a circular tube

Blood Row in small arteries is analyzed using the theory of micropolar fluids with stretch [15]. The cells are
allowed to undergo rotations as well as axial stretchings and deformations. No-slip conditions are assumed
for the boundary conditions of the velocity, but the vorticity and the stretch of cells are not required to vanish
at the boundaries. The explicit expressions of the velocity, cell-rotational velocity and the stretch of the cells
are obtained. Theoretical velocity profiles are presented graphically; the blunting of these profiles is in
agreement with experimental observations of blood flow in small tubes [16]. However the assigned values for
the cell rotational velocity and cell micro-stretch at the artery walls require experimental support.

17 Poiseuille f7ow between parallel plates

Based on the theory of thermomicrofluids of Eringen [9] a more realistic microcontinuum model of blood
including red blood cell deformations is developed. It is assumed that in the undeformed state a red cell has a
spherical shape characterized by a volume of average radius of gyration. A group of constitutive equations
is developed and based on these, a set of microcontinuum field equations for blood flow with deformable
cells are presented. Then, the plane Poiseuille flow between two parallel plates is considered. The theoretical
results for the velocity profiles of this model are compared with the classical Newtonian parabolic profile. In
accord with experimental observations of blood flow in vitro the effect of increasing pressure gradient (i.e.
increasing the shear rate) is to reduce the degree of blunting of the velocity profile so that it becomes more
parabolic in shape. Experiments are urgently needed to determine cell material coefficients.

C. Miscellaneous applications

4 Motion of ablate or prolate spheroid in a viscous fluid

The theory of oriented fluids is specialized to describe the case of a dilute suspension of rigid particles and
the motion of an oblate or prolate spheroid in a viscous fluid is studied. Expressions for the stress compo-
nents are derived which reveal the non-Newtonian behavior predicted for the fluid, i.e. non-zero normal
stress differences and the dependence of apparent viscosity on the shape and orientation of the substructure.

18 Extensional shearing flow

Investigates the phenomenon of steady, slow, elongational flow in which a dilute suspension of viscoelas-
tic spheres is extended at a constant fractional rate. An expression is obtained for the elongational viscosity
which is in qualitative agreement with observations on the behavior of polymer solutions. It should be noted
276 T. ARIMAN et al.

Table I(cont.)

I. FLUIDS WITH RIGID NON-SPHERICAL OR DEFORMABLE MICROELEMENTS

C. Miscellaneous applications

that, prior to the development of this theory, a linear theory of micropolar viscoelasticity had been proposed
by Eringen[l].

19 Hyperbolic and Couette flow of dilute suspensions

The rheology of dilute suspensions of rigid non-spherical particles is considered in various flow regimes to
determine angular velocity behavior as well as particle rotational orbits. The flow regimes studies are: (1)
hyberbolic radial flow (e.g. free running jets), (2) rectangular hyperbolic flow, and (3) Couette flow. This
analysis reveals the applicability of a continuum approach to such problems of suspension behavior. How-
ever, no experimental support is provided.

20 Kinetic energy study

This article aims at a study concerning the kinetic energy of microstretch fluids. Proof is given for the
decay of kinetic energy in a spatial region bounded by rigid walls and an estimate of this rate of decay is
determined. The possible physical importance of the theoretical findings is not given.

21 Micromorphic description of turbulent channel flow

The simple microfluid theory of Eringen is employed to determine the velocity profile and microgyrations
in a steady flow of viscous fluids between two parallel walls. The shearing stress, microrotation, microinertia
and Reynolds stresses are determined. The results are compared with the experimental work. The analysis is
a further step following the earlier work[52] toward a new path in turbulent phenomena.

II. MICROPOLAR FLUIDS

A. Steady shearing flows

22 Couette flow between parallel plates

A comparison between velocity profiles obtained using micropolar and couple stress fluid theories is
presented. Appropriate boundary conditions are discussed. Note that the use of zero couple stress boundary
condition by couple stress fluid theory [78] at the wall looks unreasonable since the couple stress is one of the
fields to be determined.
23 Couette fiow between parallel plates
Results obtained from micropolar fluid theory are compared with classical (Navier-Stokes) results; exact
closed form solutions are presented. Velocity profile comparison is graphical. With some possible experimen-
tal support the results of these basic problems may lead to the study of rheologically complex fluids. How-
ever, the experimental determination of micropolar viscosity and material coefficients for each particular fluid
is urgently needed.

24 Couette pow between parallel plates

Considers heat conduction effects during plane Couette flow. Despite the title of polar fluids, basic
equations of micropolar fluids are employed in the analysis.
25 Couette flow between parallel plates
Obtains exact solutions to governing equations of motion for plane Couette flow of micropolar fluids:
unique representation of velocity and angular velocity distributions in terms of wall shear stress readily
demonstrates effects of microstructure on the flow field. It is known that micropolar fluids are one of the
subclass fluids of simple microfluids (no other work similar in content to microfluids has appeared previ-
ously). Author ignores this fact and treats solely micropolar fluids in the same class with polar, directed and
oriented fluids. Furthermore, author, under the title of polar fluids and with no apparent reason, reproduces
the basic equations of micropolar fluids which were already in the literature[3,61.

26 Couette flow between parallel plates

Investigates the effects of heat conduction on the planar Couette flow of a fluid with a rigid, spherical
microstructure. No experimental comparison is provided for the verification of the interesting analytical con-
clusions.
27 Couette flow between parallel plates
Presents exact solutions to the equations governing the plane Couette flow of a micropolar fluid; use of an
arbitrary spin boundary condition enables prediction of a wide variety of interesting flow phenomena, e.g.
 Applications of microcontinuum fluid mechanics 277

Table I(cont.)

II. MICROPOLAR FLUIDS

A. Steady shearing flows

convexity of velocity profile. However, authors do not explain how to determine the prescribed value of the
microrotation at the boundary.

28 Couette flow between parallel plates

Closed form analytical solutions are obtained to describe the steady laminar plane Couette flow of a
micropolar fluid; interpretation of solutions indicates importance and interesting aspects of micropolar fluid
flow phenomena. However, the solution to the Couette flow problem in micropolar fluid was already available
prior to the publication of this paper[22].

29 Couette flow between parallel plates

Presents exact analytic solutions to micropolar equations of motion. Variation of shear stress with
dimensionless length ratio (i.e. characteristic material length/characteristic geometric length) is demonstrated
graphically. Note that the reduction in shear stress commonly observed in some polymer solutions is not
obtained by the solution. Some of the flow problems in this paper were already available in the literature prior
to this article [22,23].

30 Couette flow between parallel plates

The effective viscosity behavior of micropolar fluids is examined for the plane Couette flow regime; prin-
cipal non-Newtonian characteristic of micropolar fluids is the geometric dependence of effective viscosity on
relative size and configuration of flow regime. A discussion of appropriate spin boundary conditions is also
presented. But no experimental verification is included.

31 Couette jlow between parallel plates

Investigation of the optical behavior of polarizable linear micropolar fluids undergoing planar Couette
flow for two micromotion cases. Optical effect of gyration motion is either negligible or dominant with respect
to that of macromotion. The magnitude of the perturbation of the microrotatory motion on birefringence is
related to suspension concentration. An interesting comparison is provided with Einstein’s theory of colloid
suspension.
22 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates
Compares velocity profiles obtained using micropolar and couple stress fluid theories. Appropriate bound-
ary conditions are discussed.
23 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates
Exact solutions are obtained to the equations governing the plane Poiseuille flow of a micropolar fluid.
Results are presented graphically to demonstrate new polar effects on velocity profiles.
24 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates
Considers heat conduction phenomena in plane Poiseuille flow.
27 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates
Exact solutions are obtained to the equations governing the plane Poiseuille flow of a micropolar fluid.
Arbitrariness of the spin boundary condition enables prediction of a wide variety of flow phenomena (e.g.
blunting of velocity profile, microrotation profiles with local extrema etc.).
30 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates
The effective viscosity behavior of a micropolar fluid is investigated for this flow regime; a dependence of
effective viscosity on the relative size and configuration of the flow geometry is predicted. Appropriate spin
boundary conditions are discussed.
32 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates
Exact solutions are obtained to the equations of motion governing the plane Poiseuille flow of a
micropolar fluid assuming the zero-spin boundary conditions. The graphical presentation of the results (e.g.
velocity and microrotation profiles etc.) readily reveals the deviation of micropolar flow phenomena from
classical predictions.
33 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates
The problem of plane Poiseuille flow of a heat-conducting micropolar fluid is solved in order to investigate
the effect of fluid substructure on the process of heat transfer from the plates to the fluid. It is concluded that
there might be a considerable effect of cellular structure of fluid on the heat conduction.
278 T. ARIMAN et al.

Table I(cont.)

II. MICROPOLAR FLUIDS

A. Steady shearing flows

24 Poiseuille flow through a circular tube

Considers the phenomena of heat conduction in a micropolar fluid undergoing steady Poiseuille flow.
25 Poiseuille flow through a circular tube
Exact closed form solutions are obtained for the special class of flows of micropolar fluids known as
creeping flows. The effects of microstructure are displayed for the velocity and shear stress distributions
through a dimensionless length parameter. There is no information on the determination of this dimensionless
length parameter.
29 Poiseuille flow through a circular tube
Poiseuille flow of a micropolar fluid is studied as a special case of rotation flow. The shear stress variation
with the dimensionless micropolar length ratio is presented graphically and dimensionless velocity profile
distributions are plotted for various values of the length ratio.
30 Poiseuiile flow through a circular tube
The effective viscosity behavior of micropolar fluids is investigated for this flow regime; it is observed that
effective viscosity has a functional dependence on the relative size and configuration of the flow regime.
Approximate spin boundary conditions are discussed.
34 Poiseuille J¶OWthrough a circular tube
The problem of discharge of a micropolar fluid from a capillary is considered. The complete solutions to
the governing equations are obtained using a general boundary condition for the inherent angular velocity
field. Plot of volumetric flow rate illustrates the hydrodynamic effects predicted by asymmetric hyd-
romechanics for limiting spin boundary conditions. Note that asymmetric hydromechanics is basically the
same as theory of micropolar fluids with the absence of the dynamic term in the couple stress equation. This
term is important for nonsteady flow problems, none of which were considered by the authors.
35 Poiseuille flow through a circular tube
The velocity and microrotation profiles as well as the shear and couple stress distributions are determined
analytically for the Poiseuille flow of a micropolar fluid. The results are presented graphically illustrating the
effects of fluid substructure on flow phenomena (e.g. the dependence of velocity profile on particle size-tube
diameter ratio). Although the theory of micropolar fluids is a subclass of general microfluids, this paper, due
to its relative simplicity and applicability, opened a new path in the study of fluid mechanics.
36 Poiseuille flow through a circular tube
The velocity profiles and mass fluxes obtained from the micropolar and dipolar fluid theories for Poiseuille
flow are graphically compared for various values of material coefficients and dimensionless size parameters.
In dipolar fluids all components of the stress and stress tensors are not determinate. Dipolar fluids, unlike the
micropolar fluids, result in zero velocity fields for a possible range of viscosity coefficients. Such a
phenomenon does not appear physically reasonable.
37 Poiseuille J?OWthrough a circular tube
The exact solutions to the field equations governing the Poiseuille flow of a micropolar fluid are obtained
in infinite series form; these steady flow solutions result as a special case of the more general solutions de-
scribing the non-steady flow of a micropolar fluid through a circular tube. A new spin boundary condition is
employed in the form of the vanishing of a microrotation gradient at a rigid boundary. The new spin boundary
condition, although looks quite realistic, still needs further investigation.
24 Couette flow between concentric cylinders
Considers heat conduction effects during the flow of a micropolar fluid between rotating coaxial cylinders.
30 Couette flow between concentric cylinders
Examines the effective viscosity behavior of a micropolar fluid in the concentric cylinder flow regime. A
unique dependence of effective viscosity on two dimensionless size ratios is observed. Spin boundary condi-
tions appropriate to this type of rotational flow are discussed.
38 Couette flow between concentric cylinders
Exact solutions are obtained to the equations governing the steady Couette flow of a micropolar fluid
(outer cylinder is rotating). The velocity and stress profiles are presented graphically to demonstrate polar
effects. With a possible experimental support the results can be of interest for studying the flow of polymer
fluids.
 Applications of microcontinuum fluid mechanics 279

Table l(cont.)

II. MICROPOLAR FLUIDS

A. Steady shearing flows

39 Couette flow between concentric cylinders

The nature of the flow in the annulus between steadily rotating concentric cylinders is investigated for a
micropolar fluid. The velocity, couple stress, shear rate, and shear stress difference distributions across the
annular gap are presented graphically for a fixed set of material coefficient values. No experimental compari-
son is provided.
38 Poiseuille flow between concentric cylinders
The flow of a micropoiar fluid through the annular gap between two stationary concentric cylinders in-
duced by an axial pressure gradient is studied. Graphical representation of velocity and stress profiles demon-
strates polar effects on flow.
34 Creeping flow past a sphere
The translational motion of a sphere in a micropolar fluid is analyzed. The velocity and spin fields are
determined and subsequently used to calculate the hydrodynamic drag on the sphere. It is found that taking
into account the rotational friction of micropolar fluids leads to an increased resistance compared to the
classical Stokes formula. A significant contribution of this paper is the detailed treatment of possible hound-
ary conditions which could be formulated to describe the mechanisms of influence of a solid boundary on the
vector spin field. However, to date, the problem of the best spin boundary condition for fluids with rigid
microelements remains unresolved.

B. Nonsteady flows
29 Flow induced by an oscillating plane wall
The flow induced by an infinite rigid plane performing small amplitude rectilinear oscillations in its own
plane is investigated; the plane is immersed in an infinite region of a micropolar fluid. Flow behavior (i.e.
shear stress variation and velocity field decay) is analyzed for low and high frequencies of oscillation.
41 Flow induced by an oscillating plane wall
The problem of an infinite plate oscillating harmonically in an infinite fluid suspension is considered. Exact
solutions are obtained and examined for the extreme cases of dilute and concentrated suspensions with
respect to the notion of depth of penetration of viscous effects (i.e. boundary-layer analysis). The analysis
indicates that Prandtl type boundary layer simplications is possible in micropolar fluids.
40 Boundary-layer flow past a plane wall
The micropolar boundary-layer equations are formulated for the two-dimensional flow of an incompres-
sible micropolar fluid past a plane wall. This boundary-layer theory is then applied to the analysis of an
impulsively started flow past an infinite flat plate. Parametric trends indicate that the presence of non-
Newtonian terms in the dynamic equations produce an increase in the wall shear stress and displacement
thickness over Newtonian results. This is in contradiction with the expectations from the micropolar fluid
model.
42 Flow formation between parallel plates
The flow formation in a micropolar fluid contained between parallel plates is analyzed; flow is induced by
the sudden acceleration of the bottom plate from rest to a constant velocity. Microstructure effects on the
developing velocity profile and wall shear stress are examined for the limiting cases of dilute and concen-
trated suspensions. Note that hastening of flow development and increase in shear stress appear to be two of
the important effects of microstructure.
43 Flow induced by a suddenly accelerated plane wall
A general solution technique for nonsteady parallel flows of micropolar fluids is developed. Using this
technique the initial value problem of a suddenly accelerated plane wall contained in an infinite fluid is solved.
The general spin boundary condition proposed by Aero et al. [34] is employed in the solution. Complete solu-
tions are obtained for the limiting cases of string and weak surface influence on substructure spin. The latter
solutions (i.e. weak surface influence) are examined for the limiting cases of microstructure influence-dilute
and concentrated suspensions. The general spin boundary condition and its limiting cases require further
attention, particularly experimentally.
44 Oscillatory motion of a sphere contained in a micropolar fluid
The oscillatory motion of a sphere contained in micropolar fluid is examined for two cases: (1) the
rectilinear oscillations of the sphere along a vertical diameter and (2) the rotary oscillations of the sphere
280 T. ARIMAN et al.

Table l(cont.)

II. MICROPOLAR FLUIDS

B. Nonsteady flows

about its diameter. The velocity and microrotation fields as well as the surface and couple stress components
are calculated for both cases. Once again the importance of the experimental support for numerical calcula-
tions is obvious.
37 Flow through a circular tube induced by a time-dependent pressure gradient
Exact solutions are obtained to the field equations governing the unsteady one-dimensional flow of a
micropolar fluid through a circular tube. The pressure gradient is assumed to be an arbitrary function of time
described in terms of a Fourier series. A spin boundary condition is employed which requires the vanishing of
a rotation gradient at a rigid boundary. Several special cases are analyzed: the transient flow induced by (1) a
step-change in pressure gradient and (2) a pulsatile pressure gradient.

C. Stability analyses
45 Flow down on an inclined plane
The stability of flow of a micropolar fluid down on an inclined plane is investigated. The stability of the
flow is greatly influenced by the viscosity and material coefficients of the micropolar fluid theory.

46 Flow in a bounded domain

A stability analysis of micropolar fluid motions is performed; the analysis reveals the physical significance
of the material coefficients in micropolar fluid theory. Also, a universal stability criterion for arbitrary non-
linear disturbances in bounded domains is obtained. It is shown that high (particle) spin velocities and large
spin gradients in the basic flow tend to cause instability. Polar fluids title should not confuse readers since the
basic equations of the paper are essentially the same of micropolar fluids.
47 Flow in an arbitrary domain
A criterion for the stability of the motion of an incompressible micropolar fluid in an arbitrary domain is
obtained by employing an energy method. The method depends on a formula for the rate of change of the
kinetic energy difference between two flows rather than a perturbation analysis. The stability criterion results
in a critical Reynolds number estimate. Since the spherical suspensions are assumed to be rigid, the analysis is
suitable for dilute suspensions.

D. Suspension viscosity studies

34 Determination of viscosity of dilute suspensions of spheres
The problem of determining the viscosity of dilute suspensions of spherical particles is considered; an
analysis similar to that of Einstein’s is employed (i.e. considers the influence which a spherical bead exerts on
the flow of fluid in which it is immersed). The result obtained is that the suspension viscosity depends on the
radii of the suspended particles in a more complicated manner than that predicted by Einstein’s formula.
47 Determination of relative viscosity of fluid suspensions
An expression for the relative viscosity of a fluid suspension is obtained using a continuum model. A
parametric type boundary condition is employed for the spin field; the wall condition parameter is related to
suspension concentration enabling comparison of theoretical results with experimental data.
48 Determination of apparent viscosity of colloidal suspensions
The problem of plane Couette flow of a micropolar fluid is considered; exact solutions are obtained. An
expression for the apparent viscosity of a colloidal suspension is formed from the shear stress equation. The
micropolar coefficient length parameter is related to suspension concentration through Einstein’s viscosity
formulas for both dilute and concentrated suspensions. Authors apparently were not aware of the fact that
the solution to the plane Couette flow of a micropolar fluid had already been in the literature[23].
49 Viscosity dependence on suspension concentration
An expression for the functional dependence of apparent viscosity of suspensions on concentration is
obtained using a micropolar fluid model. The statement that polar fluid theory is employed in the paper is not
acceptable since the basic equations, with a notation difference, are the same of micropolar fluids.
50 Determination of eflective viscosity of rigid spheres in micropolar fluids
An expression for the effective viscosity of dilute suspensions of rigid spheres in micropolar fluids is
obtained based on the study of the flow due to a single sphere embedded in a micropolar fluid in pure straining
motion. The effective viscosity expression is quite similar to that of the earlier work by Erdogan[491.
 Applications of microcontinuum fluid mechanics 281

Table l(cont.)

II. MICROPOLAR FLUIDS

E. Turbulence studies
5 1 Micropolar kinematic description of turbulent phenomena
Establishes a formal correspondence between the averaged terms in the dynamic equations for mean
motion and the second-order correlation functions on the one hand and the terms in the dynamic equations
for microstructured fluids on the other hand. Kinematic concepts from structured fluid theory are employed
to describe turbulent flow phenomena. Since the deformation of particles is not taken into account, the model
may be suitable for turbulent motions where the motion of eddies is the dominant factor.
52 Micropolar kinematic description of turbulent phenomena
Micropolar fluid theory is adopted as a possible description of turbulent flow; the microrotational motions
exhibited by these fluids should resemble turbulent motions where the decay of the sizes of the eddies is less
important than the motions of the eddies. Two simple micropolar motions are considered and the calculated
microrotations and averaged turbulent energies seem to exhibit the expected behavior of actual turbulent mo-
tion. The analysis may open a new path to a better handling of the hydrodynamic turbulence when it is
compared to conventional statistical theories and ad hoc constitutive relations existing in the literature.
53 Turbulent parallel flows of micropolar fluids
The equations of motion for turbulent parallel flows of micropolar fluids are derived based on a
two-dimensional perturbation field. Turbulent micro-stress couples are identified in addition to the conven-
tional Reynolds stresses. Also, flow stability conditions are examined, i.e. the necessary conditions for the
turbulent flow of an inviscid micropolar fluid are studied. As in the classical turbulent flow, empirical relations
are proposed in micropolar model for fully developed turbulent flow. Those relations contain only one
additional material constant, rather than five, which is relatively easier to determine by experiment.

F. Blood flow studies

54 Steady blood pow through a circular tube
The problem of the flow of blood through a rigid circular tube is considered from a microcontinuum point
of view. Exact solutions to the governing equations are obtained by employing a parametric spin boundary
condition. By relating this boundary condition parameter to suspension concentration it is hoped that these
results can serve as a plausible physical explanation for the influence of red cell volume fraction on blood
flow through large arteries. Since cell deformations are not taken into account, presented solution is suitable
for low shear rates.
55 Pulsatile blood flow; investigation of particle concentration eflects
Exact analytical solutions are obtained to the equations governing the unsteady flow of a micropolar fluid
through a rigid circular tube (i.e. a constant pressure gradient is superposed with a time-dependent harmonic
gradient). The effects of volume concentration of suspended rigid particles on oscillatory flow are discussed
and the results are related to experimental observations on the resistance of blood flow in the canine thoracic
aorta. Again the results are valid for low-shear rates.
56 Pulsatile blood flow; investigation of hydraulic impedance of blood vessels
The phenomena of pulsatile blood flow are considered with respect to an investigation of the hydraulic
impedance of blood vessels. A relationship between volumetric flow rate and pressure gradient for pulsatile
flows of a micropolar fluid through rigid circular tubes is obtained from the results of an earlier analysis[55].
In particular, non-dimensional resistance and inductance are calculated as functions of hemotocrit (i.e. red
blood cell volume fraction) and these results are compared to experimentally calculated impedance values for
the canine femoral artery and thoracic aorta. Similar to the above papers [54] and [55] presented solutions are
suitable for low shear rates.
57 Steady and pulsatile blood flow through a circular tube
Exact solutions to the micropolar fluid field equations are given for the case of steady and pulsatile flow
through rigid circular tubes. Using this theory as a model for blood flow in the small arteries, values for the
micropolar material coefficients are determined from the experimental in vitro blood flow data of Bugliarello
and Sevilla[58]. The calculated theoretical velocity profiles are in good agreement with those obtained experi-
mentally. Note that first time the parameters related to viscosity and cell material coefficients are determined
from experimental data.
59 Steady blood flow through a circular tube
The steady flow of blood through rigid circular tubes is analyzed using the micropolar fluid theory. A
rotational gradient spin boundary condition is employed to describe the cell rotational velocity at rigid
282 T. ARIMAN et al.

Table l(cont.)

II. MICROPOLAR FLUIDS

F. Blood flow studies

boundaries. Actual values of the micropolar material coefficients applicable to blood are calculated from
experimental blood flow data. A comparison of the theoretical velocity and cell-rotational velocity profiles
with experimentally determined profiles yields encouraging agreement. However, due to the considerable
scattering in experimental cell-rotational velocity data, the comparison is not quite effective. Nevertheless,
the theory shows an interesting agreement with experiment in predicting red cell rotational velocities which
were in all cases less than predicted by the vorticity values. Both papers [_57]and [59] are expected to be valid
for low-shear rates.
60 Pulsatile blood flow through a circular tube
Pulsatile blood flow through rigid circular tubes due to a sinusoidally varying pressures gradient is
analyzed using a microcontinuum model of blood. Exact solutions to the governing equations are obtained
through application of a double transformation technique. The steady pulsatile velocity profiles are compared
to the experimental in vitro pulsatile blood flow data of Bugliarello and Sevilla[58]. Since no experimental
data is available for cell-rotational velocity in pulsatile flow, no comparison is provided for theoretical cell-
rotational velocities.
61 Pulsatile blood flow between parallel plates
Time-dependent blood flow between two parallel plates due to an arbitrary pulsatile pressure gradient is
analyzed using a microcontinuum model of blood. Exact solutions to the set of governing equations are
obtained through the application of a consecutive transformation technique. The time-dependent pressure
gradient is represented by a Fourier series for numerical computation and the results are presented graphi-
cally. However, no experimental comparison is provided.
62 Steady non-isothermal blood flow through a circular tube
The heat transfer in blood is studied by extending isothermal microcontinuum model of blood to include
temperature effects. A heat conduction equation for blood is derived and the field equations are obtained. The
red cell concentration (hematocrit), cell size, the angular velocity of cells, diameter of blood vessels and
viscosity of plasma are among the terms in the heat conduction equations. The existence of these terms is in
accordance with the experimental findings[63]. The steady and laminar flow of blood in a heated circular
vessel is considered. The temperature distribution is obtained and it is concluded that there is a considerable
effect of cellular structure of blood on the heat conduction. But this interesting conclusion needs an
experimental verification.
G. Miscellaneous applications
23 Flow in a rotating cylindrical container
The behavior of micropolar fluid contained in a cylindrical container which is rotating at a constant angu-
lar velocity about its axis is investigated. Exact closed form solutions are obtained and these results are
presented graphically for the purpose of comparison with classical results. The equation of the free surface is
also determined.
26 Heat transfer from a moving plate
Heat transfer between a moving plate and the surrounding fluid is studied for a heat conducting micropo-
lar fluid.
29 Propagation and decay of plane wave disturbances
The propagation and decay of plane wave disturbances within an unbounded micropolar fluent medium is
studied. Also, the problem of the decay of very long surface waves is considered for a horizontal layer of a
micropolar fluid on an infinite tigid plane.
40 Stagnation flow and flow past a semi-infinite flat plate
The micropolar boundary-layer equations are formulated for the two-dimensional flow of an incompres-
sible micropolar fluid past a plane wall. This boundary-layer theory is then applied to the steady flow
problems of stagnation point flow and flow past a semi-infinite flat plate. Exact numerical solutions are
obtained using an implicit finite difference technique. The results are presented graphically to illustrate polar
effects on boundary-layer-type flows.
64 Secondary flows induced by a rotating sphere and concenttic cones
The behavior of micropolar fluids is studied in two specific flow regimes to examine the nature and
existence of secondary flow fields similar to those observed in Newtonian fluids: (1) a sphere rotates with a
constant angular velocity about a diameter in an infinitely extending micropolar fluid and (2) the fluid is
 Applications of microcontinuum fluid mechanics 283

Table l(cont.)

II. MICROPOLAR FLUIDS

G. Miscellaneous applications

contained between two rotating concentric cones. The discussion of the validity of microrotation boundary
conditions is interesting.
65 Micropolar boundary-layer analysis
Develops micropolar fluid boundary-layer equations and investigates the behavior of this system of
equations for various values of dimensionless numbers formed from material coefficients and flow parame-
ters. The type of the boundary layer equations entirely depend on the ratios between the physical parameters
which require the determination by an experimental approach.
66 Flow induced by two concentric spheres
The flow field induced by a slow and steady rotation of two concentric spheres is investigated when
external body forces and couples are absent. The secondary flows are studied in relation to conditions on the
microrotation; results are presented graphically. Some possible physical conclusions of the graphical results
are not discussed.
67 Investigation of rate of decay of kinetic energy
The rate of decay of kinetic energy of a micropolar fluid in a domain with rigid walls is investigated; an
approximation for the rate of decay with respect to an exponential rate is obtained. Second inequality in the
equations (4) is not a correct one and should be replaced by 2~ + k < 0.
68 Stokes’ jlow due to the slow steady rotation of a sphere
The problem of the Stokes’ flow due to the slow steady rotation of a sphere in a micropolar fluid is
considered. Expressions are obtained for the velocity and microrotation fields as well as the couple acting on
the sphere and these results are shown graphically for regions near the sphere at particular values of the
material coefficients. Again the experimental work is badly needed for the determination of the material
coefficients.
69 Two-dimensional plane flows
A unified treatment for two-dimensional plane flows of a micropolar fluid is derived for the special case
when Stokes approximation is valid. The validity of various microrotation boundary conditions is also
discussed.
70 Flow in a rotating cylindtical vessel
Analyzes the motion of a micropolar fluid contained in a cylindrical vessel performing a steady rotational
motion about its axis. An extensive discussion of appropriate spin boundary conditions for the case of the
rotating cylinder is presented. A solution to the same problem was presented prior to this paper [23]. Cowin
and Pennington suggest a “more appropriate” boundary condition, without any experimental base, instead of
the one used in [23]. Then they resolve the problem.
71 Flow in a slider bearing
A two-dimensional micropolar flow field is considered and applied to the geometry of a slider bearing. The
equations are simplified by order of magnitude arguments thereby enabling determination of the pressure dis-
tribution and resultant shear stress for the special case of flat-faced slider block and guide surfaces; the
effects of substructure are expressed through a dimensionless length ratio. One may question the physical
justification of the micropolar theory in the analysis of a lubricant loaded with both dust and metal particles,
since spin field of the particles may not be important.
72 Analysis of the existence of periodic stable flows
Discusses the existence of periodic and stable solutions for micropolar fluid theory. Two theorems are
proved regarding the existence of periodic, stable flows of micropolar fluids based on a rate of decay of
kinetic energy function. This work is an extension of a study by J. Serrin on Navier-Stokes equations describ-
ing the flow of nonpolar Newtonian fluids to micropolar fluids.

III. POLAR AND DIPOLAR FLUIDS

A. Steady shearing flows

73 Couette flow between parallel plates
Examines the effects of an electric field (i.e. external source of angular momentum) on the plane Couette
fow of a polar fluid. A variety of spin boundary conditions are employed in obtaining complete exact
284 T. ARIMAN et al.

Table l(cont.)

III. POLAR AND DIPOLAR FLUIDS

A. Steady shearing flows

solutions to governing field equations. Condiff and Dahler developed a theory of polar fluids using a kinetic
theory approach and methods of statistical physics. Their theory is quite similar to the theory of micropolar
fluids. However, unlike micropolar fluids, their theory of polar fluids admits only a symmetric couple stress
tensor.
74 Generalized Couette flow befween parallel plates
Considers the problem of generalized plane Couette flow (i.e. a pressure gradient is imposed on a fluid
undergoing flow due to the relative motion of the plates) of a dipolar fluid. Functional dependence of dipolar
velocity profile on a flow parameter and characteristic length ratio is demonstrated. In contrast to micropolar
fluids, in the absence of pressure gradient no dipolar effects occur.
85 Isothermal Couette flow between parallel plates
Considers the isothermal plane Couette flow of a dipolar fluid. Exact solution to governing equation is
seen to differ from classical (Navier-Stokes) solution only when external dipolar tractions are applied to the
fluid.
73 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates
The effects of an external electric field on polar fluid velocity profiles are examined. A variety of exact
analytical solutions are obtained by employing different spin boundary conditions.
75 Isothermal and non-isothermal Poiseuille flow between parallel plates
The problem of a dipolar fluid undergoing plane Poiseuille flow is considered for two cases: isothermal
and non-isothermal flow with linearly varying plate temperatures. Pertinent results (e.g. shear stress differ-
ences and temperature gradient) are presented graphically. Previously stated criticism[36] on the dipolar
fluids still exist.
13 Poiseuille j7ow through a circular tube
Application of the no-spin boundary condition yields exact solutions for the velocity and substructure
spin profiles which exhibit polar effects (e.g. size dependence of velocity profile on tube radius).
76 Isothermal Poiseuille flow through a circular tube
The isothermal flow of a homogeneous isotropic incompressible dipolar fluid through a circular tube is
considered. Appropriate dipolar stress boundary conditions are discussed. Graphical presentation of velocity
profiles illustrates dependence of profiles on size-ratio (geometric/characteristic material length) and material
coefficients and readily demonstrates deviation of dipolar profiles from the classical Newtonian profile. Note
that in dipolar fluid theory the second order gradient of the velocity vector, rather than the kinematically inde-
pendent microrotation vector of micropolar fluid theory is introduced into the stress constitutive equations.
Furthermore the determination of the dipolar stress component at the boundary poses a serious question,
since it appears as an unknown constant in the velocity field.

73 Couette flow between concentric cylinders

Both cylinders are considered to be rotating and the fluid is subjected to a rotating electric field directed
normal to the cylinder axis. A variety of solutions are obtained to the governing equations resulting from
application of different spin boundary conditions.
77 Creeping flow past a sphere
The problem of an isolated sphere immersed in a dipolar fluid undergoing a slow isothermal shear flow is
investigated in order to obtain an expression for the monopolar force acting on the sphere. The application of
appropriate boundary conditions for velocity and dipolar stress on the sphere enables evaluation of the
monopolar force. The above question on the dipolar stress component remains unanswered in this paper also.

IV. COUPLE STRESS FLUIDS

A. Steady shearing flows

78 Couette flow between parallel plates

Discusses plane Couette flow regime as a possible experimental method for determining one of material
coefficients introduced in couple stress constitutive theory. It is known that couple stress fluid theory is a very
restricted theory of fluid microcontinua and it results as a special case of micropolar fluid theory if the
microrotation vector is constrained to equal the fluid bulk velocity throughout the flow field.
 Applications of microcontinuum fluid mechanics 285

Table l(cont.)

IV. COUPLE STRESS FLUIDS

A. Steady shearing flows

79 Couette flow between parallel plates

Flowing fluid is subjected to a perpendicular uniform magnetic field so that the effects of couple stresses
on magnetic field-induced velocity profile distortions may be observed. Note that the antisymmetric part of
the stress tensor and the force of the couple stress tensor are left undetermined by the constitutive equation
of the linear couple stress theory. Hence this theory is sometimes referred to as an indeterminate couple
stress theory of fluids.
78 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates
Discusses plane Poiseuille flow as a possible experimental method for determining one of the couple
stress fluid material coefficients. Exact solutions are presented graphically to illustrate the effects of couple
stresses on the velocity profile. However, the use of zero-couple stress boundary condition at the wall seems
unreasonable as the couple stress is one of the fields to be determined.
79 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates
Investigates the effects of a uniform magnetic field imposed on a couple stress fluid undergoing plane
Poiseuille flow.

80 Poiseuille flow between parallel plates

The dispersion of a solute in a couple stress fluid undergoing plane Poiseuille flow is studied. The results
demonstrate the effects of a characteristic length parameter on the Taylor diffusion coefficient. Above men-
tioned deficiencies of the couple stress fluid theory still exists. Furthermore the physical meaning of the
results is not discussed.
78 Poiseuille flow through a circular tube
The Poiseuille flow regime is discussed as an experimental method for determining one of the couple
stress material coefficients. The velocity profile exhibits the typical size dependent effect expected for fluids
with couple stresses. For a particular value of a material parameter couple stress fluid theory results in zero
velocity field and in zero mass flux. It is difficult to explain the physical meaning of this outcome.

78 Couette flow between concentric cylinders

The flow regime between concentric cylinders with only the outer cylinder rotating is discussed as a
possible experimental method for determining one of the couple stress material coefficients. Size dependent
effects are noted to be present in the velocity profile solution.
78 Poiseuille flow between concentric cylinders
Poiseuille-type flow between stationary coaxial cylinders is induced by a toroidal pressure gradient. This
flow regime is discussed in the context of a possible experimental method for determining one of the couple
stress fluid material coefficients.
81 Creeping flow past a sphere
Expressions are obtained for the velocity and pressure distributions for the flow of a couple stress fluid
past a sphere. It is shown, that, in the presence of couple stresses the drag on the sphere increases which is
equivalent to an apparent increase in the fluid viscosity. Above mentioned points are also valid for this paper.

B. Blood flow studies

82 Blood flow through circular tubes
Couple stress fluid theory is used as a model for blood flow in small arteries; the theoretical velocity
profiles are compared with experimental blood flow data obtained in rigid glass tubes. Values of the couple
stress material coefficients had to be assumed without any experimental basis.

V. ANISOTROPIC FLUIDS
A. Steady shearing flows
83 Simple rectilinear shearing motion
Behavior of this class of fluids is observed to be similar to that predicted for so-called Bingham-plastic ma-
terials. In Ericksen’s theory of anisotropic fluids a single vector n, attached to each point of the fluid, was
utilized to describe the presence of substructure (i.e. microconstituents) in the fluid. However, this analysis is
restricted to an essentially dilute solution since particle interactions cannot be accounted for due to the
absence of gradient terms of the substructure kinematical measure n.
286 T. ARIMAN et al.

Table l(cont.)

V. ANISOTROPIC FLUIDS
A. Steady shearing flows
84 Simple rectilinear shearing motion
Studies orientation phenomena induced in anisotropic fluids by flow; examines low and high shear rate
effects. For small velocity gradients fluids behave in a Newtonian fashion, however, in high velocity gradients
orientation may occur.
85 Simple rectilinear shearing motion
Considers the case of shear flow of dilute suspensions (i.e. negligible particle interactions) of rigid
particles. Their formulation reduces to the micropolar fluid case when the vector characterizing the anisot-
ropy vanishes.
86 Simple rectilinear shearing motion
Obtains exact solution for simple shearing flow of incompressible anisotropic fluids, The theory employed
is in many respects similar to Ericksen’s theory of anisotropic fluids. However, the classical conservation
laws of fluid mechanics were amended in order to account for changes in the length as well as position of the
director.
85 Couette flow between parallel plates
Plane Couette flow of concentrated suspensions (i.e. mutually interacting particles) is considered.
Geometric analysis is performed on nonlinear equations of motion to exhibit effects of particle concentration
on flow kinematics.
86 Poiseuille fZow through a circular tube
Application of a theory similar to that of Ericksen’s anisotropic fluid theory to the problem of Poiseuille
flow. Exact solution is obtained for an incompressible fluid with a constant-length director.
87 Poiseuille flow through a circular tube
The behavior of simple anisotropic fluids is similar to that of so-called Bingham plastic materials-the
steady state shear stress is a linear but nonhomogeneous function of shear rate. Eringen has shown that [I]
some of the theories of anisotropic fluids developed by Ericksen could be obtained as a special case of the
general theory of micromorphic fluids.
88 Poiseuille j7ow through a circular tube
The problem of Poiseuille flow of orientable fluids which tend to be unoriented at rest is considered. Pre-
dicted flow behavior is similar to that observed for viscoelastic fluids. In the analysis Ericksen’s anisotropic
fluids theory is employed.
89 Poiseuille flow through a circular tube
Steady lamin= shear flows through a pipe are considered (i.e. axial pipe and annular flow). Ericksen’s
theory of anisotropic fluids is examined with respect to its usefulness for describing the constitutive proper-
ties of real fluids. The analysis is restricted to dilute suspensions.
86 Couette flow between concentric cylinders
The flow of an anisotropic fluid between rotating concentric cylinders is considered; an exact stable
solution is obtained.
88 Couette flow between concentric cylinders
The behavior of orientable anisotropic fluids contained between rotating coaxial cylinders is analyzed.
Predicted behayior is similar to that observed for viscoelastic fluids.
90 Couette flow between concentric cylinders
The Couette flow of certain anisotropic fluids is analyzed for the case of both cylinders rotating. Erick-
sen’s theory of anisotropic fluids is employed in the analysis.
91 Couette flow between concentric cylinders
Discusses the contradictory results of Verma[90] and Leslie[86] concerning the stability of anisotropic
fluids undergoing Couette flow between rotating concentric cylinders. The analysis of the possible occurrence
of Taylor type instabilities is also presented. It is concluded that the present analysis indicates quite a
different kind of disturbance, more like that considered by Verma, which produces instability for one of the
solutions.
88 Helical flow
The behavior of orientable fluids during helical flow (i.e. the flow between rotating concentric cylinders in
the presence of an axial pressure gradient) is predicted to be similar to that observed for viscoelastic fluids.
 Applications of microcontinuum fluid mechanics 287

Table l(cont.)

V. ANISOTROPIC FLUIDS
A. Steady shearing flows

89 Helical flow
The laminar helical flow of anisotropic fluids is considered. Ericksen’s theory of anisotropic fluids is
examined with respect to its usefulness for describing the constitutive properties of real fluids.

B. Nonsteady flows
89 Simple shearing flow
The time-dependent behavior of Ericksen’s anisotropic fluids is studied with respect to the usefulness of
this theory for describing the constitutive properties of real fluids. It is found that under conditions of very
low shear rate the theory of anisotropic fluids encompasses modes of fluid behavior excluded by the theory of
simple fluids.
92 Periodic flows
Certain periodic flows of orientable fluids are studied (e.g. oscillatory simple shearing flow induced by the
oscillatory motion of a flat plate; Couette flow between concentric cylinders in which the outer cylinder oscil-
lates longitudinally parallel to and angularly about its axis): A linearized theory is used and a typical
phenomenon of resonance is predicted.

C. Miscellaneous applications
84 Irrotational and plane flows
The flow behavior of orientable anisotropic fluids is studied for certain homogeneous flow
regimes-irrotational and plane flows. It is observed that for small velocity gradients these fluids behave in a
Newtonian fashion, whereas orientation effects are exhibited for high velocity gradients.

88 Flow through a pipe of arbitrary cross-section

Studies the flow of an anisotropic fluid through a pipe of arbitrary cross-section. The predicted behavior is
similar to that observed for viscoelastic fluids (i.e. non-zero normal stress differences).

93 Flow between two surfaces in relative rotational motion

The flow of orientable anisotropic fluids between two solid boundary surfaces in relative motion about a
common vertical axis is investigated to examine the possibility of stable oriented flow in horizontal circles; a
similar analysis is performed on the motion of these fluids between two coaxial rotating cones. Reviewers
note that similarity of behavior is also implied by the friction reduction phenomenon in turbulent pipe flow of
such solutions with an associated critical wall-shear rate. It seems reasonable to hypothesize that a changed
macromolecular state of the wall-layer fluid is involved.

VI. LIQUID CRYSTALS

A. Simple shearing flows

94 Simple rectilinear shearing motion
Presents an analysis of effects which occur when static magnetic fields are imposed on nematic liquid
crystals undergoing simple shearing flow; investigates low and high shear rate phenomena. In this paper
Ericksen’s modified liquid crystal theory was employed. The theory involved an asymmetric stress tensor
resulting from considerations of body couples and couple stresses.
95 Simple rectilinear shearing motion
Studies the problem of shear flow near a stationary solid boundary. Obtains a relationship between orien-
tation of fluid and distance from the boundary; boundary-layer type behavior observed. It is interesting to
note that orientation of preferred direction varies with distance from the plates. Leslie’s constitutive equa-
tions are highly nonlinear and do not permit linearization without losing their relevance to the rheology of
liquid crystals [ 11.
95 Couette flow between parallel plates
Investigates the behavior of liquid crystals undergoing planar Couette flow subject to a particular orienta-
tion boundary condition. An expression for apparent viscosity is obtained in terms of centerline orientation
pattern of the fluid.
288 T. ARIMAN et al.

Table l(cont.)

VI. LIQUID CRYSTALS

A. Simple shearing flows

96 Couette fZow between parallel plates

Study of the competing effects of rigid boundaries and the flow field on the orientation of liquid crystals
during a shearing motion. These effects may be explained as a possible cause of non-Newtonian phenomena.
97 Couette flow between parallel plates
The shear flow of a nematic liquid crystal in the presence of a magnetic field is studied. Two types of field
are employed-perpendicular to and in the plane of flow. Leslie’s rather general constitutive equations
coupled with the conservation laws developed by Ericksen[87] were employed to describe the behavior of
nematic liquid crystals.
98 Poiseuille flow through a circular tube
Author utilizes the theory proposed by Leslie[95] in the problem of annular flow of nematic liquid crystals
between two coaxial tubes. He also investigates the case of capillary tube flow involving orientations with a
required value on the tube axis but having a specified boundary value on the tube. While for the annular flow
case the existence and uniqueness of solutions has been proved under certain special assumptions, the same
attempt has not been successful in the case of capillary tube flow. The effects of rigid boundaries and a shear
field on the orientation pattern in nematic liquid crystals are also investigated. Author by performing the
so-called Ericksen’s scaling analysis obtains a relation which agrees with experimental data of Fisher and
Fredrickson [Molec. Cryst. and Liq. Cryst. 8, 207 (1%9)] when the boundary orientation is perpendicular at
the tube but possesses a discrepancy between the analysis and experimental results of parallel orientation at
the boundary of the tube.
99 Couette j7ow between concentric cylinders
The equations governing the flow of nematic liquid crystals between rotating coaxial cylinders are solved
analytically. The variation of the orientation and apparent viscosity of the fluid with the applied torque and
ratio of cylinder radii is determined. The above stated scaling analysis is performed by a Couette viscometer
to relate theoretical predictions to experimental observations. A suitable experiment would be of great value
in determining the verification of the outcome of this paper.
100 Couette flow between concentric cylinders
The Couette flow of a nematic liquid crystal between rotating concentric cylinders subject to a uniform
magnetic field is analyzed as a special case of the general helical flow problem. A phase plane analysis is
performed to determine the possible stable orientation patterns and gap width ratios for a known applied
torque.
100 Helical flow
Examines the flow of nematic liquid crystals between infinite coaxial cylinders which possess steady
angular as well as axial velocities. The equations of motion describing this flow are obtained assuming a
particular boundary orientation of the director vector. The flow is subjected to a uniform magnetic field in
order to investigate the effect of an extrensic force on the motion and orientation of liquid crystals. Ericksen’s
liquid crystal theory is employed.
B. Stability analyses
101 Orientation pattern in liquid crystals subjected to magnetic fields
A liquid crystal contained between parallel plates is subjected to a uniform magnetic field. The stability
criterion proposed by Ericksen[91] is employed in order to determine the physically meaningful static orien-
tation patterns (i.e. more than one such static orientation pattern theoretically exists). Conditions are imposed
on the stored energy function of liquid crystals guaranteeing a well-posed variational problem: under these
conditions all the static orientation patterns are determined and classified (e.g. unstable, locally and globally
stable). Liquid crystal under consideration is nematic type. Some experimental measurements performed on
liquid crystals for extracting information about constitutive equations are also considered.

C. Miscellaneous applications
102 Twisting phenomena in liquid crystals
The twisting phenomena in liquid crystals is investigated; the predicted behavior is similar to that
observed in liquid crystals of the cholesteric type. The analysis shows that liquid crystals can be uniformly
twisted by the application of surface forces and couples alone, independent of the form of the stored energy
function. Analysis is based on an anisotropic liquid crystal theory of Ericksen.
 Applications of microcontinuum fluid mechanics 289

Table I(cont.)

VI. LIQUID CRYSTALS

C. Miscellaneous applications

103 Twisting phenomena in liquid crystals

The phenomenon of twisting in liquid crystals is studied for the case of the orientation vector not
constrained to be of fixed magnitude. Ericksen’s modified hydrostatic theory of liquid crystals is used. This
modified theory involves a torque stress (related to, but different than the couple stress) and a body torque
force.
104 Twisting phenomena in liquid crystals
The non-uniform twist induced in liquid crystals by the application of a uniform magnetic field and certain
surface actions is analyzed. This analysis provides a basis for understanding how a liquid crystal, not
normally optically active, can be made so. Theory of incompressible liquid crystals (Ericksen and Leslie) is
employed in the analysis [97].
105 Orientation wave propagation
Treats orientation waves which can propagate in liquid crystals at rest; thermal effects and extrinsic body
forces are ignored and the fluid is assumed to be incompressible. In the analysis Leslie’s theory for liquid
crystals is employed. The essential feature of the theory is the introduction of a unit vector, called the
director which denotes the preferred direction at each point in a liquid crystal.
106 Temperature induced spinning phenomena in liquid crystals
Considers a cholesteric liquid crystal confined between two parallel plates which are maintained at
different temperatures for the purpose of investigating the spinning phenomenon observed when liquid cryst-
als are heated. A variety of possible boundary conditions for preferred direction at each plate are employed in
order to investigate the effects of boundary orientation on the fluid behavior. The proper choice of
constitutive equations which appear appropriate for cholesteric liquid crystals, was motivated by an entropy
inequality proposed by Muller [ 11.
107 Singularities in orientation patterns
Orientation patterns in liquid crystals with disinclinations (i.e. singularities) are studied in the framework
of a static theory of liquid crystals; the stability of these patterns is analyzed. Detailed calculations are given
for the Oseen-Frank [ l] model without experimental comparison.
108 Axial plane reorientation phenomena
The general solution to axial problems for a linear theory of nematic liquid crystals is obtained in terms of
analytic functions. Several representative problems are solved. A linear theory by Davidson[l] for the static
equilibrium of liquid crystals of the nematic type has been employed in the analysis.
109 Wave propagation
Wave propagation phenomena in nematic liquid crystals are studied; the theoretical analysis yields results
in good agreement with experimental data regarding the characteristics of the longitudinal and shear waves
(e.g. the anisotropy of the damping coefficient). Note that locally the rotation of “swarms” (or groups of
molecules) is described by the micromotion, allowing a more general expression for the microinertia than is
possible in the Ericksen-Leslie theory. The fundamental difference between Lee-Eringen and
Ericksen-Leslie theories is in the constitutive equations. Lee and Eringen consider the micromotion as an
independent constitutive variable instead of a director[ I].
110 Alignment of liquid crystals due to magnetic fields and shear pow
The phenomenon of alignment of nematic liquid crystals is investigated for two problems. One is
concerned with the change of orientation due to magnetic fields and the other with shear flow. The theoretical
analysis yields solutions which explain the experimentally observed phenomenon of alignment of nematic li-
quid crystals. It should be noted the linear theory of Lee and Eringen is able to predict anisotropy present in
the natural state of liquid crystals as well as an increase in orientation (i.e. anisotropy) when a static magnetic
field is applied to the fluid.
111 Orientation boundary effects
The orientation of nematic liquid crystals at a boundary depends on the type of surface and type of liquid
crystal. Two extreme boundary conditions, parallel and perpendicular orientation, have been investigated and
the orientation effects due to a magnetic field are determined. The solutions obtained agree with experimental
studies[ll2]. Although no proof of existence of convergence is given, the computer solution appears to
converge rapidly.

IJES-Vol. 12. No. LB

290 T. ARIMAN et al.

Table l(cont.)

VI. LIQUID CRYSTALS

C. Miscellaneous applications

113 Hydrodynamics of liquid crystals and waue propagation

Authors claim that a unified formulation of the hydrodynamics suitable for normal liquids, liquid crystals,
and solids is presented and applied to nematic liquid crystals. The eigen modes, including sound waves, and
their damping are expressed in terms of the generalized elastic constants and the transport coefficients. Re-
sponse functions are calculated by the method of fluctuating forces. The results are compared with other
theories. It is found that the sound waves couple to the orientational waves and as a result show a
characteristic anisotropy of the damping coefficients. It should be noted that many of the concepts and results
of this paper have already been contained in the earlier works by Eringen and Lee [109-l 1l] and Degennes
and his co-workers [ 115, 1161.
114 Hydrodynamics of liquid crystals
The linearized hydrodynamic behavior of liquid crystals is systematically deduced and earlier theories re-
conciled and simplified. Predictions for ordinary and depolarized light scattering are obtained and the latter
compared with experiment. However, a general statement that the microscopic stress tensor can be taken to
be symmetric is questionable, since liquid crystals could be classified as a polar material and it is known that
in polar materials the stress tensor is not symmetric.
115 Orientation fluctuations in a nematic liquid crystal
The orientational correlations, at the presence of a static magnetic field, are conducted through three
phenomenological elasticity coefficients. Note that calculations allow to interpret the measurement of
Chatelain on the diffusion and depolarization of light by p-azoxyanisol.

116 Wave propagation

A continuum theory for smectic liquid crystals is constructed in terms of the displacement u of the layers
normal to their plane and the volume dilation 13.The intensity of the light scattering due to thermal fluctua-
tions of u and 0 is expected to be weak. The frequency spectrum of the vibrations (for a wave vector neither
parallel nor normal to the optical axis) shows two acoustic branches which should be observable by Brillouin
scattering. Similar to the Ericksen-Leslie theory a unit vector, called the director, which denotes the
preferred direction at each point in a liquid crystal is introduced.
117 Dynamic of fluctuations in nematic liquid crystals
The small motions of an incompressible nematic liquid crystal with coupled flows and molecular rotations
are analyzed in terms of the Leslie equations. Leslie equations involve six phenomenological coefficients de-
scribing the coupling and friction. It is shown how these coefficients can all be determined from the light
scattering data.
I 18 Viscosity measurements in p -azoxyanisol
Some difficulties inherent to the light scattering measurement of the viscosity coefficients in p-azoxyanisol
are discussed. A unique set for these quantities is presented which is in reasonable agreement with the
conventional determination. Viscosity coefficients under consideration are the ones described in the
Ericksen-Leslie theory.

Acknowledgement-The content of this paper is a part of a dissertation by the second author submitted to the
Graduate School of the University of Notre Dame in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy. The authors gratefully acknowledge the constructive criticism and valuable suaes-
tions by the reviewer during the publication process of this paper.

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Note added in proof

After the publication of the “Microcontinuum Fluid Mechanics-A Review” Dr. S. L. Koh was kind
enough to bring to the attention of the authors the following articles on microfluids:
 Applications of microcontinuum fluid mechanics 293

[I] G. AHMADI, S. K. KOH and V. W. GOLDSCHMIDT, Recent Adv. Engng Sci. 5, 9 (1970).
[II] G. AHMADI, S. L. KOH and V. W. GOLDSCHMIDT, Iranian J. Sci. Tech. 1, 233 (1971).
In these articles Eringen’s theory of simple microfluids [6] is extended to the case of a slightly nonhomogene-
ous, micro-motions which is characterized by a quadratic relationship. Hence, the fluid is named a
second-order fluid. This assumption gives rise to the concept of eccentricity which is expected to be needed in
the treatment of turbulent motions. Then, the basic field equations are derived and a set of linear constitutive
equations are also developed.

(Received 28 March 1972)

Resume-Une revue &endue des theories existantes de la mecanique de\ milieux microcontinus Ruides a ete
presentee par les auteurs dans un precedent article. Dans cet article les applications publiees de ces theories
des microfluides B des problemes d’ecoulement eedls st parfaits ont etfe rapidement passes en revue et ces
breves revues sont presentees sous forme tabulaire afin de s’y referer facilement.

Zusammenfassung-In einer friiheren arbeit gaben die autoren eine umfassende Ubersicht iiber die bestehen-
den Theorien der Mikrokontinuum-Fliissigkeitsmechanik. In dieser Arbeit werden die veriiffentlichten an-
wendungen dieser Mikrofliissigkeitstheorien auf wirkliche und ideale stromprobleme kurz besprochen und
diese kurzen Besprechungen werden fur leichte Bezungsnahme in Tabellenform vorgelegt.

Sommario-Una recensione completa delle esistenti teorie sulla meccanica dei fluidi microcontinui e stata
presentata dagli autori in una lore precedente pubblicazione. In quest0 articolo bengono passate brevemente
in ressegna le applicazioni gia pubblicate di queste teorie sui microfluidi ai problemi de1 flusso reale e ideale;
queste brevi recensioni vergono presentate in forma tabellare per facilitare i riferimenti.

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