His Majesty's Government of Nepal Ministry of Water Resources Department of Irrigation Planning and Design Strengthening Project United Nations Development Programme (NEP®5/013)/World Bank Design Manuals for Irrigation Projects in Nepal Executive Summary February 1990 Sir M MacDonald & Partners Lid in association with MacDonald Agricultural Services Lid and East Consall (P} Lid| This document should not be rolied on or used in circumstances other than those for which it was originally | prepared and for which Sir M MacDonaid & Partners Limited was commissioned. Sir M MacDonald & Partners Limited shall not be liable for the consequences of using this Gocument other than for the purpose for which it was commissioned, and any user and any other person using or relying on the document for such other purpose agrees and wil by such use or reliance be taken to confirm his agreement to indemnity | Sir M MacDonald & Partners Limited for all loss or damage resulting therefrom.’EXECUTIVE SUMMARY CONTENTS Introduction S-1 Preparatory Work S-3 Preparation of Design Manuals and Guidelines S-2 3.1 Introduction S-2 3.2. Main Technical Manuals S-2 3.3 Guidelines $-5 3.4 Other Documents/Manuals 8-5 4. Use of the Manuals S-6 LAST OF TABLES Table Nr Title Page Nr 1 List of Manuals and Guidelines 8-3 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Nr Title Page Nr Manual Scope. 8-4DHM Dol HMG WUO ABBREVIATIONS Department of Hydrology Department of Irrigation His Majesty’s Government of Nepal Water Users’ OrganisationsExecutive Summary 1. Introduction The Planning and Design Strengthening Project of the Department of Irrigation has been financed by the UNDP (NEP/85/013) and supervised by the World Bank. This Executive Summary is for the Design Criteria component of the Project, which concerns the establishment of design manuals for irrigation development in Nepal. The aim of the Design Criteria component is to develop criteria and guidelines for the planning and design of irrigation schemes in Nepal, so that a more consistent and correct approach 10 these activities is achieved. ‘The principal activities carried out under this component were: a) Preparatory Work Preparation of an Inception Report Preparation of a Design Philosophy and Approach Report Preparation of a Design Office Management Review Report b) Drafting of Manuals and Other Activities Preparation of Design Manuals and Guidelines Preparation of Standard Structure Designs and Specifications Preparation of a Simulation Model Reference books, which will form the core of a Departmental Reference Library, were also procured under the Project. 2 Preparatory Work Prior to preparation of the manuals and guidelines, a review of the present technical and institutional aspects of irrigation planning, design and implementation was conducted. This review formed the basis for discussion and agreement on the format and content of the design manuals. Three reports were prepared: An Inception Report, which described the overall programme and direction for the remainder of the component of the Project, and reviewed design practice adopted on a number of completed schemes A Design Philosophy and Approach Report which, foliowing field visits to over 25 operational irrigation schemes in both the hills and Terai, developed approaches to irrigation planning and design so that account is taken of the constraints faced in scheme operation, ‘These approaches have been incorporated in the design manuals. S-1A Design Office Management Review Report, which presented a review of and proposals for the management of planning and design within the Department of Irrigation. It is summarised in Appendix B. 3 Preparation of Design Manuals and Guidelines al Introduction The major activity of the design criteria component of the Project has been the preparation of a series of manuals and guidelines. The documents prepared are listed in Table | and shown in Figure 1, which indicates the range of subjects covered. ‘The documentation prepared falls into three main categories: Main Technical Manuals, prefixed M Guidelines. prefixed G Other Documents, prefixed D Each document was initially prepared in draft, and circulated for comment, Comments received were taken into account during the drafting of the final versions, The manuals reflect HMG policy for the irrigation sub-sector in that account has been taken of the recently formulated Irrigation Rules and the policy documents on Scheme Turnover and Participatory Management. A guide to the contems of the main technical manuals is given in Figure 4.1 of Appendix A, and a summary of each manual and guideline is presented in Appendix B. 32 Main Technical Manuals This series comprises thirteen technical manuals which are intended for the planning and design engineers in the Regional Directorates and Central Offices of the Department of Irrigation. However, it is anticipated that they would also be used by consultants engaged by the Department on the planning, design and implementation of irrigation projects, and it is recommended that local consulrants registered with the Department should receive copies of all the manuals. ‘The manuals present a means whereby consistency and uniformity of standards may be achieved in the planning aad design of irrigation schemes in Nepal, This is not to say that the approaches developed in the manuals narrow the choice of technical solutions available; indeed, alternatives appropriate to hills and Terai are suggested in most instances. ‘The manuals include discussion of the solutions available, the data and investigations required for studies and design, technical criteria to be adopted, figures showing design features and example calculations.Volume Table 1 List of Manuals and Guidelines Subject Main Technical Manuals General System Planning Survey and Mapping Hydrology and Agro-meteorology Soils and Land Use Sociology and Farmer Participation Groundwater Irrigation Headworks, River Training Works and Sedimentation Distribution Systems, Canals and Canal Structures Drainage Engineering Cost Estimating and Economies Infrastructure Planning ‘Tender Documents and Construction Operation, Maintenance and Management Guidelines on Specific Types of Project Upgrading of Farmer Built and Operated Systems Shallow Tabewell Development Small/Medium Scale Project Development Rehabilitation of Government Schemes Other Manuals and Documents Interim Field Design Manual (superseded by Manual D.2) Field Design Manual Standard Structures Designs Simulation Model Manualsurunton gn Figure 1 Manual Scope . ee Manual Project Stage | Planning! ~~ Survey/ | Construction] Operation& | Design Maintenance ! M1 GeneratSystem Planning M2 SurveyandMapping 143. Hydrology and agre-meteorology M4 SollsandLand Use M5 SociologyandFatmer Participation M6 _ Groundwater lmrigation M7 Headworks,AiverTraining andSedimentation x M8 DistributionSystems, Canals and CanalStructures (277 Ms Drainage M.10 Engineering Cost Estimating andEconomics M11 Infrastructure Planning M.12 Tender Documents and Construction 1.19 Operation, Maintenance and Management Guidetines on Specttic Types of Project G1 Upgradingot Farmer Built and OperatedSysterns G2 Shallow Tubewell Development GS. Small/Medium Scale Project Development Ga Rehabiltation of Government Schemes. OtherManuals and Documents D.1_ InterimFiek Design Manual (superseded by 0.2) D2 FieléDesign Manual D3. Standard StructuresDesigns D4. Simulation Model Manuat Primary appication Seconday application _{ordocument superseded) 8-4The manuals are designed to be reasonably self-contained, in that they aim to provide most of the tools required for the planning and design of the majority of the components of an irrigation system. On occasions, however, a mare sophisticated analysis may be justified, either for reasons of technical complexity or economy. The reference literature procured under the project will provide guidance in these cireumstances ‘The contents of the manuals are presented as sequence of developing concepts. It is thus important that the manuals are read thoroughly and understood by the users. Clearly, engineering judgement will be required in evaiuating the available solutions to a particular problem, although the manuals should help in guiding this decision making. ‘The manuals should not be used blindly, and careful thought will need to given to each specific situation encountered. 33 Guidelines The four guidelines have been prepared to give planners guidance on specific types of project which are seen to represent significant components of irrigation development in the future. These types of project are: = the upgrading of farmer built and operated schemes the development of shallow tubewell schemes - the development of new smali and medium scale schemes - the rehabilitation of government managed schemes ‘The guidelines are principally concerned with the scheme implementation processes, rather than technical detail, for which references are given to the main technical manuals, 34 Other Documents/Manuals The other documents prepared comprise a field design manual (Manual D.2, issued in interim form as Manual D.1), a set of standard structure designs and specifications (Manual 9.3) and a guide to the use of the simulation model developed under the project (Manual D.4). The field design manual presents a condensed version of parts of the main technical manuals which are considered relevant to the design of schemes which are of low and intermediate complexity. It is designed to be self-contained and is principally for use at the district level. A simplified approach is adopted, as the document is aimed at assistant engineers and overseers in carrying out the planning and design of smali and medium sized projects. As with the main technical manuals, it should not be followed blindly, and engineering judgement will need to be exercised in its use so that sensible solutions are developed. ‘To support the field design manuals, standard structures designs have been prepared for secondary and tertiary level sysiems, where such standardisation is considered appropriate. Drawings of these structures have been prepared, and these are S-5accompanied by design proforma, which are used for structure sizing. Outline quantities for these structures have also been developed to help with costing of designs at feasibility study level. For studies, the standard designs can be used directly with little modification. For design and construction, their suitability must be checked and, if necessary, modifications made to suit the local circumstances. They nonetheless provide a good guide to the form of structure required, and on design details to be adopted. Standard specifications for construction of irrigation systems have also been developed and are included in Manual D.3. A guide to the contents of Manuals D.2 and D,3 is presented in Figure A.2 of Appendix A The simulation model syanual (D.4), deseribes the operation of, and background to, the computer program developed under the project as a training tool. ‘The program makes broad use of the Mahakali Irrigation Project as a basis for simulating the operation of a typical large Terai scheme. The program has three main components: - an operating model, which uses a hydraulic model of the main canal to simulate the impact on the main canal of operational decisions about gate openings, which are made in response 10 changing inflows and water Gemands = production model, which allows annual decisions about cropping patterns, inputs, etc to be ntade, and then simulates scheme crop production for & random generation of rainfall and irrigation water availability = tutorial, which explains the factors used to derive the model 4, Use of the Manuals ‘The manuals provide a sound technical resource for the planning and design of irrigation schemes in Nepal. For them to be fully beneficial, they should be widely circulated amongst Department of Irrigation staff, local consultants and other non-government agencies concerned with irrigation development in Nepal. To assist with the use of the manuals, it is suggested that seminars should be held for Department of Irrigation senior staff and other potential users to introduce them to the manuals and to indicate their application. In addition, the Department's junior staff (mainly in the Districts) should be given specific training in the use of the Field Design Manual and the Standard Structures Designs. This training should comprise both classroom and field exercises, and be related to the planning and design of a specific scheme, A series of courses, each iasting 2 to 3 weeks, is envisaged. Groups of 10 to i5 junior engineers and overseers would attend each course. In paraliel with this, it is suggested that a small team of Dol Design Specialists is established to visit all regional and district offices with the aim of assisting engineers stationed there in using the manuals. The seams would also supervise preparation of Gesigns in the field offices and be responsible for maintaining and improving standardsof design. It is envisaged that there would be three teams of two or three engineers each. They might typically spend three of four days at each office before moving to the next office on their ‘rota’. From time to time, the manuals will need to be updated, as experience is gained in their use, as scheme emphasis or conditions change, as new techniques or designs are developed, or as new materials are tried and proven and existing materials which presently have only limited use become more widely available. An on-going programme of revision will be required, and should be co-ordinated by the Central Planning, Design and Research Division of the Department of Irrigation. As sections are updated or revised, these should be circulated to all manual users. A register of recipients of the manuals should thus be kept.Appendix A Manual Contents Figure A.1 Main Technical Manuals Figure A.2 Field Design Manual Standard StructuresFigure A.1 Summary of Manual Contents se yOD a wed FORTIER woisag ous pur emeishs uonngened temuer veimonng jeuro uw sown “MWmEAS YONGE Bm SuONE DIES uBktiK) Sekine dep) w wowiCaune puny 9 ewer Budo v1 | sd 7 oday ATMS FHT PHOS L| owen owe Burvueyg wore4s jm9v—0 6Figure A.2 Field Design Manual Contents see stuwaan 1 vows pues H soo Puig 0) wa a ‘soy Buang prepuess WL senspueddy redrouuy amas 101 Kae jo one Super pepums zt onsnpon 5 ‘noIsa0 wunsonMNs $5 owonceuant & i | auouronjonul sowres pue som y uedAppendix B Manual Summaries Title B.1 Design Office Management Review B2 M1 General System Planning B3 M2_ Survey and Mapping B4 M3 Hydrology and Agro-meteorology BS M4 Soils and Land Use B6 M.S Sociology and Farmer Participation BI M4 Groundwater Irrigation Bs M7 Headworks, River Training Works and Sedimentation BY MA& Distribution Systems, Canals and Canal Structures B10 M9 Drainage BL] M10. Engineering Cost Estimating and Economies Bi2 MLL Infrastructure Planning B13) M.i2. Tender Documents and Construction B.1é M13. Operation, Maintenance and Management | B.iS Guidelines on Specific Types of Project B16 D2 Field Design Manual B.1? D3 Standard Structures Designs BJ8 D¢ Simulation Model Manual REFERENCES Page Nr Bei B-2 B-3 B-4 B.S B-5 B.S B-6 B-6 B-7 B-7 B-8 Bes B-9 B-9 B-10 B-i0 B- 12Appendix B Manual Summaries BA. Design Oftice Management Review The Design Office Management Review makes recommendations for imptoving the facilities and management of the Dol Central Design Office (and regional and district design offices}, addressing the following topics: A review of current practices and procedures. Details of standards to be adopted and procedures to be followed. Guidelines and instructions to siaff on the implementation of improved practices. Additional materials and equipment to be procured to improve the functioning of the design office. Under the new Dol structure, the Planning, Design and Research Division will be responsible for the central level planning and design activities. The role of this Division is likely to include the following tasks with respect to planning and design. Planning Section Prepare and regularly update the Irrigation Master Plan, together with short and medium term detailed plans that are consistent with the Master Plan. Input to ollicial Five Year Plans would be an important part of the latter function. Set guidelines by which regional and district offices can select small projects. Consolidate planning of groups of small projects into larger units (river basin planning), where appropriate. Assume technical responsibility for Dol feasibility studies. Coordinate foreign aid to the irrigation sub-sector. Consolidate annual budget submissions, relaie them to current plans and strategies, and monitor financial and technical performance. Design Section Carry out detailed designs of large and/or complex works. Prepare tender documents for large and/or complex schemes. Engage consultants and carry out the detailed designs of specific works.Provide advice and assistance to the regional and district offices on detailed design, preparation (and interpretation) of tender documents and specifications, and on contract procedures. Vet the designs prepared by the regional offices (the regional office should vet the designs prepared by district offices within their regions). Supervise quality control of construction works. Obtain feedback from completed designs, and, where appropriate, update the design criteria, standards and manuals. In preparing the Design Office Management Review report, the role of the Planning, Design and Research Division has been assumed to be similar to that described above. B.2, General System Planning Manual (M.1) ‘The possibilities for increasing crop production through an expansion of the irrigated area in the hill zone are limited. Increases in production will therefore be attained mainly through intensification of agriculture by improving yields and increasing cropping intensities. Provision of reliable irrigation will be a major factor in achieving cither of these. The Terai is estimated to have about 1.7 million ha of land suitable for itrigation, of which 0.9 million ha is thought to receive some irrigation at present. Of this, an estimated 05 million ha comprises technically radimentary farmer-managed surface water systems, which may benefit from technical improvements. The potential for development, through intensification, technical improvement and expansion, is high. In addition, many of the existing Government schemes are not functioning at optimum efficiency and output could be improved. For small and medium sized schemes, one of the major tasks wilt be to mobilise farmer support and participation from the inception of a project to its completion, and develop their capabilities to take over most of the operation and maintenance activities (excepting those which are clearly beyond their technical capabilities). Irrigation planning covers the establishment of objectives for irrigation development, the stages in development, considerations in system planning, the planning process and system description. Objectives of any proposed development need to be clearly set out so that suitable strategies and solution can be formulated. General objectives may be selected from national concerns, such as the need to increase food production ot rural employment, while more project specific objectives may be to ensure equitable and timely water supplies to farmers or to increase cultivation intensity. ‘A project may pass through various stages during its development, including identification, pre-feasibility, feasibility, design, construction and operation. The first three of these stages are the main planning stages, and final commitment to construct a project is not made until the feasibility study is completed and the project is shown to be technically and economically viable.‘The planning process starts with project identification, and proceeds through various stages of investigation so that a rational decision to proceed with construction can be taken, This decision will take into account the various technical, economic, financial and institutional issues investigated. At any stage of the process, the project may be rejected for a variety of reasons. The project design will include not only the technical design of the irrigation infrastructure, but also the different pravisions tequired to safeguard the assumptions made, These may be of an institutional, agricultural, financial or technical nature, irrigation design deals with the dimensioning and specification of engineering works, rather than, for example, the design of agricultural plans, or institutional arrangements. Design is involved throughout planning, as well as in the detailed design stage. The jevel of design and the design objectives vary according to the stage of development, and appropriate levels of detail associated with each stage in the project cycle are set out. The design takes into account the hydraulic and structural criteria that are appropriate to the type of scheme being considered. The main steps in the design process include: determination of water requirements, water availability and water balance; planning of the distribution system and system operation; canal and structure design cast estimates; and the review of the compieted design. In order to carry out scheme designs that are appropriate to the size and type of scheme planned, adequate and accurate data collection is required, The type, amount and accuracy of the data will depend on scheme type and the stage of study. Data collection can be very time consuming, so it is important to assess what data is essential, and where and how ii can be obtained, Various surveys may need to be undertaken to collect the required data, such as soils and land use, topographical, hydrological, agricultural, sociological and geotechnical. B.3, Surveying and Mapping Manual (M.2) The objective of surveying and mapping is to obtain information to the standards required to support decision making while evaluating irrigation projects, and to enable accurate designs to be prepared for schemes which are selected for implementation. The standards of surveying and mapping are described with reference to the stage of project development and to the type of project concerned. The principle types of survey covered by the manual are: - topographical - hydrological = groundwater - soils and land use = sociological = environmental - geotechnical When a project is at a preliminary phase, there is generally little point in making detailed surveys. At this stage, existing information should be used to the maximum,extent. As a project progresses, the need to improve decision making increases and better survey and mapping data are required ‘The standards of survey are set out according to the recommended study stages, which are: Identification Pre-feasibility (for large and complex medium schemes) Feasibility Detailed design B.4, Hydrology and Agro-meteorology Manual (M.3) ‘The objective of the manual is to provide sufficient background on the specialist subjects of hydrology and meteorology to enable the irrigation designer to make reasonable assessments of such key variables as water availability, water requirements and drainage/flood estimations in a country where basic hydrological information is scarce. It is desirable that for larger schemes a specialist hydrologist is included in the project design team, Appendices to the manual include an inventory of all DHM stations giving details of record length, summary rainfall data, and evaporation and evapotranspiration estimates to aid the designer, as well as regional river hydrographs and drainage design charts. For most projects, it is unlikely that the irrigation designer will find water availability Gata for the proposed intake site, unless a gauge has been established at an earlier stage in the design process. Several methods have been used in scheme design to estimate river flows at a site with little or 0 data and a number are critically reviewed including a regression technique (Water and Energy Commission, 1989), a regionalised hydrograph iechnique (Medium Irrigation Project Design Manual, 1982), and approaches based on the concept of “hydrologically similar’ catchments. Worked examples are provided for each method. ‘The importance of local data for the site of interest is stressed, and it is recommended that, as a minimum, baseflows should be measured. The calculation of irrigation water requirements is described. Cropping calendars and crop coefficients are provided for che most commonly cultivated crops. The Penman method is recommended for the calculation of evaporation and evapotranspiration, For rice, guidance is given on allowances for tand preparation and deep percolation. Eticctive rainfall is calculated from an 80% reliable homogeneous rainfall sequence. Field and conveyance efficiencies are recommended. The resulting irrigation water requirements are balanced against water availability (available river flows) to give the reliably cropped areas. Drainage, both internal and external to schemes, is discussed, In the Terai, internal drainage from the large bunded fields is considerable. Typical drainage rates are proposed. Assessment of external drainage (floods) for the main rivers and cross- Grainage should preferably be made using a long record of local data, and relevant types, ‘of frequency analysis are described. In the absence of any site measurements. two methods are recommended. For large catchments (greater than about 100 km?) theregression technique derived by the Water and Energy Commission is recommended while for smaller catchments the Soil Conservation Service chart method can be used. B.S. Soils and Land Use Manual (M.4) The manual covers soil survey planning and implementation, interpretation and presentation of results, together with supervision and scrutiny of soil and land evaluation studies for irrigated agricultural development, Throughout the manual, approaches have been adapted, wherever possible, to the specific conditions of Nepal and the role of Dol in developing irrigation projects. An important point stressed in the manual is the need to adopt standard methodologies and interpretations in Dol work, to facilitate evaluation and comparison of irrigation studies. Recommendations are given on how the methods presented in the manual can be improved, based on practical experience, so as the planning process and technical criteria can continually be updated. It should be noted that agricultural land evaluation and planning is a specialised subject, and the manual indicates appropriate stages when specialist inputs are necessary. B.6. Sociology and Farmer Participation Manual (M.5) Planning and design of new irrigation schemes, and rehabilitation of older schemes in Nepal, have mainly depended on technical data for construction, with limited concern for socio-economic and institutional information. Serious problems of operation and maintenance have resulted. Dol is now concerned to involve farmers in all stages of project development and operation, The Sociology and Farmer Participation Manual presents guidelines for conducting dialogue with farmers about socio-economic, institutional and organisational matters essential for planning, designing, constructing, operating and maintaining irrigation systems. The manual presents methods of data collection for analysis of socio-economic conditions in a proposed project area, and for evaluation of farmers’ water users’ organisations or the farmers’ ability to form such an organisation. Procedures for the development of Association Organisers and principles for organising strong, viable water users organisations are presented. B.7, Groundwater Irrigation Manual (M.6) ‘This manual addresses the planning and design requirements specific to irrigation from groundwater. Its scope includes hydro-geological investigations and interpretation of results, groundwater development and irrigation planning through to selection of pumping plant for tubewells. The manual mainly concentrates on deep tubewell development ‘There is an extensive treatment of well drilling for investigative and production purposes. Alternative methods are described together with well logging and testing considerations. The approach to economic well design is given with an example, B-Stogether with the physical design. The assessment of individual well yields and regional abstraction limits is discussed. ‘The manual reviews the physical and social factors affecting selection of tubewell locations, and with reference to crop water requirements, establishing the pump duties, The treatment of pumping plant includes a review of hydrodynamic pump types and characteristics, hydraulic and mechanical aspects, prime movers and control requirements. The selection of materials used in pumping plant is considered, especially with regard to corrosion implications. Procurement procedures and operation and maintenance considerations are also covered. The manual also discusses the design of wellhead works, including the pump house. ‘The design of open channel and buried pipe distribution systems and appurtenant structures is described. B.8. Headworks, River Training and Sedimentation Manual (M.7) In this manual, guidance is provided on intake types suitable for use in rivers in Nepal, their location, layout, performance and design criteria, river control by weirs and barrages, river training works and sediment removal. Sedimentation theory is outlined and the need for a co-ordinated programme of sediment data collection is stressed. Model studies are discussed with respect to their usefulness and limitations. ‘The manual sets out the engineering principles relevant to the design of headworks and river training; the impact that a tiver’s form has on the site selection and subsequent Gesign of headworks is reviewed. Concepts of sediment transport are discussed and methods for calculating sediment movement are presented. Field methods for sediment sampling are described. Various types of intakes and headworks are discussed ranging from large barrages and weirs down to double orifice and simple bank intakes. Ways of minimising the quantity of sediment entering an intake are presented, and the design of settling basin and other removal facilities is described. The section on river training presents the design philosophy for these works and sets out criteria for designing guide banks, groynes, bank protection and overtopping embankments, Calculations of scour depths and design of rip-rap, stone pitching and gabion works are presented. Physical model testing is described and the range of situations for which it is appropriate is discussed, and the principles of dimensional similarity are set out. The high cost of modelling and the specialised skills needed to design a model and interpret its results are noted. B.9. Distribution Systems, Canals and Canal Structures Manual (M.8) Part 1 deals with the distribution systems and canal design, Part 2 deals with the design of canal structures for irrigation schemes.Part 1 of the manual deals with the principles behind planning and designing distribution systems; both open channel and sprinkler systems. ‘The methodology for canal design is developed from determining capacities and command levels through to the selection of appropriate control structures. ‘The design of canal sections - unlined and lined channels together with covered canals and pipes ~ includes recommendations for bed/depth ratios, freeboard, slopes, radii, embankment width ete. Regime and tractive force approaches are considered and other aspects of canal design such as seepage losses and lining types are included. Typical problems affecting existing farmers canals and alternative solutions to these are discussed. The design of regulating and measuring structures and road and cross-drainage works is considered in Part 2 of the manual together with various types of energy dissipation structures. Small seale structures, transitions and canal protection works are included, as are sections oF pumps and pumping stations and the mechanical design of hydraulic gates. Many examples of hydraulic and structural design calculations are included, B.10. Drainage Manual (M.9) This manual presents the approach to the design of drainage systems, drains and drain structures for itrigation systems. It complements Manual M.8, Distribution Systems, Canals and Canai Structures, particularly in respect to preparation of scheme layouts. ‘The principles that should be applied in designing the drainage layout are presented and the means of calculating drain discharges are shown. Recommended criteria for this latter calculation are given, but with the provision that they should be critically reviewed with respect to each scheme to which they are applied. The methadology for designing drains is presented and typical designs for common forms of drain crossing and energy dissipating structures are included. The manual concludes with an overview of subsurface drainage techniques concentrating on perforated pipe, or tile, drains. BU, Engineering Cast Estimating and Economics Manual (M.10) The approach to cost estimating and economic appraisal of irrigation schemes is considered. The manual aims to provide a practical approach ta the subject, but it also presents a guide to the underlying economic concepts. The treatment of cost estimating refers to the techniques and level of detail appropriate to the particular stage of the project from identification to design and covers capital works and engineering as well as operation and maintenance. The link between costs and the level of risk and uncertainty is discussed. ‘The manual reviews the differences between financial and economic evaluations and describes the concepts of opportunity costs, shadow pricing, sunk costs and externalities. Least-cost and benefit-cost methods of evaluation are discussed as well as othermeasures of economic performance and the use of sensitivity analysis. The economic optimisation of engineering alternatives is presented. The benefit matrix approach to project evaluation is treated in some detail, covering the principles and application. Standardised components of the benefit matrix are given, appropriate to irrigation in Nepal. The procedures for applying and updating the benetit matrix are presented, accompanied by an example. B.12. Infrastructure Planning Manual (M.11) ‘The aim of this manual is to identify the infrastructure components that must be considered by the irrigation planner when working on plans and designs for the development or upgrading of an irrigation scheme. The emphasis is on planning, rather than detailed design, although reference is made to appropriate guidelines and criteria for the latter. ‘The manual concentrates on the infrastructure required for three purposes: = access to and within the irrigation scheme; = accommodation for those responsible for operating and maintaining the irrigation system and providing extension services; and - provision of basie facilities such as water supply and electricity. ‘The manus! covers subjects which impinge directly on the irrigation system design, such as road alignments as well as construction methods and implications for long’ term operation and maintenance, and differentiates between requirements in the hills and Terai. B13, Tender Documents and Construction Manual (M.12) ‘This manuai provides guidance to engineers preparing tender documents, evaluating tenders and supervising construction. Much of the subject material has legal implications: the manual, however, does not treat these authoritatively for not only is Nepalese construction law a higily specialised subject which cannot adequately be treated in a manual of this size, but also marked modifications may occur in a short lime. The manual takes account of present practice in Nepal concerning letting and supervising tenders (including reference to HMG Fiscal Rules) but it also is concerned with future developments. Thus it emphasises the principles inherent in the documentation used in tendering in Nepal and elsewhere in the Sub-continent and also reviews the various forms of contract that might be in use in Nepal in the near future. ‘The section on evaluation of tenders should serve as an introduction to the subject for junior engineers and, perhaps, as an aide-memoire for the more experienced evaluators Aspects of site supervision include an overview as well as a detailed review of ways to monitor progress; checking and approval of work; sampling, testing and quality control; construction materials supervision; settlement of disputes; and dealing with claims. Certification, payment and commissioning are also discussed. B-8B.14. Operation, Maintenance and Management Manual (M.13) ‘The manual presents general guidelines on operation and maintenance of schemes which are to be managed by the Department of Irrigation. The aim has been to provide fairly simple and straightforward procedures which can be easily implemented and understood by both the Department's staff and by the members of the Water Users’ Organisations (WUO). The manual takes account of the Irrigation Regulations (BS 2045) and the policy documents published with respect to the Turnover Program and the Participatory Management Program. ‘The manual reviews the role in irrigated agriculture of the various governmental and non-governmental bodies concentrating on the Department and on the various forms of WUO. The staffing and management aspects of projects are considered. ‘The overall management role and the duties of a scheme manager are described, as well as the need for training, data management, a good communication system, monitoring and evaluation and how computers can be used The planning and delivery of appropriate quantities of water is considered in the section on operation. This discusses a preferred system - consistent with the irrigation works advocated in other manuals - as well as existing, possibly sub-optimal, arrangements. The chapter on maintenance is concerned with ensuring the irrigation system is in a suitable condition to be operated as desired. It deals with the general approach to maintenance, reporting and ranking maintenance needs and implementation methods. Staffing requirements and duties and the capability and applicability of various types of maintenance equipment are considered. The manual concludes with a review of what should be inchided in a scheme-specific operation and maintenance manual, differentiating between manuals produced when schemes are commissioned and the document that can be published once experience is gained in operating the schemes. B15. Guidelines (G.1 to G.4} The four guidelines, presented in one volume, cover: - upgrading of farmer built and operated systems (G.1) - development of shallow tubewell schemes (G.2) - development of small and medium scale projects (G.3) + rehabilitation of government irrigation systems (G.4) The guidelines set out an approach to the preparation and implementation of specific types of project which are seen to be major components of irrigation development in Nepal in the coming 10 to 15 years. They refer to other manuals which cover the specific technical details, The guidelines concentrate on presenting procedures to be followed. These include the strategy for project promotion and project identification: the requirements at feasibility study and detailed design; construction and handover; and subsequent operation, maintenance and management, Involvement of the beneficiaries is emphasised, as is the need for ongoing monitoring and evaluation of the effectiveness of the approach to meet the project objectives. B-9B16. Field Design Manual (D.2) ‘The Field Design Manual is intended to assist engineers and overseers in the district offices to carry out studies, surveys and design, and involve farmers in scheme implementation for small and simpler medium sized irrigation projects both in the hills and the Terai. ‘The manual has been designed to be self-contained, so that it can be used directly by district level staff. without reference to other sources. It is intended for the simpler schemes; for those which are more technically complex, assistance may be required from the regional or central offices. Due to the wide range of conditions in Nepal, the guidelines in the manual are general, and engineering judgement is always essential in their use and interpretation. The manual draws on the appropriate sections of the main technical manuals. Initially, an Interim Manual (D.1) was prepared. It was revised to conform with technical manuais subsequently drafted, and republished as the Field Design Manual (D.2) - which supersedes Manual D.1, Manua} D.2 should be read in conjunetion with the Standard Structure Designs (D.3). B.17. Standard Structure Designs (D.3) This manual presents designs for standard and typical structures, (for secondary and tertiary level systems), and includes an outline specification. It complememts the Field Desigh Manual (D.2), The structures include: ~ standard details (walls, pitching, pipe bedding etc.); regulators (Faiyum, duckbill and plain weirs and undershot gate structures); measuring structures; escape structures: fail structures; road crossings (culverts and siphons); cross-crainage structures; tertiary canal structures; ~ drain crossing and fall structures; - groundwater irrigation structures. Engineering drawings have been prepared and are accompanied by design proforma, tables and indicative quantities. ‘The design proforma and accompanying tables will enable the standard structures to be readily sized to suit most situations encountered in B-10Nepal, within the limits of applicability specified. ‘The structure designs are consistent with the design approach given in the other manuals, to which reference should be made when designing larger structures of similar ype. ‘The indicative quantities are suitable for use at feasibility study level, but the assumptions given should be cross- checked for particular circumstances. ‘The outline specification covers all but very specialised subjects pertinent to irrigation development or rehabilitation in Nepal. It is envisaged that, in most situations, abstracts would be used in tender or contract documents, B.18. Simulation Model Manual (D.4) The manual describes the use and operation of a Simulation Model broadly based on the Mahakali Irrigation Project. It has been developed in FORTRAN and has been designed to run on an IBM compatible computer with a hard disk. As the principal use of the model is for training, it has been necessary to make the model straightforward and responsive, and yet simulate the true situation as closely as possible. ‘The simulation model is in the form of a training exercise to enable users to gain an appreciation of the interacting factors in the planning, broad design and operation of an irrigated agricultural system. Two models are operable; one is a year round simulation of agricultural and irrigation practices; and the second concerns the daily (hydraulic) operation of the main canal. The year round model simulates, in ten-day time steps, the effects of water management on crop production with various system characteristics. ‘The effects of different cropping patterns, input levels and crop yield responses to water and inputs can be demonstrated. The main canal operation mode simulates the operation of the main canal and structures, such as cross-regulators, offtakes and escapes, in one-day time steps over a tendday period. Daily outlet demands for the various canals are generated, and discharges at the head-regulator are provided as an input. The user adjusts the gate settings (0 try to meet each demand and a performance rating is evaluated from considerations of success in meeting demands, consistency and equitability of supplies and limiting wastage of water. B-ilREFERENCES MIP, 1982 Design Manual, Medium Irrigation Project, Sir M MacDonald and Partners. WECS, 1989 Regional Hydrology of Nepal (Draft, May 1989). B- 12