Unit 1

Computer Graphics:

The term of Graphics comes from Greek “ graphikos” which means

'something written' e.g. autograph. So, Graphics are visual images or
designs on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, screen, paper, or stone
to inform, illustrate, or entertain.

The term computer graphics includes almost everything on computers

that is not text or sound. Computer graphics can be a series of images
which most often called video or a single image. The definition of
computer graphics is the technology that deals with designs and pictures
on computers. So, computer graphics are visual representations
of data displayed on a monitor made on a computer.

Computer-generated imagery is used for movie making, video

game and computer program development, scientific modeling, and
design for catalogs and othercommercial art. Some people even make
computer graphics as art. We can classify applications of computer
graphics into four main areas:

 Display of information
 Design
 User interfaces
 Simulation
According to these four areas there are several types of applications
which are used in today’s world. These are,

Figure: Application of Computer Graphics

Computational Biology: Computational biology is an interdisciplinary

field that applies the techniques of computer science, applied
mathematics and statistics to address biological problems. The main
focus lies on developing mathematical modeling and computational
simulation techniques.

 Computational Physics: Computational physics is the study and

implementation of numerical algorithm to solve problems in
physics for which a quantitative theory already exists. It is often
regarded as a sub discipline of theoretical physics but some
 consider it an intermediate branch between theoretical and
experimental physics.
 Information of Graphics: Information graphics or information
graphics are visual representations of information, data or
knowledge. These graphics are used where complex information
needs to be explained quickly and clearly, such as in signs, maps,
journalism, technical writing, and education. They are also used
extensively as tools by computer scientists, mathematicians, and
statisticians to ease the process of developing and communicating
conceptual information.
 Scientific Visualization: Scientific visualization is a branch of
science, concerned with the visualization of three dimensional
phenomena, such as architectural, meteorological, medical,
biological systems. Scientific visualization focuses on the use of
computer graphics to create visual images which aid in
understanding of complex, often massive numerical representation
of scientific concepts or results.
 Graphic Design: The term graphic design can refer to a number
of artistic and professional disciplines which focus on visual
communication and presentation. Various methods are used to
create and combine symbols, images and/or words to create a
visual representation of ideas and messages. Graphic design often
refers to both the process (designing) by which the communication
is created and the products (designs) which are generated.
 Computer-aided Design: Computer-aided design (CAD) is the
use of computer technology for the design of objects, real or
virtual. The design of geometric models for object shapes, in
 particular, is often called computer-aided geometric design
(CAGD). CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-
dimensional ("2D") space; or curves, surfaces, or solids in three-
dimensional ("3D") objects. CAD is also widely used to produce
computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising,
technical manuals.
 Web Design: Web design is the skill of designing presentations of
content usually hypertext or hypermedia that is delivered to an
end-user through the World Wide Web, by way of a Web browser.
The process of designing Web pages, Web sites, Web applications
or multimedia for the Web may utilize multiple disciplines, such as
animation, authoring, communication design, corporate identity,
graphic design, human-computer interaction, information
architecture, interaction design, marketing, photography, search
engine optimization and typography.
 Digital Art: Digital art most commonly refers to art created on a
computer in digital form. On other hand, is a term applied to
contemporary art that uses the methods of mass production or
digital media. The impact of digital technology has transformed
traditional activities such as painting, drawing and sculpture, while
new forms, such as net art, digital installation art, and virtual
reality, have been recognized artistic practices.
 Video Games: A video game is an electronic game that involves
interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a
raster display device. The electronic systems used to play video
games are known as platforms. This platform creates through
graphics.
 Virtual Reality: Virtual reality (VR) is a technology which
allows a user to interact with a computer-simulated environment.
The simulated environment can be similar to the real world, for
example, simulations for pilot or combat training, or it can differ
significantly from reality, as in VR games. It is currently very
difficult to create a high-fidelity virtual reality experience, due
largely to technical limitations on processing power, image
resolution and communication bandwidth. Virtual Reality is often
used to describe a wide variety of applications, commonly
associated with its immersive, highly visual, 3D environments.
 Computer Simulation: A computer simulation, a computer
model or a computational model is a computer program, or
network of computers, that attempts to simulate an abstract model
of a particular system.
 Education: A computer simulation, a computer model or a
computational model is a computer program, or network of
computers, that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a
particular system. Computer simulations have become a useful part
of mathematical modeling of many natural systems in physics
(computational physics), chemistry and biology, human systems in
economics, psychology, and social science and in the process of
engineering new technology, to gain insight into the operation of
those systems, or to observe their behavior.
 Information Visualization: Information visualization is the study
of the visual representation of large-scale collections of non-
numerical information, such as files and lines of code in software
 systems, and the use of graphical techniques to help people
understand and analyze data.

The computer-generated images we see on television and in movies

have advanced to the point that they are almost indistinguishable from
real-world images. Computer graphics become a power field for the
production of pictures. There are no areas in which graphical displays
can't be used to some advantages, so it is not surprising to find the use of
computer graphics so widespread.

1.2 Computer Graphics Files

Two distinct approaches exist for digitally encoding static images. These
are known as raster and vector graphics. A further group of formats can
store both raster and vector data within a single file, and are known as
metafiles. A variety of file formats exist for encoding each type of
image.

Raster Graphics

A raster image comprises a two-dimensional grid of pixels, each pixel

having a specific colour value. A simple example is shown below:
Digital Preservation Guidance Note 4: Graphics file formats Page 5 of
15 The image data is usually stored as a series of scan-lines, each
representing one row of the image grid. Each scan-line comprises sets of
consecutive values representing the colour of each pixel in the row.
These scan-lines may be stored contiguously within the file, or be
aggregated into strips or tiles, which can speed up the decoding and
decompression of the image. A number of issues need to be considered
when using raster images:

Graphics Interchange Format (GIF)

The GIF format was developed in 1987 by CompuServe Incorporated,

primarily for use on the Internet. The current version, GIF89a, was
released in 1990. It supports colour depths from 1-bit (monochrome) to
8-bit (256 colours) and always stores images in compressed form, using
lossless LZW compression. Other supported features include interlacing
and transparency. GIF is a proprietary format. In addition, the patent for
the LZW algorithm is owned by Unisys Corporation, which has licensed
its use by CompuServe. Despite the controversy that surrounded the
application of license fees to GIF readers and writers and the
developments of alternative open formats such as PNG the GIF format
remains one of the most widespread in use, particularly on the Internet.
The US patent expired in June 2003 and the UK patent expired in June
2004.

JPEG File Formats (JFIF and SPIFF)

JPEG itself is not a file format, but rather an image compression

algorithm developed by the Joint Photographic Experts Group in 1990.
The original specification did not describe a file format for data
exchange. However, the Independent JPEG Group and C-Cube
Microsystems developed a JPEG File Interchange Format (JFIF) in
1992, which has become a de facto standard; this is what is commonly
referred to as the JPEG file format. In 1996, Part 3 of the JPEG standard
was released, containing the specification for an official file format,
called SPIFF (Still Picture Interchange File Format). This is more
complex than JFIF, and it also supports other compression schemes. It is
designed to be Digital Preservation Guidance Note 4: Graphics file
formats Page 9 of 15 interoperable with JFIF. The JPEG algorithm is
also supported by a number of other raster image formats, including
TIFF.

PCX

The PCX format was developed by ZSoft for its MS-DOS PC Paintbrush
graphics application. In 1990, Microsoft licensed PC Paintbrush to
integrate into Windows 3.0 (as Microsoft Paintbrush), and this resulted
in PCX becoming one of the most widely used raster formats for the
Windows platform. Its popularity has however, waned in recent years
following the advent of more advanced formats. The most recent version
of the format is Version 5, which was released in 1991.

Portable Network Graphics (PNG)

The Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format was developed by the

PNG Development Group in 1996, to provide an open alternative to GIF
and the associated licensing issues with LZW compression (see 3.1). It
supports colour depths from 1-bit to 48-bit. Image data is always stored
compressed, using a variation on the lossless LZ77-based deflate
compression algorithm which is not patented, and therefore free to use.
Support for interlacing and transparency is also provided, and the format
incorporates a number of error detection mechanisms.

Tagged Image File Format (TIFF)

The TIFF format was originally developed by the Aldus Corporation,

and was intended primarily for use in scanning and desktop publishing.
Aldus first published the specification in 1986. When Adobe Systems
Incorporated purchased Aldus in 1994, they acquired the rights to the
TIFF specification, and have maintained it since then. The current
version of the specification (revision 6.0) was released in 1992.

Windows Bitmap (BMP)

The BMP format (sometimes referred to as a Device Independent

Bitmap) was developed by Microsoft as the native raster format of the
Windows operating system. Versions of the format have therefore
coincided with releases of Windows, the first version appearing in 1985
with Windows 1.0. Additional versions were developed for use with
IBM’s OS/2 operating system. The BMP format supports colour depths
from 1-bit to 32-bit and provides optional lossless RLE compression
(Windows 3.0 versions and later only).

PhotoShop Document Format (PSD)

The PhotoShop Document (PSD) format was developed by Adobe as the

default format for their digital image and design package, PhotoShop.
This is a proprietary format that supports RLE compression and colour
depths up to 32-bit. It is used primarily for saving images that are being
edited within PhotoShop, but is not widely used as an interchange
format.

Vector Graphics

Vector graphics formats store images as mathematical representations of

image elements, such as shapes or lines. For example, a line segment
might be defined in terms of the coordinates of its starting point, a
direction, and a length. More complex shapes can be built up from
simple shapes. Enclosed shapes can also be filled with colours. Some
vector formats support 3-D objects as well, such as wire frame models.
Vector formats are most commonly used in the field of Computer-Aided
Design (CAD), since they are ideally suited to the creation of
architectural and engineering drawings, maps, schematics, and charts.
They also form the basis for 3-D modelling and animation, although this
is beyond the scope of this Guidance Note. Vector files can be easily
manipulated, and rescaled without loss of quality. The size of a vector
file is proportional to the complexity of the image (unlike raster images).
Vector files do not usually support compression. However, vector file
sizes are typically far smaller than the equivalent raster image.

AutoCAD Drawing Format (DWG)

Autodesk’s AutoCAD software is probably the most widespread

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) package in current use. As a result,
AutoCAD’s native drawing format, DWG, has become a de facto
standard for vector graphics. The DWG specification is revised with
Digital Preservation Guidance Note 4: Graphics file formats Page 12 of
15 each release of AutoCAD: the original version being released with
AutoCAD 1.0 in 1982, and the latest version being AutoCAD 2007.
DWG supports 24-bit colour depths (True Colour) and 3-D models. The
DWG format is proprietary to Autodesk and has not been released.
Instead, Autodesk recommend the use of the DXF format for data
exchange (see 4.2). Nonetheless, DWG has become a de facto standard
for the exchange of CAD data, and is supported by most CAD packages,
albeit with varying degrees of fidelity – according to current estimates
there are in excess of 4 billion DWG files in existence worldwide. The
OpenDWG Alliance, formed by a group of interested vendors, is
committed to making the DWG standard open. Reverse-engineered
specifications are available from their website (www.opendwg.org), but
it must be stressed that these are not official.

AutoCAD Drawing Exchange Format (DXF)

The Drawing Exchange Format (DXF) was developed by Autodesk

Incorporated to provide a method of data exchange with other CAD
applications. The DXF specification is revised with each release of
AutoCAD: the original version being released with AutoCAD 1.0 in
1982, and the latest version being AutoCAD 2007. DXF files can be
encoded either in 7-bit ASCII or binary. They support 8-bit colour
depths (256 colours) and 3-D shapes, and are uncompressed. DXF is a
complex format, and the quality and sophistication of its implementation
in different applications varies considerably. The frequent changes to the
specification can also cause compatibility problems. In particular, users
must be aware that some applications may read a DXF file whilst
skipping unsupported features. This can lead to the loss of information
in a manner that may not be obvious to the user.

Microstation Drawing Format (DGN)

DGN is a native file format shared by Bentley Systems Incorporated’s

Microstation software and Intergraph Corporation’s Interactive Graphics
Design System software products. As such it is in widespread use for
CAD applications. The Microstation software and the DGN specification
were originally developed in 1984 by Intergraph, before being purchased
by Bentley Systems.

Scaleable Vector Graphics (SVG)

Scaleable Vector Graphics (SVG) is a format for describing two-

dimensional graphics using XML. It was developed by the SVG
Working Group of the W3C in 2001. The current version - 1.1 was
released in 2003. SVG is primarily a vector format, although it does
allow for the inclusion of raster images (JPEG and PNG). As such, it is
closely associated with metafiles. SVG supports 24-bit colour, and
allows the creation of sophisticated dynamic and interactive graphics.
Being entirely XML-based, it enjoys the advantages of extensibility,
interoperability and flexibility. SVG can be easily manipulated and
transformed using standard XML tools.

Windows Metafile (WMF)

The Windows Metafile format was developed by Microsoft for use with
its Windows operating system. WMF supports colour depths up to 24-
bit, and does not offer compression. Embedded raster images are stored
in Windows Bitmap (BMP) format (see 3.9). WMF has been partially
superseded by EMF, but is still supported by many Windows
applications and, although proprietary, is free to use.

WordPerfect Graphics Metafile (WPG)

The WordPerfect Graphics Metafile format was developed by the

WordPerfect Corporation, primarily for use with its WordPerfect word-
processing software. A WPG file can store raster and vector images,
using colour depths up to 8-bit indexed colour. Versions created using
WordPerfect 5.1 or later can store raster and vector data in the same file,
but earlier versions can only store one or the other. Raster images are
stored using RLE compression. Encapsulated PostScript data may also
be embedded within a WPG file – any raster images contained within
the EPS data are converted to the WPG bitmap format.

Graphics Standards
G.K.S. was the first and most successful attempt to design an
international standard for computer graphics. The original German title
becomes "Graphical Kernel System" when translated into English or
American, which luckily preserves the same initials. It is a two-
dimensional system (since most if not all graphics output appears on
two-dimensional screens or plotter paper) and assumes that software for
the more complex three-dimensional pictures will be designed to
surround the kernel. It has received approval from the International
Standards Organisation (I.S.O.) and is fully documented. Software
written to run on one certified implementation of GKS should run
without alteration on any other.
Following the acceptance of GKS as an international standard, work
commenced on two related standards, namely CGI and CGM.
The"Computer Graphics Interface" provides a low-level standard
between the actual hardware and GKS and specifies how device-drivers
should be written. This is described fully in the text by Arnold and Bono
(ref 10). The "Computer Graphics Metafile" is used to transfer graphics
segments from one computer system to another. This is described in
references 10 and 11.
In March 1989, the annual conference of the UK Chapter of
Eurographics was held at Manchester. One of the highlights of this
conference was a demonstration of the use of the Computer Graphics
Metafile to transfer information between many different configurations
of hardware and software. This proved beyond argument that all three
versions of CGM were now implemented and that pictures could be
transferred quickly and accurately between many different software
packages and the results displayed on a wide variety of output devices.
Some minor problems remained, relating to points not defined by CGM.
For example, all systems had assumed linestyle No.1 was a solid line
and so there were no surprises here, but the choice of colour was far
from unanimous and pictures would often change colour when they
arrived at a new system. This could easily be reset by the receiving
system, provided they were given information about the colours needed,
the only major problem being the section which was drawn in black on
black and so disappeared completely until the background colour was
changed to grey. Then it reappeared in all its original detail.
Discussions began in 1986, concerning standards for three-dimensional
graphics with 3D-GKS (an extension of GKS) and PHIGS
(Programmers Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System) as the main
contenders. Not surprisingly, the advocates of 3D-GKS are those who
formulated the original GKS and now wish to provide a three-
dimensional extension compatible with GKS. This is largely a European
initiative. P.H.I.G.S. (which stands for Programmers Hierarchical
Interactive Graphics System) is a mainly American invention and
resembles the old SIGGRAPH Core in some respects. It claims
compatibilty with GKS and so also has similaritites with this standard.
The official I.S.O. viewpoint is that both these proposals form part of a
set of compatible standards which will be used for different applications
and hardware requirements. Program compatability should be achieved
via a processor, PHI-GKS, which will allow for exchange of software
between the two systems. By 1988, the specifications for both 3D-GKS
and PHIGS were at an advanced stage and at the 1988 Eurographics
conference, it was announced that the first five-year review of GKS was
about to start.
Although many ideas are common to both GKS and the Core, there are a
few important differences. For example, in GKS all parts of the drawing
are defined in terms of world coordinates and the concept of "current
cursor position" is completely omitted. Consequently GKS has no
MOVE command to move the cursor (or the pen on the plotter) to a new
position nor does it have any commands for moving or drawing relative
to the current cursor position. This may seem strange to some of you
who are familiar with certain home computers, but in fact it is no
handicap once you have become used to designing graphics software
with GKS in mind.

Let us consider what is needed for a three dimensional graphics

structure. Firstly, within the two and three dimensional systems, we have
essentially one-dimensional entities. These are "polyline",
"polymarker" and "polysmooth" (or whatever we use to denote a smooth
curve through a set of points). In two dimensions, these lie within a
plane, while in three dimensions they need not do so. The two-
dimensional case can be regarded as the z=0 plane, and so these points
have coordinates [x,y,0] in three dimensions.
Secondly we have the area or two-dimensional entities. In GKS, these
are "fill-area" and "cell-array". "Fill-area" is the area surrounded by a
closed polygon and has obvious similarities to "polyline". We could also
postulate a "Fill-curve" entity whose boundary consists of one or more
smooth curves. Both of these would be flat areas in the z=0 plane in the
three-dimensional case.

The "cell-array" entity provides a mechanism for storing pixel values in

a two-dimensional array. This can be mapped onto a rectangular area on
the screen, provided the sides of the rectangle are parallel to the
coordinate axes and the size of the area is large enough for each element
of the array to map on to one or more pixels in the output device. This
may either be regarded as a rectangular area in the z=0 plane, or an area
in the flat output device.

The "fill-area" or "fill-curve" entities in two-dimensions may be

generalised into their three-dimensional equivalents. The "fill-area",
being bounded by straight lines, should probably remain as the interior
of a plane polygon, but should be at any angle and so allow the use of
many plane facets to build up the boundary of a volume. The smooth-
curve version, here called "fill-curve", should refer to an area on any
curved surface and can again be used to build up the boundary of a
volume.
The three-dimensional equivalent of "cell-array" is a three-dimensional
array of voxels (possibly called "voxel-array") and these are widely used
in the Cellular Methods of Geometric Modelling.

Finally we come to truely three-dimensional entities, i.e. the volumes

within any of the boundaries described above. These may be generated
as volumes from the Half-space methods or as all points in the interior of
a specified boundary as produced by the Boundary-representation
methods of geometric modelling.
By the mid 1990s, effort on standards had moved from standards in
graphics to those for image formats and complete documents including
pictures, sound and moving images. The effort of getting a standard
through all the procedures for its acceptance by ISO is too large in such
a fast-moving field. It should settle down shortly and then ISO standards
should become available.