MAEDM 111A: Methods of Research

Statistical Treatment

Romeo C. Layones, M.A.T.

POPULAR TYPES OF QUESTIONS IN QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH (Creswell, 2012)
1. DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS
 to identify participants’ responses to a single variable or
question (may be an independent, a dependent, or an
intervening variable)
2. RELATIONSHIP QUESTIONS
 to answer the degree and magnitude of the relationship
between two or more variables. These questions often relate
different types of variables in a study, such as independent
variables to dependent variables or dependent variables to
control variables. The most common case occurs when
researchers relate the independent variable to the dependent
variable
3. COMPARISON QUESTIONS
 to find out how two or more groups on an independent variable
differ in terms of one or more outcome variables. Experiments
employ comparison questions.
STATISTICAL TOOLS FOR DESCRIPTIVE
QUESTIONS
 FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE
BAR GRAPH
PIE GRAPH
SUMMARY STATISTICS
FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE
Frequency – the number of items in a category
Percentage – the number of items in a category divided by
the total frequency times 100

Frequencies/Percentages are used to summarize personal information

of the respondents in a study. (Korb, 2013)
 Frequencies/percentages may be presented using tables or graphs.
For graphical presentation of frequencies, use bar chart. For graphical
presentation of percentages, use pie graph. (Bluman, 2013)

Example 1
Profile of respondents in terms of gender (presented in a table)
Gender Frequency Percentage
Male 120 60%
Female 80 40%
Total 200 100%
FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE
Example 1:
Profile of respondents in terms of gender (presented in a bar chart)
150
100
50
0
Male Female
Profile of respondents in terms of gender (presented in a pie graph)
Gender

Male (60%)
Female(40%)

Example 2: The frequency and percentage may also be used to answer

a research question such as: What is the type of intelligence of the
respondents in terms of Gardner’s classification?
MEASURE OF CENTRAL LOCATION OR
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
 number indicating the central value of a given data set or
distribution

 Mean denoted by Mn or x 
 the average or the sum of all values divided by the
number of values in the data set
 ~

 Median  denoted by Md or x 
 
 the value of the middle term in a data set that has been
arranged in increasing (or decreasing) order
Note:
If N is odd, the median is the (N+1)/2 th term.
If N is even, the median is the mean of the two
middlemost observations. 
 
 Mode  denoted by Mo or x 
 
 the value that occurs with highest frequency
MEASURE OF CENTRAL LOCATION
UNGROUPED DATA

Example 1 : Given the following scores obtained by

students in a statistics test:
20 16 18 30 10 12 18 13 25 28
Find the mean :

Mn 
 x

20  16  ...  28
n 10
190

10
Mn  19
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
UNGROUPED DATA
Example 1: Given the following scores obtained by
students in a test:
20 16 18 30 10 12 18 13 25 28
Find the median :
Arrange :
10 12 13 16 18 18 20 25 28 30
N  1 N  1 10  1 11
Compute :    5.5
2 2 2 2
 b/w 5 th and 6 th term
18  18 36
Md    18
2 2
Find the mode :
Mo  18
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
UNGROUPED DATA
Example 2: The following data give the ages of eleven
employees of a company.
29 47 53 38 26 39 49 19 67 31 23

Find the mean :

Mn 
 x

29  47  ...  23
n 11
421

11
Mn  38.27
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
UNGROUPED DATA
Example 2: The following data give the ages of eleven
employees of a company.
29 47 53 38 26 39 49 19 67 31 23

Find the median :

Arrange :
19 23 26 29 31 38 39 47 49 53 67
N  1 N  1 11  1 12
Compute :    6 6 th term
2 2 2 2
Md  38

Find the mode :

Mo  None
OTHER MEAN-RELATED CONCEPT
n
wi xi
WEIGHTED MEAN: x 
w 
i 1 wi
Example. The table below shows Nora’s grades on the second semester of
AY 2015 – 2016:
Subjects Taken Number of Units (w) Grade (x) wx
Math 1 3 3.00 9.00
English 1 3 1.25 3.75
Filipino 1 3 1.50 4.50
Sociology 1 3 2.25 6.75
Chemistry 1 5 2.00 10.00
History 1 3 1.50 4.50
Physical Education 1 2 1.25 4.50
Total 22 41.00
What was Nora’s weighted mean grade for the particular semester?
n
wi xi 41
xw     1.86
i 1 wi 22
APPROPRIATE MEASURE TO USE
TYPE OF MEASURE OF MEASURE OF
DATA CENTRAL VARIABILITY OR
TENDENCY SPREAD

Nominal Mode None

Median Semi-interquartile
Ordinal
range

Interval; Ratio Mean (if normal) Standard deviation

Median (if skewed) (if normal)
Semi-interquartile
range (if skewed)
COMPUTING STATISTICS USING MS EXCEL
For Windows 2010:
Load and activate the Analysis ToolPak

 Click the File tab, click Options, and then click the Add-
Ins category.
 In the Manage box, select Excel Add-ins and then click Go.
 In the Add-Ins box, check the Analysis ToolPak check box,
and then click OK.

Note: If Analysis ToolPak is not listed in the Add-Ins

available box, click Browse to locate it.
If you are prompted that the Analysis ToolPak is not
currently installed on your computer,
click Yes to install it.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS USING MS EXCEL

Example: Calculate the summary statistics for

the following data:
45 36 25 38 29 37 49 48 28 25.

1. On an Excel worksheet, enter the data

in column.

2. Select the Data tab on the toolbar

and select Data Analysis.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS USING MS EXCEL

3. In the Analysis Tools dialog box, scroll to Descriptive

Statistics, then click [OK].
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS USING MS EXCEL

4. In the Input range box, highlight the data and check the
Grouped by Columns option.
5. Select the Output range option and type in cell C1.
6. Check the Summary statistics option and click [OK].
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS USING MS EXCEL
Note: To see all the results, increase the column width by
 highlighting the columns where the output appears (in this
case C and D) and
 selecting Format>AutoFit Column Width

Below is the summary output for the given data set.

SD/√n

Shape
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS USING MS EXCEL

Problem 2: The data below show the ages of 30 faculty

members of the College of Education in a certain university
25 28 59 44 36 42 33 55 42 29
35 27 61 41 35 58 44 27 34 29
32 25 65 63 49 48 32 59 59 43

Use MS Excel to determine the summary statistics of the given

data set.
PARAMETRIC AND NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
(Kothari, 2016)
PARAMETRIC NONPARAMETRIC
Assumed
Normal Any
Distribution
Typical Data Interval; Ratio Nominal; Ordinal
Usual central
measure Mean Median

Generalizability* Generalizable to a Not generalizable to

population a population
Advantages More conclusions can Simplicity; Generally
be drawn; more easy to compute
powerful than
nonparametric tests
when assumptions
are met
STATISTICAL TESTS FOR RELATIONSHIP
QUESTIONS
Type of Test Parametric Nonparametric
Type of Data Interval; Ratio Ordinal Nominal
(Frequency)
TEST OF ASSOCIATION/CORRELATION
Two variables Pearson’s r Spearman rho; X2 – test of
Kendall Tau association
Three or more Multiple Regression Kendall’s Discriminant
variables Analysis; coefficient of Analysis
Multiple Correlation concordance (W)
Analysis
STATISTICAL TESTS FOR COMPARISON
QUESTIONS
Type of Test Parametric Nonparametric
Type of Data Interval; Ratio Ordinal Nominal
(Frequency)
TEST OF DIFFERENCE
1 group z-test; Sign Test; X2 goodness
t-test Kolmogorov- of fit
Smirnov Test
2 groups z-test; Wilcoxon Rank X2 test for
t-test (independent) sum test; difference of
t-test (dependent) Mann-Whitney proportions
U test
3 or more groups One Factor Kruskall-Wallis
Analysis of H-test
Variance (ANOVA)
Two Factors (2 or more Two way ANOVA
groups for each factor
TEST OF DIFFERENCE
Population z-test
parameter
known?
one sample t-test

1
Independent samples t-test
How How are
2
many samples Dependent samples t-test
samples? related?
One-Factor
ANOVA
2 or Independent
more How are Samples
samples
1 related? One-Factor
How
ANOVA
many
Dependent
factors?
2 Samples
Two-Factor
ANOVA