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QUES Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that
studies personality and its variation among individuals. It is a
scientific study which aims to show how people are individually
different due to psychological forces.[1] Its areas of focus include:

 construction of a coherent picture of the individual and their major psychological processes

 investigation of individual psychological differences
 investigation of human nature and psychological similarities between individuals

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"Personality" is a dynamic[clarification needed] and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that
uniquely[clarification needed]influences their environment, cognitions, emotions, motivations, and behaviors in
various situations. The word personality originates from the Latin persona, which means "mask".
Personality also refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments,
and behaviors consistently exhibited over time that strongly influences one's expectations, self-
perceptions, values, and attitudes. Personality also predicts human reactions to other people, problems,
and stress.[2][3] Gordon Allport (1937) described two major ways to study personality: the nomothetic
and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different
people, such as the principle of self-actualization or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is
an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual.
The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology with an abundance of theoretical
traditions. The major theories include dispositional (trait) perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic,
biological, behaviorist, evolutionary, and social learning perspective. However, many researchers and
psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and instead take an eclectic
approach. Research in this area is empirically driven — such as dimensional models, based
on multivariate statisticssuch as factor analysis — or emphasizes theory development, such as that of
the psychodynamic theory. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality
testing. In psychological education and training, the study of the nature of personality and its
psychological development is usually reviewed as a prerequisite to courses in abnormal
psychology or clinical psychology

Philosophical assumptions[edit]
Many of the ideas developed by historical and modern personality theorists stem from the basic
philosophical assumptions they hold. The study of personality is not a purely empirical discipline, as it
brings in elements of art, science, and philosophy to draw general conclusions. The following five
categories are some of the most fundamental philosophical assumptions on which theorists disagree:[4]

 Freedom versus determinism – This is the question whether humans have control over their own
behavior and understand the motives behind it or if their behavior is causally determined by forces
beyond their control. Behavior is categorized as being either unconscious, environmental or
biological by various theories.[4]
 Heredity (Nature) versus environment (Nurture) – Personality is thought to be determined largely
either by genetics and biology, or by environment and experiences. Contemporary research
suggests that most personality traits are based on the joint influence of genetics and environment.
One of the forerunners in this arena is C. Robert Cloninger, who pioneered the Temperament and
Character model.[4]
 Uniqueness versus universality – This question discusses the extent of each human's individuality
(uniqueness) or similarity in nature (universality). Gordon Allport, Abraham Maslow, and Carl
Rogers were all advocates of the uniqueness of individuals. Behaviorists and cognitive theorists, in
contrast, emphasize the importance of universal principles, such as reinforcement and self-efficacy.
[4]

 Active versus reactive – This question explores whether humans primarily act through individual
initiative (active) or through outside stimuli. Traditional behavioral theorists typically believed that
humans are passively shaped by their environments, whereas humanistic and cognitive theorists
believe that humans are more active in their role. [4] Most modern theorists agree that both are
important, with aggregate behavior being primarily determined by traits and situational factors
being the primary predictor of behavior in the short term.[5][6][7]
 Optimistic versus pessimistic – Personality theories differ with regard to whether humans are
integral in the changing of their own personalities. Theories that place a great deal of emphasis on
learning are often more optimistic than those that do not.[4]

Personality theories[edit]
Type theories[edit]
Personality type refers to the psychological classification of different types of people. Personality types
are distinguished from personality traits, which come in different degrees. There are many types of
theories regarding personality, but each theory contains several and sometimes many sub theories. A

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"theory of personality" constructed by any given psychologist will contain multiple relating theories or
sub theories often expanding as more psychologists explore the theory.[8] For example, according to type
theories, there are two types of people, introverts and extroverts. According to trait theories,
introversion and extroversion are part of a continuous dimension with many people in the middle. The
idea of psychological types originated in the theoretical work of Carl Jung,[9] specifically in his 1921
book Psychologische Typen (Psychological Types) and William Marston.[10]
Building on the writings and observations of Jung during World War II, Isabel Briggs Myers and her
mother, Katharine C. Briggs, delineated personality types by constructing the Myers–Briggs Type
Indicator.[11] This model was later used by David Keirsey with a different understanding from Jung, Briggs
and Myers.[12] In the former Soviet Union, LithuanianAušra Augustinavičiūtė independently derived a
model of personality type from Jung's called socionics.
Theories could also be considered an "approach" to personality or psychology and is generally referred
to as a model. The model is an older and more theoretical approach to personality, accepting
extroversion and introversion as basic psychological orientations in connection with two pairs of
psychological functions:

 Perceiving functions: sensing and intuition (trust in concrete, sensory-oriented facts vs. trust in
abstract concepts and imagined possibilities)
 Judging functions: thinking and feeling (basing decisions primarily on logic vs. deciding based on
emotion).
Briggs and Myers also added another personality dimension to their type indicator to measure whether
a person prefers to use a judging or perceiving function when interacting with the external world.
Therefore, they included questions designed to indicate whether someone wishes to come to
conclusions (judgment) or to keep options open (perception).[11]
This personality typology has some aspects of a trait theory: it explains people's behavior in terms of
opposite fixed characteristics. In these more traditional models, the sensing/intuition preference is
considered the most basic, dividing people into "N" (intuitive) or "S" (sensing) personality types. An "N"
is further assumed to be guided either by thinking or feeling and divided into the "NT" (scientist,
engineer) or "NF" (author, humanitarian) temperament. An "S", in contrast, is assumed to be guided
more by the judgment/perception axis and thus divided into the "SJ" (guardian, traditionalist) or "SP"
(performer, artisan) temperament. These four are considered basic, with the other two factors in each
case (including always extraversion/introversion) less important. Critics of this traditional view have
observed that the types can be quite strongly stereotyped by professions (although neither Myers nor
Keirsey engaged in such stereotyping in their type descriptions), [11] and thus may arise more from the
need to categorize people for purposes of guiding their career choice. [13] This among other objections led
to the emergence of the five-factor view, which is less concerned with behavior under work conditions
and more concerned with behavior in personal and emotional circumstances. (The MBTI is not designed
to measure the "work self", but rather what Myers and McCaulley called the "shoes-off self."[14])
Type A and Type B personality theory: During the 1950s, Meyer Friedman and his co-workers defined
what they called Type A and Type B behavior patterns. They theorized that intense, hard-driving Type A
personalities had a higher risk of coronary disease because they are "stress junkies." Type B people, on
the other hand, tended to be relaxed, less competitive, and lower in risk. There was also a Type AB
mixed profile.
John L. Holland's RIASEC vocational model, commonly referred to as the Holland Codes, stipulates that
six personality types lead people to choose their career paths. In this circumplex model, the six types are
represented as a hexagon, with adjacent types more closely related than those more distant. The model
is widely used in vocational counseling.
Eduard Spranger's personality-model, consisting of six (or, by some revisions, 6 +1) basic types of value
attitudes, described in his book Types of Men (Lebensformen; Halle (Saale): Niemeyer, 1914; English
translation by P. J. W. Pigors - New York: G. E. Stechert Company, 1928).
The Enneagram of Personality, a model of human personality which is principally used as a typology of
nine interconnected personality types. It has been criticized as being subject to interpretation, making it
difficult to test or validate scientifically.

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Perhaps the most ancient attempt at personality psychology is the personality typology outlined by the
Indian Buddhist Abhidharma schools. This typology mostly focuses on negative personal traits (greed,
hatred, and delusion) and the corresponding positive meditation practices used to counter those traits.
Psychoanalytic theories[edit]
Psychoanalytic theories explain human behavior in terms of the interaction of various components of
personality. Sigmund Freud was the founder of this school of thought. Freud drew on the physics of his
day (thermodynamics) to coin the term psychodynamics. Based on the idea of converting heat into
mechanical energy, he proposed psychic energy could be converted into behavior. Freud's theory places
central importance on dynamic, unconscious psychological conflicts.[15]
Freud divides human personality into three significant components: the id, ego and super-ego.
The id acts according to the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification of its needs
regardless of external environment; the ego then must emerge in order to realistically meet the wishes
and demands of the id in accordance with the outside world, adhering to the reality principle. Finally,
the superego (conscience) inculcates moral judgment and societal rules upon the ego, thus forcing the
demands of the id to be met not only realistically but morally. The superego is the last function of the
personality to develop, and is the embodiment of parental/social ideals established during childhood.
According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of these three components.[16]
The channeling and release of sexual (libidal) and aggressive energies, which ensues from the "Eros"
(sex; instinctual self-preservation) and "Thanatos" (death; instinctual self-annihilation) drives
respectively, are major components of his theory.[16] It is important to note that Freud's broad
understanding of sexuality included all kinds of pleasurable feelings experienced by the human body.
Freud proposed five psychosexual stages of personality development. He believed adult personality is
dependent upon early childhood experiences and largely determined by age five.[16] Fixations that
develop during the infantile stage contribute to adult personality and behavior.
One of Sigmund Freud's earlier associates, Alfred Adler, did agree with Freud that early childhood
experiences are important to development and believed birth order may influence personality
development. Adler believed that the oldest child was the individual who would set high achievement
goals in order to gain attention lost when the younger siblings were born. He believed the middle
children were competitive and ambitious. He reasoned that this behavior was motivated by the idea of
surpassing the firstborn's achievements. He added, however, that the middle children were often not as
concerned about the glory attributed with their behavior. He also believed the youngest would be more
dependent and sociable. Adler finished by surmising that an only child loves being the center of
attention and matures quickly but in the end fails to become independent.
Heinz Kohut thought similarly to Freud's idea of transference. He used narcissism as a model of how
people develop their sense of self. Narcissism is the exaggerated sense of one self in which one is
believed to exist in order to protect one's low self-esteem and sense of worthlessness. Kohut had a
significant impact on the field by extending Freud's theory of narcissism and introducing what he called
the 'self-object transferences' of mirroring and idealization. In other words, children need to idealize and
emotionally "sink into" and identify with the idealized competence of admired figures such as parents or
older siblings. They also need to have their self-worth mirrored by these people. These experiences
allow them to thereby learn the self-soothing and other skills that are necessary for the development of
a healthy sense of self.
Another important figure in the world of personality theory is Karen Horney. She is credited with the
development of "Feminist Psychology". She disagrees with Freud on some key points, one being that
women's personalities aren't just a function of "Penis Envy", but that girl children have separate and
different psychic lives unrelated to how they feel about their fathers or primary male role models. She
talks about three basic Neurotic needs "Basic Anxiety", "Basic Hostility" and "Basic Evil". She posits that
to any anxiety an individual experiences they would have one of three approaches, moving toward
people, moving away from people or moving against people. It's these three that give us varying
personality types and characteristics. She also places a high premium on concepts like Overvaluation of
Love and romantic partners.
Behaviorist theories[edit]
Behaviorists explain personality in terms of the effects external stimuli have on behavior. The
approaches used to analyze the behavioral aspect of personality are known as behavioral theories or

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learning-conditioning theories. These approaches were a radical shift away from Freudian philosophy.
One of the major tenets of this concentration of personality psychology is a strong emphasis on scientific
thinking and experimentation. This school of thought was developed by B. F. Skinner who put forth a
model which emphasized the mutual interaction of the person or "the organism" with its environment.
Skinner believed children do bad things because the behavior obtains attention that serves as a
reinforcer. For example: a child cries because the child's crying in the past has led to attention. These are
the response, and consequences. The response is the child crying, and the attention that child gets is the
reinforcing consequence. According to this theory, people's behavior is formed by processes such
as operant conditioning. Skinner put forward a "three term contingency model" which helped promote
analysis of behavior based on the "Stimulus - Response - Consequence Model" in which the critical
question is: "Under which circumstances or antecedent 'stimuli' does the organism engage in a
particular behavior or 'response', which in turn produces a particular 'consequence'?"[17]
Richard Herrnstein extended this theory by accounting for attitudes and traits. An attitude develops as
the response strength (the tendency to respond) in the presences of a group of stimuli become stable.
Rather than describing conditionable traits in non-behavioral language, response strength in a given
situation accounts for the environmental portion. Herrstein also saw traits as having a large genetic or
biological component, as do most modern behaviorists.[17]
Ivan Pavlov is another notable influence. He is well known for his classical conditioning experiments
involving dogs, which led him to discover the foundation of behaviorism.[17]
Social cognitive theories[edit]
In cognitive theory, behavior is explained as guided by cognitions (e.g. expectations) about the world,
especially those about other people. Cognitive theories are theories of personality that emphasize
cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging.
Albert Bandura, a social learning theorist suggested the forces of memory and emotions worked in
conjunction with environmental influences. Bandura was known mostly for his "Bobo doll experiment".
During these experiments, Bandura video taped a college student kicking and verbally abusing a bobo
doll. He then showed this video to a class of kindergarten children who were getting ready to go out to
play. When they entered the play room, they saw bobo dolls, and some hammers. The people observing
these children at play saw a group of children beating the doll. He called this study and his findings
observational learning, or modeling.
Early examples of approaches to cognitive style are listed by Baron (1982).[18] These include Witkin's
(1965) work on field dependency, Gardner's (1953) discovering people had consistent preference for the
number of categories they used to categorise heterogeneous objects, and Block and Petersen's (1955)
work on confidence in line discrimination judgments. Baron relates early development of cognitive
approaches of personality to ego psychology. More central to this field have been:

 Attributional style theory[19] dealing with different ways in which people explain events in their lives.
This approach builds upon locus of control, but extends it by stating we also need to consider
whether people attribute to stable causes or variable causes, and to global causes or specific causes.
Various scales have been developed to assess both attributional style and locus of control. Locus of
control scales include those used by Rotter and later by Duttweiler, the Nowicki and Strickland (1973)
Locus of Control Scale for Children and various locus of control scales specifically in the health domain,
most famously that of Kenneth Wallston and his colleagues, The Multidimensional Health Locus of
Control Scale.[20] Attributional style has been assessed by the Attributional Style Questionnaire,[21] the
Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire,[22] the Attributions Questionnaire,[23] the Real Events
Attributional Style Questionnaire[24] and the Attributional Style Assessment Test.[25]

 Achievement style theory focuses upon identification of an individual's Locus of Control tendency,
such as by Rotter's evaluations, and was found by Cassandra Bolyard Whyte to provide valuable
information for improving academic performance of students.[26] Individuals with internal control
tendencies are likely to persist to better academic performance levels, presenting an achievement
personality, according to Cassandra B. Whyte.[26]
Recognition that the tendency to believe that hard work and persistence often results in attainment of
life and academic goals has influenced formal educational and counseling efforts with students of
various ages and in various settings since the 1970s research about achievement.[27] Counseling aimed

5
toward encouraging individuals to design ambitious goals and work toward them, with recognition that
there are external factors that may impact, often results in the incorporation of a more positive
achievement style by students and employees, whatever the setting, to include higher education,
workplace, or justice programming.[27][28]
Walter Mischel (1999) has also defended a cognitive approach to personality. His work refers to
"Cognitive Affective Units", and considers factors such as encoding of stimuli, affect, goal-setting, and
self-regulatory beliefs. The term "Cognitive Affective Units" shows how his approach considers affect as
well as cognition.
Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory (CEST) is another cognitive personality theory. Developed by Seymour
Epstein, CEST argues that humans operate by way of two independent information processing systems:
experiential system and rational system. The experiential system is fast and emotion-driven. The rational
system is slow and logic-driven. These two systems interact to determine our goals, thoughts, and
behavior.[29]
Personal construct psychology (PCP) is a theory of personality developed by the American
psychologist George Kelly in the 1950s. Kelly's fundamental view of personality was that people are like
naive scientists who see the world through a particular lens, based on their uniquely organized systems
of construction, which they use to anticipate events. But because people are naive scientists, they
sometimes employ systems for construing the world that are distorted by idiosyncratic experiences not
applicable to their current social situation. A system of construction that chronically fails to characterize
and/or predict events, and is not appropriately revised to comprehend and predict one's changing social
world, is considered to underlie psychopathology (or mental illness.)[citation needed] From the theory, Kelly
derived a psychotherapy approach and also a technique called The Repertory Grid Interview that helped
his patients to uncover their own "constructs" with minimal intervention or interpretation by the
therapist. The repertory grid was later adapted for various uses within organizations, including decision-
making and interpretation of other people's world-views.[30]
Humanistic theories[edit]
Humanistic psychology emphasizes that people have free will and that this plays an active role in
determining how they behave. Accordingly, humanistic psychology focuses on subjective experiences of
persons as opposed to forced, definitive factors that determine behavior.[31] Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers were proponents of this view, which is based on the "phenomenal field" theory of Combs and
Snygg (1949).[32] Rogers and Maslow were among a group of psychologists that worked together for a
decade to produce the Journal of Humanistic Psychology. This journal was primarily focused on viewing
individuals as a whole, rather than focusing solely on separate traits and processes within the individual.
Robert W. White wrote the book The Abnormal Personality that became a standard text on abnormal
psychology. He also investigated the human need to strive for positive goals like competence and
influence, to counterbalance the emphasis of Freud on the pathological elements of personality
development.[33]
Maslow spent much of his time studying what he called "self-actualizing persons", those who are
"fulfilling themselves and doing the best they are capable of doing". Maslow believes all who are
interested in growth move towards self-actualizing (growth, happiness, satisfaction) views. Many of
these people demonstrate a trend in dimensions of their personalities. Characteristics of self-actualizers
according to Maslow include the four key dimensions:[34]

1. Awareness – maintaining constant enjoyment and awe of life. These individuals often
experienced a "peak experience". He defined a peak experience as an "intensification of any
experience to the degree there is a loss or transcendence of self". A peak experience is one in
which an individual perceives an expansion of themselves, and detects a unity and
meaningfulness in life. Intense concentration on an activity one is involved in, such as running a
marathon, may invoke a peak experience.
2. Reality and problem centered – having a tendency to be concerned with "problems" in
surroundings.
3. Acceptance/Spontaneity – accepting surroundings and what cannot be changed.
4. Unhostile sense of humor/democratic – do not take kindly to joking about others, which can be
viewed as offensive. They have friends of all backgrounds and religions and hold very close
friendships.

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Maslow and Rogers emphasized a view of the person as an active, creative, experiencing human being
who lives in the present and subjectively responds to current perceptions, relationships, and
encounters. They disagree with the dark, pessimistic outlook of those in the Freudian psychoanalysis
ranks, but rather view humanistic theories as positive and optimistic proposals which stress the
tendency of the human personality toward growth and self-actualization. This progressing self will
remain the center of its constantly changing world; a world that will help mold the self but not
necessarily confine it. Rather, the self has opportunity for maturation based on its encounters with this
world. This understanding attempts to reduce the acceptance of hopeless redundancy. Humanistic
therapy typically relies on the client for information of the past and its effect on the present, therefore
the client dictates the type of guidance the therapist may initiate. This allows for an individualized
approach to therapy. Rogers found patients differ in how they respond to other people. Rogers tried to
model a particular approach to therapy- he stressed the reflective or empathetic response. This
response type takes the client's viewpoint and reflects back their feeling and the context for it. An
example of a reflective response would be, "It seems you are feeling anxious about your upcoming
marriage". This response type seeks to clarify the therapist's understanding while also encouraging the
client to think more deeply and seek to fully understand the feelings they have expressed.
Biopsychological theories[edit]
False-color representtations of cerebral fiber pathways affected in Phineas Gage's accident, per Van
Horn et al.
Biology plays a very important role in the development of personality. The study of the biological level in
personality psychology focuses primarily on identifying the role of genetic determinants and how they
mold individual personalities.[35] Some of the earliest thinking about possible biological bases of
personality grew out of the case of Phineas Gage. In an 1848 accident, a large iron rod was driven
through Gage's head, and his personality apparently changed as a result, although descriptions [36] of
these psychological changes are usually exaggerated.[37][38]
In general, patients with brain damage have been difficult to find and study. In the 1990s, researchers
began to use electroencephalography (EEG),positron emission tomography (PET), and more
recently functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which is now the most widely used imaging
technique to help localize personality traits in the brain.
Genetic basis of personality[edit]
Ever since the Human Genome Project allowed for a much more in depth understanding of genetics,
there has been an ongoing controversy involving heritability, personality traits, and environmental vs.
genetic influence on personality. The human genome is known to play a role in the development of
personality.
Previously, genetic personality studies focused on specific genes correlating to specific personality traits.
Today's view of the gene-personality relationship focuses primarily on the activation and expression of
genes related to personality and forms part of what is referred to as behavioural genetics. Genes
provide numerous options for varying cells to be expressed; however, the environment determines
which of these are activated. Many studies have noted this relationship in varying ways in which our
bodies can develop, but the interaction between genes and the shaping of our minds and personality is
also relevant to this biological relationship.[39]
DNA-environment interactions are important in the development of personality because this
relationship determines what part of the DNA code is actually made into proteins that will become part
of an individual. While different choices are made available by the genome, in the end, the environment
is the ultimate determinant of what becomes activated. Small changes in DNA in individuals are what
lead to the uniqueness of every person as well as differences in looks, abilities, brain functioning, and all
the factors that culminate to develop a cohesive personality.[40]
Cattell and Eysenck have proposed that genetics have a strong influence on personality. A large part of
the evidence collected linking genetics and the environment to personality have come from twin
studies. This "twin method" compares levels of similarity in personality using genetically identical twins.
One of the first of these twin studies measured 800 pairs of twins, studied numerous personality traits,
and determined that identical twins are most similar in their general abilities. Personality similarities
were found to be less related for self-concepts, goals, and interests.[41]
Twin studies have also been important in the creation of the five factor personality model: neuroticism,
extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Neuroticism and extraversion are the
two most widely studied traits. A person that may fall into the extravert category can display

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characteristics such as impulsiveness, sociability, and activeness. A person falling into the neuroticism
category may be more likely to be moody, anxious, or irritable. Identical twins, however, have higher
correlations in personality traits than fraternal twins. One study measuring genetic influence on twins in
five different countries found that the correlations for identical twins were .50, while for fraternal they
were about .20.[41] It is suggested that heredity and environment interact to determine one's personality.
[42][43]

Evolutionary theory[edit]
Charles Darwin is the founder of the theory of the evolution of the species. The evolutionary approach
to personality psychology is based on this theory.[44] This theory examines how individual personality
differences are based on natural selection. Through natural selection organisms change over time
through adaptation and selection. Traits are developed and certain genes come into expression based
on an organism's environment and how these traits aid in an organism's survival and reproduction.
Polymorphisms, such as gender and blood type, are forms of diversity which evolve to benefit a species
as a whole.[45] The theory of evolution has wide-ranging implications on personality psychology.
Personality viewed through the lens of evolutionary psychology places a great deal of emphasis on
specific traits that are most likely to aid in survival and reproduction, such as conscientiousness,
sociability, emotional stability, and dominance.[46] The social aspects of personality can be seen through
an evolutionary perspective. Specific character traits develop and are selected for because they play an
important and complex role in the social hierarchy of organisms. Such characteristics of this social
hierarchy include the sharing of important resources, family and mating interactions, and the harm or
help organisms can bestow upon one another.[44]
Drive theories[edit]
In the 1930s, John Dollard and Neal Elgar Miller met at Yale University, and began an attempt to
integrate drives (see Drive theory), into a theory of personality, basing themselves on the work of Clark
Hull. They began with the premise that personality could be equated with the habitual responses
exhibited by an individual – their habits. From there, they determined that these habitual responses
were built on secondary, or acquired drives.
Secondary drives are internal needs directing the behaviour of an individual that results from learning.
[47]
 Acquired drives are learned, by and large in the manner described by classical conditioning. When we
are in a certain environment and experience a strong response to a stimulus, we internalize cues from
the said environment.[47] When we find ourselves in an environment with similar cues, we begin to act in
anticipation of a similar stimulus.[47] Thus, we are likely to experience anxiety in an environment with
cues similar to one where we have experienced pain or fear – such as the dentist's office.
Secondary drives are built on primary drives, which are biologically driven, and motivate us to act with
no prior learning process – such as hunger, thirst or the need for sexual activity. However, secondary
drives are thought to represent more specific elaborations of primary drives, behind which the functions
of the original primary drive continue to exist.[47]Thus, the primary drives of fear and pain exist behind
the acquired drive of anxiety. Secondary drives can be based on multiple primary drives and even in
other secondary drives. This is said to give them strength and persistence. [47] Examples include the need
for money, which was conceptualized as arising from multiple primary drives such as the drive for food
and warmth, as well as from secondary drives such as imitativeness (the drive to do as others do) and
anxiety.[47]
Secondary drives vary based on the social conditions under which they were learned – such as culture.
Dollard and Miller used the example of food, stating that the primary drive of hunger manifested itself
behind the learned secondary drive of an appetite for a specific type of food, which was dependent on
the culture of the individual.[47]
Secondary drives are also explicitly social, representing a manner in which we convey our primary drives
to others.[48] Indeed, many primary drives are actively repressed by society (such as the sexual drive).
[47]
 Dollard and Miller believed that the acquisition of secondary drives was essential to childhood
development.[48] As children develop, they learn not to act on their primary drives, such as hunger but
acquire secondary drives through reinforcement.[47] Friedman and Schustack describe an example of
such developmental changes, stating that if an infant engaging in an active orientation towards others
brings about the fulfillment of primary drives, such as being fed or having their diaper changed, they will
develop a secondary drive to pursue similar interactions with others – perhaps leading to an individual
being more gregarious.[47][48] Dollard and Miller's belief in the importance of acquired drives led them to

8
reconceive Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development.[48] They found themselves to be in
agreement with the timing Freud used but believed that these periods corresponded to the successful
learning of certain secondary drives.[48]
Dollard and Miller gave many examples of how secondary drives impact our habitual responses – and by
extension our personalities, including anger, social conformity, imitativeness or anxiety, to name a few.
In the case of anxiety, Dollard and Miller note that people who generalize the situation in which they
experience the anxiety drive will experience anxiety far more than they should. [47] These people are
often anxious all the time, and anxiety becomes part of their personality.[47] This example shows how
drive theory can have ties with other theories of personality – many of them look at the trait of
neuroticism or emotional stability in people, which is strongly linked to anxiety.

Personality tests[edit]
There are two major types of personality tests, projective and objective.
Projective tests assume personality is primarily unconscious and assess individuals by how they respond
to an ambiguous stimulus, such as an ink blot. Projective tests have been in use for about 60 years and
continue to be used today. Examples of such tests include the Rorschach test and the Thematic
Apperception Test.
The Rorschach Test involves showing an individual a series of note cards with ambiguous ink blots on
them. The individual being tested is asked to provide interpretations of the blots on the cards by stating
everything that the ink blot may resemble based on their personal interpretation. The therapist then
analyzes their responses. Rules for scoring the test have been covered in manuals that cover a wide
variety of characteristics such as content, originality of response, location of "perceived images" and
several other factors. Using these specific scoring methods, the therapist will then attempt to relate test
responses to attributes of the individual's personality and their unique characteristics.[49] The idea is that
unconscious needs will come out in the person's response, e.g. an aggressive person may see images of
destruction.
The Thematic Apperception Test (also known as the TAT) involves presenting individuals with vague
pictures/scenes and asking them to tell a story based on what they see. Common examples of these
"scenes" include images that may suggest family relationships or specific situations, such as a father and
son or a man and a woman in a bedroom. [50]Responses are analyzed for common themes. Responses
unique to an individual are theoretically meant to indicate underlying thoughts, processes, and
potentially conflicts present within the individual. Responses are believed to be directly linked to
unconscious motives. There is very little empirical evidence available to support these methods.[51]
Objective tests assume personality is consciously accessible and that it can be measured by self-report
questionnaires. Research on psychological assessment has generally found objective tests to be more
valid and reliable than projective tests. Critics have pointed to the Forer effect to suggest some of these
appear to be more accurate and discriminating than they really are. Issues with these tests include false
reporting because there is no way to tell if an individual is answering a question honestly or accurately.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (also known as the MBTI) is self-reporting questionnaire based on Carl
Jung's Type theory.[52]
Personality theory assessment criteria[edit]

 Verifiability - the theory should be formulated in such a way that the concepts, suggestions and
hypotheses involved in it are defined clearly and unambiguously, and logically related to each other.
 Heuristic value - to what extent the theory stimulates scientists to conduct further research.
 Internal consistency - the theory should be free from internal contradictions.
 Economy - the fewer concepts and assumptions required by the theory to explain any phenomenon,
the better it is Hjelle, Larry (1992).  Personality Theories: Basic Assumptions, Research, and
Applications.
Psychology has traditionally defined personality through its behavioral patterns, and more recently with
neuroscientific studies of the brain. In recent years, some psychologists have turned to the study of
inner experiences for insight into personality as well as individuality. Inner experiences are the thoughts
and feelings to an immediate phenomenon. Another term used to define inner experiences is qualia.
Being able to understand inner experiences assists in understanding how humans behave, act, and
respond. Defining personality using inner experiences has been expanding due to the fact that solely

9
 relying on behavioral principles to explain one's character may seem incomplete. Behavioral methods
allow the subject to be observed by an observer, whereas with inner experiences the subject is its own
observer.[53][54]
Methods measuring inner experience[edit]
Descriptive experience sampling (DES), developed by psychologist Russel Hurlburt. This is
an idiographic method that is used to help examine inner experiences. This method relies on an
introspective technique that allows an individual's inner experiences and characteristics to be described
and measured. A beep notifies the subject to record their experience at that exact moment and 24
hours later an interview is given based on all the experiences recorded. DES has been used in subjects
that have been diagnosed with schizophrenia and depression. It has also been crucial to studying the
inner experiences of those who have been diagnosed with common psychiatric diseases.[54][55][56]
Articulated thoughts in stimulated situations (ATSS): ATSS is a paradigm which was created as an
alternative to the TA (think aloud) method. This method assumes that people have continuous internal
dialogues that can be naturally attended to. ATSS also assesses a person's inner thoughts as they
verbalize their cognitions. In this procedure, subjects listen to a scenario via a video or audio player and
are asked to imagine that they are in that specific situation. Later, they are asked to articulate their
thoughts as they occur in reaction to the playing scenario. This method is useful in studying emotional
experience given that the scenarios used can influence specific emotions. Most importantly, the method
has contributed to the study of personality. In a study conducted by Rayburn and Davison (2002),
subjects’ thoughts and empathy toward anti-gay hate crimes were evaluated. The researchers found
that participants showed more aggressive intentions towards the offender in scenarios which mimicked
hate crimes.[54]
Experimental method: This method is an experimental paradigm used to study human experiences
involved in the studies of sensation and perception, learning and memory, motivation, and biological
psychology. The experimental psychologist usually deals with intact organisms although studies are
often conducted with organisms modified by surgery, radiation, drug treatment, or long-standing
deprivations of various kinds or with organisms that naturally present organic abnormalities or
emotional disorders. Economists and psychologists have developed a variety of experimental
methodologies to elicit and assess individual attitudes where each emotion differs for each individual.
The results are then gathered and quantified to conclude if specific experiences have any common
factors. This method is used to seek clarity of the experience and remove any biases to help understand
the meaning behind the experience to see if it can be generalized.[53]
Mental health counseling theories provide a framework for understanding clients and helping them with
their problems. Psychologists, counselors and therapists use one or more theories in psychotherapy to
help guide clients once a diagnosis is made. The following four theories are the most common
approaches.
1.    Behaviorism
Behavioral theorists hold that actions are determined largely by life experiences. In other words,
behavior is learned. As a result, explanations and treatments rely on principles of learning, or processes
by which behaviors change in response to the environment.
A primary concept in behaviorism is conditioning, which refers to simple forms of learning that involve
stimuli and rewards. Several forms of conditioning may produce normal or abnormal behavior.

 In operant conditioning, humans and animals learn to behave in certain ways as a result of receiving
rewards whenever they do so.
 In classical conditioning, learning occurs by temporal association. This means that when two events
repeatedly occur close together, they become fused in a person’s mind, and a person responds in the
same way to both events. Ivan Pavlov discovered this form of conditioning in his famous experiments
with dogs. The dogs associated the sound of a dinner bell with food and began drooling at the sound.
 In modeling, individuals learn responses simply by observing other individuals and repeating their
behaviors.
Behavioral therapy seeks to identify behaviors that are causing a person’s problems and then tries to
replace behaviors with principles of operant conditioning, classical conditioning and modeling. For
instance, one classical conditioning treatment is systematic desensitization, which changes abnormal
reactions to particular stimuli. A therapist will apply this treatment method to specific phobiato help
clients learn how to react calmly to feared objects or situations. The client will imagine or confront
feared objects or situations, starting with the least feared and ending with the most feared.

10
 2.    Psychodynamic Theory
Like behavioral theorists, psychodynamic theorists believe that actions are determined largely by life
experiences. In fact, psychodynamic theories rest on the assumption that all behavior is determined by
past experiences; no symptom or behavior is “accidental,” according to Ronald Comer in Abnormal
Psychology.
The psychodynamic model was first formulated by Viennese neurologist Sigmund Freud. He believed
that three central forces shape personality — the id contains instinctual needs, the ego employs reason
and the superego represents a person’s values and ideals. Also, Freud proposed stages of developments
that require adjustments in id, ego and superego; if the proper adjustment doesn’t occur, the person
may be headed for abnormal functioning.
Other theorists, notably Carl Jung and Alfred Adler, diverged from Freud and developed new theories.
All of these are considered to be psychodynamic theories, as they share Freud’s belief that human
functioning is shaped by dynamic (interacting) psychological forces.
[cta]
Psychodynamic therapies involve several techniques such as the following.

 Free association involves the client describing any thought, feeling or image that comes to mind, even if
it seems unimportant or irrelevant. This helps uncover unconscious events and underlying dynamics.
 Therapist interpretation involves the therapist looking for clues and sharing interpretations when clients
are ready to hear them. Three types of interpretations are particularly important: resistance, which
involves the unconscious refusal to fully participate in therapy; transference, where clients act and feel
toward the therapist the way they do or did to someone important in their life; and the interpretation of
dreams.
 Catharsis is the reliving of past repressed feelings, which therapists believe clients must experience to
settle internal conflicts and overcome their problems.
 Working through is the process of a therapist and client examining the same issues over and over with
greater clarity. This occurs over many sessions and can take years.
3.    Cognitive Theory
The cognitive model asserts that cognitive processes are at the center of behaviors, thoughts and
emotions. Proposed by Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck, cognitive theory emphasizes what people think
instead of what they do.
The central place of cognition in this theory helps explain and resolve abnormal behavior. Clinicians
need to understand what assumptions and attitudes clients have, which can influence their perceptions
and thoughts and ultimately impact the conclusions they have. Several types of cognitive problems —
like assumptions, attitudes that are disturbing and inaccurate, and types of illogical thinking such as
overgeneralizations — can lead to abnormal functioning.
Cognitive therapy helps people overcome problems by developing new, more functional ways of
thinking. By changing their thoughts, people can change how they feel and act. Therapists help clients
recognize negative thoughts, errors in logic and biased interpretations that dominate their thinking and
can, for instance, lead them to feeling depressed. This type of therapy challenges dysfunctional thoughts
and encourages people to apply new types of thinking to their lives.
4.    Humanistic Theories
Humanistic therapists emphasize helping clients achieve their highest potential. They are often grouped
together with existential theorists because of their common focus on broader dimensions of human
existence. There are three major types of therapies and theories under the humanistic approach.

 Carl Rogers developed a humanistic approach called client-centered therapy, which creates a supportive
climate for clients to openly and honestly look at themselves. Therapists need to display important
qualities such as unconditional positive regard (full acceptance), accurate empathy (skillful listening and
reinstatements) and genuineness (sincere communication).
 Gestalt therapy is another humanistic approach. Developed by Frederick Perls, gestalt therapy focuses
on the client’s experience in the present moment. A common technique in gestalt therapy is role
playing, in which the therapist instructs clients to act out various roles to “own” or accept feelings that
previously made them uncomfortable.
 Existential therapy encourages clients to accept responsibility for their lives and their problems. This is
done by helping clients understand their freedom so that they can choose a different course and live
with greater meaning. Existential therapy is rooted in the existential philosophy (existentialism) of
figures like Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche.

11
Starting a Career in Clinical Mental Health Counseling
The above theories and therapies represent fundamental approaches to mental health counseling.
Another is holistic or integrative therapy, which blends techniques and tools that best suit a particular
client.
Grace College’s online M.A. in Clinical Mental Health Counseling prepares graduates for work in
counseling environments. This is a faith-based program that analyzes major mental health theories and
strategies through a biblical lens. For instance, “The Theological Foundations in Counseling” course
teaches students how to apply Scriptural truth and principles in practice.
A majority of coursework takes place in a fully online format. Students attend an annual seven- to 10-
day residency on campus in scenic Winona Lake, Indiana. The program is accredited by the Council for
Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP).
Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of
assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights
into a subject, or applies different theories in particular cases. However, this is often without
conventions or rules dictating how or which theories were combined.
It can sometimes seem inelegant or lacking in simplicity, and eclectics are sometimes criticized for lack
of consistency in their thinking. It is, however, common in many fields of study. For example,
most psychologists accept certain aspects of behaviorism, but do not attempt to use the theory to
explain all aspects of human behavior.
Eclecticism in ethics, philosophy, and religion is also known as syncretism.
undisciplined. : lacking in discipline or self-control undisciplined behavior an unruly
and undisciplined child.
Social science is a category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and
the relationships among individuals within a society. Social science as a whole has many branches. Social
science is a branch that studies human beings from various aspects. These social sciences include, but
are not limited to: anthropology, archaeology, communication
studies, economics, history, musicology, human geography, jurisprudence, linguistics, political
science, psychology, public health, and sociology. Sociology is defined as the general science of society.
The term is also sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology, the original "science of
society", established in the 19th century. For a more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the social
sciences see: Outline of social science.
Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the natural sciences as tools for
understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Interpretivist social scientists,
by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing
empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice,
researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining
both quantitative and qualitative research). The term "social research" has also acquired a degree of
autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods.

Difference Between Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Communication

Last updated on December 30, 2017 by Surbhi S

As the term, ‘intra’ means ‘within’, so the communication that takes place within a person is called
intrapersonal communication. On the other hand, the term ‘inter’ means ‘between’, so when the
communication occurs between two or more persons, it is said to be interpersonal communication.

We, humans, are social animals, and we always need someone to talk or share our opinions, news, and
even feelings. Communication is a substantial part of our life, whether we say something or not, it
automatically conveys a message to the persons surrounding us, because it is inescapable. It can be
intrapersonal communication or interpersonal communication. The major difference between
intrapersonal and interpersonal communication is that the former is invisible, as it goes in our mind, the
latter is visible as it takes place between several parties.

Content: Intrapersonal Communication Vs Interpersonal Communication

12
 1. Comparison Chart
2. Definition
3. Key Differences
4. Conclusion

Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR
INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
COMPARISON

Meaning Intrapersonal Communication is one, Interpersonal Communication is the

that we have with ourselves, i.e. the communication between two or more
communication that occurs in our mind. person, through verbal or non-verbal
messages.

Persons One At least two

Involved

Occurence Continuous due to human nature. Regular, due to social needs.

Media Only a person's internal senses are Supported by a verbal and non-verbal
involved. media.

Concerned with Thinking and Analysis Exchanging and sharing of ideas or

information
Definition of Intrapersonal Communication

The communication with oneself is intrapersonal communication. It involves thinking, analysing,

interpreting, assessing, contemplating, feeling, etc. It is to reflect the individual self, with a view to
clarifying something.

It is an activity that takes place in our mind; wherein a person is involved in a conversation with
himself/herself, commonly known as ‘self-talk’ or ‘inner speech’. The activity can be a monologue or
internal dialogue, i.e. when you imagine a conversation, in your mind with the absent other. So, it is
quite obvious that the sender and receiver are the same person.

Internal discourse, Solo-vocal communication and Solo written communication are the three levels of
intrapersonal communication. The three aspects that govern the intrapersonal communication are:

 Self-Concept: Self-concept ascertains the way an individual takes himself/herself, oriented

towards others. The three factors in self-concept are:

 Belief
 Value
 Attitude
 Perception: It is what the mind receives and grasp from the outside world.
 Expectation: An individual’s future-oriented projection, that something might happen.

Definition of Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal Communication is the one to one communication between two or more persons, wherein
exchange of ideas, information or messages takes place through a channel. It can be a face to face
communication between parties, communication over mail, telephone and the like.

In Interpersonal Communication, the way something is said is as important as what is being said. So,
here, the tone of voice, body language, gestures, facial expressions, have a great impact on the
recipient. The features of interpersonal communication are as under:

13
  Inescapable: Whenever we try not to say anything to anyone at all, it says something about our
mood, attitude or nature, i.e. not by words but through the non-verbal signals.
 Irreversible or Unrepeatable: Once something is being said, it cannot be taken back, so neither
it is reversible nor repeatable.
 Complex: Due to some variables involved in communication, it is a complex process. The words
used in the process of communication may not have the same meaning for both sender and
receiver, and this complicates the process.
 Contextual: Context plays a significant role in the communication process, as in there is
psychological, environmental, situational and relational context.

Key Differences Between Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Communication

The difference between intrapersonal and interpersonal communication, can be drawn clearly on the
following grounds:

1. The communication that we have with ourselves, i.e. the communication that occurs in our
mind, is known as intrapersonal communication. The communication between two or more
person, through verbal or non-verbal messages, is called interpersonal communication.
2. The intrapersonal communication is the communication with oneself, and so only one person is
involved in it. On the contrary, interpersonal communication is always between two or more
persons.
3. Intrapersonal communication occurs continuously because it is the human tendency to think,
analyse and interpret things. Conversely, Interpersonal Communication occurs regularly on a
personal and professional level.
4. In intrapersonal communication, only an individual’s internal senses are involved. As against
this, interpersonal communication requires media, i.e. to pass on the message to the other
party.
5. In intrapersonal communication, is based on the thinking and analysis while interpersonal
communication is concerned with the exchange of ideas, information, opinions, feelings and so
on.

Conclusion

Intrapersonal communication is the base of interpersonal communication because it is our experience

on which our perception relies and our perception influences our interaction with the other persons. In
intrapersonal communication the information is always kept in a person’s mind, however, in an
interpersonal communication, the information flows from one person to another.
Common Reasons for Visiting Counseling Services:
Depression or Anxiety
These are the two most common general issues our clients present. Mood problems can seriously
interfere with sleep, interpersonal relationships, physical health and well-being, concentration, and
academic motivation. Counseling can help identify, clarify, and often even simplify problematic thoughts
and feelings. When needed, we can also refer you to a psychiatrist here on campus for additional
treatment with medication.
Relationship Issues
It's often helpful to have an outside perspective or help in developing communication skills and
strategies for relationships. When a break-up happens, sometimes it's just nice to have an empathetic
listener.
Social Isolation / Shyness
It can be hard to know where to turn when you feel really alone. For some of us, it is especially hard to
make new connections and develop close friendships. If this is true for you, remember this is why we are
here and we can help.
Life Transition Challenges

14
Change almost always creates some stress. It can feel overwhelming. We can help you find ways to
organize and manage thoughts, feelings, activities, and time.
Eating Disorders / Body Image Issues
We offer individual assessment, counseling, and referral, along with a therapy group, for these issues,
and we work collaboratively with the Student Health Center.
Motivation
Actually, the problem is usually lack of motivation. When it happens, the reasons can be complex and it
is hard to just "snap out of it". Counseling can help you identify the underlying reasons for feeling
unmotivated and really help you learn how to bring out your best work.
Academic Challenges
Especially when academic problems are unexpected, it may be hard to know where to go for help.
Counseling Services can be a good place to clarify just what the problem is, and then get direction about
specific academic support resources on campus.
Psychoanalytic therapy is a form of in-depth talk therapy that aims to bring unconscious or deeply
buried thoughts and feelings to the conscious mind so that repressed experiences and emotions, often
from childhood, can be brought to the surface and examined. Working together, the therapist and client
look at how these repressed early memories have affected the client’s thinking, behavior, and
relationships in adulthood.

 Psychoanalysis? Is That Still Around?

 Some Differences Between Traditional and New Therapies

When It's Used

People with depression, emotional struggles, emotional trauma, neuroticbehavior patterns, self-
destructive behavior patterns, personality disorders, or ongoing relationship issues, may benefit from
psychoanalytic therapy. One small study found that 77 percent of patients reported significant
improvement in symptoms, interpersonal problems, quality of life, and well-being upon completing
psychoanalytic therapy. At a one-year follow-up, 80 percent reportedly experienced improvements.

What to Expect
Some very specific techniques are used in psychoanalytic therapy: Free association uses spontaneous
word association. The client says whatever first comes to mind when the therapist says a word. The
therapist then looks for and interprets patterns in the client’s responses so they can explore the
meaning of these patterns together. Dream analysis uncovers repressed feelings that may be hidden in
symbols that appear in the client’s dreams. The therapist helps the client discover the meaning and
significance of those symbols. Transferenceanalysis explores the transfer of the client’s feelings and
emotions from one person to another. For instance, the client’s repressed childhood feelings toward a
parent may be transferred to a partner in an adult relationship later in life, or to the therapist during the
psychoanalytic process.

How It Works
Based on Sigmund Freud’s theories of psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic therapy uses analytic techniques
to help release repressed thoughts, experiences, and emotions, but it is a modified, generally briefer,
and less intense version of early Freudian analysis. The therapist-patient relationship is central to the
healing process, as are the original theories of attachment, which focus on the quality of bonding
between infant and parent; transference, the transfer of earlier emotions and needs to people and
events in the present time; and resistance, the stage of therapy when the client becomes overwhelmed
by the release of painful, repressed feelings and tries to avoid dealing with them. Eventually, as patients
become more comfortable and less resistant to facing their issues and are able to understand their own
motives and behavior, healing can begin.

What to Look for in a Psychoanalytic Therapist

A psychoanalytic therapist is a licensed, experienced social worker, psychotherapist, or other mental
health or medical professional with advanced training in psychoanalysis. In addition to finding someone
with the appropriate educational background and relevant experience, look for a psychoanalytic
therapist with whom you feel comfortable discussing personal issues.

15
Individual therapy, or Adlerian therapy, is an approach in which a therapist works with a client to
identify obstacles and create effective strategies for working towards their goals. Adlerians believe that,
by gaining insight into challenges, people can overcome feelings of inferiority. Moreover, Adlerians
believe that people are most fulfilled when they are working towards the social interest; that is, when
they are doing things that are beneficial for society as a whole.
Key Takeaways: Adlerian Therapy

 Adlerian therapy, also known as individual therapy, emphasizes the individual’s ability to bring
about positive change in his or her own life.
 Adlerian therapy consists of four stages: engagement, assessment, insight, and reorientation.
 In Adler’s theory, individuals work to overcome feelings of inferiority and to act in ways that
benefit the social interest.

Four Stages of Adlerian Therapy

In Adler’s approach to therapy, termed individual psychology  or Adlerian psychology, therapy progresses

through a series of four stages:

1. Engagement. The client and therapist begin to establish the therapeutic relationship. The
relationship should consist of collaboration towards addressing the client's problems. The
therapist should offer support and encouragement.
2. Assessment. The therapist works to learn more about the client's background, including early
memories and family dynamics. In this part of therapy, the therapist attempts to understand
how the client may have developed certain styles of thinking that are no longer helpful or
adaptive for them.
3. Insight. The therapist offers an interpretation  of the client’s situation. The therapist suggests
theories about how past experiences may have contributed to issues the client is currently
experiencing; importantly, the therapist leaves it up to the client to decide whether these
theories are accurate and useful.
4. Reorientation. The therapist helps the client to develop new strategies that the client can use in
daily life.

Feelings of Inferiority

One of Adler’s most well known ideas is that everyone experiences feelings of inferiority (i.e. worries
that one is not achieving enough). Among psychologically healthy individuals, these feelings of inferiority
encourage the pursuit of goals, providing motivation to strive towards self-improvement. In other
words, by developing positive ways of coping with feelings of inferiority, individuals can end up
achieving great things and making a positive contribution to society as a whole.

However, some individuals have difficulty coping with feelings of inferiority, which leads them to
feel discouraged. Other individuals may cope with feelings of inferiority in unproductive ways, like
behaving selfishly in order to feel superior to others. In Adlerian therapy, the therapist works to provide
the client the support and encouragement they need in order to cope more effectively with feelings of
inferiority and to develop healthy ways of overcoming these feelings.

Social Interest

One of Adler’s other key ideas was the concept of the social interest. According to this idea, people are
at their best—their psychologically healthiest and most fulfilled—when they act in ways that benefit
society. For example, a person high in social interest might go out of their way to help others, while a
person with lower levels of social interest may bully others or act in antisocial ways. Importantly, levels
of social interest can change over time. A therapist can help their client increase his or her levels of
social interest.

Alfred Adler's Life and Legacy

16
Alfred Adler was born in the suburbs outside of Vienna, Austria in 1870. He studied medicine at the
University of Vienna, graduating in 1895. After medical school, Adler first worked as an ophthalmologist,
but later decided to study psychiatry. He was initially a colleague of Sigmund Freud, with whom he
cofounded the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. However, he later split with Freud and went on to
develop his own ideas about psychiatry. Adler developed the approach to therapy known as individual
psychology, and in 1912, he founded the Society of Individual Psychology.

Today, Adler’s influence can be found in numerous areas of psychology. Many his ideas have found
support in the burgeoning field of positive psychology, and his emphasis on the individual’s social
context (e.g. family setting and larger culture) is supported in many branches of contemporary
psychology.

Existential therapy
Existential therapy is a unique form of psychotherapy that looks to explore difficulties from a
philosophical perspective. Focusing on the human condition as a whole, existential therapy highlights
our capacities and encourages us to take responsibility for our successes.
Emotional and psychological difficulties are viewed as inner conflict caused by an individual's
confrontation with the givens of existence. Rather than delve into the past, the existential approach
looks at the here and now, exploring the human condition as a whole and what it means for an
individual.
On this page, we will look at the background of existential therapy, including the philosophers who
influenced it, the associated theories and how it could benefit you.
Existential therapy background
The roots of existential psychotherapy lie in philosophy from the 1800s, and more importantly with
philosophers whose work dealt with human existence. The philosophers most commonly associated
with existential therapy are Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. While the two influential
thinkers were in conflict regarding the ideologies of their time, they were committed to the exploration
of reality and how it was experienced.
Kierkegaard theorised that human discontent could only be overcome via internal wisdom, while
Nietzsche introduced the idea of free will and personal responsibility. By the 1900s, philosophers like
Sartre and Heidegger had begun exploring the role interpretation and investigation had in the healing
process.
Over the next few decades, other contemporaries began to acknowledge the importance of
'experiencing' in terms of achieving psychological well-being.  
E x i s t e n ti a l c o u n s e l l i n g t a k e s d i r e c t l y f r o m e x i s t e n ti a l p h i l o s o p h y . T h e
b r o a d t e n e t s o f e x i s t e n ti a l i s m c a n i n c l u d e u n c e r t a i n t y , a n a w a r e n e s s
of the absence of d e fi n e d structure in life but with an
acknowledgement of personal accountability and responsibility.
- Counsellor Geoff Boutle
Theories of the existential approach
A key element of existential counselling is that it does not place emphasis on past events like some
other therapy types. The approach does take the past into consideration and together, the therapist and
individual can understand the implications of past events.
Instead of putting blame on events from the past, however, existential counselling uses them as insight,
becoming a tool to promote freedom and assertiveness. Coming to the realisation that you are not
defined by your history and that you are not destined to have a certain future is often a breakthrough
that offers liberation.
Practitioners of existential therapy say that its role is to help facilitate an individual's own encounter
with themselves and to work alongside them as they explore values, assumptions and ideals. An
existential therapist will avoid any form of judgement and instead help the individual speak from their
own perspective.
The therapist should enter sessions with an open mind and be ready to question their own biases and
assumptions. The goal of the therapist is to understand the individual's assumptions with a clarity that
the individual themselves may not be able to muster.
A belief that lies at the heart of existential counselling is that even though humans are essentially alone
in the world, they long to be connected with others. This belief can help to explain why certain concerns
appear and may help the individual understand why they feel the way they do sometimes.

17
 Another interesting theory is that inner conflict stems from an individual's confrontation with the givens
of existence. These givens were noted by influential psychotherapist Irvin D. Yalom, and include:
 freedom and responsibility
 existential isolation
 meaninglessness
 death
T h e y s a y t h e o n l y c e r t a i n ti e s i n l i f e a r e d e a t h a n d t a x e s . C e r t a i n l y ,
we are all guaranteed to die. This can provoke intense anxiety in us,
or an avoidance of the topic altogether, consciously or otherwise. Yet
to face our death anxiety when necessary, to work through it, and to
come to terms with the fact of our eventual demise can be extremely
l i b e r a ti n g .
- Read more on the givens from counsellor Mary-Claire Wilson
These four givens (also known as 'ultimate concerns') are the cornerstones of existential psychotherapy.
Once the issue has been conceptualised by the therapist, a method of treatment can be developed.
Due to the all-encompassing nature of existential therapy, it is near impossible to identify one single
cause for psychological upset. The therapy instead treats each person as an individual, exploring their
experience and relating it to the experience of all humankind.
The four realms
Within existential psychotherapy, there is a description of four different levels of experience and
existence with which people are inevitably confronted. These can often help individuals understand the
context of their concerns. It is believed that a person's orientation towards the world and the four
realms define their reality. There are various names for the four realms within existential therapy,
however, the following are perhaps the best-known:
1. The physical realm
This world or realm is centred around physicality. It is the world we share with animals, the world of
bodily needs. It is the world that stores desire, relief, sleep/wake cycles and nature. Birth, death
and physical feelings/symptoms are also part of this realm.
2. The social realm
Within the social realm lies everything to do with relationships. Culture, society and language are here
as well as work, attitudes towards authority, race and family. Emotions, friendships and romantic
relationships are also part of the social world.
3. The personal realm
The personal realm is concerned with issues of the self. This includes intimacy (with self and others),
identity, personal characteristics and overall sense of self. Personal strengths and weaknesses are also
important as well as the question of being authentic.
4. The making realm
The final realm is considered our 'ideal' world. Included within it are religion, values, beliefs and
transformation. This is the dimension where we make sense of our lives and is considered the realm of
transcendence.
How existential counselling could help
One of the primary aims of existential therapy is to help people face anxieties of life and to embrace the
freedom of choice humans have, taking full responsibility for these choices as they do so. Existential
therapists look to help individuals live more authentically and to be less concerned with superficiality.
They also encourage clients to take ownership of their lives, to find meaning and to live fully in the
present.
Individuals who are interested in self-examination and who view their concerns as issues of living rather
than symptoms of a psychiatric illness are more likely to benefit from this approach. Existential therapy
is also well suited to those facing issues of existence, for example, those with a terminal illness,
those contemplating suicide, or even those going through a transition in their life.

18
 Person-centred therapy
Person-centred therapy, also known as person-centred or client-centred counselling, is a humanistic
approach that deals with the ways in which individuals perceive themselves consciously, rather than
how a counsellor can interpret their unconscious thoughts or ideas.
Created in the 1950s by psychologist Carl Rogers, the person-centred approach ultimately sees human
beings as having an innate tendency to develop towards their full potential. However, this ability can
become blocked or distorted by certain life experiences, particularly those the experiences which affect
our sense of value. 
The therapist in this approach works to understand an individual’s experience from their perspective.
The therapist must positively value the client as a person in all aspects of their humanity, while aiming to
be open and genuine. This is vital in helping the client feel accepted, and better able to understand their
own feelings. The approach can help the client to reconnect with their inner values and sense of self-
worth, thus enabling them to find their own way to move forward and progress.
What is person-centred counselling?
The core purpose of person-centred therapy is to facilitate our ability to self-actualise - the belief that all
of us will grow and fulfil our potential. This approach facilitates the personal growth and relationships of
a client by allowing them to explore and utilise their own strengths and personal identity. The counsellor
aids this process, providing vital support to the client and they make their way through this journey.
The person-centred counsellor is not an expert; rather the client is
seen as an expert on themselves and the person-centred counsellor
encourages the client to explore and understand themselves and their
troubles.
- Counsellor Mary-Claire Wilson
An important part of the self-actualising theory is that in a particular psychological environment, the
fulfilment of personal potentials include; sociability (the need to be with other people, and a desire to
know and be known by others); being open to experience; being trusting and trustworthy; and being
curious, creative and compassionate.
This psychological environment is one where a person feels both physically and emotionally free from
threat. There are three conditions believed to help achieve this environment, particularly in the therapy
room.  
 Congruence - the counsellor must be completely genuine.
 Empathy - the counsellor must strive to understand the client's experience.
 Unconditional positive regard - the counsellor must be non-judgemental and valuing.
A number of factors can affect a person’s ability to flourish, including low self-esteem, a lack of self-
reliance and very little openness to new experiences. The person-centred approach recognises that a
person’s social environment and personal relationships can greatly impact these, so therapy is offered in
a neutral and comfortable setting, where a client can feel at ease, authentic and open to learning about
themselves.
By offering a safe, comforting environment, the client is able to understand the past experiences that
have impacted the way they feel about themselves or their abilities, and take the steps to positive
change. The person-centred approach can also help the client to:
 find closer agreement between an idealised self and actual self
 achieve better self-understanding and awareness
 release feelings of defensiveness, insecurity and guilt
 have greater ability to trust oneself
 develop healthier relationships
 see improvement in self-expression
 achieve a healthy sense of change overall
The benefits of person-centred therapy
Generally, person-centred counselling can help individuals of all ages, with a range of personal issues.
Many people find it an appealing type of therapy because it allows them to keep control over the
content and pace of sessions, and there is no worry that they are being evaluated or assessed in any
way.
The non-direct style of person-centred counselling is thought to be more beneficial to those who have a
strong urge to explore themselves and their feelings, and for those who want to address specific
psychological habits or patterns of thinking.
The approach is said to be particularly effective in helping individuals to overcome specific problems
such as depression, anxiety, stress and grief, or other mental health concerns. These issues can have

19
 significant impact on self-esteem, self-reliance and self-awareness, and person-centred therapy can help
people to reconnect with their inner self in order to transcend any limitations.
While person-centred counselling was originally developed as an approach to psychotherapy, it is often
transferred to other areas where people are required to build strong relationships, such as teaching,
childcare and patient care. This approach is not limited to qualified counsellors, many people will use
the approach in some form to help guide them through day to day work and relationships.
The theory behind the approach
In some psychotherapeutic approaches, the therapist and their observations are deemed ‘expert’. The
person-centred approach moves away from this idea, and instead trusts that we have an innate
tendency to find fulfilment in our own personal potentials (self-actualisation). By facilitating this, the
approach helps the client to recognise their own capacity for not only self-healing, but personal growth
too.
Another key factor in this theory is the notion of self-concept. Self-concept refers to the organised and
consistent set of beliefs and perceptions a person has about themselves. These form a core component
of our total experience and influence our perception of the world. Person-centred counselling
recognises that our self-concept can become displaced if striving too hard to belong and be accepted by
those around us.
As people, we typically cope with any conditional acceptance offered to us by gradually and
unconsciously incorporating these conditions into our own self-image. This can lead to the development
of a self-concept that consists of characterised ideas, for example, “I am the type of person who will
always respect others”.
Because we generally desire positive regard from those around us, it is often easier to ‘be’ this accepted,
simplified ‘type’ of person. To be anything else, or to be different, could see us losing that positive
regard from others. 
Over time, our identity - our personal judgements, meanings and experiences - can become displaced
with the ideals of others. It is for this reason that person-centred counselling aims to help clients to self-
actualise and achieve personal growth. This is cultivated through the provision of a supportive
environment, where clients can strengthen and expand on their own identity, and begin to separate
themselves from their developed notions of how they should be.

Behavioural therapy
As the name suggests, behavioural therapy is focused on human behaviour and looks to eradicate
unwanted or maladaptive behaviour. Typically, this type of therapy is used for those with behavioural
problems or mental health conditions that involve unwanted behaviour. For
example, addictions, anxiety, phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). 
Practitioners of behavioural therapy believe that behaviour is learned, and can, therefore, be unlearned
via therapy. As well as the behaviour itself, therapists will look at the thoughts and feelings that lead to
the behaviour, or occur as a result of the behaviour, to better understand it. There are certain issues
that respond particularly well to this type of therapy, as well as the associated integrated forms, such
as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT).
What is behavioural therapy?
Behavioural therapy is an action-based therapy that looks to foster positive behaviour change. Other
therapies, such as psychoanalytic therapy, tend to be more focused on insight and delving into the past.
While in behavioural therapy, the past is still important as it often reveals where and when the
unwanted behaviour was learned, the main focus is to look at the present behaviours and the ways in
which they can be rectified.
The premise behind the therapy is that behaviour can be both learned and unlearned. The goal is to help
the individual learn new, positive behaviours to override or minimise the unwanted behaviour. There
are various ways this can be done, though the methods will vary depending on the concerns.
The three main disciplines of behavioural therapy
 Applied behaviour analysis - Where behaviour change is instigated using operant and/or classical
conditioning and positive reinforcement.
 Cognitive behavioural therapy - An integrative therapy that combines elements of behavioural therapy
with cognitive therapy.
 Social learning theory - A theory that revolves around the nature of imitation and learning.
The principles of behavioural therapy

20
There are two key principles that form the foundations of behavioural therapy - classical conditioning
and operant conditioning. We explain more below.
Classical conditioning
Behavioural therapy that is based on classical conditioning uses a number of techniques to bring about
behaviour change. Originally this type of therapy was known as behaviour modification but, these days,
it is usually referred to as applied behaviour analysis. The various methods of change behaviour include: 
Flooding
Flooding is a process generally used for those with phobias and anxiety, and involves exposing the
individual to objects or situations they are afraid of in an intense and fast manner. An example of this
would be exposing a person who is afraid of dogs to a dog for an extended period of time. The longer
this continues with nothing bad happening, the less fearful the person becomes.
The idea is that the person cannot escape the object or situation during the process, and therefore must
confront their fear head-on. This method can, however, be disconcerting for some, so may only be used
in certain situations, in which the method has been explained in detail to the client prior to exposure.
Systematic desensitisation
This technique works on a similar premise to flooding, however, it is more gradual. The therapist would
begin by asking the individual to write a list of fears they have. Once this list is written, the therapist will
teach relaxation techniques for the individual to use while thinking about the list of fears. Working their
way up form the least fear-inducing item to the most fear-inducing item - the therapist will help the
individual confront their fears in a relaxed state.
An example of this would be a person who is afraid of small spaces. They may start by thinking about a
small space, or looking at an image of a small space while utilising relaxation techniques, practising until
they are ready to physically be in a small space. This pairing of the fear-inducing item and newly learned
relaxation behaviour aims to reduce and eliminate the phobia or anxiety.
Aversion therapy
This process pairs undesirable behaviour with some form of aversive stimulus with the aim of reducing
unwanted behaviour. An example of how this is commonly used is when a person with a drinking
problem is prescribed a certain drug that induces nausea, anxiety and headaches when combined with
alcohol. Every time they have a drink while on this medication, they experience negative side effects.
This method aims to change how the person feels about alcohol, as they are no longer experiencing the
feelings they previously did and therefore, reducing their intake.
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning uses techniques such as positive reinforcement, punishment and modelling to help
alter behaviour. The following strategies may be used within this type of therapy:
Token economies
This strategy relies on positive reinforcement - offering individuals ‘tokens’ that can be exchanged for
privileges or desired items when positive behaviour is exhibited. This is a common tactic used by parents
and teachers to help improve the behaviour of children.
Contingency management
A more formal approach, contingency management involves a written contract between the therapist
and client that outlines goals, rewards and penalties. For some, having this kind of clear agreement
helps to change behaviour and add a sense of accountability.
Modelling
Modelling involves learning through observation and imitation of others. Having a positive role model
can give individuals something to aim for, allowing them to change their behaviour to match theirs. This
role model may be the therapist or someone the individual already knows.
Extinction
Extinction works by removing any type of reinforcement to behaviour. An example of this would be a
disruptive child who is given a time-out or told to sit somewhere quiet. By removing them from the
situation (and associated attention) the behaviour should come to a stop. This method isn’t only
effective with children and can be used with adults, too.
There are many different types of therapy, and what works for one person, may not work for you. It will
also depend on your situation, what you want to gain from therapy and the therapist themselves. Do

21
your research and take your time, don’t be disheartened if the first method doesn’t work. Keep going
and with a good counsellor, you’ll find what works for you.
Gestalt therapy is an existential/experiential form of psychotherapy which emphasizes personal
responsibility, and focuses upon the individual's experience in the present moment, the therapist–client
relationship, the environmental and social contexts of a person's life, and the self-regulating
adjustments people make as a result of their overall situation.
Gestalt therapy was developed by Fritz Perls, Laura Perls and Paul Goodman in the 1940s and 1950s, and
was first described in the 1951 book Gestalt Therapy.
Gestalt Therapy
Gestalt therapy is a client-centered approach to psychotherapy that helps clients focus on the present
and understand what is really happening in their lives right now, rather than what they may perceive to
be happening based on past experience. Instead of simply talking about past situations, clients are
encouraged to experience them, perhaps through re-enactment. Through the gestalt process, clients
learn to become more aware of how their own negative thought patterns and behaviors are blocking
true self-awareness and making them unhappy.

 The Empty Chair

 Goofing Off: Psychological & Physical Benefits of Having Fun

 Three Reasons Not to Trust Your Memory

When It's Used

Gestalt therapy can help clients with issues such as anxiety, depression, self-esteem, relationship
difficulties, and even physical ones like migraine headaches, ulcerative colitis, and back spasms. Good
candidates for gestalt therapy are those who are interested in working on their self-awareness but may
or may not understand the role they play in their own unhappiness and discomfort. Gestalt techniques
are often used in combination with body work, dance, art, drama, and other therapies.

What to Expect
A gestalt therapist focuses on what is happening in the moment and finding solutions in the present
time. For examples, rather than discuss why something happened in the past, the therapist will
encourage you to re-enact the moment and discuss how it feels right now. In other words, you will be
asked to experience your feelings, rather than simply talk about them. The therapist will ask you
questions like, “What’s going on in this moment?” or “How does this make you feel now?” Your
therapist may experiment with dream work, guided fantasy, role-playing, confrontation, and other
techniques that can help bring past and current struggles to life in the therapeutic setting. Your goal, as
you become more aware of yourself and your senses, is to take more responsibility for yourself, accept
the consequences of your behavior, and learn to satisfy your own needs while still respecting the needs
of others.

How It Works
The word “gestalt” means whole. Gestalt therapy was developed by psychotherapist Fritz Perls on the
principle that humans are best viewed as a whole entity consisting of body, mind, and soul, and best
understood when viewed through their own eyes, not by looking back into the past but by bringing the
past into the present. Gestalt therapy emphasizes that to alleviate unresolved anger, pain, anxiety,
resentment, and other negative feelings, these emotions cannot just be discussed, but must be actively
expressed in the present time. If that doesn’t happen, both psychological and physical symptoms can
arise. Perls believed that we are not in this world to live up to others' expectations, nor should we
expect others to live up to ours. By building self-awareness, gestalt therapy helps clients better
understand themselves and how the choices they make affect their health and their relationships. With
this self-knowledge, clients begin to understand how their emotional and physical selves are connected
and develop more self-confidence to start living a fuller life and more effectively deal with problems.

What to Look for in a Gestalt Therapist

Look for a licensed, experienced psychotherapist with a gestalt approach toward therapy. In addition to
fulfilling their general education and licensing requirements, some therapists may take continuing
education courses and training in gestalt therapy techniques. Once you have established that a therapist

22
has the credentials and experience you are looking for, be sure you understand and are comfortable
with the process as explained by the therapist.
Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT), previously called rational therapy and rational emotive
therapy, is an active-directive, philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy, the aim of which is
to resolve emotional and behavioral problems and disturbances and to help people to lead happier and
[1][2]
more fulfilling lives.  REBT was created and developed by
the  Americanpsychotherapist and psychologist Albert Ellis, who was inspired by
[3][4]
many of the teachings of Asian, Greek, Roman and modern philosophers.  REBT is the first form
of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and was first expounded by Ellis in the mid-1950s; development
[5][6][7]
continued until his death in 2007.  Ellis became synonymous with the highly influential
therapy. Psychology Todaynoted, "No individual—not even Freud himself—has had a greater impact on
modern psychotherapy.[8] Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is a short-term form of psychotherapy that helps you identify
self-defeating thoughts and feelings, challenge the rationality of those feelings, and replace them with
healthier, more productive beliefs. REBT focuses mostly on the present time to help you understand
how unhealthy thoughts and beliefs create emotional distress which, in turn, leads to unhealthy actions
and behaviors that interfere with your current life goals. Once identified and understood, negative
thoughts and actions can be changed and replaced with more positive and productive behavior, allowing
you to develop more successful personal and professional relationships.

 To Affirm or Not Affirm?

 How to Beat Perfectionism, Make Progress, and Find Happiness

In Practice
REBT can help you with negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, guilt, and extreme or
inappropriate anger. This approach is also used to help change stressful and self-defeating behaviors,
such as aggression, unhealthy eating, and procrastination that get in the way of your quality of life and
reaching your goals.
 

What to Expect
To help you manage and overcome difficulties or achieve life goals, the therapist will work with you to
identify the beliefs and rigid thought patterns that are holding you hostage. The therapist will help you
see how irrational these thoughts are and how they harm you. Through a variety of mental exercises,
you will then learn how to reduce your negative thoughts and responses, and replace them with
healthier, more constructive and self-accepting thoughts. REBT makes use of a variety of methods and
tools, including positive visualization, reframing your thinking, and the use of self-help books and audio-
visual guides, as well as assigned homework for reinforcement between sessions.

How It Works
REBT evolved from the work of psychiatrist Albert Ellis in the mid-1950s as the original form of cognitive-
behavioral therapy. Ellis believed that most people are not aware that many of their thoughts about
themselves are irrational and negatively affect the way they behave in important relationships and
situations. According to Ellis, it is these thoughts that lead people to suffer negative emotions and
engage in self-destructive behavior. At the same time, humans are capable of challenging and changing
their irrational beliefs, if they are willing to do the work. While specific life events may contribute to
mental health issues, REBT therapists believe that it is an individual’s own faulty and
irrational beliefsystem that causes the most problems. By letting go of negative thoughts and replacing
them with positive beliefs, one is better able to accept one’s self and others and, in turn, live a happier
life.
 

What to Look for in a Rational Emotive Behavior Therapist

Look for a licensed mental health professional with training in cognitive-behavioral and rational-emotive
therapy. In addition to checking credentials, it is important to find a rational emotive behavior therapist
with whom you feel comfortable working.

23
 
Reality Therapy
Reality therapy is a client-centered form of cognitive behavioral psychotherapy that focuses on
improving present relationships and circumstances, while avoiding discussion of past events. This
approach is based on the idea that our most important need is to be loved, to feel that we belong, and
that all other basic needs can be satisfied only by building strong connections with others. Reality
therapy teaches that while we cannot control how we feel, we can control how we think and behave.
The goal of reality therapy is to help people take control of improving their own lives by learning to
make better choices.

 Generosity: Acts of Kindness

When It's Used

The principles of reality therapy can be applied to individual, parent-child, and family counseling. Studies
have proven the effectiveness of reality therapy in treating addiction and other behavioral problems. It
is also an approach that works with people in leadership positions in education, coaching,
administration, and management, where problem solving, instilling motivation, and a focus on
achievement play essential roles in their connection to others.

What to Expect
Reality therapy focuses on present issues and current behavior as they affect you now and will affect
your future. Little or no time is spent delving into the past. Since reality therapy is solution-oriented, you
will examine how your behavior is interfering with your ability to form stronger relationships and figure
out what kind of changes you can make in your behavior to get what you want out of life. You can learn
how to reconnect with people from whom you have become disconnected and how to make new
connections. If you try to make excuses or blame someone else for your behavior, the therapist will
show you how that kind of thinking results in behavior that prevents you from improving relationships
and reaching your goals. You have the opportunity to learn and practice new behavior and techniques in
the privacy of the therapist’s office before you employ them in your life outside of therapy.

How It Works
Based on the work of psychiatrist William Glaser in the mid-1960s, reality therapy is founded on the idea
that everyone is seeking to fulfill five basic needs, and mental health issues arise when any of these
needs are not being met. The five basic needs are:
1) Power, or a sense of self-worth and achievement
2) Love and belonging, or being part of a family or community of loved ones
3) Freedom, or independence
4) Fun, which includes a sense of satisfaction or pleasure
5) Survival, or the comfort of knowing that one’s basic needs—food, shelter, and sex—are met.
When one or more of these needs go unfilled, the resulting problems occur in present time and in
current relationships, so it makes sense to act and think in the present time. Reality therapy is also
based on choice theory, the principle that humans choose to behave in certain ways and that these
choices can help or hamper your ability to satisfy essential needs and reach individual goals. You cannot
change or control others, so the only sensible approach to solving problems is to control yourself and
your own behavior by making choices that help you achieve your life goals.

What to Look for in a Reality Therapist

Look for a licensed mental health professional, a cognitive behavioral therapist, or a counselor with
training and experience in reality therapy and choice theory. In addition to checking credentials, it is
important to find a reality therapist with whom you feel comfortable working.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a type of psychotherapeutic treatment that helps patients
understand the thoughts and feelings that influence behaviors. CBT is commonly used to treat a wide
range of disorders, including phobias, addictions, depression, and anxiety.1

Cognitive behavior therapy is generally short-term and focused on helping clients deal with a very
specific problem. During the course of treatment, people learn how to identify and change destructive
or disturbing thought patterns that have a negative influence on behavior and emotions.2

24
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Basics

The underlying concept behind CBT is that our thoughts and feelings play a fundamental role in our
behavior.2 For example, a person who spends a lot of time thinking about plane crashes, runway
accidents and other air disasters may find themselves avoiding air travel.
The goal of cognitive behavior therapy is to teach patients that while they cannot control every aspect of
the world around them, they can take control of how they interpret and deal with things in their
environment.

Cognitive behavior therapy has become increasingly popular in recent years with both mental health
consumers and treatment professionals. Because CBT is usually a short-term treatment option, it is
often more affordable than some other types of therapy. CBT is also empirically supported and has been
shown to effectively help patients overcome a wide variety of maladaptive behaviors.2

Automatic Negative Thoughts

One of the main focuses of cognitive behavioral therapy is on changing the automatic negative thoughts
that can contribute to and exacerbate emotional difficulties, depression, and anxiety. These negative
thoughts spring forward spontaneously, are accepted as true, and tend to negatively influence the
individual's mood.

Through the CBT process, patients examine these thoughts and are encouraged to look at evidence from
reality that either supports or refutes these thoughts. By doing this, people are able to take a more
objective and realistic look at the thoughts that contribute to their feelings of anxiety and depression. By
becoming aware of the negative and often unrealistic thoughts that dampen their feelings and moods,
people are able to start engaging in healthier thinking patterns.2

Types of Cognitive Behavior Therapy

According to the British Association of Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies, "Cognitive and
behavioral psychotherapies are a range of therapies based on concepts and principles derived from
psychological models of human emotion and behavior. They include a wide range of treatment
approaches for emotional disorders, along a continuum from structured individual psychotherapy to
self-help material."

There are a number of specific types of therapeutic approaches that involve CBT that are regularly used
by mental health professionals. Examples of these include:

 Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT): This type of CBT is centered on identifying and

altering irrational beliefs. The process of REBT involves identifying the underlying irrational
beliefs, actively challenging these beliefs, and finally learning to recognize and change these
thought patterns.
 Cognitive Therapy: This form of therapy is centered on identifying and changing inaccurate
or distorted thinking patterns, emotional responses, and behaviors.3
 Multimodal Therapy: This form of CBT suggests that psychological issues must be treated by
addressing seven different but interconnected modalities, which are behavior, affect, sensation,
imagery, cognition, interpersonal factors and drug/biological considerations.4
 Dialectical Behavior Therapy: This type of cognitive-behavioral therapy addresses thinking
patterns and behaviors and incorporates strategies such as emotional regulation and
mindfulness.

While each type of cognitive-behavioral therapy offers its own unique approach, each centers on
addressing the underlying thought patterns that contribute to psychological distress.

The Components of Cognitive Behavior Therapy

25
People often experience thoughts or feelings that reinforce or compound faulty beliefs. Such beliefs can
result in problematic behaviors that can affect numerous life areas, including family, romantic
relationships, work, and academics.

For example, a person suffering from low self-esteem might experience negative thoughts about his or

her own abilities or appearance. As a result of these negative thinking patterns, the individual might
start avoiding social situations or pass up opportunities for advancement at work or at school.

In order to combat these destructive thoughts and behaviors, a cognitive-behavioral therapist begins by
helping the client to identify the problematic beliefs. This stage, known as functional analysis, is
important for learning how thoughts, feelings, and situations can contribute to maladaptive behaviors.5
The process can be difficult, especially for patients who struggle with introspection, but it can ultimately
lead to self-discovery and insights that are an essential part of the treatment process.

The second part of cognitive behavior therapy focuses on the actual behaviors that are contributing to
the problem. The client begins to learn and practice new skills that can then be put in to use in real-
world situations.2 For example, a person suffering from drug addiction might start practicing new coping
skills and rehearsing ways to avoid or deal with social situations that could potentially trigger a relapse.2

In most cases, CBT is a gradual process that helps a person take incremental steps towards a behavior
change. Someone suffering from social anxiety might start by simply imagining himself in an anxiety-
provoking social situation.

Next, the client might start practicing conversations with friends, family, and acquaintances. By
progressively working toward a larger goal, the process seems less daunting and the goals easier to
achieve.2

The Process of Cognitive Behavior Therapy

 During the process of CBT, the therapist tends to take a very active role.
 CBT is highly goal-oriented and focused, and the client and therapist work together as
collaborators toward the mutually established goals.
 The therapist will typically explain the process in detail and the client will often be given
homework to complete between sessions.
 Cognitive-behavior therapy can be effectively used as a short-term treatment centered on
helping the client deal with a very specific problem.2

Uses of Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Cognitive behavior therapy has been used to treat people suffering from a wide range of disorders,
including:

 Anxiety
 Phobias
 Depression
 Addictions
 Eating disorders
 Panic attacks
 Anger
CBT is one of the most researched types of therapy, in part because treatment is focused on highly
specific goals and results can be measured relatively easily.

Compared to psychoanalytic types of psychotherapy which encourage a more open-ended self-

exploration, cognitive behavior therapy is often best-suited for clients who are more comfortable with
a structured and focused approach in which the therapist often takes an instructional role. However, for
CBT to be effective, the individual must be ready and willing to spend time and effort analyzing his or her
thoughts and feelings. Such self-analysis and homework can be difficult, but it is a great way to learn
more about how internal states impact outward behavior.

26
Cognitive behavior therapy is also well-suited for people looking for a short-term treatment option for
certain types of emotional distress that does not necessarily involve psychotropic medication. One of
the greatest benefits of cognitive-behavior therapy is that it helps clients develop coping skills that can
be useful both now and in the future.2

Criticisms of Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Initially, some patients suggest that while they recognize that certain thoughts are not rational or
healthy, simply becoming aware of these thoughts does not make it easy to alter them. CBT doesn't
tend to focus on potential underlying unconscious resistances to change as much as other approaches
such as psychoanalytic psychotherapy.6

It is important to note that CBT does not just involve identifying these thought patterns; it is focused on
using a wide range of strategies to help clients overcome these thoughts. Such strategies may include
journaling, role-playing, relaxation techniques, and mental distractions.7

A Word From Verywell

Cognitive-behavior therapy can be an effective treatment choice for a range of psychological issues. If
you feel that you might benefit from this form of therapy, consult with your physician and check out
the directory of certified therapists offered by the National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral
Therapists to locate a professional in your area.
 Eclectic counseling is defined as the  combination of the two extremes that is directive and non-
directive counseling.. In eclectic counseling, the counselor is neither too active as in the directive
counseling nor too passive as in the non-directive counseling. He just follows the middle path between
these two.  That is, it is neither counselor-centred nor client-centred. It is a flexible see-sawing
combination of the two. There is freedom of choice and expression to both the counselor and the client.
In eclectic counseling, the needs of a person and his personality are studied by the counselor. After this
he selects appropriate directive or non-directive  techniques like reassurance, giving information, case
history, testing etc.
The counselor may start with the directive technique. When the situation demands, he may switch over
to the non-directive counseling and vice-versa. An attempt is made to adjust the technique to the
requirements of the situation and the individual.
Steps in Eclectic counseling
Thorne, suggested the following steps
1) Diagnosis of the cause.
2) Analysis of the problem.
3) Preparation of a tentative plan for modifying factors.
4) Securing effective conditions for counseling.
5) Interviewing and stimulating the client to develop his own resources and to assume its responsibility
for trying new modes of adjustment.
6) Proper handling of any related problems which may contribute to adjustment.
For a change, we will look at the disadvantages of an issue first..
Disadvantages of Eclectic Counselling
1) Some people are of the view that eclectic counseling is vague, opportunistic and superficial.
2) Both directive and non-directive counseling cannot be mixed together.
3) In this, the question arises how much freedom should be given to the client? For this there is non-
definite rule.
4) The problem with an eclectic orientation is that counselors often do more harm than good if they
have little or no understanding about what is helping the client.
Advantages:
The  features of eclectic counseling that is, flexibility in choosing directive or non-directive or both the
techniques, and alternating between the two techniques, the freedom of choice and expression to the
counselor and the client – are itself its major advantages. It removes the rigidity of the other two
methods that is directive and non-directive, and hence produces better results. It is economical and
effective.

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Therapy, counseling and psychiatry are all practices which serve people who experience different types
of emotional pain, vulnerability, life struggles or mental disorders. Therefore it's important that
practitioners select a logodesign style that makes their target demographic feel welcome and safe.

Family systems therapy is a form of psychotherapy that supports people in resolving conflicts with their
family or problems that exist within a family unit. All members of the family contribute to the dynamic
of whether the family is functioning in a healthy or dysfunctional way.

Bowen family systems theory views the family as an emotional unit. The members of the group are
interdependent on one another. The nature of the family is that the members have deep-rooted
emotional bonds. When you feel disconnected from your family, it's likely due to trauma. The family can
impact people profoundly. Many times people within the unit seek approval and validation from one
another. When those aren't received, it can cause lasting damage, mainly when it involves a child
needing a parent's reassurance.
Murray Bowen And His Family Systems Theory

There are eight interlocking concepts within family systems theory. There's an assumption that there's
an emotional system that's evolved over billions of years, and the nervous system affects people and
how they interact with each other.

The eight concepts are:

 Triangles - A triangle is a three-person dynamic within a family. A person's behavior within the
triangle indicates their wants and needs to sustain attachments to other members of the family.
 Differentiation of self - we're born with an innate sense of who we are. However, we develop
relationships within our families as children and into adolescence that further determine our
identity. Once a person finds their sense of self, it's rare that it changes, unless they make a
concerted effort to do so.
 Nuclear Family Emotional Process
 Marital conflict - When there's conflict in the family, it can be between two partners. Each
member of the couple is fixated on the flaws of the other to control the family issues.
 Dysfunction in one spouse - One partner in the couple puts pressure on the other to behave a
particular way. Tension rises in the household, and there is a level of dysfunction between the
couple.
 Impairment of one or more children - Parents excessively worry about one child and his health
issues. It creates a divide in the family. The child may be acting out at school, home or both.
They might idealize the child or hold a negative view of them, depending on the issues at hand.
Whatever the case may be, this child has more immediate needs than their siblings and takes
the parents attention away from the other children, which causes conflict and imbalance in the
unit.
 Emotional distance - Members of the family distance themselves from one another to lessen the
intensity of the conflict. It seems like it could benefit the family as a whole, but in reality, it
causes more anxiety in the family unit.
 Family Projection Process - The family projection process is the process where parents hand
down their emotional problems to their children. It has three steps:

1. A parent focuses their attention on their children worrying that there's something wrong with
them.
2. A parent observes a child's behavior and concludes that their fear is justified. There's something
wrong.
3. A parent begins to act like there's something wrong with their child. They treat the child as if
there's a problem with them.

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  Multigenerational Transmission Process - The process describes the tiny differences in levels of
differentiation between parents and children over several generations. There are particular
differences in differentiation among all the members of a family over the years.
 Emotional Cutoff - Emotional cutoff is a process where people in the family struggle to cope with
being alienated from one another. There are emotional problems when a child cuts off contact
with their parent (for example). It could occur when two siblings are estranged from each other.
The concept describes when people in the family are cut off from each other.
 Sibling Position - Bowen's theory incorporates psychologist Walter Toman's methods. Toman
talks about sibling position in the family and how it impacts each member. Depending on the
position of each sibling, you will see personality types. For example, older children tend to be
leaders, and younger ones tend to be followers.

 Societal Emotional Process - The concept of the societal emotional process shows how society
impacts families emotional lives. Bowen treated families who had children within the criminal
justice system, and he began to notice how this affected the unit.

Interdependence

Interconnectedness is what makes families interdependent.

Emotional interdependence is what helps families stay connected. Members of the family want to feel a
sense of togetherness, which is what interconnectedness brings. When there is disconnection or a lack
of the members of the family working together, it can lead to problems within the unit. Sometimes
family members become overly anxious, and their anxiety can spread to other members of the group.
When many of the family members are overwhelmed, the family isn't functioning optimally, and the
environment can feel out of control. One person might feel like they have the solve problems within the
family, while another person is a scapegoat for those issues. Family dynamics are involved, which is why
family systems theory was developed
When Family Systems Therapy Is Used

Sometimes, people develop psychological issues early in life and can benefit from family systems
therapy at any point in time. It can be helpful for those with mental health problems such as anxiety,
depression, bipolar disorder, or eating disorders. It can help people cope with disabilities or support a
family member with a disability, whether the condition is a mental or physical health diagnosis.

What To Expect

In family systems therapy, the entire family unit works together to solve problems that are happening
between one or more family members. It's essential that the family works together as a team. Each
family member will discuss the issues occurring within the family unit and will express how those issues
are affecting them. Together, the family explores and resolves the problems they've been dealing with.
In family systems therapy, you might participate in role-playing exercises where you switch roles to see
how other members of your family feel. The goal is to restore familial relationships and restore a healthy
family system that functions well.

How Family Systems Therapy Works

Murray Bowen developed family systems therapy. Bowen developed family systems theories in the mid-
1950s when he worked as a psychiatrist at the National Institute of Mental health. He observed family
patterns and noticed that the personalities of different family members and their behaviors correlated
to their birth order. For example, the oldest child in a family might act a particular way, and a younger
child would most likely behave differently. To understand a family system, it needs to be viewed as a
whole rather than observed in parts, so family systems theory and family system therapy rely on
considering the entire family unit.

What To Look For In A Family Therapist

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It's important to find a licensed family systems therapist who is experienced. They must understand
Bowen's family systems theory and family patterns, which include functional and dysfunctional patterns.
They must understand power struggles, communication issues, and have experience treating families
who experience these issues. The nature of family is that family members have a profound connection
with one another emotionally, and the members of the family respect each other's thoughts and
feelings. They get under each others skin, and they're often seeking approval from one another.
Different people in a family will have different perceptions of how things are going, and a good therapist
will be able to see what's happening from all sides. There might be co-dependency within a family, but
the goal is to be interdependent. Interdependence helps the family become cohesive and decreases
tension. It might be anxiety-inducing to modify family dynamics, and it'll take time. You want to look for
a therapist that'll be supportive throughout the process.
What Happens In Family Systems Therapy?

Here are some issues that can be addressed in family systems therapy:

 Individual conflict with members of the family

 Death
 Unemployment
 Romantic relationships
 Issues with children
 Divorce
 Mental health problems and substance abuse

Family therapists work with a variety of different issues. Family systems therapy helps to bring a family
together. Here's an example of an exercise that can be used in family therapy to help the members of
the unit express themselves. It's called "Emotional Ball."

Emotional Ball

The emotional ball can give the family and the therapist insight into how each person is feeling at the
moment. It's a simple exercise that can be used in family systems therapy. You take a beach ball, and
you write different emotions on the ball: happy, sad, angry, lonely. You toss the ball back and forth, and
when a family member catches the ball, they describe a time when they felt that emotion.
Who Benefits From Family Systems Therapy?

Family systems therapy is a great model that can help families of all kinds. Notably, the model can help
families who are struggling with problems and unresolved conflicts. It's a great model for couples who
can't seem to see eye to eye when they're parenting a child who's having issues. Family systems therapy
can also help with mental health problems such as anxiety, bipolar disorder, and depression. If one of
the family members has a mental health problem, family systems therapy can help the other members
to be supportive and also recognize their feelings and concerns. The entire family can benefit from going
to family systems therapy. It gives every member a chance to speak their mind and feels supported.

Seeking Help

If you're looking to improve your relationship with your family, it starts with you. Seeking individual
therapy to look at your mental health issues is an excellent way to gain insight into yourself and your
family issues. Online treatment is a safe space to speak about your mental health issues. Search the
network of therapists at BetterHelp today, and find one who you feel comfortable with, and start
working on you.

People who seek counseling often come from different walks of life and from different backgrounds. The
need for multicultural counseling increases as populations grow more diverse. Multicultural counseling
is the ability of any professional counselor to approach counseling through the context of the client’s
world. In short, the a counselor’s own cultural values or bias must not take precedence that of the
client. This is an integral part of professional counseling ethics.

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Counseling from a multicultural lens is necessary in our diverse world and allows counselors to help
people in underserved communities. According to the American Counseling Association, multicultural
counseling is an advantage for counselors External link ; counseling from a multicultural lens allows
them to gain knowledge, sensitivity, disposition, and personal awareness.

"BY 2055 THE UNITED STATES WILL NOT HAVE A SINGLE ETHNIC MINORITY"*The importance of
multicultural counseling will continue to grow as our country grows. 

Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies

The Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD) notes

several competencies External link  to achieve in multicultural counseling.

 Counselor Awareness of Own Cultural Values and Biases: A counselor must be cognizant of any
cultural values or bias that they possess and recognize their limits of practice. In order to expand
their skills, counselors must acknowledge their own racial and cultural heritage and the effects
of oppression, racism, discrimination, and stereotyping. Counselors must also seek out
additional learning opportunities to improve their understanding of different cultural
populations.

 Counselor Awareness of Client Worldview: A counselor must recognize that their client’s world
view is different than their own. To achieve this understanding, counselors must be aware of
their emotional reactions to other racial and ethnic groups, possess knowledge of the
population with whom they work, and familiarize themselves with culturally appropriate
research. Mental health  and school counselors competent in multicultural counseling recognize
that a client’s race and culture influence their personality, decision-making skills, vocational
choice, and reasons for or willingness to seek any mental health help.  

 Culturally Appropriate Intervention Strategies: A counselor with cultural competence respects

their client’s religious views, values, beliefs, indigenous practices, and languages. Counselors
must understand the characteristics of therapy and its impact on cultural groups. Counselors
should also maintain knowledge of family dynamics, hierarchy, bias in assessments, and
discriminatory practices that may impact their client. Counseling professionals who are
culturally skilled are able to engage in communication – both verbal and nonverbal – that
transcends race or nationality and eliminates prejudice.

The Importance of Multicultural Counseling

As the population becomes more diverse , the need for multicultural counseling grows more apparent.
As reported in the Journal for Social Action in Counseling and Psychology External link :

Changing demographics of the United States population demand that counselor education

programs provide training experience that facilitate the development of multiculturally competent
counselors. The growing population of diverse individuals in the United States will put more pressure on
counselors to be culturally competent in their service of delivery.

Younger generations illustrate this diversity. Pew Research External link  indicates that 43 percent of

adult millennials are non-white. They also project that by 2055 the US will not have a single ethnic
minority; instead, it’ll represent a true melting pot of cultures.
Looking to learn more about multicultural counseling? Check out this interview with the Association of
Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD) president and our partner,
Counseling@Northwestern External link .

The RESPECTUL Model

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The RESPECTFUL model was developed with one goal in mind: to recognize the multidimensionality of all
clients in a comprehensive and integrative way. San Jose State University’s Counselor Education
Department shares the RESPECTFUL model External link  that was developed by Michael D’Andrea, Ed.D.
and Judy Daniels around 1997 and involves ten different factors that influence an individual’s
psychological development as well as their sense of personal well-being.

The ten factors of the RESPECTFUL model are as follows:

1. Religious-Spiritual Identity: Some clients are affected by their religion through transcendental
experiences that extend beyond the ordinary. Others may identify with no religion at all.
2. Economic Class Background: Class standing and roles influences a client’s development and as
such affects their own identification of their strengths and expression of problems throughout
therapy or counseling.
3. Sexual Identity: Sexual identity influences personal development, especially for people who’ve
been oppressed because of their sexuality which reduces an individual’s sense of worth.
4. Psychological Maturity: This type of maturity involves the ability of an individual to respond to a
situation or their environment in an appropriate manner based upon their psychological
strengths and needs.
5. Ethnic-Cultural-Racial Identity: Some clients experience “within-group” differences which could
influence their psychological development.
6. Chronological Developmental Challenges: Physical, cognition, and psychological skill
development affects how an individual experiences challenges at different points in life.
7. Trauma and Other Threats to One’s Well-Being: Stressful situations can put individuals at risk for
psychological dangers when the ability to cope with them become ineffective.
8. Family History and Dynamics: Family can play a role in a person’s sense of self, ambition, and
prejudices. The modern family is now one with much more diversification, less rigidity, and
broadened horizons.
9. Unique Physical Characteristics: People who possess unique physical characteristics may
experience stress of dissatisfaction. It is on part of the counselor to reflect on the internalized
negative views of stereotypes.
10. Location of Residence and Language Differences: Depending upon the climate patterns,
geological terrain, and types of occupations available, individuals will possess various strengths
and interests. Being aware of stereotypes and biases associated with individuals who speak a
different dialect can defer from inaccurate assumptions.

Consideration of the above during the course of a counseling relationship helps the counselor-client
relationship stay, as the acronym insinuates, respectful. This model provides counselors with the ability
to progress appropriately, ethically, and holistically through each counseling session.

Multicultural counseling involves two main parts: an understanding of the client’s worldview and the
recognition of a counselor’s own cultural values and bias. In order to work progressively with diverse
clients, a counselor must recognize any previously held ideas that they have established about a
population based on their ethnicity, nationality, race, etc. The competencies above help to ensure that
individuals of all backgrounds receive the quality of help they deserve.
Feminist Therapy
Feminist therapy is an integrative approach to psychotherapy that focuses on gender and the particular
challenges and stressors that women face as a result of bias, stereotyping, oppression, discrimination,
and other factors that threaten their mental health. The therapeutic relationship, based on an authentic
connection and equality between the therapist and the client, helps empower clients to understand the
social factors that contribute to their issues, discover and claim their unique identity, and build on
personal strengths to better their own lives and those of others

 Is All Psychotherapy Feminist?

 The Advantages of Being a 'Nasty Woman'

When It's Used

Although feminist therapy began in the late 1960s as a process of women helping other women, it has
evolved to include couples, families, and people of all ages and any gender who want to explore the role

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gender plays in their emotional lives and relationships or those of their loved ones. Any person or group
that has been marginalized, including people of color, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, gender
variant, people in poverty, immigrants, refugees, and people with disabilities can benefit from feminist
therapy. Some of the problems addressed in feminist therapy include sexual abuse, incest, eating
disorders, and body image issues. Feminist therapy is practiced in private and in group or community
settings such as women’s health clinics, LGBTQ community organizations, and domestic
violence centers.

What to Expect
In feminist therapy, clients explore their individual identity, find their strengths, and use them to feel
more powerful in society. In addition to analysis, the therapist uses tools and techniques such as role-
playing, and assertivenesstraining to help clients build their identity and self-esteem to the degree they
can behave freely, rather than conform to cultural expectations and gender roles that others believe are
appropriate. Feminist therapy for families addresses the additional challenges parents and other family
members face when a loved one struggles with cultural or gender differences. In feminist therapy, unlike
most other forms of psychotherapy, therapists often share their own personal stories and challenges to
help clients feel more comfortable sharing their own.

How It Works
Feminist therapy is not only personal but, like feminism, political in nature. It focuses on diversity,
gender issues and sexism, and is committed to both individual and social change. Feminist therapy exists
to empower those who feel silenced or oppressed by majority cultures in society by honoring and
elevating their voices. That means identifying skills and strengths that will help clients recognize and
embrace their own personal power. Feminist therapy is based on the understanding that individuals are
affected by and struggle with societal norms and must learn to look to themselves as the experts in their
own unique identity. This is accomplished by reframing the client’s problems in the context of societal
views, rather than as a result their own personal behaviors.

What to Look for in a Feminist Therapist

A feminist therapist is a licensed psychotherapist or other mental-health professional who embraces the
principles of feminist theory and social justice and is sensitive to the cultural expectations,
discrimination, and other social variables that individuals, especially women, face in a world where
others set the standards by which they are judged. It is important to choose a feminist therapist who
shares your personal and political values and with whom you feel comfortable and respected.
The fundamental goal of counseling is to help individuals who are experiencing personal challenges be
able to resolve them and improve their emotional well-being. Establishing an open and trustworthy
relationship with your patients creates the foundation for how they’ll most effectively reach their goals,
and it’s also a significant measure of your therapy’s success.
Building genuine connections from a trusting counselor patient relationship is possible when these
factors exist:
You’re empathetic. People who choose counseling as a career path are usually empathetic by nature.
It’s widely said that empathy is the key emotion one must possess to make a good counselor. An
abundance of sensitive emotions will be brought forward during the counseling process, and it’s the
counselor’s job to help their clients feel understood and respected. But an effective relationship also
involves a reasonable balance of emotions. You must be compassionate, but not show pity for your
clients. You must express understanding, but not in the sense that you agree with irrational behaviors or
thoughts.
The focus is on the patient. Counseling requires a great deal of listening—it’s how therapy works: they
talk, you listen. It’s your job to stay focused and give each patient the full attention they need, and you
need, in order to gain insight to make an accurate assessment, and ultimately develop a suitable therapy
plan.
Objectives are set. After you’ve listened to your client share their story, and taken good notes, the next
step is to establish clear objectives, based on the specific issues and needs of your client. By
communicating a defined set of objectives, with milestones along the way, you’re helping your client
feel hopeful their issues can come to resolution.
You practice unconditional positive regard in your therapy. It’s a notion that allows your patients to
open up and be forthcoming in their feelings, and honest about actions that may have called them to

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seek counseling. If your patient feels you are judging them in a negative manner based on what they
have shared and revealed, the opposite effect will ensue.
You’re prepared. A good counselor will prepare for each session by reviewing notes from previous
sessions and developing a strategy, based on research and proven counseling practices, for each
patient’s goals. Good counselors also know that continued education and research play a significant role
in developing their knowledge, and that’s what makes good counselors great ones.
You’re patient and flexible. In reality, the client sets the pace in how they accept and apply the
counseling they are receiving. This requires patience and flexibility. Goals may be tied to a timeline, but
depending on how slowly (or quickly) a client progresses, you may choose to modify a given therapy and
change course.
There’s no coddling. Your job is to help your client overcome and manage their troubles and anxieties,
but coddling your client only slows down the process. Progress will come at a pace your client is
comfortable with, and sometimes it won’t come without a little push. Each session should end with a
takeaway—an “assignment” for your client to put to work in their life as a step closer toward their goal.
Your relationship is professional. Simply stated: you are the teacher, your patient is the student.
Effective counselors establish a clear boundary between being friendly in nature, and having a
“friendship.” Crossing that boundary can have serious implications on a therapy’s effectiveness, and in
some cases can result in an ethics complaint against your license.
You’re unbiased. Effective counselors don’t use their personal beliefs or preferences to sway their
approach to counseling—and they’re sensitive to each client’s lifestyle, culture or religious choices, as
well. A good counselor will look for ways to integrate a client’s beliefs into an effective care plan, if and
when it makes sense.
You seek help yourself. You may not have the expertise to handle every issue of every patient that
comes your way. Your patient is spending good money on counseling services and deserves fairness and
honesty from you. If you feel inadequate about addressing a patient’s issue, seek consultation from a
colleague, or refer your patient to a counselor more qualified to counsel them.
Proper procedures are followed. Always obtain the patient’s informed consent before administering
treatments and therapies. It’s often a legal requirement imposed on counselors, and is also a crucial part
of helping prevent malpractice claims against a counselor.
Confidentiality is indisputable. A counselor always, always maintains confidentiality—of every patient.
While using one client’s scenario—perhaps to illustrate the success of a therapy being recommended—
in another client’s therapy is acceptable, names and specifics of a client should never be given.
The best testament to the quality of your counseling will be largely determined by your patient’s
progress and healing. Your counselor patient relationship also plays a significant part. As sessions
progress, patients should become happier, see things in a new light, approach situations more positively
and be able to help themselves, rather than relying solely on your guidance to get them through issues
that arise. They’ll be able to keep their emotions in check, make better choices, and be hopeful about
the future.
What to Expect in Your First Counseling Session
By Steve Bressert, Ph.D. 
Last updated: 8 Oct 2018
~ 1 MIN READ
Are you about to go to a counselor for the first time? Whatever your reason for seeking help, you will be
more at ease and get better results if you know what to expect.
In your first session, the therapist typically will ask certain questions about you and your life. This
information helps him make an initial assessment of your situation. Questions he might ask include:
Why you sought therapy. A particular issue probably led you to seek counseling. The therapist has to
understand your surface problem(s) before he can get to the deeper issues.
Your personal history and current situation. The therapist will ask you a series of questions about your
life. For example, because family situations play an important role in who you are, he’ll ask about your
family history and your current family situation.
Your current symptoms. Other than knowing the reason you sought therapy, the therapist will attempt
to find out if you’re suffering from other symptoms of your problem. For example, your problem might
be causing difficulty at work.
The therapist will use this information to better understand your problem. And, while he may make a
diagnosis at the end of your first visit, it’s more likely that a diagnosis will take a few more sessions.
Don’t just sit there

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Therapy is a team effort. If you don’t take an active part in the session, you won’t find the counseling
experience valuable. Here are some things you can do to make your first session as successful as
possible.
Be open. Therapists are trained to ask the right questions, but they’re not mind readers. The therapist
can do his job more effectively if you answer the questions openly and honestly.
Be prepared. Before you get to the session, know how to describe “what’s wrong,” and to describe your
feelings about your problem. One way to prepare is to write down the reasons you’re seeking help.
Make a list and then read it out loud. Hearing yourself say it a few times will help you describe things
more clearly to the therapist.
Ask questions. The more you understand the counseling experience or how counseling works, the more
comfortable you’ll be. Ask questions about the therapy process, and ask the therapist to repeat anything
you don’t understand.
Be open and honest about your feelings. A lot will be going through your head in this first session.
Listen to your own reactions and feelings, and share them with the therapist. You’ll both learn from
these insights.
Be sure to go to your first session with realistic expectations. Therapy is not a quick fix for your problem,
rather it is a process. With some effort on your part and a strong relationship with your therapist, it can
be a successful tool toward resolving problems.
How I Begin and End a Counseling Session
What happens at the start and end of a session can make all the difference.
Much has been written about how to conduct a counseling session. Less has been written about what
should occur and the beginning and end of one. So I thought I'd share what I do.
I hope this will be useful not only to counselors and coaches but to clients evaluating their counselor or
coach.

Before the session

Many client sessions are by phone or Skype so these first few tips don't apply to them.

When the doorbell rings that lets me know the client has let him/herself into the waiting room:

1. I read my notes from the client's previous session(s.)  That way, the client is fresh in my mind. 

2. If I'm not in great spirits, as I'm walking downstairs to greet the client, I remind myself to get in gear.

3. In greeting the client, I make clear I'm glad to see him or her: I smile, look them in the eye and say
something such as "Good to see you again, Mary," and then a bit of small talk. For example, if during the
previous session, s/he had mentioned her dog Woofie," I might ask, "How's Woofie doing?"  

Speaking of dogs, my dog Einstein no doubt greeted the client upon entering. So perhaps my most
common small talk is to say something like, "Did Einstein welcome you appropriately?"

I keep my small talk very brief to give the client room to take the small talk in whatever direction s/he
likes. That continues as we walk upstairs to my office.

Throughout this pre-session talk, I try to observe and infer the client's state of mind: happy, sad,
phlegmatic, excited, etc. That can inform my first substantive question, for example, "You seem happier
today. Great. What's up?" 

If it's the first session, I note the sort of first impression the client is making on me. That may well be the
sort of impression s/he will make at a job interview or on the job. If I sense a problem---for example,
poor eye contact, low energy, an angry demeanor, whatever—I usually won't mention it at that point
but make a note to raise the issue at an appropriate time.

I'll usually ask the client if s/he wants something to drink. If it's coffee, I'll usually make it fresh right
there with the client watching. That's not just so that the coffee is fresh. That allows a few more minutes
of informality, which can be revealing. People may be different in that informal setting than in the
formal counseling session. I'm more effective if I can see them in that more natural circumstance.  

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4. If it's the first session, I point to the sofa and say something like, "Make yourself at home." I try to
strike the balance--in word and tone--between being professional yet informal and therefore relaxing.
Einstein adds a measure of informality and stress reduction because he'll usually jump on the sofa, sidle
up to and even kiss the client. I ask, "Would you like him down?" Most clients say they're happy having
him up there. Einstein is a fabulous co-counselor/stress reducer.

5. If it's a first-time client, I start by saying, "I suggest you use your phone to record the session. Clients
say they find listening to the session quite valuable. The app is VoiceMemos on iPhone and Voice
Recorder on Android, but first put it on airplane mode so if the phone rings, it doesn't stop the
recording."

After starting the recording, if it's the first session, I usually then say something like, "I've just had the
pleasure of spending the last hour or so reading and meditating on the new-client questionnaire you
sent me. Great, and I have a bunch of questions." They usually say, "Great," and we're off and running.

If it's not the first session, my typical starting statement is something like, "So in light of our last session,
what have you been thinking and perhaps doing?"

I take a few notes during sessions so I can devote all my mental energy to listening and thinking what to
say rather than to being sure I remember all that's important.

The End of a Session and Afterwards

I usually ask if the client wants to summarize the session or prefers that I summarize. After that
summary, I typically ask, "Okay, what homework assignment would you like to give yourself?" I add my
input where appropriate. Then I ask, "If we were in Vegas, should we bet that you'd do the homework?"
If the client says no, I ask why. That usually reveals a problem we can fix: alter the assignment, explain it
better, set a fixed schedule to do the assignment, find someone to be accountable to (including emailing
me every night,) what to do if reaching a roadblock, etc.

Then, consistent with honesty, I try to end on an upbeat note, for example, "I think we're off to a good
start. It'll be interesting to see what you get from doing that homework."

After the client leaves, I take notes on the client.

If you are a counselor or coach, is there anything you want to do differently as a result of reading this
article? If you are a client, does that change how you feel about your counselor or coach?

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